High Quality
Open the downloaded document, and select print from the file menu (PDF reader required).
Lecture Notes IIII.Energy Releasing MechanismsA.Anaerobic – O
2
not required1.Glycolysisi.Alcoholic Fermentation – Yeast
CO
2
+Ethanol (ethyl alcohol)ii.Lactate fermentation – complicated animals
lactic acid formediii.Excretion of toxins in anaerobic pathwaysB.Aerobic respiration1.Glucose as common metabolite – available fromfoods, converted from other monosaccharides,cleaved from disaccharides, glycogen & starch2.C
6
H
12
O
6
+ 6O
2
6CO
2
+ 6H
2
O + ATP (max yield of 36 ATP) via one of two pathways – glycolysis & oxidative phosphorylationi.Glycolysisa.The anaerobic phase: Each glucose produces 2 pyruvatemolecules b.For each glucose 2ATP must be used to di-phosphorylate theglucosec.4ATP are produced – resulting in net gain of 2ATPd.Energy associated with the hydrogen carried on 2 NADHcarriers3.Preparatory steps to the Krebs Cycle (TCA, Citric Acid Cycle)i.The two (3-carbon pyruvates) are converted to two (2-carbon) activated acetyl-Coenzyme-A complexesii.This produces two CO
2
molecules as by-productiii.And releases the energy of two NADH carriersiv.This “prepares” the Acetyl-CoA for entry intothe Krebs cycle4.Krebs Cycle – cyclic pathway that takes in the 2-carbon Acetyl CoA and removes its carbons,hydrogens and electronsi.Products are 2CO
2
, 3NADH, FADH2 and anATP by substrate level phosphorylationii.Cycle crankstwice for eachglucose thatentersiii.Takes place inthemitochondrialinner compartment5.Oxidative (Electrontransfer)Phosphorylation – occurs through action of transmembrane enzymes in
the cristal of the mitochondria – Uses energy from H
+
and their associated electrons brought by the carriers NADH and FADH
2
i.Chemiosmosis – ability of certain membranes to use chemical energy to pump hydrogenions and then harness the energy stored in the H+ gradient to drive cellular work (ATPsynthesis)
– in this example: turns 2NADH & 2 pyruvates from glycolysis into 2FADH
2
& 2 Acetyl-CoAii.NADH & FADH2 give up their electrons, which power H
+
pumps pushing the freehydrogen outside the mitochondrial matrix – this forms an electrical & concentrationgradient of H
+
ions. These H
+
ions flow back through ATP synthase, powering ADP + P
i
ATPiii.Oxygen is the final e
-
acceptor, without which the entire process backs up to the pyruvate,forcing the system into anaerobic respiration as lactate (as pyruvate ↔ lactase, via LDH)iv.Energy from 1 NADH in Krebs
3 ATP | 1 FADH2 = 2ATPv.Thus in aerobic respiration: 1 molecule glucose =Glycolysis SLP. – 2 ATP, Krebs SLP. – 2 ATP, 6NADH inKrebs – 18 ATP, 2NADH from glycolysis – 4 ATP, 2FADH
2
from Krebs – 4 ATP, 2NADH in pyruvate to Acetyl CoAstage – 6 ATP = 36 total ATPII.DNA Replication (Experiments)A.Frederick Griffith – realized therewas a transfer of genetic materialfrom one strain of bacteria toanother strain:1.
Mouse bacterial infection:2.Concluded – living avirulent strain takes in the gene for production of smooth coated bacteria that is virulent: Thusthe rough coated (avirulent) bacteria isTRANSFORMED intosmooth coated (virulent)B.Hershey-Chase Experiments – Questioned: What is the genetic material being transferred1.Used bacteriophage virus consisting only of a protein coatand a DNA core2.Used radioactive isotopes of Sulfur (present only in the protein coat) and Phosphorus (only present in DNA) todetermine whether the genetic information was in the protein, the DNA or both.3.Determined it was the DNA which carried the geneticmaterial.C.Watson, Crick, et. Al. (especially Franklin)1.Determined, through X-raycrystalography and advancedmathematical calculations that DNA isshaped in a double helix. (Strands are
antiparallel
)
2.Double helix consists of alternating phosphate-sugar “rails”with nitrogenous base “rungs”i.Adenine/Guanine – Purines (double ringed bases)ii.Cytosine/Thyamine – Pyrmidines (single ringed bases)iii.C/G – 2 Hydrogen bond attachment, A/T – 3 H bondattachment3.Chargaff’s Rules: States that A/T, G/C must form “rails” inthe double helix; the double rings are each matched with asingle ring.III.DNA Replication: (Chs 13/14)A.Meselson & Stahl – Now that DNA is known to be the purveyor of genetic information being passed on, how is DNA replicated?1.3 Models from which to chose; conservative,dispersive & semi-conserv.2.Parent generation grown in heavy nitrogen (N
15
)while subsequent R1 & R2 generations grown inordinary nitrogen (N
14
)3.R2 Generation then centrifuged to find out where theDNA would end up, telling them which model wascorrect. (All at the same place for dispersive, twodistinct places in R1 for conservative, two distinct places in R2 butnot R1 for semi-conservative)B.Ribose/Deoxyribose:
1.Deoxyribose has only an H at the 2’C instead of an OH.2.Ribose has an OH on the 2 C3.Notice: 3’ & 5’ Carbon attachment sites along which replicationoccurs:i.End of DNA rail is the 3’ end – sequence is 3C-P-5C-P-3C-P-5C-P-3C...C.Activity at replication (replication fork – all takes place duringSTAGE S of interphase)1.Helicase activity unwinds the double-helix prior to replication(at the V of the fork)2.Complex enzyme DNA polymerase unwraps DNA & beginsassembling along leading strandi.DNA polymerase is only able to build new DNA indirection from 3’ to 5’ along the parent strand.a.DNA polymerase releases two phosphates from a freefloating nucleotide base. b.Energy released by this drives the attachment of theremaining P to an OH hanging off the 3’ C sugar of the preceding “rung”ii.Thus, one strand can be replicated smoothly (leading), theother strand cannot (lagging)3.A “chunk” of RNA Primer attaches along the 2
nd
parent (lagging) strandi.RNA primer attaches to the lagging strand, allowing DNA polymerase to build “chunks”of DNA along that strand.ii.These chunks being build from RNA primer byDNA polymerase are Okazaki fragmentsiii.Okazaki fragments sewn together by DNA ligase
Add a Comment