Huawei Radio NetWork Planning User GuideV1.0

Radio Network Planning Table of contents
Radio Network Planning
T5-030010-20011110-C-1.0
———————————————————
Editor in chief: Zhao Qiyong
Checked by(Chinese version): Zhao Qiyong
Checked by( English version): Overseas Radio Network Planning &
Optimization Section
Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd.
October, 2001
1
Radio Network Planning

T5-030010-20011110-C-1.0
Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd provides customers with omni-

directional technical support and users can contact either a nearby
Huawei Office or customer service center, or the headquarters of our
company directly.
Copyright © 2001 by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd.
All Rights Reserved
No part of this document may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any

means without prior written consent of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd.
Trademarks
®
, HUAWEI®, C&C08, EAST8000, HONET, ViewPoint, INtess, ETS, DMC, SBS,
TELLIN, InfoLink, Netkey, Quidway, SYNLOCK, Radium, , M900/M1800,

TELESIGHT, Quidview, NETENGINE, Musa, OptiX, Airbridge, Tellwin, Inmedia,
VRP, DOPRA, iTELLIN are trademarks of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd.
2
Notice
The information in this document is subject to change without notice. Although

every effort has been made to make this document as accurate, complete, and
clear as possible, Huawei Technologies assumes no responsibility for any errors
that may appear in this document.
Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd.
Address: Huawei Customer Service Building, Kefa Road, Science-based Industrial Park,
Shenzhen, P. R. China
Zip code: 518057
Tel: +86-755-6540036
Fax: +86-755-6540035
Website: http://www.huawei.com
E-mail: support@huawei.com
3
Copyright claim
All Rights Reserved.

No part of this document may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means without prior written consent of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd.
, HUAWEI(R), 华为(R), C&C08(R), EAST8000(R), HONET(R), 视点(R), ViewPoint(R),

(R)
INtess , ETS(R), 万维通快车站(R), DMC(R), SBS(R), TELLIN(R), InfoLink(R), Netkey(R),

(R)
Quidway(R), SYNLOCK(R), Radium(R), 雷霆 (R), (R)

, M900/M1800(R),
TELESIGHT(R), Quidview(R), NETENGINETM, MusaTM, 视点通 TM, OptiXTM,
HUAWEITM, TellwinTM, InmediaTM, VRPTM, DOPRATM, iTELLINTM are
trademarks of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd.
4
Preface
1 Version Description
This book is about GSM radio planning optimization. Some of the methods discussed
here can serve as references for future mobile communications system.
2 Introduction
Radio Network Planning attempts to tell the commonly-adopted planning optimization
methods based on Huawei GSM equipment. This book covers radio propagation, pre-
planning, antenna-feeder knowledge, BSC algorithm, frequency planning, traffic
statistics, optimization, and some special topics. The last part of the book introduces
briefly the planning optimization methods on future mobile communications system.
We acknowledge the many efforts from our colleagues who have grown up together
with the company’s network planning. We show our respect and salute for their
unswerving and unstinting contributions that have made the publication of this book
possible.
The editor in chief of this book is Zhao qiyong. The editors are Zheng shuhui, Si
fazhong, Cheng jing, Cheng xin, Li xia. Zhao qiyong is responsible for the final version
and check.
We wish to thank our colleagues who have added their discussion when they are the
most busy, in particular: Xiong yunxuan, Tan guanzhong, Miao jiashu, Li yuzhi, Wang
Mingming, Yang yajun, Li Chengfei, Dong xiaohong, Wang cheng, He qun, Li
zhongdong, Chen yongjian, Dong hengshang, Xiang lijing, and Bai xiaobing.
We also wish to extend our thanks to the colleagure in the Material Development
Department for their effort in compiling and proofreading, particularly Zhang jun,
Cheng lin, and Weng haishang.
Your critisms and recommendations are greatly appreciated.
3 Intended Readers
This manual is intended for the following readers:
y Installation and maintenance engineers
y Engineering technicians
y Telecom administrators
v
Table of contents
Chapter 1 Network Planning Overview ..................................................................................... 1-12

1.1 Network Planning Flow .................................................................................................... 1-12
1.2 Network Pre-planning ...................................................................................................... 1-14
1.2.1 Outline of the Network Pre-planning ..................................................................... 1-14
1.2.2 Pre-planning Foundation....................................................................................... 1-15
1.2.3 Pre-planning Process............................................................................................ 1-16
1.2.4 Pre-planning Difficulties ........................................................................................ 1-24
Chapter 2 GSM Air Interface......................................................................................................... 2-1
2.1 GSM System Introduction.................................................................................................. 2-1
2.2 Radio Channel Structure ................................................................................................... 2-3
2.2.1 Time Slot and Frame Structure ............................................................................... 2-3
2.2.2 Physical Channel .................................................................................................... 2-5
2.2.3 Logic Channel ......................................................................................................... 2-6
2.2.4 Allowed Channel Combination Type....................................................................... 2-8
2.2.5 The Frame Structure of the Logic Channel............................................................. 2-9
2.2.6 The Use of the Common Control Channel.............................................................. 2-9
2.2.7 The Early Timing of Uplink and Downlink as well as MS........................................ 2-9
Chapter 3 Radio Propagation Theory.......................................................................................... 2-1
3.1 Basic knowledge of Radio Propagation............................................................................. 2-1
3.2 Radio Propagation Environment........................................................................................ 2-3
3.2.1 Frequency Division Introduction.............................................................................. 2-3
3.2.2 Fast Fading and Slow Fading ................................................................................. 2-3
3.2.3 Propagation Loss .................................................................................................... 2-6
3.3 Radio Propagation Model ................................................................................................ 2-10
3.4 Correction for propagation model .................................................................................... 2-16
3.4.1 CW Basics............................................................................................................. 2-16
3.4.2 CW Test Method ................................................................................................... 2-16
3.4.3 Correction for Propagation Model and Instance ................................................... 2-18
3.5 Doppler Effect and its Impact on Handover..................................................................... 2-19
3.6 Fresnel Zone.................................................................................................................... 2-22
3.7 ASSET Software Introduction .......................................................................................... 2-24
Chapter 4 About Antenna & Feeder cable .................................................................................. 4-1
4.1 Basics of Antenna .............................................................................................................. 4-1
4.1.1 Antenna gain ........................................................................................................... 4-1
4.1.2 Directional Diagram................................................................................................. 4-2
4.1.3 Polarization.............................................................................................................. 4-3
4.1.4 Other technical indicators of antenna ..................................................................... 4-4
4.1.5 Antenna diversity..................................................................................................... 4-6
vi
4.1.6 Three-sector base station antenna selection derivation ......................................... 4-8

4.2 Antenna new technology ................................................................................................. 4-10
4.2.1 Shaped beam technology ..................................................................................... 4-10
4.2.2 Intelligent Antenna ................................................................................................ 4-12
4.3 Antenna Downtilt Planning............................................................................................... 4-19
4.3.1 Antenna Downtilt Design....................................................................................... 4-19
4.3.2 Practical Application.............................................................................................. 4-22
4.4 Antenna Selection............................................................................................................ 4-24
4.4.1 Current Problems of Using Antenna ..................................................................... 4-24
4.4.2 Application Principle for Base Station Antenna in Urban Areas ........................... 4-24
4.4.3 Application Principle for Suburb Base Station Antenna........................................ 4-25
4.4.4 Application principle for base station antennas in rural areas .............................. 4-25
4.4.5 Application principle for antennas to cover highroads .......................................... 4-26
4.4.6 Other factors in antenna application ..................................................................... 4-27
4.4.7 Notes on special antennas.................................................................................... 4-27
4.4.8 Reference for antenna selection ........................................................................... 4-29
4.5 Combining and distribution unit ....................................................................................... 4-30
4.5.1 Principle for combining and distribution unit ......................................................... 4-30
4.5.2 Combining and distribution unit configuration ....................................................... 4-32
4.6 Outdoor antenna feeder system ...................................................................................... 4-34
4.6.1 Tower amplifier...................................................................................................... 4-34
4.6.2 Feeder cable ......................................................................................................... 4-35
4.7 Distributed antenna system ............................................................................................. 4-37
4.7.1 Principle for composition of distributed antenna system....................................... 4-37
4.7.2 Types of distributed antenna system .................................................................... 4-38
4.7.3 Indexes for component key technologies.............................................................. 4-39
Chapter 5 Design of Radio Network ............................................................................................ 4-1
5.1 Design of Base Station Address ........................................................................................ 4-1
5.2 Design of Parameters for Base Station Project ................................................................. 4-4
5.2.1 Environment for Antenna Installation ...................................................................... 4-4
5.2.2 Antenna Separation in GSM System ...................................................................... 4-6
5.2.3 Antenna Separation Form GSM and CDMA Base Station ..................................... 4-7
5.2.4 Antenna Installation Interval.................................................................................. 4-10
5.3 Link Budget ...................................................................................................................... 4-12
5.3.1 Link Budget Model ................................................................................................ 4-12
5.3.2 Reference point for base station sensitivity .......................................................... 4-13
5.4 Design of Coverage Area ................................................................................................ 4-16
5.5 Capacity Distribution........................................................................................................ 4-18
5.5.1 Voice channel distribution ..................................................................................... 4-18
5.5.2 Configuration of control channel ........................................................................... 4-20
5.6 Location Area Design ...................................................................................................... 4-21
5.6.1 Definition of location area...................................................................................... 4-21
5.6.2 Division of location areas ...................................................................................... 4-22
vii
5.6.3 Calculation of location areas ................................................................................. 4-25

5.7 Design of Indoor Coverage System................................................................................. 4-28
5.7.1 Design of indoor antenna system.......................................................................... 4-28
5.7.2 Capacity Analysis and Design............................................................................... 4-35
5.7.3 Frequency Plan ..................................................................................................... 4-37
5.8 Design of Cell Data.......................................................................................................... 4-38
Chapter 6 Frequency Planning and Anti-interference Technology.......................................... 6-1
6.1 Frequency Planning........................................................................................................... 6-1
6.1.1 Frequency Division and C/I Requirements ............................................................. 6-1
6.1.2 Principles of the Frequency Planning ..................................................................... 6-3
6.1.3 Basic Frequency Reuse .......................................................................................... 6-4
6.1.4 Compact Frequency Reuse .................................................................................... 6-6
6.2 Anti-interference Technology........................................................................................... 6-16
6.2.1 Frequency hopping Technology............................................................................ 6-16
6.2.2 Power Control........................................................................................................ 6-21
6.2.3 Discontinuous Transmission ................................................................................. 6-22
Chapter 7 Parameter Design ........................................................................................................ 6-1
7.1 System message ............................................................................................................... 6-1
7.2 Cell Selection and Cell Reselection................................................................................... 6-3
7.2.1 Network Selection ................................................................................................... 6-4
7.2.2 Cell Selection and Reselection ............................................................................... 6-4
7.2.3 Location Updating ................................................................................................... 6-8
7.3 Huawei Handover Algorithm ............................................................................................ 6-11
7.3.1 Handover Decision Flow ....................................................................................... 6-11
7.3.2 Measurement Report Pre-processing ................................................................... 6-12
7.3.3 Penalty Processing ............................................................................................... 6-13
7.3.4 Handover Sequencing Algorithm .......................................................................... 6-13
7.3.5 Emergency Handover ........................................................................................... 6-15
7.3.6 Load Handover...................................................................................................... 6-16
7.3.7 Normal Handover .................................................................................................. 6-17
7.3.8 Power prediction after handover ........................................................................... 6-19
7.3.9 Concentric Circle Algorithm................................................................................... 6-21
7.4 Huawei Power Control Technology ................................................................................. 6-25
7.4.1 MR Preprocessing................................................................................................. 6-26
7.4.2 Second Generation of Huawei Power Control Policy ........................................... 6-27
7.5 New Channel Allocation Algorithm .................................................................................. 6-30
7.6 Dual-band Network Technology ...................................................................................... 6-31
7.6.1 Necessity for Building Dual-band Network............................................................ 6-31
7.6.2 Fast Fading Characteristic and Coverage Problem of GSM1800......................... 6-31
7.6.3 Dual-band Networking Structure ........................................................................... 6-32
7.6.4 Traffic guidance and Control Policy of Dual-band Network .................................. 6-35
7.6.5 Dual-band Networking Engineering Implementation ............................................ 6-37
viii
Chapter 8 Traffic Statistics......................................................................................................... 8-40

8.1 Brief Introduction to the Calling Flows ............................................................................. 8-41
8.1.1 Ultra-early TCH Assignment Flow......................................................................... 8-41
8.1.2 Calling Flow (Calling Party)................................................................................... 8-42
8.1.3 Handover Flow within the BSC ............................................................................. 8-43
8.1.4 Handover Flow between the BSCs ....................................................................... 8-44
8.1.5 Handover Flow between MSCs............................................................................. 8-45
8.1.6 Subsequent Handover Flow (MS Roams from MSVb to MSCb )....................... 8-46
8.2 Analysis of Key Indexes of Traffic Statistics .................................................................... 8-47
8.2.1 TCH Drop-off Ratio ............................................................................................... 8-47
8.2.2 SDCCH Drop-off Ratio .......................................................................................... 8-48
8.2.3 Intercell Handover Success Ratio Within the BSC ............................................... 8-48
8.2.4 Incoming BSC Handover Success Ratio .............................................................. 8-49
8.2.5 Outgoing BSC Handover Success Ratio .............................................................. 8-49
8.2.6 TCH Congestion Ratio .......................................................................................... 8-50
8.2.7 SDCCH Congestion Ratio..................................................................................... 8-52
8.2.8 Radio Connection Ratio ........................................................................................ 8-52
8.3 Description of Traffic Statistics Registration .................................................................... 8-52
8.3.1 Routine Performance Measurement Tasks Necessary to Be Registered ............ 8-52
8.3.2 Performance Measurement Tasks Used for Network Optimization and Location
Problems ........................................................................................................................ 8-52
Chapter 9 Network Optimization.................................................................................................. 8-1
9.1 Process of Network Optimization....................................................................................... 8-1
9.2 Common Tools Used in Network Optimization.................................................................. 8-3
9.2.1 ANT Drive Test Equipment ..................................................................................... 8-3
9.2.2 Signaling Analyzer .................................................................................................. 8-4
9.2.3 Spectrum Analyzer.................................................................................................. 8-4
9.2.4 Network Optimization Software............................................................................... 8-4
9.3 Radio Network Problems Positioning and Solving ............................................................ 8-6
9.3.1 Obtaining Basic Information .................................................................................... 8-6
9.3.2 Coverage................................................................................................................. 8-7
9.3.3 Capacity .................................................................................................................. 8-8
9.3.4 Interference ............................................................................................................. 8-9
9.3.5 Handover............................................................................................................... 8-10
9.3.6 Call Drop ............................................................................................................... 8-11
9.4 Problem Positioning according to Network Indices ......................................................... 8-12
9.4.1 TCH Call Drop Rate .............................................................................................. 8-12
9.4.2 TCH Congestion Rate ........................................................................................... 8-16
9.4.3 SDCCH Call Drop Rate......................................................................................... 8-17
9.4.4 SDCCH Congestion Rate...................................................................................... 8-17
9.4.5 Rate of Handover Completion............................................................................... 8-18
ix
9.4.6 Traffic Analysis ...................................................................................................... 8-20

Chapter 10 Special Topic.............................................................................................................. 8-1
10.1 The Problem of Coverage................................................................................................ 8-1
10.1.1 Equipment Configuration....................................................................................... 8-1
10.1.2 Base Station Site Selection................................................................................... 8-2
10.1.3 Antenna Engineering Design and Installation ....................................................... 8-3
10.1.4 Antenna feeder, combiner (divider), CDU connections ........................................ 8-6
10.1.5 Parameters settings and others ............................................................................ 8-6
10.2 TCH Congestion .............................................................................................................. 8-8
10.2.1 The Causes of High TCH Congestion Ratio ......................................................... 8-8
10.2.2 Positioning Methods of High TCH Congestion Ratio ............................................ 8-9
10.3 Voice Prompt ................................................................................................................. 8-12
10.3.1 Paging Strategy................................................................................................... 8-12
10.3.2 Paging procedure................................................................................................ 8-13
10.3.3 Analysis on the Problem ”Subscriber Out of the Service Area” .......................... 8-14
10.3.4 Supplementary Notes.......................................................................................... 8-16
10.4 The Problem of Signal Fluctuation ................................................................................ 8-17
10.4.1 Examine the Stableness of the Base Station’s Transmission Power ................. 8-17
10.4.2 Cell Reselection (in idle state) or Handover (in conversation state) ................... 8-18
10.4.3 Power Control and DTX ...................................................................................... 8-18
10.4.4 TRX Down ........................................................................................................... 8-20
10.4.5 Interferences ....................................................................................................... 8-20
10.4.6 Cell Congestion ................................................................................................... 8-20
10.4.7 Multipath Effect ................................................................................................... 8-21
10.4.8 Other causes ....................................................................................................... 8-21
10.5 Other Main Problems..................................................................................................... 8-23
10.5.1 Poor Voice Quality .............................................................................................. 8-23
10.5.2 Failure to attach the network............................................................................... 8-23
10.5.3 Slow to attach the network .................................................................................. 8-23
10.5.4 Access slow......................................................................................................... 8-23
10.5.5 unilateral connection ........................................................................................... 8-24
Chapter 11 Development of Network Planning Technology................................................... 11-1
11.1 GPRS Basic Principle .................................................................................................... 11-1
11.1.1 GPRS Network Structure .................................................................................... 11-1
11.1.2 GPRS BSS and MS Function Introduction.......................................................... 11-2
11.1.3 GPRS Signaling Model ....................................................................................... 11-4
11.1.4 Radio Packet Channel Configuration.................................................................. 11-5
11.1.5 Packet Access Mode........................................................................................... 11-7
11.1.6 Paging Processing .............................................................................................. 11-7
11.1.7 Discontinuous Reception (DRX) ......................................................................... 11-8
11.1.8 Radio Resource Distribution ............................................................................... 11-9
x
11.1.9 Packet System Message..................................................................................... 11-9

11.1.10 Radio Link Control........................................................................................... 11-10
11.1.11 Channel Code and CS Change Control.......................................................... 11-11
11.1.12 Radio Link Monitoring ..................................................................................... 11-11
11.1.13 Radio Frequency Power Control ..................................................................... 11-12
11.1.14 Cell Reselection Control.................................................................................. 11-12
11.1.15 Flow Control and QoS Guarantee................................................................... 11-13
11.1.16 Mobility Management and Communication Management............................... 11-14
11.2 GPRS Network Planning ............................................................................................. 11-15
11.2.1 GPRS Capacity Planning .................................................................................. 11-15
11.2.2 GPRS Coverage Planning ................................................................................ 11-17
11.2.3 GPRS Frequency Planning ............................................................................... 11-20
11.2.4 Summary ........................................................................................................... 11-22
11.3 WCDMA System Overview.......................................................................................... 11-23
11.3.1 UMTS System Network Composition................................................................ 11-23
11.3.2 System Interface ............................................................................................... 11-26
11.3.3 Basic Principle of Spread Spectrum Communication ....................................... 11-26
11.3.4 Some of the Key Technologies in the WCDMA System ................................... 11-30
11.3.5 The Receive Sensitivity of the WCDMA System............................................... 11-34
11.4 WCDMA System Network Planning ............................................................................ 11-37
11.4.1 The Content of the WCDMA Network Planning ................................................ 11-37
11.4.2 WCDMA Radio Capacity Calculation................................................................ 11-40
11.4.3 WCDMA Service Description and Calculation .................................................. 11-49
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................... i
1 Research on the Network Planning Technology.....................................................................i
2 Participation in the Primary Design of Radio Products ..........................................................ii
3 Radio Products Marketing and Marketing Plan Preparation..................................................ii
4 Radio Project Implementation ............................................................................................... iii
Reference Documents ...................................................................................................................... i
xi
Radio Network Planning Chapter 1 Network Planning Overview
Chapter 1 Network Planning Overview
1.1 Network Planning Flow

The purpose of the network planning is to construct a radio network, whose capacity
and coverage area are both as large as possible and which can adapt to the network
development and capacity extension in the future, at a certain cost and guaranteeing
the network service quality.
The network planning is a systematic engineering, which covers the whole process of
the network construction, from the radio transmission research to the antenna feeder
equipment specification analysis, from the network capacity prediction to the detailed
project design, from the network performance test to the adjustment and optimization
of the system parameters, large as the general design idea, small as each cell
parameter; the network planning is also a comprehensive technique, which requires
the knowledge in multiple aspects from wired to wireless, and abundant practical
experiences.
The telecom providers mostly concern the service quality provided by the system,
whose most important factor is the coverage area. At the same time, when the radio
frequency resource is limited, how to increase the network capacity and how to meet
the requirement of the network development in the future have to be considered while
designing. All of the above-mentioned problems need to be solved through the
network planning, which will realize the benign balance in coverage, capacity, quality,
cost and so on.
See Figure 1-1, the Network Planning Flow
Figure 1-1 Network Planning Flow
The first phase is traffic coverage analysis. The purpose of traffic coverage analysis is
to provide the foundation for the network planning. It needs to collect the following
information: cost, capacity, coverage, quality, grade of service (GoS), available
1-12
frequency band, information of the increase of the system, population distribution,

income distribution and the fixed telephone set subscription, etc.
The second phase is emulation. The emulation is the site planning of the subscriber
distribution with the help of the planning software. The purpose is to guarantee the
coverage and capacity of a certain area and avoid the interference. In this phase, the
Huawei Company applies the network planning software ASSET.
The third phase is survey. Perform the field examination following the ideal station
address book. Record the possible station addresses according to the different
construction conditions (including power supply, transmission, electromagnetic
background and land taken over, etc.). Consider the range of deviation from the ideal
stations, effects on the cell splitting, economic benefit, coverage area prediction and
so on. Then recommend a suitable station address plan and make sure if the
electromagnetic environment around the base station is pure.
The fourth phase is the system design. Set the frequency, the planning of the adjacent
cell and running parameters of each cell, according to the actual base station
distribution and station type.
The fifth phase is installation and debugging. Following the design data, install and
debug the system to make it run normally.
The sixth phase is optimization. Along with the increase of subscribers, the network
needs frequent optimization and adjustment. When the traffic hits a certain amount,
the network needs expand the capacity; thus it returns to the phase of traffic coverage
analysis.
1-13
1.2 Network Pre-planning
1.2.1 Outline of the Network Pre-planning
The pre-planning is the basic of the radio mobile network. It reflects the systematic
design level of the network planning and decides the layout of the future network.
The output content of the pre-planning includes: the base station distribution, channel
distribution, cell data and so on. Its major tasks are as follows
(1) Analyze the construction company’s requirements of the coverage area and the
capacity.
(2) Decide the position of the ideal station according to the cellular structure.
You may select several key points in the area, from where you can observe with the
help of a local relief map or an administration map, and mark the most dense regions
of the subscribers as the addresses of the stations to be constructed at the first step.
Then mark other base stations on the map according to the ideal cellular structure.
(3) Analyze and decide the structure of the network and the base stations.
Firstly, analyze and decide if it’s necessary to construct a Hierarchical Network
according to the subscriber distribution, transmission conditions and the city
development plan; and then analyze and decide to apply the omnidirectional or
directional station to meet the requirement of coverage and capacity according to the
different places of the area.
(4) Compute the cell channel number of each base station.
z Predict the traffic according to the geographic location of each base station,
and look up into the ERL table to get the number of channels to be
configured for each base station according to the call lost ratio index
z Estimate the type of the largest base station according to the frequency
bandwidth provided by the construction company. If it cannot meet the
capacity requirement of the local area, it needs to add the number of base
stations following the principle of cell splitting according to the real
conditions. It also needs to select the ideal station locations on the map and
estimate the base station channel number again.
(5) Predict the coverage area and decide the base station project data, namely
perform the preliminary emulation
z Select the design index:
Select the minimum input power and the penetration ratio index at the coverage area
edge.
z Select the design parameters: antenna height (above the ground), antenna
azimuth angle and gain, antenna declination angle, base station height
above sea level, base station type, feeder line length and antenna feeder
system loss, combining and distribution methods, transmitter output power,
receiver sensitivity, base station diversity reception and diversity gains and
so on.
z Predict the coverage area of each base station cell according to the
propagation models of different regions. Deliver the adjustment opinions for
1-14
the base station address, antenna direction, declination angle, and height
according to the potential blind area and weak signals. And get the project
data of the real base station in the end.
(6) Select the real station address and decide the station type.
z Perform the field examination following the ideal station address, according
to the different construction conditions (including power supply,
transmission, electromagnetic background and land taken over, etc.).
Record the possible station address. Then propose a suitable address
scheme based on the integrating consideration of the deviation range from
the ideal address, effects on the future cell splitting, economic benefit and
coverage area prediction and so on.
z After selecting the address, decide the real station type according to the
number of the base station channel.
z After decided the station type, it needs to conduct an antenna feeder
configuration scheme. As to the network moving, it needs to investigate
sufficiently the antenna feeder combination of the original manufacturer, the
development of the planned base station capacity and the antenna
combination supported by the current equipments and deliver the best
combination scheme of the antenna feeder.
(7) Frequency and Adjacent Cell Planning
Make the frequency and adjacent cell plan according to the real base station
distribution and type.
(8) Cell Data Making
1.2.2 Pre-planning Foundation
I. Service Area Requirements and Traffic
The traffic distribution and coverage requirement of a certain area is one of the
foundations of the network planning and generally provided by the construction
company. In the case without clear requirements, you should carry out the field
investigation and analysis, make sure which area has coverage and capacity
requirements to meet and which area has so little subscribers that it’s not economical
to construct a station. You may ignore or reduce the service quality index. You should
distinguish the short-term and long-term objects of the network construction. Mark
these data and traffic distribution data on a geographical or a city planning map on the
scale of 1/50000 or 1/200000. In the case of lacking traffic distribution data, you can
mark how much percent each different area accounts for the assumed total subscriber
number.
Since the network construction is divided into different phases, the overall coverage
and capacity requirements of an area cannot be realized from the very beginning.
Generally, at the beginning of the network construction, when there are a few
subscribers, the consecutive covering of the network should be focused on; in the late
phase of the construction, improving network service quality is generally the objective.
II. Information of the Adjacent Network
For good preparation of the local network planning, it needs to collect the information
of the network constructed in the adjacent related areas (including the coverage area
design and frequency design of the adjacent base stations along the dividing line.)
1-15
III. Landform and Field Object Data
z Landform data: champagne, flat, hill, mountainous area and water, etc.;
z Field object data: human environment, like city, urban, countryside,
transport artery (including the newly built buildings, roads and scene points
and so on), etc.; floor building data, like the building type, construction
density distribution and ground vegetation (forest, grassland and crops,
etc).
The pre-planning is in the early stage of the radio mobile network construction and the
most important phase. It reflects the system design level of the network planning. The
pre-planning decides the layout, quality and development space of the future network
1.2.3 Pre-planning Process
I. Coverage Analysis
(1) Type of the Coverage Area

Different signal propagation models are applied for the areas of different types, which
decides the design principle, service level and frequency re-use pattern of the radio
network of the coverage area. In order to decide the coverage area of the cell, you can
divide the radio coverage area into several types: big city, middle-sized city, small town
and countryside.
Area type Description
With dense population, developed economy, large traffic. In the center of the
Big city city, high buildings stand in great numbers, and the shopping cente is
flourishing.
With comparatively dense population, rather developed economy, fairly large
Middle-sized city traffic. In the center of the city, stand the dense buildings. The shopping center
is rather flourishing and very promising.
With a big population, promising economic development, moderate amount of
Small town traffic. In the center of the town, buildings stand rather densely. The shopping
center has a certain scale and rather promising.
Countryside With a population in low density, developing economy and rather low traffic.
In the connection area between the above-mentioned areas, there are various
transport arteries, including: speedway, national highway, major provincial highway,
railway and sea-route, common provincial highway, railway and sea-route, and so on.
It also includes some roads in the mountainous areas. These areas need covering too.
Generally, it is suggested to apply the Omnidirectional Coverage in the countryside on
the plain and the areas with limited landform, and the Directional Coverage in the big,
middle-sized and small cities and speedways.
(2) Define the Field Strength of the Edge of the Coverage Area.
The field strength defining of the falling edge of the service area concerns: mobile
sensitivity -102dBm, quick fading protection 4dB (3dB for countryside), slow fading
protection 8dB (6dB for countryside), and noise (environmental and interfering noises)
protection 5dB.In the big and middle-sized cities, consideration should be taken for the
indoor requirements; as to the outdoor requirement, the average insertion loss 15 dB;
and plus the indoor signal improvement storage, 5dB. Generally speaking, the
propagation fading of the GSM1800 signal is averagely more than that of the GSM900
signal by 8dB, the antenna gains of the GSM1800 system is averagely more than that
of the GSM900 system by 3dB Since the radio links have up and down directions, and
the coverage area is defined by the weaker direction, it needs to consider of the
balance of the uplink and downlink. Before constructing an ideal network, it’s
1-16
necessary to make a good power budget and keep the balance of the uplink and
downlink as much as possible.
(3) Define the Coverage Ratio
The defining of the coverage ratio is different according to different coverage areas,
and gradually improved along with the consecutive construction of the network. In
China, at the beginning, the outdoor full coverage is generally realized in cities,
national significant tourism areas, speedways, national roads, areas along the
railways with large traffic, as for other major roads, railways and sea-routes, the
network planning and construction should be performed for 90% of the object. Along
with the deeper network construction and the increasing subscriber number, the
requirement of the network service becomes higher and higher. At the same time of
network planning according to the traffic, it needs to gradually enhance the indoor
coverage construction of the significant areas (for example, government offices, press
centers, airport lounge buildings, subways, top grade commercial office buildings,
entertainment centers and large shopping malls. What needs to explain is that,
according to the domestic regulations, the network can be accessed from 90% of the
area and 99% of the time. This requirement should be enhanced in the outdoor areas
of the big cities and simplified in the countryside. As to the transport arteries, different
standards should be applied, and the consecutive covered blind areas should be
limited according to the different artery types.
II. Network Structure Analysis
While considering the layout of the base station, it needs to analyze deeply the
network structure. Generally, the network can be divided by layer into high layer,
middle layer and low layer station. Most of the network traffic is carried by the middle
layer base station.
(1) Middle Layer Station
The middle layer station of the big and middle-sized cities refers to the base station,
whose antenna is generally 25~30 meters high and a little higher than the average
height of the buildings, and installed on the top of the buildings, and which generally
covers several blocks. Most of the base stations in the small towns and countryside
are middle layer stations, except of some special high layer stations constructed
because of the traffic direction control or landform. On one hand, the middle layer
station can efficiently apply the frequency resource (better than the high layer station),
on the other hand, it can efficiently absorb the traffic (better than the low layer station).
It has been carrying most of the traffic generated in the network running. Except in the
countryside, the average station distance between most of the two middle layer
stations ranges from 0.6 to 5km; while in the big cities, there are also some areas,
whose average station distance between the middle layer stations is under 0.6km. But
even in the big cities, the average station distance between middle layer stations is
suggested not to be under 0.4Km. If more of the station distance is reduced, the
buildings will affects the signal strength between each base stations more obviously,
even to a degree out of control and that no suitable floor objects can be applied, thus
the network service quality cannot be guaranteed; based on the experiences of the
project construction and maintenance, the address selection, design and construction
of the base station, network maintenance and quality control will face a very big
challenge.
(2) High Layer Station
The high layer station in the big and middle-sized cities refers to the base station,
whose antenna is generally 40 ~ 50 meters high and much higher than the average
height of the buildings, and whose coverage area covers several middle layer base
stations. Since the high layer station cannot make full use of the frequency resource, it
1-17
should only be considered of and constructed, or changed from the original base
stations, in big cities and some special middle-sized cities with many high buildings.
The high layer station address selection should follow the principle of “little but
extractive”. The high layer station is constructed mainly to solve the coverage problem
of the high buildings in the cities.
Some high layer stations are also constructed in the suburb, road, small towns and
countryside because of the traffic direction control and wide coverage.
(3) Low Layer Station
The low layer station refers to the base station, whose antenna is less than 20 meters
high and lower than the average height of the buildings. The antennas are generally
installed on the outside wall of the lower floors of a building, building group, the top of
the low roof garden or somewhere, or the rooms of a building. The coverage area only
includes a street, part of a street or the rooms of a building. The low layer stations are
frequently used. But they have rather low capacity of absorbing the traffic, mainly
because the coverage area of the low layer station is small, when a station departs a
little from the hot traffic center, it can hardly have an ideal traffic. Therefore, the low
layer station construction needs you to consider if the purpose of construction is to
supplement the coverage or solve the problem of high traffic, which will affect the
address selection and the scale defining of the low layer station.
After the field investigation with the help of the map, the general network structure can
be decided. Generally, at the early stage of the network construction, single layer
network design is applied, most base stations are middle layer station, when the basic
network is established, the new base stations will be added of adjusted according to
the traffic and coverage requirement. In the extremely high traffic area of the dense
commercial areas, the low layer stations are constructed with the microcell layer and
distributed antenna system, which meets the requirement of the indoor coverage, and
at the same time avoids the interference and difficulties of station selection due to the
too short distance between stations. The low layer stations will develops into the
layered network structure.
III. Capacity Analysis
(1) Capacity Prediction

The network construction requires the consideration of economical feasibility and
rationality. Only after predicting the network capacity of the early stage and the late
stage, you can make a reasonable investment decision. The network capacity
prediction should be based on the integrating consideration of the population
distribution, family income, fixed telephone subscription ration, national economical
development and city construction, etc. The different charge policy is also an important
factor when the subscribers decide to access the network or not. After getting the
predicted total capacity of the network construction, you need to predict the subscriber
distribution density. Considering the real requirement of the project, the base stations
are generally constructed in the city, suburb and transport artery. So the percentage
ration can be applied for the prediction. At the early stage of the network construction,
the subscribers in the cities account for more percentage of the predicted total
subscribers, along with the deeper development of the network construction, the
subscribers in the suburbs and along the transport arteries will increase in the
percentage. Generally the traffic of each subscriber from a city and a suburb is
0.025Erl and 0.020Erl respectively.
The traffic calculation formula is: A= n /3600
In this way, the speech channel needed for a special base station can be predicted
according to the traffic prediction.
1-18
 Caution:
It’s necessary to consider of the effects of the cell splitting while calculating the speech
channel number.
In the GSM system, the ERL model is applied to calculate the density of the traffic,
which can be carried by the network. The call loss applies 2% or 5% depending on the
real conditions.
Limited by the cell coverage area and the bandwidth of the available frequency, the
cell capacity should be planned reasonably and the channel usage ratio should be
raised as much as possible without affecting the good voice quality. As to the traffic
share of the two bands in dual band network construction, the looser frequency
bandwidth can be used to realize the high usage ratio of the channels.
In the real networking, on the premise of guaranteeing the network quality at a certain
level, there are two capacity solutions, namely a few stations with high level
configurations and any stations with lower level of configurations. They have obvious
superiority and inferiority, which should be considered according to the different
conditions of each area.
In the network construction, the new base station construction and base station
capacity expansion are two methods to increase the capacity. Different capacity
expansion strategies, like adding 900M/1800M base station, sector capacity
expansion, microcell and indoor coverage and so on, are applied for the areas of
different traffic density.
After defining the total capacity, decide the number of the base station (cell) and the
base station configuration according to the frequency re-use pattern, integrate the
coverage requirements (appearing as the antenna interface EIRP requirements), and
finally select the suitable base station type and the combination of the
Combiner/divider unit, antenna and the feeder line.
(2) Cell Splitting
The cell splitting is an effective way of network capacity expansion. It includes the
performance of splitting a large omnidirectional base station into several sector cells
and splitting the sector cells into smaller cells. In another word, it means the planning
of different cell radius according to the traffic density of different areas. The cell
splitting means to construct more base stations and increase the system construction
investment. It’s necessary to consider the following factors:
z Be able to keep the image repetition of the frequency re-use regularity;
z Make the existing base stations still usable;
z Reduce or avoid the transition area;
z Without affecting the consecutive splitting.
Since the cell splitting is fairly important, we hereunder make some more description
of the common cell splitting measure of 1 into 4.
The cell splitting is a way to split the congested cell into smaller cells. Each cell has its
own base stations. The antenna should be shortened and the transmitter power
should be reduced accordingly. Because the cell splitting increases the re-use time of
the channel, the system capacity is increased. The number of channels in a unit area
is increased through setting new cells with smaller radius than the original ones and
1-19
fitting these cells (called as microcells) among the original cells. And the system
capacity is increased accordingly. Suppose each cell is split by half of its radius, see
Picture 1-2:
Figure 1-2 Cell Splitting (1 in 4) Schematic Diagram
In order to cover the whole service area with these smaller cells, about 4 times of the
original cells are needed draw a circle with the radius R to make it easier to
understand. 以 The circle with the radius R covers the area 4 times large as the area
covered by the circle with a radius of R/2. The increasing number of the cell increases
the cluster number in the coverage area and then the channel number in the coverage
area, thus the capacity is increased. The cell splitting allows the system growing
through the smaller cells, instead of the larger cells, without affecting the channel
distribution strategy necessary for keeping the minimum co-channel re-use genes
between the co-channel cells. The Picture 1-2 is an example of cell splitting, the base
station is placed on the corner of the cell. Suppose that the traffic in service area of the
base station A is saturated (namely the congestion of base station A is over the
acceptable value). Therefore new base stations are needed to increase the channel
number in the area and reduce the coverage area of each single base station. In the
example showed in Picture 1-2, the smaller cells are added on the premise of not
changing the frequency re-use plan of the system. The cell splitting just zooms out the
geometric shape of the cluster pro rata. Thus, the radius of each new cell is half of that
of the original ones.
As to the new smaller cells, the transmission power should be reduced. The
transmission power of the new cell, whose radius is half of that of the original one, can
be given by checking the power Pr received from the edge between the new and
1-20
original cells, and letting them equal. This needs to ensure that the frequency re-use
scheme of the new microcell is the same as that of the original cell. As to the Picture
1-2:
−n
Pr[at the edge of the old cell] P t1 R 1
and
−n
Pr[at the edge of the new cell] P t2 (R/2) 2
Here, Pt1 and Pt2 represent the base station transmission power of the larger and
smaller cells respectively, n represents the path attenuation index. If let n=4, and let all
powers received equal, then
Pt2=Pt1/16 3
That is to say, in order to cover the original coverage area with the microcells and
reach the S/I requirements, the transmission power should be reduced by 12dB.
In fact, not all cells split at the same time. Generally, it’s very difficult for the service
providers to find the exact period suitable for the cell splitting. So the cells in different
scales exist simultaneously. Under this condition, it needs to maintain the minimum
distance between the co-channel cells, therefore the frequency distribution becomes
even more complex. At the same time, attention should be paid to the problem of
handover so that the high speed and low speed mobile subscribers can enjoy the
service simultaneously. As shown in the Picture 1-2, when there are two scales of cells
in one area, the formula (3) tells that the original transmission power cannot be simply
applied for all of the new cells and the new transmission power also cannot be applied
for all of the original ones. If all cells apply the bigger transmission power, some
channels used by the smaller cells won’t be able to separate from the co-channel cells.
另 On the other hand, if all cells apply the lower transmission power, part of the area of
the bigger cell will be excluded from the service area. Accordingly, the channels in the
original cell should be divided into two groups, one of which meets the re-use
requirement of the smaller cells, and the other one of which the bigger cells. When the
bigger cells are used for high speed mobile communication, the time of handover will
be reduced.
The size of the two channel groups is decided by the splitting progress. At the early
stage of the splitting progress, the channels in the low power group are less. However,
more channels of the lower power group are needed to meet the increasing demand.
The splitting progress will not stop until all channels in the area are used in the lower
power group, and then the cell splitting will cover the whole area and the radius of
each cell in the system becomes smaller. The antenna is often declined to focus the
emission energy toward the ground, instead of on the horizontal direction, in order to
limit the radio coverage of the newly formed microcell.
The above analysis tells that the coverage area design of the radio network will not
only solve the problem of the coverage area, but also meet the subscriber capacity
requirement. The problem of the coverage area will be solved through constructing
multiple base stations/cells. However, the construction of the base station is limited by
the investment and restricts with each other. While the subscriber capacity is decided
by the channel configuration, limited by the frequency resource and restricting each
other. Therefore a unified planning is necessary.
IV. Station Address Planning
The purpose of the station address planning is to select the best location for the base
station. After the field examination, construct the base station in the center of a city
with a safe subscriber prediction, then gradually enlarge the number of the base
1-21
station on the map based on the principle of the cell mesh radius. Thus the ideal
station address is selected. In the areas of different traffic density, the space between
the base stations is different. Generally, in the area of high traffic density, the space
between stations should be small, and the microcell and distributed antenna are
applied in part of the hot spots to provide the multi-layer coverage and meet the
capacity requirement. In a real project, it’s difficult to select the address. This is firstly
because the irregularity of the landform and buildings causes the uneven signal
coverage figure. On the other hand, the interference has to be avoided. In other words,
not only the coverage but the interference should be considered before positioning the
antenna. As to the whole network, you cannot only think of the location of one base
station, instead, you should consider of the possibility of many addresses. Since the
change of one address will affect the location of other base stations, the address
selection of the base station should be based on a certain principle. After the address
has been selected, the real station type will be defined according to the traffic
distribution and the channel number of the base station.
V. Parameter Design of the Base Station Engineering
Decide the height of antenna hanging position according to the different coverage area
types, network structures and average height of the buildings. As to the base station
moving, the necessity of height adjustment of the antenna is decided according to the
network construction condition, objects required by subscribers to cover and the
installation environment. In some mountainous area, because of the landform, the
base station has to be constructed on the mountain, it's better to select the directional
antenna or the omnidirectional antenna with an electric declination angle, and avoid
the “blind under tower”.
The base station antennas are divided into two types, omnidirectional and directional
antenna based on the horizontal direction. 在 In the vertical plane, all antennas have
directions. Generally the gain of the omnidirectional antenna is 6dBd~9dBd; the gain
of the directional antenna is 9dBd~16dBd. The gain of the directional antenna refers to
the gain in the maximum transmission direction. Generally, the omnidirectional base
station is constructed only in the villages on the plain or some special landform, while
the directional antenna is used in the base station of other areas on the whole. In the
subscriber density cities, the common base stations (excluding the microcell and
indoor distributed antenna system) are installed with the directional antenna at the
angle of 65 degree. In order to avoid the antenna interference, the antenna gain
doesn’t need to be too high. The base station, with a few centralized subscribers and
needing a wide coverage, generally applies the directional antenna with high gain. The
antenna direction angle and the declination angle (electronic declination or mechanical
declination) should be designed reasonably.
In order to guarantee the normality of the network structure design and avoid the
interference as much as possible, the antennas of each sector in each base station of
the local area is recommended to have the same direction, for example designed as 0
/120 /240 or 30 /150 /270 . While the antenna direction needs to be
adjusted in the base stations close to the sea, along the river, transport artery and the
city-suburb combination, areas with uneven traffic and center of city with many high
buildings. What’s need highlighting is that because there are high buildings along
many streets in cities in different size, the base station cell antennas nearby cannot be
installed with an azimuth angle facing the street in order to avoid the wave-guide
effect.
The antenna declination angle should be decided according to the special conditions
on the premise of reducing the interference to the co-channel cell and covering the
whole coverage area without unnecessary blind area; when it declines too much, the
ratio emission in front of and behind the antenna must be considered, avoiding the
back lobe interfering the cell behind or the side lobe interfering the neighbor sector.
1-22
Generally speaking, design a rather big declination angle for the cells near to the water
surface to avoid the interference to the opposite side of the water; the obliquity of 3~6
degree for the dense city center; no declination for the suburb and artery cell in order
to widen the coverage area.
In addition, the suitable feeder line, combiner and the tower amplification unit should
be selected according to the special conditions.
VI. Coverage Prediction
The coverage prediction is to predict the coverage of the network to be constructed,

according to the address selected and the type designed, and to see if it can meet the
demand of the subscribers. The coverage can be predicted with the help of the
ASSET Network Planning Tools to select a map with a suitable accuracy. The
coverage area of a base station mainly concerns the following factors: service quality
index; transmitter output power; available sensibility of the receiver; the direction and
gain of the antenna; frequency band applied; emission environment (landform, city
construction and other man-made environment); application of the diversity reception.
In case the result of the network coverage prediction cannot meet the requirements,
the adjustment should be done. The usual measures include:
(1) When there are subscribers outside the cell coverage area, where is not
economical to construct a site, broadcast station can be applied to solve the problem.
When the signal in the coverage area is weak or there is blind area in it, the microcell
can be considered to solve the problem according to the conditions.
(2) If the cell coverage areas don’t overlap one another enough, it should be
considered to increase the height of the antenna position or the number of the base
station according to the cell splitting principle.
(3) When the cell coverage area cannot hit the co-channel reference index, make
adjustment as follow:
z Adjust the cell channel configuration;
z Adjust the station address or other design parameters (including the
antenna type, height of position, azimuth angle, the declination angle
and transmission power). Accordingly the effects between the base
stations need considering.
VII. Frequency Planning
The frequency re-use pattern is one of the important factors to be considered in the
cell system planning. The frequency re-use refers to the application of the radio
channels at the same frequency in the cells of different coverage areas. The cells of
frequency re-use should have a certain interval between each other to meet the
requirement of the adjacent frequency carrier-to-interference ratio. The re-use
degrees of the same frequency are different in the different re-use patterns. Different
frequency re-use patterns are applied in areas of different types. In a certain area, on
the promise of enough coverage, the number of the base station (cell) is decided by
the frequency planning pattern. Generally speaking:
(1) In the big and middle-sized cities, different aggressive frequency re-use patterns,
like MRP, 1×3, etc., are applied according to the different equipment functions. At the
same time, reserve part of the frequency band for the microcell to construct layered
network. Its frequency re-use coefficient is rather small.
(2) In the small and middle-sized cities, different aggressive frequency re-use patterns,
are applied according to the different equipment functions. Whether it’s necessary to
1-23
construct the layered network depends on the real condition. Its frequency re-use
coefficient is a little bigger than that of the big and middle-sized cities.
(3) In the towns and villages, which are rich in the resources, the standard 4×3
frequency re-use pattern can be applied. The stations, constructed on the mountains
for some geographic reasons, can be allocated some independent frequency bands.
At the pre-planning stage, the planners should present the application for the
frequency resource according to the scale and frequency planning pattern of the radio
network.
VIII. LAC Planning
LAC is also an important resource. At the pre-planning stage, the planners should
present the initial allocation and resource application of the LAC based on the
consideration of network structure and scale.
IX. Cell Data Making
In order to guarantee the good and stable running of the network, it’s also necessary
to configure the relevant data for each base station cell. What has to be highlighted is:
the cell attribute parameters, cell handover band selection, channel allocation algorism
selection, turn on which handover algorism, and whether to use the functions, like
frequency hopping, power control and DTX, should have been decided in the above
base station design, coverage prediction and frequency planning. In the GSM system
of Huawei, as to the detailed data design and configuration, please read the Data
Configuration Criterion of the GSM900, 1800 BSS network planning for reference.
1.2.4 Pre-planning Difficulties
As shown in the above progress, the pre-planning difficulties are reflected in the
following aspects:
(1) Complex emission environment, severely fluctuate signal, big difference of the
multi-approach emission caused by the various man-made buildings, and the
difficulties in theoretic prediction of the coverage area.
(2) Severe interference. Except for the human noises, all adjacent frequency
interference, intermodulation interference and other radio interference should be
considered and controlled in the permitted index during the engineering design.
(3) Limited frequency resources. It’s getting more serious along with the big increasing
of the subscriber.
(4) There are strict rules for the cell structure and the cell splitting behavior designed
for the frequency re-use. The station address planning can hardly be carried out in the
real project due to various reasons.
(5) The investment control is the technical and economical issue of the network
construction, which can be by no means ignored.
1-24
Radio Network Planning Chapter 2 GSM Air Interface
Chapter 2 GSM Air Interface
2.1 GSM System Introduction

GSM system structure is shown as in Figure 2-1.
OSS
NMC DPPS PCS SEMC
NSS
OMC
BTS HLR/AUC
BSC MSC/VLR
MS BTS
EIR
BSS PSTN
ISDN
PDN
OSS: Operation and Maintenance Subsystem

BSS: Base Station Subsystem
NSS: Network Subsystem
NMC: Network Management Center
DPPS: Data Post Processing System
SEMC: Security Management Center
PCS: SIM Card Personalization Center
OMC: Operation and Maintenance Center
MSC: Mobile Switching Center
VLR: Visitor Location Register
HLR: Home Location Register
AUC: Authentication Center
EIR: Equipment Identification Register
BSC: Base Station Controller
2-1
BTS: Base Transceiver Station

MS: Mobile Station
PDN: Public Date Network
PSTN: Public Switched Telephon Network
ISDN: Integrated Services Digital Network
Figure 2-1 GSM System Structure
Figure 2-1 illustrates that a GSM system consists of three subsystems: Operation and
Maintenance Subsystem (OSS), Base Station Subsystem (BSS), and Network
Subsystem (NSS). BSS is the basic part of the GSM system which deals directly with
the radio cellular aspect. Connected to the mobile station via radio interface, it takes
charge of transceiving radio signals and managing radio resources. NSS is the core
part of the whole GSM system. It has such functions as switching, connection, and
management between different GSM subscribers as well as between GSM sbscribers
and subscribers of other communications networks.Its major responsibilities include
call processing, communication management, mobility management, part of the radio
resource management, security management, subscriber data and equipment
management, billing record processing, common channel and signaling processing,
and local opreation and maintenance.BSS is mainly responsible for transceiving radio
signals and managing wirelsss resource. At the same time, it connects to NSS to
realize the connection beteen different mobile subscribers as well as between mobile
subscribers and subscribers of the fixed network to send system information and
subscriber information. Of course this requires the interworking with OSS.
The actual GSM network can be divided into several different areas. To be specific, it
include the following aspects:
Service Area is the area where the service is available for mobile stations. Within this
area, subcribers of different communications networks can communicate with a mobile
station without knowing its exact position.
PLMN Area refers to the whole area covered by the Public Land Mobile Network
(PLMN), which is a network independent from other communications networks such
as ISDN and PSTN.
MSC Area refers to a part of the PLMN network covered by all the cells controlled by
one MSC.One MSC area may consist of several location areas.
Location Area refers to the area where a mobile station can move freely without
location update. One location area may consists of several cells or base station areas.
In order to call a mobile station, the calling can be initiated from all the base stations in
one location area at the same time.
Base Station Area refers to the area of all the cells within the range of one or more
BTSs placed in the same area.
Cell refers to the radio coverage area labelled by base station identity code or global
cell identity code. When the omnidirectional antenna is used, the cell is equivalent to
the base station area. In design, a specific cellular area, is a cell.
2-2
Figure 2-2 GSM Area Classification
2.2 Radio Channel Structure

In PLMN, MS connects to the fixed part of the GSM system via radio channel so as to
enable subscribers to access communications services. In order to realize the
interconnection of MS and BTS, the signal transmission via the wirless channel has to
undergo a series of regulations and a set of standards has to be established. This set
of regulations for signal transmission via the radio channel is the so-called Air
Interface, also named Um interface.
2.2.1 Time Slot and Frame Structure
The Um interface integrates such technologies as Frequency Dividion Multiple Access

(FDMA), Time Dividion Multiple Access, and frequency hopping technology.
The transmission unit through the Um interface is the Burst composed of about 100
modulated bits. Burst occupies 200kHz frequency band width, and it last
0.577ms(15/26ms). As is shown in Figure 2-3, the time and frequency window it
occupies is called slot. The time a slot occupies is called a time slot, while the
frequency bandwidth it occupies is called a frequency slot. The frequency slot is
equivalent to the radio frequency channel in the GSM norm.
The frame is often represented in the form of n consecutively occurred slots. In the
GSM system, the value of n is set to be 8, and this kind of frame is called TDMA frame
that is each TDMA frame is composed of eight consecutive slots.
2-3
Figure 2-3 The concept of time slot
One physical channel is the burst sent in specific and cyclic slots. In the GSM system,
the cycle is eight, which is a TDMA frame. It is qualified to say that each radio
frequency channel consists of eight physical channels. A physical channel can be
identified and differentiated from others according to the number of one of its slots in
the TDMA frame, and this number is called time slot number.
If a radio frequency channel is not frequency hopping, then its core frequency is
constant. Otherwise, its core frequency is changing, and the changing unit is 200kHz.
The complete TDMA frame structure is shown as in Figure 2-4, while the Burst
structure in Figure 2-5.
Figure 2-4 The TDMA frame structure of the channel
The explanation for the above figure is as follows:

A TDMA frame lasts 4.615ms(120/26ms), composed of eight time slots.
Several TDMA frames constitute a multiframe, whose structures have two kinds: 26
multiframe and 51 multiframe. The cycle of the 26 multiframe structure is 120ms, and it
contains 26 TDMA frames, which are used as service channels and associated control
channels. The cycle of the 51 multiframe structure is 3060/13ms, and it contains 51
TDMA frames, which are used as control channels.
2-4
Several multiframes constitute a super frame, which contains 51×26 1326 TDMA
frames. Each super frame may contain 51 26-multiframes or 26 51-multiframes. The
cycle of super frames is 6.12s.
Several super frames constitute a hyper frame, which contains 2048 super frames. Its
cycle is 12533.76s, that is three hours twenty-eight minutes fifty-three seconds and
760 milliseconds.In each cycle, a hyper frame contains 2715648 TDMA frames, which
are numbered from zero to 2715647.
Figure 2-5 Several kinds of Burst structure
2.2.2 Physical Channel
The physical channel is the combination of frequency division and time division. It is
composed of the slot flow between BTS and MS.Therefore, any physical channel has
to be described from two dimensions: frequency and time.
2-5
I. 1. Frequency domain description
(1) The working frequency band of the GSM system
Uplink (MS BTS): 890 915MHz 1710 1785MHz
Downlink (BTS MS): 935 960MHz 1805 1880MHz
Duplex interval: 45MHz(900M) 95MHz(1800M)

Carrier frequency interval: 200kHz
(2)Frequency hopping
(3)Cell (frequency point) distribution and mobile station (frequency point) distribution
(4) Mobility distribution deviation and frequency hopping serial generating number
II. Time domain description
TN----time slot number

FN----TDMA frame number
2.2.3 Logic Channel
The logic channel results from the time complexing on the physical channel. Different
logic channels are used for different kinds of information transmission between BTS
and MS. The explanation for the logic channel defined in the GSM norm is as follows:
I. Traffic Channel(TCH)
TCH carries speech or subscriber data, and the full rate TCH carries the information
with the rate of 22.8kbit/s. TCH include the following kinds of traffic channels:
z Enhanced full rate speech TCH (TCH/EFS)
z Full rate speech TCH (TCH/FS)
z 9.6kbit/s full rate data TCH (TCH/F9.6)
II. Control Channel (CCH)
The control channel mainly carries signaling or synchronous data. It can be divided
into four kinds according to the different tasks processed:
(1) Broadcasting Channel (BCH)

BCH is the one-point-to-many-points unidirectional control channel from BTS to MS,
which is used to broadcast all kinds of information to MS. BCH can be divided into
three kinds:
FCCH: Frequency Correction Channel, which is used to correct the MS frequency;
2-6
SCH: Synchronous Channel, which is used in the MS frame synchronization and BTS
identification;
BCCH: Broadcasting Control Channel, which is used to broadcast cell informaiton.
(2) Common Control Channel (CCCH)
CCCH is the one-point-to-many-points bidirectional control channel, which is mainly
used to carry signaling information necessary for the access management function,
and it can also carry other kinds of signaling. CCCH is commonly used by all MSs of
the network. It includes three parts:
PCH: Paging channel, which is used by BTS to page MS;
RACH: Random Access Channel, which is used by MS to randomly access the uplink
channel of the network;
AGCH: Access Grant Channel, which is used to assign the special control channel to
the connection with the successful access.
(3) Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH)
DCCH is point-to-point bidirectional control channel. Based on the requirement for the
communications control process, DCCH is assigned to MS to enable it to conduct
point-to-point signaling transmission with BTS. It can be divided into the following
kinds:
SDCCH/8: Separate Dedicated Control Channel;
SACCH/C8: Slow Associated Control Channel associated with SDCCH/8;
SACCH/TF: Slow Associated Control Channel associated with TCH/F;
FACCH/F: Fast Associated Control Channel/Full Rate;
SDCCH/4: Separate Dedicated Control Channel combined with BCCH/CCCH;
SACCH/C4: Slow Associated Control Channel associated with SDCCH/4.
(4) Cell Broadcasting Channel (CBCH)
CBCH is used to broadcast cell short message bit/s only with the downlink direction. It
carries cell broadcasting short message service information, and it uses the same
physical channel with SDCCH.
The summary for the logic channel supported by M900 BTS is shown as in Figure 2-6.
2-7
Figure 2-6 Logic Channel Classification
2.2.4 Allowed Channel Combination Type
The logic channel is projected to the physical channel based on a specific rule. The
channel combination types allowed in GSM PHASE 2 Norm are as follows:
(1) TCH/F + FACCH/F + SACCH/TF
(2) TCH/H (0,1)+ FACCH/H(0,1)+ SACCH/TH(0,1)
(3) TCH/H (0,0)+ FACCH/H(0,1)+ SACCH/TH(0,1)+ TCH/H(1,1)
(4) FCCH + SCH + BCCH + CCCH (main BCCH)
(5) FCCH + SCH + BCCH + CCCH + SDCCH/4(0..3)+ SACCH/C4 (0..3)(Combined

BCCH)
(6) BCCH + CCCH (Extended BCCH)

(7)SDCCH/8(0. .7)+ SACCH/C8 (0. .7)
A Note:
1. If the system supports SMSCB, the SDCCH (1/8) in the combination (5) and (7)
used as CBCH
2. The combination (5)(Combined CCCH) can only be adopted when there is no
other CCCH in the cell.
2-8
3. CCCH = PCH + RACH + AGCH + NCH.
2.2.5 The Frame Structure of the Logic Channel
Different logic channels have different frame structures. However, the frame structure
of logical channels is always cyclic in time, although different logic channels have
different cycles. In order to realize high-performance system, the GSM Norm works
hard on the frame structure of the logical channel, which results in the complicated
frame structure system of the GSM system.
2.2.6 The Use of the Common Control Channel
The following explanation is for the use of the common control channel:
z Among all the carrier frequencies in a cell, there is only one carrier
frequency can support BCCH. Of course, it also supports CCCH.The
cell is uniquely labeled by this carrier frequency, which is called C0 in
the protocol.
z C0 carrier frequency must transmit at the constant frequency with the
constant power. That is to say, C0 carrier frequency is not allowed for
frequency hopping. The frequency used by C0 carrier frequency is
called Scaling Frequency.
z TN0 with and only with C0 can support channel combination (4) and (5),
that is main BCCH and combined BCCH.
z Parameter BS_CC_CHANS and extended BCCH.
z Parameter BS_CCCH_SDCCH_COMB and combined BCCH.
z Parameter BS_AG_BLKS_RES.
z Parameter BS_PA_MFRMS.
z The CCCH_GROUP and PAGING_GROUP of the MS as well as the
paging and discontinuous reception.
2.2.7 The Early Timing of Uplink and Downlink as well as MS
In the GSM system, uplinks refer to the links from MS to BTS; while downlinks refer
to those from BTS to MS.
As far as MS is concerned, if the requirement for simultaneous transmission and
reception can be avoided, it will be great, because there is no need for the MS to
protect its transmitter while it is receiving, which can reduce the volume of the MS to a
large extent. In order to realize this point, in the GSM system, the TDMA frame of the
uplink is always three BPs (about 1730µs) behind that of the downlink. Form BTS
perspective, this delay is constant, but for MS, things are different. Due to the mobility
of MS, there always exists a transmission delay from MS to the BTS in its service cell,
and this delay is usually not constant. In order to compensate for the transmission
delay to and from BTS, the transmission of MS must take place earlier, and this is
called the early timing of MS.The range for the early time is between 0 233µs (this
limitation comes from protection bit time domain feature of Access Burst). Therefore,
2-9
from the MS perspective, the accurate deviation between the uplink and downlink is
three BPs less the early timing value.
The MS in the special mode must transmit using proper early timing value at any
time; otherwise, it will lose the synchronization with BTS. In the GSM system, the
method of self-adaptive timing adjustment is employed to ensure that the MS in
the special mode always uses proper early timing value.
2-10
2-11
Radio Network Planning Table of Contents
xii
Radio Network Planning Chapter 3 Radio Propagation Theroy
Chapter 3 Radio Propagation Theory
3.1 Basic knowledge of Radio Propagation

When planning and constructing a mobile communication network, we must
understand the features of the electric waves to define the frequency band,
frequency allocation, radio coverage, communication probability calculation,
electromagnetic interference between systems and final parameters of radio devices.
It is the keystone for system design, efficient use of frequency spectrum and EMC
(Electronic Magnetic Compatibility).
It is well known that the radio wave can be transmitted from the transmitting antenna to
the receiving antenna in multiple modes: forward wave or free space wave, earth wave
or surface wave, troposphere reflecting wave, and ionosphere wave.
As shown in Figure 3-1, as far as electronic propagation is concerned, the simple
method between transmitters and receivers is free space propagation. Free space
refers to isotropy (identical in axes characters) and uniformity (even texture) in such
zone. Other names for free space are forward wave or stadia wave. As shown in
Figure 3-1(a), forward wave transmits along straight lines, so that it can be used for
communication between satellite and exterior space. In addition, this definition is also
used for stadia propagation in land (between two microwave towers), as shown in
Figure 3-1(b).
The second method is the earth wave or surface wave. Earth wave is the combination
of three waves: the forward wave, backward wave and surface wave. The Surface
wave transmits along the earth surface. Some energy from the transmitting antenna
can directly reach to the receiver; some energy reaches to the receiver after reflecting
on the earth surface; some reaches to the receiver through surface wave. Surface
wave transmits on the earth surface. Since the earth surface is not ideal for
propagation, some of the energy is absorbed by the ground. When energy is absorbed
by the ground, it can cause ground current. Such three surface waves are shown in
Figure 3-1(c).
The third method is that troposphere reflecting wave. It is generated from the
troposphere layer, which is a heterogeneous medium, changing with time because of
air conditions. Its reflection factors decrease with an increase of height. Such reflection
factors with gradual change cause electric wave bending, as shown in Figure 3-1(d).
Troposphere method is applied to radio communication with the wavelength less than
10 meters (frequency larger than 30MHz). The fourth method is propagation through
ionospheric reflection. When the electric wave is less than 1 meter in length
(frequency larger than 300 MHz), the troposphere layer is the reflected body. The radio
wave reflected from troposphere layer might have one or more leaps, as shown in
Figure 3-1(e). Such propagation is used for long-distance communication. Besides
reflection, troposphere layer can generate electric wave scattering because of uneven
refractive rate. In addition, meteors in troposphere layer can also scatter electric
waves. Like the troposphere layer, ionosphere layer also has the feature of continuous
fluctuation, and such fluctuation is rapid fluctuation at random. Cellular system radio
propagation is adopted the second method of electric wave propagation. It will be
discussed in the following parts.
2-1
(a) (b)
Scatterer
Ground wave
(c) Ionization layer (d)
(e)
(b) Stadia
(a) Forward wave transmits
along straight line
communication (c) Earth wave propagation
application
(e) Radio
wave transmits through
(d) Troposphere lay scatters radio wave irregularly.
ionosphere reflection
Figure 3-1 Different Propagation Modes
There are two reasons for propagation study when designing cellular system: first, it
provides necessary tool for calculating signal level covering different cells. In most
cases, coverage area is , therefore earth wave propagation can be adopted in such
condition. Secondly, it can calculate monkey-chatter interference and cochannel
interference.
There are three methods for predicatingsignal level radio coverage: the first one is
pure theory, which is applied to separate objects, such as mountain and other solid
objects. However, it ignores the irregularity of the Earth. The second one is based
upon measurement in various environments, including irregular landform and man-
made obstacles, especially the higher frequency and lower mobile antenna commonly
existing in mobile communication. The third method is the improved model upon the
above two methods, which considers the influence of mountains and other obstacles
upon the measurement and the refraction law.
In the cellular system, there are at least two propagation models: the first one is FCC
suggested model; the second one, established by Okumura, considers the actual
experience data.
2-2
3.2 Radio Propagation Environment
3.2.1 Frequency Division Introduction
The Radio frequency from 3Hz to 3000GHz are separated into 12 bands, as shown in
Figure the following table. Frequency in different frequency spectrum has different
propagation characteristics. As to mobile communication, we only pay attention to
UHF spectrum.
Frequency Classification Designation
3 to 30Hz
30 to 300Hz Extremely Low Frequency ELF
300 to 3000Hz Voice Frequency VF
3 to 30KHz Very-low Frequency VLF
30 to 300KHz Low Frequency LF
300 to 3000KHz Medium Frequency MF
3 to 30MHz High Frequency HF
30 to 300MHz Very High Frequency VHF
300 to 3000MHz Ultra High Frequency UHF
3 to 30GHz Super High Frequency SHF
30 to 300GHz Extremely High Frequency EHF
300 to 3000GHz
3.2.2 Fast Fading and Slow Fading
According to the last section, in a typical cellular mobile communication environment,

direct path between the receiver and the transmitter is obstructed by buildings or other
objects. Thus, communication between the cellular base station and mobile station
completes not through direct path but many other paths. In UHF frequency, the main
propagation mode for electromagnetic wave from the transmitter to the receiver is
scattering, i.e. reflection from the surface of building or refraction from artificial and
natural objects, as shown in Figure 3-2.
2-3
building reflected wave diffracted wave forward wave ground

reflected wave
Figure 3-2 Multipath Propagation Model
All the signal components compose a multi standing wave, the signal level of which
increases or decreases with corresponding changes of the components. The
synthesis signal level fades 20 to 30dB in a few car bodies away, the difference
between the maximum and the minimum is about 1/4 wavelength. A great number of
propagation paths result in so called multipath phenomenon, whose synthesis
amplitude and phase will undergo great fluctuation with the movement of mobile
stations. Usually, such phenomenon is called multipath fading or fast fading, as shown
in Figure 3-3. Essentially, multipath fading is a fast change. Besides, such propagation
character causes time dispersion phenomenon. The distribution of deep fading point in
space is approximately half wavelength away (900MHz is 17cm, 1800 or 1900Mhz is
8cm). If the mobile antenna is at the deep fading point at that time (when mobile user
in a car stay at the deep fading point because of redlight, we call it Redlight Problem),
voice quality is very poor. Therefore, related technologies like hopping should be
applied to solve this problem.
Studies show that if the mobile cell receives the amplitude, phase and angle of
respective component at random, then the azimuth angle of the synthesis signal and
the probability density function of amplitude are as follows:
1
p() = 2 0≤ ≤ 2π (3-1)

r2
p(r) = r
"2 e (− 2" 2
)
r≥0 (3-2)
Among them, “r” is the standard deviation. (3-1) and (3-2) represent the azimuth angle
is even distribution between 0 to 2π, while the probability density function of electric

2-4
field abides by Rayleigh Distribution. Therefore, multi path is also called Rayleigh
fading. As to this fast fading, the base station adopts the methods of time diversity,
frequency diversity and space diversity (polarity diversity). Time diversity mainly
adopts the methods of symbol interleave, error code checking and correcting. Different
code has different anti-fading characteristics. As to the air channel coding of GSM
mobile communication, please see related GSM protocol. The basic of frequency
diversity theory is the correlation bandwidth, i.e. after more than an interval between
two frequencies, their space fading characteristics are considered irrelevant. A large
number of test data shows that such irrelevancy can be obtained if the interval
between the two frequencies is larger than 200 KHz; frequency diversity mainly adopts
spread spectrum. In GSM mobile communication, hopping is simply applied to obtain
hopping gain, while in CDMA mobile communication, each channel works in wide
band (narrow band CDMA is 1. 25 MHz), which actually, is a spread frequency
communication. Space diversity mainly adopts the master diversity antenna receiving
method. Signals the base station receiving from the master and diversity channels are
respectively combined after equalization through the Maximum Likelihood Sequence
Equalizer (MLSE). Such master diversity receiving effect is guaranteed by the
irrelevancy received by the master diversity. Irrelevance refers to the signals received
respectively by the master antenna and diversity antenna having no fading at the
same time. It requires that the spacing between the master and diversity antenna is 10
times more than the radio signal wavelength (the antenna spacing is more than 4
meters in GSM900), or adopting polarity diversity to guarantee the signals received by
the master and diversity antenna having different fading characteristics. Mobile station
(mobile phone) has no such space diversity function with only one antenna. The
equalizing ability to different ranges (time window) of the base station receiver is also a
form of space diversity. In CDMA communication, when soft switching is performed,
the mobile station and multi base stations communicate at the same time to select the
best signal for handover, such is also a form of space diversity.
A great number of studies shows that the average signal levels received by the mobile
station, except for fast Rayleigh fading in instantaneous value, appear slow changes
as changing position, such change is called slow fading, as shown in Figure 3-3. It is
caused by the shadow effect, and also called shadow fading. Buildings, forest and
topographical relief in the way of radio propagation will cause shadow in
electromagnetic field. The medium value of receiving signal level will change when
electromagnetic shadow is produced by different obstacles the mobile station
encounters. The change is depended upon the obstacle condition and working
frequency; changing rate has relations with obstacles and driving speed.
By studying this fading law, it shows that its medium value variation abides by
Logarithmic Normal Distribution.
Additionally, radio refraction coefficient changes as the climate conditions change with
times, as well as slow changes in vertical gradient of atmosphere dielectric constant,
which results in slow changes in signal level medium value in the same place as time
changing.
Statistics show that such medium value variation also abides by Logarithmic Normal
Distribution. The distribution standard deviation is rt. Variation of signal medium value
in a larger range of distribution with time and place all abides by Logarithmic Normal
Distribution, so that their synthesis distribution still abides by Logarithmic Normal
Distribution. When communicating in land, usually, signal medium value variation as
time changing is less than that as place changing, so that such slow fading can be
ignored, r=rL. However, in fixed-point communication, slow fading shall be considered.
2-5
Received power
Fast fading
- 20
Slow fading
-40
-60
Distance ( m)
10 20 30
Figure 3-3 Fast fading and slow fading
In general, there are two influences in cellular environment: the first one is fast fading;
and the second one is slow changes in receiving signal level resulted from directly
visible path, i.e. long-term signal level change. That is to say, the channel works in fast
fading in accordance with Rayleigh distribution, and superimposes amplitude with
signal to meet with slow fading in Logarithmic Normal Distribution.
3.2.3 Propagation Loss
In propagation studies, signal level received by specialized receiver is a major feature.

Owing to the interference of propagation path and landform, propagation signal level
decreases. Such signal level decrease is called propagation loss.
In radio propagation studies, first study the characteristics of the two antennas in free
space (homogeneous medium with isotropy, no absorption, zero electric conductivity).
Take the ideal omnidirectional antenna as an example. The propagation loss of free
space is:
L p = 32.4 + 20 lg(f MHz ) + 20 lg(d km ) (3-3)
Among which, f is frequency, d is distance (kilometers). In the above equation,
propagation loss is in inverse proportion to d. When d doubles, free space path loss
increases by 6 dB. Meanwhile, when wavelength λ decreases (increase frequency f),
path loss increases. We can compensate these losses by increasing radiation and
receiving antenna gain. If the working frequency is already known, (3-3) can be also
written as:
L p = L 0 + 10 lg(d km ) (3-4)
Of the equation, , is called path loss slope. In the actual cellular system,
2
according to measurement result, value ranges from 3 to 5.
Having the equation of path loss in free space, the actual propagation can be
considered between the two antennas on plain but imperfect surface. Suppose the
whole propagation path surface is absolutely plain (without refraction). The antenna
height of the mobile station is and respectively (A represents , and B
h h h
represents ), as shown in Figure 3-4.
h
2-6
(a)
(b)
A
B
A' (c)
(a) multireflection (b) simple reflection (c) mapping method of finding path difference between stadia and
ground reflection
Figure 3-4 Propagation on Plain Surface
As compared with the path loss in free space, propagation path loss on plain grounds
is:
L p = 10 lg d − 20 lg h c − 20 lg h m
(3-5)
Of which, . This equation shows that if antenna height doubles, 6 dB can be
4 loss; while the receiving power of the mobile station changes with the
compensated for
fourth power of distance, i.e. if distance doubles, the power received reduced by 12
dB.
Various landforms and ground objects differ greatly, so the impact on radio
propagation loss in mobile communication also varies. It is impossible to have
absolutely plain landform in actual application. Such complex landforms can be
divided into two types: “quasi smooth landform” and “irregular landform”.
“Quasi smooth landform” refers to the landform with gentle rolling topography, rolling
height less than or equal to 20 meters as well as slight difference in average surface
height. Okumura defines the rolling height as the difference between 10% and 90% of
rolling topography 10 kilometers ahead of the mobile station. CCIR defines it as the
difference between over 90% and over 10% of rolling topography 10 to 50 kilometers
ahead of the receiver. Other landforms are generally called “irregular landform”, which
can be divided into the following types based upon their conditions: hills, separated
mountains, slopping landform and water-and-land mixed landform and so on.
2-7
When analyzing propagation loss in urban areas and their nearby areas, we can also
classify “irregular landform” by congestion in regions as open area, dense urban area,
medium urban area and suburb area.
In general, we also analyze diffraction loss when analyzing propagation loss in
mountainous area or dense urban areas with close skyscrapers. Diffraction loss is
used to measure the height of obstacles and antenna. The obstacle height must be
compared with propagation wavelength. As to the same obstacle, the diffraction loss
to long wavelength is less than that to short one. When predicating path loss, we can
view these obstacles as pointed obstacles, i. e. “knife-shaped”. Loss can be calculated
by the method commonly used in physical optics. Two kinds of obstacles shown in
Figure 3-5. Under the first condition, no obstacles appear in stadium path at H. Under
the second condition, obstacles appear in radio path. In the first condition, we assume
that the height of obstacle is negative number, while positive number in the second
condition. Diffraction loss can be calculated through the diffraction constant v, which is
known from the following equation.
v = −H 2/(1/d 1 + 1/d 2 ) (3-

6)
The approximate value of diffraction loss can be calculated from the following
equations:
F=0 vm1
= 20 lg
lg(0.5 + 0.62v) 0[v<1
lg(0.5e 0.45v )
= 20 lg −1[v[0
lg(0.4 − 0.12 − (0.1v + 0.38) 2 )

= 20 lg − 2.4 [ v < −1
= 20 lg
lg(−0.225/v) v < −2.4
(3-7)
2-8
(a) Negative height (b) positive height

Figure 3-5 Radio propagation past the cutting edge
2-9
3.3 Radio Propagation Model

Propagation model is very important. It is the basic of mobile communication in cell
planning. Its value is to guarantee accuracy and to save labor, expense and time.
Before planning a cellular system in an area, it is an essential task to select the cellular
station address with signal coverage so as to avoid interference. If predictive method
is not adopted, then the only one is cut-and-try method, which is carried out through
actual measurement. Measure the coverage area of cellular station address to select
the best one from all the suggested solutions. It is money-wasting and labor-wasting
by adopting this method. We can easily select the best layout solution for cellular
station address with accurate predictive method through computer calculation, by
comparing and evaluating the performance of all the solutions output from the
computer. Therefore, we can say that the accuracy of propagation model not only
influences on whether the cell planning is proper, but also on whether the operators
can invest rationally to satisfy users’ needs. With a vast territory, radio propagation
environment is various in provinces and cities. For instance, propagation environment
and propagation models have great differences between cities in plain area and the
ones in hills area. Therefore, to ignore different factors of landforms, physiognomy,
buildings and vegetation and consider experience will only result in network problems
of coverage and quality or in resource wasting because of too close base stations. A
good mobile radio propagation model is flexible to adjust according to different
landforms, such as plains, hills and mountains, or different man-made environment,
such as open areas, suburb and urban areas, etc. These environmental factors,
involved in many variables in propagation model, play an important role. Therefore, it
is not easy to form a good mobile radio propagation model. In order to improve models,
statistical method is used to measure a large number of data and correct models.
Correction for propagation model will be introduced in section 3. 4.
Also, a good model should be easy to use. Models should be clear enough not to give
users any subjective judgment and explanation, for different predictive value can be
deduced from that in the same area. A good model shall have good recognition and
acceptability. Using different models might have different structures. Good recognition
is very important.
Most of models predict path loss in radio propagation path. Therefore, propagation
environment plays an important role in radio propagation model. Main factors involved
in propagation environment in a specific area are:
z Natural (mountains, hills, plains and water area);
z Quantity, height, distribution and material characteristics of man-made
buildings;
z Characteristics of vegetation in the area;
z Climate conditions;
z Conditions of natural and man-made electromagnetic noise.
In addition, radio propagation model is affected by system working frequency and
mobile station movement. In the same area, different working frequency results in
different receiving signal fading; stationary mobile station differs high-speed moving
mobile station in propagation environment. Generally, it is divided into two types:
outdoor propagation model and indoor propagation model. Commonly used models
are shown in Table 3-1.
2-10
Table 3-1 Common Propagation Models

Model name Scope of Application
Okumura-Hata Applied to 150-1000 MHz macro cellular predication
Cost231-Hata Applied to 150-2000 MHz macro cellular predication
Applied to 900 and 1800 MHz micro cellular
Cost231 Walfish-Ikegami
predication
Keenan-Motley Applied to 900 and 1800 MHz indoor predication
Applied to 900 and 1800 MHz macro cellular
Used in ASSET planning
predication
Below is the brief introduction of Okumura-Hata model and Cost231-Hata model as
well as the propagation model used in ASSET network planning software. Hata model
is composed of the average data measured in Japan. Path loss value in general areas
can be approximately represented with the following equation:
L p = 69.55 + 26.16 lg f − 13.82 lg h b

+ (44.9 − 6.55 lg h b ) lg d − A Okumurah m
(3-8-1:Okumura-Hata)
L p = 46.3 + 33.9 lg f − 13.82 lg h b

+ (44.9 − 6.55 lg h b ) lg d − A Cost231h m + C m
(3-8-2:Cost231-Hata)
---Path loss from the base station to the mobile station, unit: dB
L
---Carrier wave frequency, unit: MHz;
f
---Antenna height of the base station, unit: m;
h
---Mobile station antenna height (1-10 m), having average value 1. 5 m, unit: m;
h
---Distance between mobile stations, unit: km;
d
--The value is 0dB in medium-size cities or in suburb with medium woods density,
C
while 3 dB in big cities.
AOkumurahm MS height correction, value in medium sized cities lg f − 0.7)hm − (1.56lg

(1.1lg lgf − 0.8)
;
log(11.75h m )) 2 − 4.97 (with frequency more than
The value in big city is 3.2(log
log
400MHz);
A Cost231hm 1.1 lg f − 0.7 h m − (1.56 lg f − 0.8 );
In suburb area, propagation model can be revised as
Lps = Lp − 2[lg(f /28)]2 − 5.4

Urban area
(3-9)
In open areas, the propagation is revised as
L po = L p Urban area − 4.78(lg f ) 2 + 18.33 lg f − 40.94

(3-
10)
2-11
In the actual radio propagation environment, various relief shall be considered, which
is considered in ASSET planning software to improve propagation model. Consider
various ground objects and relief having influence on radio propagation in actual
environment so as to guarantee the accuracy of prediction result.
The model expression is as follows:
L p = K 1 + K 2 lg d + K 3 (h m ) + K 4 lg h m + K 5 lg(H eff )
+ K 6 lg(H eff ) lg d + K 7 diffn + K clutter
In the above expression (the following expressions are applied to macro cell):
---the constant related to frequency;

The center of medium-size city:
K1=69. 55+(26. 16+1. 56lg(Fc))-0. 8 {Fc=150-1000MHz}
K1=46. 3+(33. 9+1. 56)lg(Fc)-0. 8 {Fc=1500-2000MHz}
Center of big city
K1=69. 55+26. 16lg(Fc) {Fc=150-1000MHz}
K1=46. 3+Cm+(33. 9+1. 56)lg(Fc)-0. 8 {Fc=1500-2000MHz}
Suburb area:
K1=69. 55+(26. 16+1. 56lg(Fc))-0. 8 -2(log(Fc/28))2 - 5. 4{Fc=150-1000MHz}
K1=46. 3+(33. 9+1. 56)lg(Fc)-0. 8 -2(log(Fc/28))2 - 5. 4{Fc=1500-2000MHz}
Open area:
K1=69. 55+(26. 16+1. 56lg(Fc))-0. 8-4. 78(log(Fc))2+18. 33log(Fc)-40. 94 {Fc=150-

1000MHz}
K1=46. 3+(33. 9+1. 56)lg(Fc)-0. 8-4. 78[log(Fc)]2+18. 33log(Fc)-40. 94 {Fc=1500-

2000MHz}
---Distance fading constant;
---The revision coefficient of mobile station antenna height;
---The revision coefficient of base station height;
---The revision coefficient of diffraction;
---The revision coefficient of ground object in the prediction is: the field density of
the prediction point is revised based upon the clutter type of that point, and has
nothing to do with the clutter type in the propagation path. And all the losses in the
propagation path lie in the medium value loss;
---Distance between the base station and the mobile station, unit: km;
d
---The available height of mobile station and base station antenna, unit: m.
h h
As to the radio propagation in different areas and cities, K value will have different
value owing to different landform and relief as well as different city environment. K
2-12
value and some clutter fading values used in radio propagation analysis in medium-
size cities are shown in Table 3-2.
2-13
Table3-2 K parameter value

K parameter name Parameter value
150/900MHz Urban, 160/1800MHz Urban
K1
146/900MHz Large city, 163/1800MHz Large city
K2 44. 90
-2. 54/900MHz Urban,-2. 88/1800MHz Urban
K3
0/900MHz Large city,-2. 88/1800MHz Large city
K4 0. 00
K5 -13. 82
K6 -6. 55
K7 -0. 8
Clutter fading value
Inland Water -3. 00
Wetland -3. 00
Open Areas -2. 00
Rangeland -1. 00
Forest 13. 00
Industrial & Commercial Areas 5. 00
Village -2. 90
Parallel_Low_Buildings -2. 50
Suburban -2. 50
Urban 0
Dense urban 5
High Building 16
Medium value of propagation loss can be calculated according to these K values.
However, thanks to the complicated environment, some revision is required. Building
loss is to be considered when the cellular mobile communication is used indoors.
Building loss refers to the functions of wall structure (steel, glass and bricks, etc),
building height, building direction, percentage coverage of the window area. Owing to
complicated variables, building loss can be only calculated based upon the
surrounding environment. Below are some conclusions we draw:
z The average penetration loss in urban buildings is more than those in
suburb areas and remote areas.
z Loss in the area with window zone is generally less than that without
window zone.
z Loss in the open area within buildings is less than that in the wall area
with corridors.
z Fading in street wall with aluminum support frame is more than that
without aluminum support frame.
z Loss in the building with isolation only added to the ceiling is less than
that in the building with isolation both added to the ceiling and inside
walls.
z There are two frequencies in GSM mobile communication system, i.e. e.
900MHz and 1800MHz. Different frequency results in different
propagation characteristics. The longer the wavelength is, the less the
diffraction loss is. While the relation between wavelength and
penetration loss is worth further study, or is uncertain. In addition, indoor
radio components are the superimposition of penetration components
and diffraction components, and the diffraction accounts for the majority.
Therefore, generally speaking, 1800MHz level difference between
indoors and outdoors is larger than 900MHz. However, the problems of
complicated propagation environment and the direction of incident wave
make it impossible to quantize indoor-and-outdoor level difference. The
2-14
best method is to test indoor-and-outdoor level difference in a specific

environment, so as to optimize the plan.
The average floor penetration loss refers to the function of the floor height. According
to record data, the slope of loss line is -1. 9dB/story. The average penetration loss in
the first floor is about 18dB in urban area, and 13dB in suburb area. The measurement
of specific floors shows that loss characteristic inside buildings can be treated as a
waveguide with fading. For example, when radio propagates along the corridor
direction, which is vertical to the outdoor window, the loss can reach to 0. 4dB/m.
Tunnel propagation loss shall be considered when calculating radio propagation in
tunnels. At this moment, simply regard the tunnel as a wave-guide with loss. The
experiment result shows that propagation loss in a specific distance reduces as the
frequency increases. When the working frequency band is below 2GHz, the relation
between the loss curve and working frequency show exponential fading. As to GSM
frequency, it can be approximately considered that loss and distance appear the
inverse exponential change of fourth power, i.e. e. if the distance between the two
antennas doubles, then the loss increases by 12dB.
Besides, the influence of leaves on propagation in UHF frequency shall be considered.
Studies show that, in general, the signal loss in summer is about 10 dB more than that
in winter, vertically polarized signal loss is more than the horizontally-polarized one, for
leaves flourish in summer.
Radio battle-sight distance might be very far in wide coverage, such as desert or sea.
The earth curvature shall be considered under such conditions. Assume that the earth
radium is (unit: m, the equator radium is 6378000m), h m h eff is the height of mobile
&
station antenna and the base station antenna respectively, the unit is m, is the
height of base station antenna, the unit is also m, then the battle-sight rangeh of radio
wave is (unit: m).
d
d = 2 $ & $ h eff + 2 $ & $ h m
Per contra, if the expectation coverage range is known (when path loss is not the
major factor), the base station height can be calculated.
2-15
3.4 Correction for propagation model
3.4.1 CW Basics
Correction for propagation model is required to obtain the radio propagation model in
accordance with local actual environment and to improve the accuracy of coverage
predication so as to lay a good foundation for network planning. CW test, say,
continuous wave test, is a necessary step for model correction by correcting data
obtained from CW test and digital map. The information of latitude and longitude of
these test data and incoming level form the data source of model correction.
Random process theory is used to analyze mobile communication propagation, which
can be expressed as follows:
r(x ) = m(x )r 0 (x ) (3-11)
In which, x is distance, r(x) is incoming signal; r0(x) is Rayleigh fading; m(x) is local value, i. e.
the mixture of long-term fading and space propagation loss, which can be expressed
as follows:
x+L
m(x ) = 1
2L ¶ r(y )dy
x−L (3-12)
In which, 2L is the average sample interval length, also called intrinsic length.
CW test is aimed to obtain the local average value of various locations in an area on
whole way, that is, the difference between r (x) and m(x) is as small as possible.
Therefore, The influence of Raleigh fading must be removed so as to obtain the local
average value. When a group of signal data r (x) is averaged, if the intrinsic length 2L
is too short, then the influence of Raleigh fading still exists; if 2L is too long, then the
normal fading will be averaged. Therefore, in CW test, to determine 2L has great
influence on the degree of approximation between the tested data and the actual local
average, as well as on the accuracy of the propagation model prediction corrected
through CW test. Li Jianye, a famous communication expert, has proved that, in GSM
system, the intrinsic length is 40 wave lengths; the difference between the tested data
and the actual local value is less than 1 dB by sampling 50 sampling points (the test
equipment and the error of digital map are ignored).
3.4.2 CW Test Method
I. Select station for CW test
Before testing, test stations and quantity need to be determined. According to

experiences, at least 5 test stations in big cities with dense population; as to medium-
size and small-size cities, 1 test station is enough, which is mainly depended on the
antenna height of test base station and the effective radiant power (EIRP). The
principle of station selection is to cover ground objects as many as possible (these
ground objects come from digital map)
In actual test, proper test stations can be selected according to the following
standards:
(1) The antenna height is above 20 meters;
2-16
(2) The antenna height is above 5 meters over the nearest obstacle.
5m
Figure 3-6 Diagrammatic representation of station selection standard
The obstacle here refers to the highest building at the top of which the antenna is
located. The building as a station shall be higher than the average height of the
surrounding buildings.
II. CW test preparation
CW test first needs a test base station to transmit RF signal with or without FM
modulation, then make a drive test by using CW test equipment. The base station
includes transmitting antenna, feeder cable, power amplifier and HF signal source.
The test system includes test receiver, GPS receiver, distance measuring instrument,
test software as well as portable PC. The sampling rate of the test receiver is as fast
as possible.
After the equipment of base station is installed in the selected test station, using the
power meter to measure the forward power and reflection power of the antenna.
Calculate the EIPR of the test base station. The calculation formula is below:
EIRP = 10 lg[P_forward (mW) − P_reflect(mW)]

+ Tx_Antenna_Gain + Rx_Antenna_Gain
− Rx_Feeder_Loss
(3-13)
In which, P_forward is forward transmitting power, P_reflected is reflection power,
Tx_Antenna_Gain is the transmitting antenna gain of the test station (dBi),
Rx_Antenna_Gain is the antenna gain of the test receiver (dBi), Rx_Feeder_Loss is
the feeder cable loss of the test receiver.
After normal installation and debugging of the base station equipment, record the
EIRP of the base station. Use GPS to measure the latitude and longitude of the station;
use triangulation method to measure the height of the building, and use angle
instrument to test the slope angle of the antenna. The antenna height is the height of
the building plus antenna mast height and half the antenna height. Sweep frequency
by using portable test equipment to ensure the normal work of the test base station
equipment, without any interference signal in surroundings.
III. CW test
There are three sampling ways of the professional CW test equipment: sampling by
time, pulse and distance. General test equipment samples by time only. Test by
distance sampling can meet the Theorem of Lee’s requirement of sampling 36~50
sampling points with 40 wave lengths. The measure accuracy is very high. Speed is
2-17
not strict in distance sampling, but there exists an upper speed limit. The upper speed
limit (Vmax) has relation with the maximum sampling speed of CW equipment:
V max = 0.8/T sample (3-14)
During the test, test paths with various ground objects are selected as random drive
test. When the mobile station is within the distance of 3km away from the test base
station, the receiving signals are affected greatly by the building structure around the
base station, and the antenna height. The intensity difference between the signal level
parallel to the signal propagation direction and that vertical one is around 10dB.
Therefore, when testing on the street within 3km in radium of the base station, it is
better to sample the same amount of samples in longitudinal and lateral streets to
remove their effects. Test paths should not be selected on highways and on the wide
and flat streets, but on the narrow streets. Sample as much data as possible in each
test base station. Generally, it is better to test in each station over 4 hours. Stop
recording when the car stops for redlight.
The landform and ground objects are fixed within a period of time, so that in a
deterministic base station, the local average value is determined in a deterministic
location. The local average value is the data tested through CW test expectation,
which is also the closest value to propagation model predication value.
3.4.3 Correction for Propagation Model and Instance
Digital map is needed for model correction. The digital map used in mobile
communication contains the geographical information such as relief height and ground
usage, which effect radio propagation in mobile communication. It is the important
fundamental data for planning software in model correction, coverage prediction,
interference analysis and frequency planning.
Propagation models developed for computer aided analysis are different, but based on
Okumura basic models, and provide modified parameters. Below is the specific
method of model correction based upon the above-mentioned ASSET planning
software. It needs to be pointed out that if the model parameters of the city similar to
the existing landform and ground objects, they can be directly applied to planning
prediction. It is unnecessary to redo CW test and model correction, thus saving labor.
Parameters from K1 to K7 in ASSET model are determined by specific propagation
environment, K(clutter) is the correction factor depended on different ground objects.
Different ground objects determine different K(clutter), these K parameters are gradually
fitted from CW test data. When CW test data obtained, K parameters can be acquired
in two ways: K parameter testing method and the minimum variance method.
Among a great many of K parameters in the standard model, the degree of influence
of each K parameter is different. By analyzing the models, we know that K1 and K(clutter)
are constant, which has nothing to do with the propagation distance and antenna
height; K3 and K4 are the height modifying factor of the mobile station. The mobile
station has slight changes in height (about 1. 5m), so that K3 and K4 can be eventually
classified as micro-adjustment in the final stage, while the adjustment of K2, K5 and K6
are determined by specific test data and test path.
2-18
3.5 Doppler Effect and its Impact on Handover

In GSM system, the relation of frequency change caused by Doppler effect is given
through the following formula:
(1) the base station is the frequency source f, the frequency fˊreceived by the mobile
phone is
fˊ=f(1±V/c) (3-15)
In the formula, v is the travel speed of MS, c is the radio signal propagation speed
(3E8 m/sec)
Select “+” when MS moves towards the base station and select “-” when it is away
from the base station.
(2) MS is the frequency source f, and the frequency fˊreceived by the base station is
fˊ=f/(1±U/c) (3-16)
In the formula, u is the travel speed of MS, c is the radio signal propagation speed
(3E8 m/sec)
Select “-” when MS moves towards the base station and select “+” when it is away
from the base station.
Below are several special conditions discussed:
(1) MS moves towards BTS at the speed of v, as shown in Figure 3-7.
f1
f3
f2
V(km/h)
Figure 3-7 MS moves towards BTS
The signal frequency of BTS is f1. Through FCH channel of BCCH channel, BTS can
control MS to synchronize the frequency with BTS. MS receives the signal frequency
f2 because of the Doppler Effect, and transmits f2 to the base station. f3 is the
frequency received by BTS because of the Doppler Effect. Below is the formulas
based on the above-mentioned:
f2=f1(1+v/c)
f3=f2/(1-v/c)
f3=f1(1+v/c)/(1-v/c)=f1(c+v)/(c-v)
2-19
The relative frequency change is (f3-f1)/f1=2v/(c-v) (3-17)

(1) MS moves away from BTS at the speed of v, as shown in Figure 3-8.
f3
f1
f2
V(km/h)
Figure 3-8 MS moves away from BTS
The signal frequency of BTS is f1. Through FCH channel of BCH channel, BTS can
control MS to synchronize the frequency with BTS. MS receives the signal frequency
f2 because of the Doppler Effect, and transmits f2 to the base station. Frequency f3
received by BTS because of the Doppler Effect, below are the formulas based upon
the above-mentioned formula:
f2=f1(1-v/c)
f3=f2/(1+v/c)
f3=f1(1-v/c)/(1+v/c)=f1(c-v)/(c+v)
The relative frequency change is (f3-f1)/f1=-2v/(c+v) (3-18)
The travel speed of MS is slow as compared with signal propagation speed; therefore
relative frequency change is almost the same in these two conditions except for the
opposite direction. Frequency increases in the first condition, while decreases in the
second one.
The relation between the relative frequency and MS speed can be illustrated in Figure
3-9.
Figure 3-9 Graph of relation between the relative frequency and MS speed
The graph shows that when MS speed is 100km/h, the relative frequency change is 0.
19ppm. As to 900M frequency, the deviation is 171Hz, while 342Hz as to 1800M.
2-20
(3) MS moves between the two base stations at the speed of v, as shown in Figure 3-
10. When handover is performed, the deviation is the superimposition of the above
two conditions. MS obtains the monitoring information of the BCCH channel of the
neighboring cells through BA table, controls MS to adjust its frequency and a certain
number of kHz to monitor the neighboring cell level. Thus, it might appear Doppler
frequency changes, which make MS unable to receive the signals of the neighboring
cells correctly. Take the Figure 3-10 as an example, MS monitors BTS1 level, the
signal f2ˊ received by MS might appear between the two MS adjustment frequencies.
So that MS cannot correctly monitor BTS1 signal level. On the other hand, RXlev
information reported from SACCH shall be transmitted at least once every 30s. Such
long time information report will also result in abnormally monitoring the neighboring
cells level, which causes unsuccessful handover. The frequency change caused by
the Doppler Effect will effect the signal frequency f1(c+v)/(c-v) received by the base
station, which will receive data by f1 sampling clock. Receiving data error might be
another reason for effecting handover.
f3'
f3
f1'
f1
f2' f2
V(km/h)
BTS1 MS BTS2
Figure 3-10 MS moves between the two base stations
2-21
3.6 Fresnel Zone

There are direct wave and reflected wave in the propagation path from the transmitter
to the receiver, and the electric direction of the reflected wave is just opposite to the
original with the phase difference of 180 degree; if the antenna height is relatively low
and the distance is relatively far, the difference between the direct way path and the
reflected wave path is small, then the reflected wave will cause destruction. In addition,
2h t h r
the path difference between the direct wave and the reflected wave is d , the
4h t h r
phase difference is = d , h t ,h r refer to the height of the transmitter and the
receiver above the ground respectively, d is the horizontal distance from the
transmitter to the receiver, as shown in Figure 3-11.
Figure 3-11 Graphs of Direct incidence and reflection
Ignore part of the signals from the transmitting point to the receiver through ground
wave propagation (signals in ultra-high frequency and very-high frequency band can
be ignored), then the square of the ratio of the total receiving field density an the free
space density (unit: V/m) is:
2h t h r
E rec
2 l 4 sin( 2 ) = 4 sin 2 d (3-19)
The formula shows that n is a natural number, when is 2n 1 , it can

generate 6dB signal power gain; while when is , the two signals can be offset.
together
The change from this point is caused or caused 2 by the change of antenna
height and propagation distance.
The simulation result shows that when is less than 4h t h r , is more than , then
the gain obtained swings as the mobile d
station moves towards the base station; when
is more than 4h t h r , is less than , the gain won’t swing as the mobile station is
daway from the base station.
In the actual propagation environment, the first Fresnel zone definition contains some
ellipsoids of reflection points, on these reflection points, the path difference between
the reflected wave and direct way is half a wavelength, say, less than , as shown
2-22
in Figure 3-12. The first Fresnel zone is the main propagation zone, when obstacles
don’t block the first Fresnel zone, the diffraction loss is least. As to a point in the path
with d in length, its radium of the first Fresnel zone (the distance to the transmitter is
d t , and d r is the distance to the receiver) is:
d t d r d tkm d rkm
h 0 (m) = = 548
d d km f MHz (3-20)
Figure 3-12 The radium of the first Fresnel zone
Take an example to illustrate that: in typical cities, a point in the path with the coverage
range is 2km; suppose that the distance from this point to the transmitting antenna is
100m, as to the frequency of 900MHz, this point’s first Fresnel zone is h 0 l 5m.
On the definition basis of the first Fresnel zone, define the nth Fresnel zone as the
reflection-point set, in which its propagation is half wavelength more than the n-1th; the
phrase difference between the two reflection paths is 180 degree. The radium of the
nth Fresnel zone is:
nd t d r nd tkm d rkm
h n (m) = = 548
d d km f MHz (3-21)
If the direct path jumps over the wavy terrains and ground buildings, then the reflected
wave will have positive effect on direct wave; otherwise it might become the
obstructive multi-path interference. The obstructive effect grows as the frequency
increases. Therefore, the height of antenna shall be built as high as possible above
the ground. This conclusion will be applied to the below-mentioned antenna project
designing. As a matter of fact, according to experience, if 55% of the first Fresnel zone,
used for stadia microwave link designing remain unobstructed, then the conditions of
other Fresnel zones won’t affect the diffraction loss.
2-23
3.7 ASSET Software Introduction

Below is the brief introduction about the above-mentioned ASSET planning software.
ASSET software is the network planning software designed by Aircom company. By
using ASSET software, we can configure the system hardware parameters, network
capacity, frequency allocation and complete the network design (such as coverage
prediction, traffic analysis, neighboring cell allocation, frequency plan, interference
analysis and microwave propagation and so on) and simulate the network operation
effect to guide the project construction.
Before using the ASSET software, we need to prepare and know the following
information:
z Digitalized map with proper ratio of accuracy. The accuracy of the
digitalized map includes 20m, 50m, 100, 5m. 20m accuracy is applied to
urban area and suburb area, 50m or 100m accuracy can be applied to
rural area, while 5m accuracy is generally used for micro cellular
planning;
z Network and base station information mainly includes the
configuration of MSC and BSC, latitude and longitude of the base
station, antenna type, feeder system parameters;
z Design consideration includes the purpose of this planning, network
hierarchy, frequency range and frequency reuse mode, cell frequency
hierarchy, configuration of network functional parameters.
ASSET network planning is carried out on the basis of digital map. Digital map is a
map for record and storage in digital form; digital map is convenient to store, transmit
and update, which can be transformed into paper map by processing in computer, or
displayed on the computer screen by visual processing. Owing to different storage
structure, digital map can be divided into vector digital map and grid digital map (such
as scanning map). In order to cover prediction, we usually use vector digital map. Map
data usually is composed of three data types: digital elevation model (DEM), digital
object model (DOM) and linear vector model (LDM). Construction vector data is also
applied to micro cellular prediction. Digital ground elevation model and ground object
disaggregated model has related to prediction. Digital ground elevation model is used
to describe the basic relief of this area and directly participate in the calculation of
radio propagation model; ground object disaggregated data is used to describe planar
ground coverage, such as forest, lakes, open area, industrial area, downtown, high
building area and so on, and used to calculate radio propagation path loss; LDM is
used to describe the relation between the plane distribution and the space of linear
ground objects, including highway, streets, rivers and so on. DEM data and DOM data
adopts the grid data format, each grid represents a sampling point; while LDM adopts
vector data.
Before officially beginning planning, the following work needs to be done:
(1) Define the parameters related to propagation model and feeder system, and input
antenna database
(2) Define layer, determine the frequency reuse mode
(3) Add network element with multi methods (MSC, BSC, BTS and cell layer)
(4) Improve various parameters in the database
2-24
Thus, we can make use of ASSET software to complete the entire planning process.
2-25
2-26
Radio Network Planning Chapter 4 About Antenna Feeder
Chapter 4 About Antenna & Feeder cable
4.1 Basics of Antenna

In a radio communiction system, the antenna system serves as an interface with the
exterior media. Antenna radiation and receive radio wave: in transmission, the
antenna works to convert high frequency current into electromagnetic wave; while
receiving, it converts electromagnetic wave into high frequency current. Antenna can
be divided into the following types in light of their work frequency band: untra-long
wave, long wave, medium wave, short wave, ultrashort wave and mircowave; it is
divided into the following types in terms of direction: omni-antenna and directional
antena; it is divided into the following types in terms of its structual features: linear
antenna and dish antenna. The model, gain, directoinal diagram, driving antenna
power, simple or complicated antenna configuration and atenna polarization etc will
affect system performance.
4.1.1 Antenna gain
Gain is one of the most important parameters for the antenna system. The definition of
antenna gain is related to ominidirectional antenna or half-wave dipole antenna. The
ominidirectional radiator is one that assumes radiating equal power in all the directions.
The antenna gain in a direction is the ratio of thepower density to that of ideal point
source or half-wave dipole in the maxium radiation direction (dB refers to the
difference). See Figure 4-1 for the diagram.
Ideal isolated wave source
Theoretical half wave dipole
directional antenna
dBd
dBi
Figure 4-1 Gain Comparison
dBi indicates that antenna gain is the reference value of directional antenna relative to
the ominidirectional radiator, while dBd is the reference value relative to half-wave
dipole antenna. The relation between these two is expressed as follows:
dB i = dB d + 2.15.
4-1
4.1.2 Directional Diagram
The directional diagram describes the dirstribution of antenna radiation

electromagenetic field according to angular coordinate within a fixed range. The
directional diagram expressed in radiation filed strength is called field strength
directional diagram; expressed in power indensity, it is called phase directional
directional diagram.
The antenna directional diagram is a space solid figure. But the one in common
application is a directional diagram inside two principal planes perpendicular to each
other, known as plane directional diagram. For linear antenna, as the ground has great
effect, it adopts vertical plane and horizontal plane as its principal plan. The plan
antenna adopts E plane and H plane as the two principal planes. The maxium of
normalization direction diagram is 1.
The radiation lobe required in the maximum radiation direction in the directional
diagram is called antenna major lobe, also known as antenna beam. The lobes other
than the major lobe are called secondary lobe or side lobe or parasite lobe. The side
lobe in the direction opposite to the major lobe is called back lobe as shown in Figure
4-2(a): diagram of omni-antenna horizontal lobe and vertical lobe, where the antenna
is in the shape of a column; 4-2(b): diagram of horizontal lobe and vertical lobe for
directional antenna, where its antenna in the shape of a board.
Figure 4-2(a) Diagram of omni-antenna lobe
4-2
Figure 4-2(b) Diagram of directoinal antenna lobe
The parameters commonly used for antenna diectional diagram include the following:
z Zero power lobe width refers to the included angle between the two zero
radiation directions on both sides of maximum major lobe;
z Half power point lobe width refers to the included angle after the
maximum electric field falls by 0.707 (the gain falls by 3dB);
z Secondary lobe level refers to the ratio of maximum secondary lobe to
the maximum major lobe;
z Front-to-back ratio;
z Electric angle of downtilt.
4.1.3 Polarization
Polarization is one radiation feature describing the space direction of electromagnetic

wave field strength vector. The electromagnetic wave with the space direction of
electric field vector unchanged at any time is called straight line polarized wave.
Normally, antenna polarization refers to the polarization of electric wave radiated by
the antenna in the maximum radiation direction (for transmitting antenna) or the
polarization of incident plane wave (for receiving antenna) in the maximum receiving
power (polarization match) direction. Take transmitting antenna for example, if the
electric filed direction of the antenna radiation wave is within the radiation plane (made
up of incident ray and the normal line of reflection plane), as the incident plane is
aways perpendicular to the tangent plane of the reflection plane, this is known as
vertical polarization; when the electric direction of antenna radiation wave is
perpendicular to the incident plane (made up of incident ray and the normal line of
reflection plane), it is parallel to the tangent plane of the reflection plane, thus it is
called horizontal polarization, as shown in Figure 4-3:
vertical polarization
incidental plane
incidental wave
reflection plane
horizontal plane
incidental plane
incidental wave
incidental plane
Figure 4-3 Polarization Diagram
As the horizontal polarized wave is perpendicular to the incident plane, this is also
known as quadrature polarized wave; as the electric field vector of vertical polarized
wave is parallel to the incident plane, it is called horizontal polarized wave. The electric
4-3
field vector forms a plane together with the transmitting direction, known as polarized
plane.
The space dirction of electric field vector is not aways the same. The locus of electric
field vector end points is a circle, known as circular polarized wave; if the locus is a
ellipse, it is called ellipse polarized wave. Both the circular polarized wave and ellipse
polarized wave feature rotating phase.
Both circular polarized wave or ellipse polarized wave is composed of two linear
polarized waves perpendicualr to each other. If the two waves are of the same size,
they will make up circluar polarized wave; if not, they will form ellipse polarized wave.
Antenna may possibly radiate energy it does not need via polarization not preset. The
energy of this kind is called cross polarized radiation component. For linear ploarized
antenna, the cross polarization and preset polarization is perpendicular in direction.
For circular polarization antenna, the cross polarization and the preset polarization are
opposite in rotating direction, so cross polarization is called quadrature polarization.
4.1.4 Other technical indicators of antenna
I. Voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR)
For VSWR in the base station antenna of mobile communication cellular system, its
maximum value should be less than or equal to 1.5:1. If indicates the antenna input
impedance and is the antenna’s standard characteristic impedance, then the
reflection coefficient is:
Z A −Z 0 1+ Г
Г = , VSWR =
Z A +Z 0 , where1− is 50 ohm. The return loss may also be
Г
used to indicate the match characteristic of the port, R.L.(dB) = 20 lg Г , if

VSWR=1.5:1, R.L.=13.98dB.
When antenna input impedance is not consistent with its characteristic impedance, the
reflection wave and incident wave will overlap on the feeder cable to form standing
wave. The ratio of maximum and minimum value of their neighboring voltages is the
voltage standing wave ratio. If this ratio is too high, it will shorten the communication
distance, and the reflection power will return to the power amplifier of the transmitter,
so that the power tube will get damaged easily.
II. Front-to-back ratio (F/B)
The difference between antenna maximum beam and back 180~_30° side lobe , in
positive value. Normally, the antenna front-to-back ratio ranges between 18 45dB.
For populous downtown area, the antenna with greater front-to-back ratio shall be
used, such as 40dB, so as to reduce the indoor disturbance of the back lobe against
high-rise buildings.
III. Port isolation
For a multi-port antenna, such as bipolarization antenna and dual-band bipolarizatin

antenna, the isolation between the ports used for both receiving and transmitting shall
be more than 30dB.
4-4
IV. Power capacity
It refers to average power capacity. Antenna contains other coupling equipment such
as match, balance and phase ship, so the power it can bear is limited. In consideration
of the actaul maximum input power of the base station antenna (single carrier wave
power is 20W), if one atenna port is input a maximum of six carrier waves, then the
input power of antenna is 120W. As a result, the antenna shall have a single port
power capacity of more than 200W (when the environmental temmperature is 65 ).
V. Zero point filling
Base station antenna is designed as shaped beam. In order to make the ratiation level
within the service area more even, the first zero point of the lower secondary lobe
needs to be filled without nay obvious zero depth. Normally, when the zero depth is
greater than -20dB relative to the main beam, it indicates that the antenna is filled with
zero point. The base station in parent zone has no such requirement in this respect. In
particular, high gain antenna requires zero point filling technology to improve the
nearby coverage and avoid signal fluctuation arising from unequal coverage in an
effective way.
VI. Upper secondary lobe suppressioin
For cellular system, in order to improve the capacity of frequency multiplexing and
reduce co-channel interference against its neighboring area, in shaping beams, the
base station antenna should reduce the secondary lobes aimed at the interference
area so as to raise D/U value. In this case, the first upper secondary lobe should be
less than -18dB. There is no such requirement for parent zone base station antenna.
VII. Antenna input interface
In order to improve the reliability of passive intermodulation and RF connection, the

input interface for antenna adopts 7/16DIN-Female. Before used, the antenna port
should have a cover so as not to generate oxide or keep from foreign substance.
VIII. Passive intermodulation (PIM)
In order to improve non-linear interference noise, PIM of the antenna should be less
than -103dBm (2x10W).
IX. Antenna size and weight
In order for the storage, transport and safety of antenna, besides meeting various
electric indicators, the antenna should be as small as possible in size and as light as
possible in weight.
X. Wind loading
Base station antenna is normally installed on top of high buildings and iron towers,
especially in coastal areas, where the wind is very strong all year round, thus it is
requested that antenna be able to work properly against the wind at a speed of 36m/s,
and get undamaged when the wind blows at a speed of 55m/s.
4-5
XI. Work temperature and humidity
Base station antenna should work properly within the environmental temperature
range of -40 +65 . Base station antenna should work properly within the
environmental relative humidity ranging between 0 100%.
XII. Lightning protection
all the RF input ports of a base station antenna are required to be directlly grounded
via DC.
XIII. “Three proof” capacity
The base station antenna must possess the capacity of “three proof”, that is, proof
against moisture, proof against salt atmosphere and proof against mildew. The omni-
antenna in a base station must permit of reverse installation and meet the above three
proof requirements at the same time.
4.1.5 Antenna diversity
I. Diversity characteristic
Signal fading in mobile radio environment will give rise to serious problems. With the
movement of mobile station, rayleigh fading will vary rapidly with the signal
instantaneous value, while the logarithm normal fading varies with the signal average
(median value). These two values are the major factors attributed to unstable receiving
signal in mobile communication, which make the receiving signal deteriorate greatly.
Although this situation can be improved by increasing signal transmitting power,
antenna size and height etc, such methods cost much in modile communication, and
sometimes are obviously far from realistic; however, using the diversity method, that is,
receive the signals hardly related to each other which carry the same message in
serveral tributaries, then output the signals from various tributaries after consolidation;
in this way will the probability of heavy fading at the receive terminal be reduced to a
large extent. Normally, diversity technology is used at the receiving station address in
that the receiving equipment is passive, which will produce no interference. The
diversity is of two types: one is obivious diversity and the other is implied diversity. By
implied diversity, it is meant to imply the diversity function in the signal to be
transmitted using signal design technologies, such as RAKE receiving technology,
channel interweaving, antifading error correction coding technology. Only obvious
diversity is discussed hereunder. This diversity may be divided into two types: base
station obvious diversity and general obvious diversity.
In the base station obvious diversity, several base stations separated by space fully or
partly cover the same area. As there are multiple signals available, the effect of fading
is reduced by a large degree. Due to different transmitting paths of electric wave and
different shadow effects of land forms and ground objects, the multiple slow fading
signals transmitted via independent fading paths are unrelated to one another. It is
unlikely that the signals undergo heavy fading at the same time; therefore, if using
diversity combination and selecting tributary with the best SNR from the signals of
various tributaries, that is, choose the best base station and mobile station to establish
communication so as to eliminate the shadow effects and other geographic effects.
Therefore, base station obvoius diversity is also called multiple base station diversity.
General obvious diversity is used for suppressing rayleigh fading. The traditional ways
for this purpose are space diversity, frequency diversity, ploarization diversity, angle
diversitym, time diversity and field component diversity etc.
4-6
It can be seen that the above diversity only improves the quality of uplink signals, while
the limit of mobile station in terms of volume, price and battery capacity etc makes it
possible to implement speace diversity of multiple antenna. To improve the
transmitting quality of downlink signals, whether it is possible to use the principle of
reciprocity for linear system to implement the diversity technology for receiving end of
mobile station larged limited in volumn shifted equally to the transmitting end. And this
is so-called transmitting diversity technology. Such technology is with a problem:
principle of reciprocity can not be applied unless the mobile communication channels
are simplified into an approximate linear time variation system. Moreover, the
implementation of principle of reciprocity for receiving and transmitting of this system
also requires that the transmitting and receiving are done within the same frequency
band with the same fading characteristics. But in fact, most mobile communication
systems resort to FDD work mode, where the interval between receiving and
transmitting is far greater than the related bandwidth. To reduce the effect of
deterioration on transmitting diversity out of FDD work mode, we usually adopt closed
loop control to send diversity. The transmitting diversity technology is applied widely in
3G.
II. Diversity and synthesis
The diversity characteristics depend on the relevant coefficients between the quantity
of diversity tributary and the receiving diversity.If each coefficient relevant to each
tributary is identical, then various diversity plans are able to implement the same
related persformances.We must also consider how to synthesize the multiple signals
received by the diversity, because proper synthetic technique will bring forth desirable
performance.For example, use Q multiple diversity with Q signals as S 1 (t ), S 2 (t ), ...S q (t )
before synthesis. Considering that the synthesis can be performed between each
diversity antenna and the receiver, at the frequency output terminal and at the
fundamental frequency output terminal after demodulation, here should be
()
understood as high frequency signal, medium frequency signal Sor fundamental signal
in general form. The so-called synthesis is nothing but how to sum up . The
signals after synthetized can be expressed as follows: S()
S(t ) = k 1 S 1 (t ) + k 2 S 2 (t ) + ... + k q S q (t )
where k 1 , k 2 , ..., k q refers to weight coefficient. To select different weight coefficients will
produce different synthesis method. There are four synthetic techniques in common
use: maximum ratio compound (MRC), equal gain compound (EGC), selective
compound (SEC) and switch compound (SWC).These compound techniques are an
important part of antenna technology. As it goes beyond this textbook, its details will
not be mentioned herein. Mobile communication usually adopts space diversity and
polarization diversity with the diversity gain of around , 5dB. These two methods are
discussed as follows.
III. Space diversity
Space diversity is performed using the random change of field indensity with the space
changes.In mobile communication, any slight space change may result in great
change in filed indensity. The longer the space interval, the greater difference the
muli-path transmission will have and the less relativity of the filed indensity received. In
this situation, as it is very unlikely that heavy fading occurs at the same time, the
diversity will reduce the fading effect to its minimum.For this purpose, it is required to
determine necessary space intervals. Normally, the diversity antenna is designed in
accordance with the parameter . The relation between and the actual antenna
height h and antenna interval D is: . For antenna placed in horizontal interval,
h
is normally 10.For example, the antenna is 30 meters in height, the antenna interval of
4-7
3 meters will get better diversity gain. In addition, the vertical antenna interval is
greater than the horizontal antenna interval.Up to date, the space diversity antenna
commonly seen in the project is made up of two sets (receive/transmit, receive) or
three sets (receive, transmita and receive).
IV. Polarization diversity
The polarization of electromagnetic wave is described hereinbefore. Currently, more

and more projects have applied dual polarization antenna. Antenna is poluarized in
two manners: horizontal poloarization and vertical polarization, while one frequency
carries signals of the said different polarization manners. In theory, as coupling effect
is not used for medium, mutual interference will not occur. But coupling effect will
occur in mobile communication environment. This means that after the signals are
transmitted via mobile radio medium, the energy of vertical polarized wave will leak to
the horizontal polarized wave and vice versa.Fortunately, compared with the main
enery flow, the enery leakage only involves a very small amount. Favorable diversity
gains can be obtained through ploarization diversity.The greatest advantage of
polarization diversity antenna only requires the installation of one set of antenna, thus
reducing the installation cost.
V. Comparison between space diversity and polarization
The greatest advantage of polarization diversity is to save antenna installation space.

The space diversity requires two pieces of receiving antenna at certain intervals, while
polarization requires only one such antenna. This antenna contains two different types
of polarization dipole. General space diversity is able to obtain a link gain of 3.5dB. As
the path loss of horizontal polarizaton antenna is greater than that of vertical
polarization antenna (the horizontal polarized wave has more chance of deploarization
than the vertical polarized wave), for one dual poluaration antenna, its gain
improvement degree is 1.5 dB less than the space diversity. However, dual
polarization diversity is able to provide low relativity indoors or in a car compared with
the space diversity. As a result, it will gain 1.5 dB in improvement more than the space
diversity. In comparison, the advantage of dual polarization receiving antenna is
saving space for antenna installation. As transmitting antenna, if the base station
shares it for transmitting and receiving antenna in the way of dual polarization, the dual
polarization antenna using vertical and horizontal quadrature polarized dipole
compared with the dual polarization antenna using 45 quadrature polarized dipole
(suppose the other conditions are the same), in an ideal free space (a mobile phone
receiving antenna is vertically polarized), the signals received by the mobile phone
from the antenna is 3dB more than that of the latter. But in practical application
environment, as multi-path transmission exits, when various multi-path signals at the
receiving points are averaged, the above difference will basically disappear. The
accuracy of this conclusion is verified in various tests. However, the said difference
may possibly exist in a vast plain, but how much difference remains to be proved in
test. There might be a difference of 1 2dB. To sum up, there is no much difference
between the said two polarization methods in practical application. 45 quadrate
polarization antenna is commonly seen on the present market.
4.1.6 Three-sector base station antenna selection derivation
First of all, let’s make clear a concept concering the cell base station radius as shown
in Figure 4-4.
This is a standard three-sector celluar layout. From the diagram, we can see that the
interval between the two three-sector base stations is R+r, while R=2r. However, we
usually use R to estimate the cell coverage radius, for this direction is that of the major
4-8
lobe of directional antenna; but r is often used to indicate the cell radius in cellluar
layout. In a celluar cell, for the area whose included angle with the major lobe direction
of the cell antenna, this cell is requried to cover a range of r=R/2. If calcualted from
path loss, it will be around 10dB less than that in the direction of major lobe (deduction
is as follows), that is, the effective radiated power in this direction as required may be
about 10dB less than that in the direction of major lobe.
Figure 4-4 Three-sector Celluar Layout
According to this feature, this layout may adopt directional antenna with a horizontal
lobe (Azimuth beamwidth) of 60 65 degrees, because their diagram of horizontal
lobe gain has this feature, too.
If R indicates the cell radius, then the cell area is S=0.6495 R R. However, people
sometimes call r as the cell radius. At this point the cell area is S=2.5981 r r.
Therefore, while discussing a problem of this kind, we need to make clear what to be
used as the cell radius.
Figure 4-5 Presentation of R and r
Let’s deduce the theoretic basis for the difference of 10dB between R direction and r
direction in terms of path loss. As shown in Figure 4-5, in this standard cell of 120
degrees, the distance covered in r direction is half that in R direction, i.e. r=R/2. To
4-9
keep balanced coverage, the field intensity on the edge of this cell should be basically
equal, that is, RxlvelB=RxlevelC. Suppose
EIRP transmitted from Cell A is EIRPR in R direction and is EIRPr in r direction.
We choose urban HATA model for the path loss and the path loss from Point A to Point
B is expressed in Equation (1):
EIRPR-RXLEVB=69.55+21.66lgf-13.82lgh1+(44.9-6.55lgh1)lgR (1)
The path loss from Point A to Point C is expressed in Equation (2):
EIRPr-RXLEVc=69.55+21.66lgf-13.82lgh1+(44.9-6.55lgh1)lgr (2)
The two equations subtract each other and the following equation will appear after
coordination:
EIRPR-EIRPr=(44.9-6.55lgh1)×(lgR-lgr)=(44.9-6.55lgh1) lg(R/r)
Put R=2r in the result and you will get the following:
EIRPR-EIRPr=0.3×(44.9-6.55lgh1)
Through computer simulation, as the height h1of base station increases from 5m to
100m, and (EIRPR-EIRPr) decreases from 12 to 9.5, it may be roughly treated as
10dB as shown in Figure 4-6.
Series 1
Figure 4-6 Diagram of relation between the height of base station and value of EIRPR-EIRPr
4.2 Antenna new technology
4.2.1 Shaped beam technology
In the cellular mobile system, it is always a complicated problem to reduce

interference of the same channel. Shaped beam technology has improved the reuse of
spatial frequency spectrum.There are two types of shaped beam. One is the radial
direction diagram on the shaped plane, i.e. shaped plane; the other is radial direction
diagram on the shaped vertical plane. In the cellular system, while replacing the
omnidirectional beam with the fan-shaped beam, the cellular interference distance will
increase, so that base station antenn will radiate level as low as possible to another
cell using the same frequency, while the base station antenna will radiate level as high
as possible to its service area radiation.
4-10
When the antenna at a fixed height illuminates a limited horizontal plane, the antenna
vertical directional diagram indicates that the existance of side lobe zero point may
possibly lead to blind zone within the area to be covered. Using the cosecant square
shaped beam power directional diagram of the vertical plane may eliminate the zero
points below the major lobe, so that the area to be covered has equal receiving signal
level. This is also known as zero point filling technology.
In addition, the global celluar system around is basically using a processing
technology known as beam downtilt.The said technology mainly aims to decline the
major beam so as to compress the FR level towards the directio and increase the
carrier-to-interference ratio.In this case, although the carrier wave level on the edge of
area falls, the interference level drops more than the carrier level, so the total carrier-
to-interference ratio increases. Strictly speaking, beam downtilt is not really the
shaped beam technology, but they are for the same purpose.To date, there are two
ways to decline the beam.One is electric adjustment downtilt to adjust the beam
downtilt by changing the excitation coefficient of antenna array; and the other is
mechanical adjustment to change the downtilt angle of the antennal.
Corresponding to different methods for beam downtilt, antenna is divided into electric
adjustment antenna and mechanical antenna. After electric adjustment antenna
adopts the methods combining mechanic and electronics to decline by 15 , the
directional diagram of the antenna will not change greatly with the coverage distance
shortened obviously in the direction of major lobe. The overall antenna directional
diagram is within the local base station sector. To increase the downtilt degree will
reduce the sector coverage, but will not produce interference. We simply need such a
directional diagram. Electric adjustment antenna is of two types: one is the preset fixed
electric downtilt angle antenna, and the other is antenna to make adjustment of
electric downtilt angle one the site according to practical needs. The latter is described
as follows. When the mechanical antenna declines by 15 , the form of antenna
directional diagram changes greatly from the shape of juicy pear (grown in Hebei
Province) to the shape of spindle. Although the coverage distance in the major lobe
direction is obviously shortened, the overall antenna directional diagram is not within
the sector of base station and the sector in the neighboring base station will also
receive the signals from the said base station, thus resulting in interference. This is
attributed to the following reasons: the electric antenna is installed perpendicular to the
ground (mechanical downtilt of 0 5 is optional). Once the antenna is installed, in
the course of adjusting antenna downtilt angel, the antenna itself will not move.
Through electric signal the antenna dipole phase is adjusted, thus changing the
breadth of horizontal and vertical component as well as the component field intensity,
so as to change antenna coverage distance. At the same time the filed intensity in
each direction of the antenna increases or decreases, so as to ensure the antenna
directional diagram will not change greatly after the change of downtilt angle. After the
mechanical antenna is installed perpendicular to the ground, while adjusting the
downtilt angel of antenna, the antenna itself will move too. It is necessary to change
the antenna downtilt angle by adjusting the position of the rear rack of antenna, and
changing the downtilt angle. Although the coverage distance in the major lobe
direction of the antenna undergoes no obvious change, the vertical component and
horizontal component of the antenna will remain unchanged in terms of breadth.
Therefore, the antenna directional diagram will be transformed seriously. As a result,
the advantage of electric antenna is: in the event of great downtilt angle, the coverage
distance is obviously shorten in the major lobe direction with antenna directional
diagram changing not so much, so as to bring down the call loss and reduce the
interference. In addition, in the event of network optimization, management and
maintenance, to adjust the antenna downtilt angle, you do not have to shut down while
using electric antenna. In this way, you may use special test equipment for mobile
communication to monitor the adjustment of antenna downtilt angle, so as to ensure
the antenna downtilt angle is at its best value.
4-11
The step degree of downtilt angle for electric antenna is 0.1 , while the step degree
for mechanical antenna is 1 . Therefore, electric antenna is highly precise and yields
good result. When electric antenna is installed, while adjusting antenna downtilt angle,
the maintenance personnel do not have to clime to the place where the antenna is
installed but adjust the downtilt angle on the ground. They may also perform remote
monitoring adjustment on the base station antenna on top of high mountains and in
remote areas. While adjusting the downtilt angle of mechanical antenna, it is required
to shut down the entire system. And monitoring cannot be conducted when the
antenna downtilt angle is being adjusted. The downtilt angle of mechanical antenna is
a theoretical value through calculation by computer simulation analysis software, and
it will differ form the actual best downtilt angle to some extent. Besides, it takes much
trouble to adjust the downtilt angle for mechanical antenna. Normally, the maintenance
personnel shall have to clime to the place where the antenna is installed at night
before making adjustment. Furthermore, it is rather difficult to adjust some antennas
after they have been installed, such as mountaintop or special buildings.
In addition, the index for Level 3 normal intermodulation of electric antenna is -150dBc,
while such index for mechanical antenna is -120dBc. Thus, the difference of the two is
30dBc. However, the Level 3 intermodulation index is very important to eliminate
adjacent frequency interference and scattering interference. In particular, in the area
of high traffic intensity with small distance between base stations but much carrier
frequency, it is requested that the index for Level 3 intermodulation should reach
around -150dBc. Otherwise, large interference will occur.
Currently, China Mobile Communication Network is suffering much call loss and large
interference in the areas with high traffic intensity. One of the important reasons is that
the downtilt degree of mechanical antenna is too large, so antenna directional diagram
gets distorted seriously. To solve the problem of insufficient capacity in areas with
much traffic, it is necessary to shorten the station distance and increase the antenna
downtilt angle. But while using mechanical antenna, when the downtilt angle is more
than 10 , the antenna directional diagram will be distorted quite seriously. Therefore,
it is very different to solve the problem of high call loss and large interference in areas
with high user intensity through mechanical antenna. It is recommended that the
mechanical antenna be replaced by electric antenna in traffic-intensive areas. The
replaced antennas may be installed in the rural areas and suburbs where the traffic
intensity is relatively low.
4.2.2 Intelligent Antenna
With the rapid development of global telecommunication services, the radio mobile
communicaiton technology as the major means of individual communication in the
future attracts much attention among the general public. It has become major factors
for people to consider how to eliminate co-channel interference (CCI), multi-address
interference (MAI) and multi-pathm fading in improving the performance of radio
mobile communication system. The intelligent antenna uses digital signal processing
technology and adopts advanced switched beam technology as well as adaptive
spatial digital processing technology, to produce space directional beam so that the
antenna major beam is aimed at the direction where the user signals arrive with its
side lobes aimed at the direction where the interference signal will arrive, so as to
attain the objective of making most of mobile user signals and of deleting or
suppressing the interference signals. Compared with other deepening and maturing
technologies for eliminating interferences, the applied research on intelligent antenna
technology is just in the ascendant and reveals huge potentials.
The greatest disadvantages of system radio base station is it wastes radio signal
energy. Normally, only a small amount of signal energy can reach the destination. In
addition, when the base station is receiving signals, it receives not only useful signals
4-12
but also interference noice from other signals. It is not the case with intelligent antenna.
It is able to receive the signals from a specified user and transfer the signal enegy to
the said user in a more effective way. Different from traditional TDMA, FDMA or CDMA,
intelligent antenna introduces the fourth dimension multiple access: SDMA. With the
same time slot, frequency or address code, the user is still able to differentiate them in
light of the space transmitting paths of the signals. Intelligent antenna is equal to a
time space filter, which works to notably reduce the interference of user signals with
each other under the control of parellel antenna beams directed to different users. To
be specific, intelligent antenna will improve the performance of future mobile
communication system in the following aspects:
(1) Enlarge system coverage;
(2) Reduce interference and raise system capacity;
(3) Improve utilization rate of high frequency spectrum;
(4) Raise the sensitivity of base station;
(5) Reduce transmitting power of base station, so as to lower system cost and reduce
interference between signals and environmental pollution of electromagnetism.
Intelligent antenna is of two major types: multi-beam intelligent antenna and adaptive
array antenna, known as multi-beam antenna and adaptive antenna; the latter is the
main type of intelligent antenna.
Multi-antenna uses multiple parallel beams to cover the entire user area with each
beam pointing to a fixed place. The beamwidth varies with the number of array
elements. With the users moving in the cell, the base station will choose different
beams accordingly, so as to make the signals received the strongest. As user signals
are not necessarily at the center of fixed beams, when the user is at the edge of beam
with the interference signal at the heart of beam, the receiving effect will be the worst.
Therefore, multi-beam antenna cannot achieve best reception of signals. It is generally
used as receiving antenna. However, compared with adaptive array antenna, multi-
beam antenna has such advantages as simple structure and no need for judging the
direction where the user signal reaches.
Normally, adaptive antenna adopts an array element structure of 6 16 antennas with

a interval of 1/2 wavelength between array elements. If such interval is too large, the
correlativity of received signals to each other will be reduced; if such interval is too
small, there will arise unnecessary grid slobes. Thus, the interval is generally half
wave length.
Adaptive array antenna system adopts digital signal processing technology to identify
the direction where the user signals reach and then form major beam of the antenna in
this direction. Adaptive array antenna provides different space channels tantamount to
the cables for wire transmission in light of different user signals, so as to ward off the
effect of interference on the system. The general structure of intelligent antenna is
shown in Figure 4-7(a):
4-13
Figure 4-7(a) Structure of Intelligent Antenna
(b) Diagram of TDD Radio Base Station with Intelligent Antenna
Antenna array may take such shapes as straight line, circle or two-dimention plane.
The core of antenna system is the digital signal processing unit, which enables
antenna array to produce directional beams pointing to the mobile subscribers
according to certain standards and automatically adjust the weight coefficient so as to
achieve space filtering as required. Intelligent antenna is required to solve the
following two key problems: identify the signal direction and achieve digital shaping
(matrix). The representative algorithm for signal direction AOA (Angle of Arrival) is
Music, ESPRIT, and maximum likelihood algorithms etc. The aim of adaptive beam
shaping is to obtain best weight coefficient through adaptive algorithm. What algorith
to take requires considering adaptive rules, the most common of which are SINR,
MMSE, minimum mean square and maximum likelihood etc. It has been proved that
the best weight coefficients using the above four rules will result in equal steady state
solution, or Wiener-Kolmogorov solution. Adaptive algorithms in common use include
the following: (1) Direct sampling covariance matrix inversion algorithm (DMI); (2)
various minimum mean square algorithms (LMS); recursion least square algorithm
(RLS); (4) constant model algorithm (CMA) etc. These adaptive algorithm has their
own advantages and disadvantages. Proper algorithm should be selected in practical
application in light of practical conditions.
Hereunder is the detailed description of matrix expression of shaped beams.
As shown in Firgure 4-7(b), it describes a block diagram of CDMA base station with
intelligent antenna, working in TDD mode. From the figure, we can see that compared
with the traditional base station without intelligent antenna, it has FR part composed of
an antenna array and a group of receive-and-transmit units on its hardware, while the
hardware for baseband signal processing is basically the same. What should be
pointed out is that this group of radio receive-and-transmit units will use the same local
vibration source, so as to ensure this group is working in a corelative way.
As shown in Figure 4-7(b), each FR receive-and-sent unit has ADC and DAC, which
convert the baseband analog signals received into digital signals, and convert the
digital signals to be transmitted into analog baseband signals, so as to perform the
conversion between analog signals and digital signals. All the signals received and
4-14
transmitted are connected by a group of high-speed digital buses and baseband digital
signal processor.
From Figure 4-7(b), let’s first study the signals from multiple user terminals. These
upsteam signals have such effects as multi-address interference, fading, multi-path
transmission and doppler frequency shift, and have other interferences and noises.
Use Si(n) for the output of Receiver i as shown in the figure at n time point. Through
deamplification and the corresponding digital siganl processing, you may get the data
received from each code channel. If we use Xji( ) to indicate the array elements of
Symbol of Code channel j received at Antenna i , then after beam shaping
(composition) on the baseband, the total data received from the intelligent antenna
should be:
W refers to uplink beam shaping matrix, whose matrix element is Wij( ).
Next, the intelligent antenna will shape its downlink beams. Use Yj( ) to indicate
Symbol tranmitted to this user from code channel j. The signals transmitted from
antenna array element i via the downlink beam shaping of intelligent antenna (adjust
the amplitude and phase of the signals transmitted from each transmitter in the base
station) can be expressed as:
where U is downsteam beam shaping matrix for element uji( ).
Obviously, to get the best receiption, we must find out a good algorithm for uplink
beam shaping, or a method for obtaining W matrix; in order for the user to get the best
signals, it is necessary to find out a good algorithm for downlink beam shaping, or a
method for obtaining U matrix. It must be pointed out that the only thing already known
is the geometric structure and the signals received by various receivers of the antenna
array in finding this beam shaping matrix. In this respect, the researchers have done a
lot of work, and there are several algorithms available, mainly limited to the processing
capacity of baseband processor and the requirements on real-time work.
Intelligent antenna technology will bring much good to radio communicaiton, especially
in improving CDMA system performance and reducing its cost. However,
consideration must be given to the problems arising from the application of intelligent
antenna to CDMA system. At the same time, the following problems should be solved
in respect of standard, produce and network design:
I. Ominidirectional beam and shaped beam
Intelligent antenna’s major functions are performed through adaptive transmission and
shaping the received beam. Furthermore, the shaping of beams received and
4-15
transmitted is done on the basis of geometric structure, system requirements and the
user signals received with respect to the base station antenna. Under mobile
communication system, the intelligent antenna uses shaped beams on the uplink
signal of each user, which serves to improve the system performance directly.
However, when the user is not transmitting but only receiving signals and moving
within the area covered by the base station (idle status), it is impossible fo the base
station to know exactly where the user is. In this case, the base station will use
omnidirectional beams for transmission (such physical channels in the system as Pilot,
synchronization, broadcast and paging). For the base station with omnidirectional
coverage as shown in Figure 4-8, different beams are transmitted from different code
channels. That is to say, the base station must provide omnidirectional and directional
shaped beams. In this sense, an omnidirectional channel requirs much higher
transmitting power (the maximum power possible is 101gN dB higher than the
dedicated channel,where N is the quantity of antenna array elements. This must be
taken into account in system design.
Figure 4-8 Diagram of Coverage Requirements on Different Channels
II. Shared downlink channel and discontinuous transmission
The mobile communication system providing IP data services is designed with uplink
and downlink channels shared by multiple users and discontinuous transmission
technology is used in the base station and at the user terminal. In a base station using
intelligent antenna, as the users move, it is impossible for the base station to locate
the useres; therefore, in general, only omnidirectional downlink beam should be used.
In addition, one more access process may be added to transmit signals to each user in
a fixed direction. These two methods each have their advantages and may be possibly
used.
4-16
III. Alignment of intelligent antenna
While using intelligent antenna, it is required to provide technology of automatic and

real time alignm of intelligent antenna. While using intelligent antenna in TDD system,
use the uplink beam shaping coefficient directly to shape downlink beam in
accordance with the principle of reciprocity in electromagnetic field theory; but for
actual radio base station, it is impossible that the radio transceiver on each channel is
totally the same; moreover, its performance may vary with such factors as period, work
level and environmental conditions. Without real-time automatic alignment, the
downlink beam shaping will be affected seriously. It will not only fail to gain the
advantages of intelligent antenna but also cannot even communicate at all.
IV. Frame structure and relevant physical layer technology
There is no special requirement on physical layer technology for a mobile

communication system in using intelligent antenna. Moreover, basic technologies for
the physical layer as modulation demodulation, spread spectrum, channel coding,
error correction and data multiple connection, will definitely be totally the same.
However, to use intelligent antenna may allow you to design the physical layer in a
more effective way. For example, in the TD-SCDMA-recommended system,
synchronous CDMA technology is used to simplify the tranceiver; specified uplink and
downlink Pilot time slots are used in the design of time slots at the physical layer, so as
to reduce the interference arising from cell search and random access etc., thus the
functions of intelligent antenna are brought into full play.
V. Combination of antenna with other anti-interference technologies
Presently, there must be a comprise between the algorithm complication and real time
implementation of the intelligent antenna. Thus, the practical intelligent antenna
algorithm still can neither solve the problem of multi-path interference arising from time
delay over the width of one code nor overcome channel deterioration as a result of
doppler effect out of high-speed movements. Under the serious environment of multi-
path high-speed movements, it is required to combine the intelligent antenna with
other anti-interference digital signal processing technologies, so as to achieve the best
results.These digital signal processing technologies include joint detection,
interference cancellation and Rake receiption etc. Currently, the combination of
intelligent antenna with joint detection or interference cancellation already has
practical algorithm, while the algorithm for its combination with Rake receiver is still
under research.
VI. Problem of beam shaping speed
It must be noted that due to the mobility of user terminal, mobile communication is a
time variant channel. Intelligetn antenna uses received signals to shape the uplink and
downlink beams, so it is requested that TDD cycle should not be too long. For example,
when the user terminal moves at a speed of 100km/h, its doppler frequency shif
approaches 200Hz and the change of user terminal location within 10ms will reach
28cm. At 2GHz frequency band, it already exceeds one wavelength, resulting in huge
error in shaping downlink beams. Therefore, TDD cycle is expected to be reduced at
least by half, so that the interval between transmitting and receiving is within the range
of 2-3ms in order to ensure the intelligent antenna works in a proper way. If this system
terminal is required to mover faster, TDD uplink and downlink conversion cycle should
be shortened further.
4-17
VII. Consideration of equipment complication
Apparently, the performances of intelligent antenna will increase with the increase in
the number of antenna array elements. However, to increase the number of antenna
array elements will add to the complication of the system. Such complication will
ascend by geometrical progression in respect of the quantity of baseband digital
signals to be processed. Nowadays, CDMA system trends towards broad band and
the code rate already stands quite high, so the complication of baseband processing
requires more and more in respect of microelectronic technique. In this way, this
determines it impossible to have a large number of antenna elements.According to the
current level, the number of elements should range between 6 and 16.
In addition, as the mobile communication environment is particular, other new
problems occur to intelligent antenna: serious multi-path problem and message
sources generally outnumber antenna array elements. The characteristic of multiple
sources and paths requires the research and development of intelligent antenna to
gain momentus in the following aspects: have a full understanding of the mobile
communication environment, especially the space dimension characteristic, which
requires not only new models created for mobile communication environment but
more test results. On the basis of understanding the particularity of mobile
communication environment, develop new algorithms in seamless connection with the
mobile communication system and other radio technologies; research on the
interworking of intelligent antenna with other technologies, such as power control,
multipl user detection, synchronous technologies and RAKE receiption with the
objective of eliminating, balancing and utilizing interference in a better way so as to
improve system performance.
Currently, intelligent antenna technology is considered internationally as a major
development trend of mobile communication technology later than the third generation.
It has become possible to apply intelligent antenna to WCDMA TDD system. As a
matter of fact, intelligent antenna is one of the key technologies for TD-SCDMA
system.
4-18
4.3 Antenna Downtilt Planning

In cellular communication, coverage theory, frequency multiplexing theory and BSS
functional algorithm are all based on the same precondtion, i.e. regular cellular layout.
The factors affecting cellular layout in radio network planning are mainly reflected
through the design of project parameters, ranging from the macro layout of multiple
base stations in radio network to the location of a single base station, antenna height,
lobe width, direction, downtilt and EIRP etc, thus forming a specific celluar network.
Normally, the performance indexes of the antenna itself are selected according to the
characteristics of radio network such as the intensity of base stations and macro
coverage goal; once the location of base station is determined in combination of
networking requirements and external ojective conditions, it seldom changes
thereafter; while the antenna height, direction, downtilt and coverage goal should be
finalized in accordance with the parameters specified previously and the specific
coverage goal of a single cell.
Hereunder is the analysis of the relationship between such elements of the anntenna
as its height, direction, downtilt and coverage goal (cell radius is R), and the
recommended value of the antenna downtilt under certain condition will be given.As
radio signals are transmitted closed related to the environment (such as loss in the
area with dense high buildings, the reflection of mountains, water surface or huge
glass walls, which will have effect on the transmission of electric waves), it is not
necessarily adaptable to all the transmission environments. However, if careful
consideration is given to the regularity of cellular structure as well as the range to be
covered by the cell and coverage goal, it may help lay a solid foundation for the quality
of radio network.
4.3.1 Antenna Downtilt Design
In designing antenna downtilts, consideration must given to the following factors:

antenna height, azimuth angle, gains, vertical half power angle and the cell range
expected to be covered.
As is known all, when the antenna gain is determined, the horizontal half power angle
of the antenna is in inverse ratio against its vertical half power angle with their
relationship expressed as follows:
G =32600/( )

Where Ga is antenna gain (a multiplying factor, which should be converted into dB
value), is vertical half power angle and is horizontal half power angle. It must be
this formula only yields a theoretical
noted that value. As a result of such reasons as
manufacturing technique, the actual antenna index will be different, especially the
width of vertical lobe. Therefore, before specific application, it is prefered to look up
antenna technical manual.
From the above formula, we know thaqt when antenna gain is relatively small, the
vertical half power angle and the horizontal half power angle of antenna are normally
large, and vice versa. In order to better control trans-regional coverage, it is
appropriate to select the antenna with higher gains in network planning within a region
of intensive base stations, but antenna with high gains will easily result in unfavorable
coverage in the vicinity. In serious cases, zero point filling technology must taken into
account.
4-19
For the base stations distributed in downtown areas, when the antenna has no downtilt
or the angle is very small, the service range of each cell is subject to the height,
azimuth angle, gain, transmitting power and land forms and ground objects with regard
to the antenna. In this case, the coverage radius may be calculated through
Okumura-Hata or COST231 formula; when the antenna downtilt is relatively large, as
the above formula fails to consider the downtilt, thus it is impossible to work out the
coverage radius (if there is an accurate transmission model and digital map, ASSET
may be figured out). At this point, direction estimation can be done in accordance with
the size of vertical half power angle and the downtilt of the antenna on the basis of
triangle geomety formula as follows:
Suppose the radius to be covered is D(m) with antenna height as H(m), downtilt as
and the vertical half power angle as , then the relation between the antenna major
lobe beams and the ground as shown in Figure 4-9.
Figure 4-9 Relation between Antenna Major Lobe Beams and the Ground
It can be seen that when antenna downtilt is 0 degree, antenna beam major lobes or
major energy radiate horizontally; when antenna declines by degrees, the extension
line in the direction of major lobes will ultimately intersect a point on the ground (Point
A). As antenna is of certain beam width vertically, much energy will be radiated in the
direction from Point A to Point B. According to technical performance of the antenna,
within the scope of half power angle, antenna gain will come down slowly; beyond the
half power angle, antenna gain (especially the upper lobe) will fall sharply. Therefore,
while considering the size of antenna downtilt, the scope ranging from the extension
line of the half power angle to the intersection point on the ground (Point B) may be
regarded as the actual coverage area of this antenna.
According to the above analysis and the theories for triangle geometry, it can be
deduced that the relationship between antenna height, downtilt, and coverage
distance is as follows: = arctan(H/D)+ /2

The above formula may be used to estimate the coverage distance after the downtilt
has been adjusted. The actual result of practical application on the optimism site
reveals that this formula is of great guiding significance. However, the application of
this formula is limited by the following conditions: the downtilt must be greater than half
of the half power angle; the distance D must be less than the distance worked out
according to the formula in absence of a downtilt. For vertical beam width in the above
formula, pleaes refer to the specific antenna technical index or work out the rough
value.
In a situation where the vertical beam width is 17 degrees and the base station
antenna is 40 meters high, the relationship between the coverage distance and
antenna downtilt is shown in Figure 4-10. When the vertical beam width is 6.5 degrees
4-20
and the base station antenna is 40 meters high, the relationship the coverage distance
and antenna downtilt is shown in Figure 4-11.
coverage distance-declination
distance (meter ) angle
declination angle
(degree)
Figure 4-10 Relation between Coverage Distance and Downtilt (vertical beam width as 17 degrees,
and antenna height as 40 meters)
coverage
distance-declination angle
distance (meter )
declination angle
(degree)
Figure 4-11 Relation between Coverage Distance and Downtilt (vertical beam width as 65 degrees,
and antenna height as 40 meters)
Seen from the above two figures, when the antenna height and downtilt are specified,
the relation between the coverage distance and the vertical beam width of the antenna
is as follows: The smaller the vertical beam width, the coverage distance will be
shorter. As a result, to control trans-regional coverage in a better way, we should
choose an antenna of small vertical beam width with zero point filling function while
selecting antennas in the planning stage. In this way, it will prevent trans-regional
interference and improve the coverage in the vicinity and indoor coverage. However,
4-21
when the vertical beam width grows smaller, the horizontal lobe or gain will get larger,
thus causing new trans-regional interference or excessive cross coverage between
neighboring cells. As a result, antennas of medium gain are usually chosen in urban
areas. For example, GSM900 selects antenna of 65 degrees and 15dBi. At this time,
the width of vertical lobe ranges between 11-15 degrees. It must be noted that the
adjustment of downtilt may serve to control the coverage area in addition to improve
the indoors coverage in the vicinity of the base station, but the coverage far from the
base station will get worse.
4.3.2 Practical Application
In order for practical application considering the necessary overlap of some areas
between adjacent cells. The distance D from the base station in downtown area to the
coverage desitination may be simplified as the designed cell radius (diameter as R);
the antenna height H refers to the relative height of the base station and the coverage
designation, and this article only treats of the areas similar to plains.Antenna downtilt
is divided into mechanical downtilt and electric downtilt, both of which have equal
effect on the coverage. As electric downtilt is more expensive and requires
customization, we usually adopts mechanical desclination. It is generally believed that
it is a scientific approach to keep the mechanical downtilt of the antenna below 10
degrees; in the event of more than 10 degrees, the lobes are easily distorted, thus
causing unexpected interference against other cells; another conclusion is that the
downtilt of mechanical downtilt should not exceed the half power beam width within
the vertical plane of the said antenna. Otherwise, coverage is distorted.
Therefore, in terms of the goal of maximum rationaliztion, we wish to adopt electric
antenna in populous downtown areas for networking. As the anntenna capable of
onsite adjustment of electric downtilt angle is rather expensive, we normally use
antenna with preset factory 6 7 degrees of electric downtilt (or the average downtilt
angle within the coverage area). Combine mechanical downtilt in network capacity
enlargement and optimization, so as to set large downtilt angle of 15 20 degrees.
According to what is discussed above and in combination with A anntenna in most

common use and the commonly seen antenna height antenna (25 50 meters), the
value recommended for antenna downtilt angle under the cell radius of 250, 500, 800
and 1000 meters. The same is true of other circumstances.
Vertical half
Antenna model power angle of Cell radius R(m) Antenna height Downtilt angle
antenna
65 degrees, a gain of 15 dBi 12 200 50 20
From this we can see that when the cell radius is too small, antenna mechanical
downtilt cannot ensure control of coverage area. At this time, we cannot but reduce the
antenna height; if it is difficult to reduce the height, it is necessary to adopt the
combination of electric downtilt and mechanical downtilt. In application, for a base
station with its antenna of 40-50 meters in height, the minimum cell radius is 250
meters. Normally, the ideal height for macro cellular antenna in downtown areas is
4-22
25 30 meters and the antenna in suburbs or directed to the suburbs is 40 50

meters in height.
The above method for calculating downtilt angle is mainly applicable to the dense
base station networking with an interval of less than 1200 meters (i.e. R=800m)
between stations.
When the base station is over 800 meters away from the coverage destination, the
most concern is still the coverage of a large area. It is not necessary to consider the
effect of vertical half power angle in working out the antenna downtilt angle. At this
time, the angle of downtilt is normally 1 4 degrees; under special circumstances, for
example, if the base station has been installed in a higher position, its angle of downtilt
may also be large.
However, the surroundings around the base station are quite complex. The downtilt
angle must also take the reflection from the neighboring mountains, water surface and
tall glass walls into consideration in that such reflection will easily cause unexpected
adjacent frequency interference with other base stations and even its own time
dispersion effect; consideration should also be given to shadow effect caused by the
buidling roof, dense architectural complex and slope on electric waves. However, in
practical networking, the surrounding geographical environment around the base
station will be combined to use the obstruction of tall building or mountain to control
the coverage area. It is required to consider the downtilt angle at this time.
Networking in populous downtown area should also consider the street effect and
unexpected trans-regional coverage arising from the antenna major lobe right directed
to the street. In general, the major lobe should avoid being directed to a straight street.
When a cell needs to cover an area higher than the antenna, it is possible to adopt
inverse directional antenna or negative angle of downtilt. The antenna is required to
proof against water.
If the base station is placed too high and thus necessitating the coverage of valleys far
lower than the base station ( more than 50 60 meters or depression angle more than
5 degrees) and only omni-antenna can be used, it is necessary to consider using
omni-antenna characterized by electric downtilt angle (3 degrees or 5 degrees etc.),
wide vertical lobe (low gain), zero point filling or improvement on the gain of lower
secondary lobe in order to improve the coverage near the base station and avoid
possible signal fluctuation caused by “blind under tower” and unequal coverage.
We must also give consideration to the direction after the antenna back lobe declines
on the major lobe of the antenna, because the front-to-back ratio for general antenna
nowadays only stands at 20dB. The back lobes with strong signals will easily cause
much interference against high buildings. Therefore, it is recommended to adopt
electric downtilt while selecting antenna in populous urban areas, and take note of the
effect of upper secondary lobes.
Normally, the vertical power angle of omni-antenna is symetric vertically along the
plane, and thus the inverse and upright installation will have equal effect; in practial
project, the vertical directional diagram of specific omni-antenna should still be taken
into consideration to check if the electric downtilt angle is already available. In this
case, careful consideration should be given to inverse installation.
4-23
4.4 Antenna Selection

In mobile communication network, it is a very important part to select an antenna.
We should make a choice in light of practical conditions such as the requirement on
coverage, traffic, interference and network service quality of the network. A proper
antenna will enlarge the coverage, reduce interference and improve service quality. As
the selection of antenna is closely related to coverage requirement, the environment
for using antennas can be divided into 4 types in light of the land form or the
distribution of traffic: urban area, suburb, rual area and highroad.
4.4.1 Current Problems of Using Antenna
Little consideration is given to the relation between the actual land form and the
antenna directional diagram with antenna selected simply in consideration of the
distribution of covered traffic. For example, in selecting omni-antenna, the entire
network uses a single type of omni-antenna, which leads to “blind under tower” as a
result of narrow vertical plane beam when the antenna is placed high.
Oblivious to the limit on the use of antenna, many places decline the antenna in a very
large angle in order to reduce interference without regard to antenna directional
diagram, thus distorting the directional diagram and causing problems with coverage.
Actually, simulation indicates there should be different limits on downtilt angle in light
of antennas with different gains.
Too much attention is focused on the high gain performance of the antenna without
regard to the disadvantages of such performance. As a result, almost the gains of all
the antennas used in the entire network stand quite high. The weak points of high-gain
antenna are as follows: large size, heavy, high secondary lobe, deep zero lobe and
narrow vertical beams.
Without regard to the difference between dual polarization antenna and vertical
polarization antenna in terms of use, consideration is only given to selecting dual
polarization antenna from the angle of engineering installation.
4.4.2 Application Principle for Base Station Antenna in Urban Areas
In urban areas, as the base stations are densely distributes, it is requeste that a single
base station covers a small area in hopes of reducing trans-regional coverage,
reducing the itnerference between base stations and improving frequency multiplexing
rate. In principle, the antenna should meet the following requirements:
I. Selection of antenna horizonal half power beam width
As there are a large number of base stations distributed in urban areas, overlapping
coverage and frequency interference will arise as a serious problem. To reduce the
overlapping area of adjacent sectors, and reduce the interference between base
stations, the beam widht of antenna horizonal half power should be small. Normally,
we select an antenna whose horizonal half power beam width is 65 . Normally,
those antennas with beam width over 90 will not be chosen._
II. Selection of antenna gain
As the base station in urban areas normally requies no large coverage distance, it is
recommended to select the antennas with medium gains. Thus, the vertical beam of
4-24
antenna can be made wider, so as to enhance the coverage effect within the area to
be covered. At the same time, the size and weight of antenna can become smaller
instrumental to the installation and reducing cost. According to the current antenna
models, it is recommended to select a gain of 15dBi (900MHz) or 15-18dBi (1800MHz)
for antennas in urban areas.
For a base station on the outskirt of a city, if the coverage distance is required to be
long, antenns with higher gains such as 17dBi 18dBi can be selected.
In principle, while designing base station coverage in urban areas, we should select an
antenna with fixed electric downtilt angle, whose size is subject to practical conditions
(6-9 preferred).
Inside a city, in order to raise the frequency multiplexing rate, reduce trans-regional
interference and improve D/U value (the ratio of useful signal level to useless signal
level), it is allowed to select an antenna with its first upper secondary lobe suppressed
and the first lower zero point filled (shaping technology). However, the antenna of this
kind usually has no fixed angle of downtilt.
As it is different to select a site for an urban base station, the installation space for
antenna is limited. Generally, it is recommended to select dual poluarization antenna.
Under indentical or similar electric indicators, it is better to select an antenna of small
size.
4.4.3 Application Principle for Suburb Base Station Antenna
In the suburbs, things are largely different. We may estimate what type of antenn is
required according to the coverage area as required. Generally, we may comply with
the following basic principles:
We may select an antenna with its horizonal half power beam width as 65 or 90 in
light of practical conditions. When there are few base stations around, it is imperative
to give priority to the antenna with its horizonal half power beam width of 90 .
If a lot of base stations are around, refer to the slection antennas in uran areas for the
the principle for antenna selection.
With a view to smooth upgrading in the furture, in general, it is not recommended to
adopt an omni-antenna in this case.
Whether to adopt an angle of downtilt is subject to practical conditions. Even if a
downtilt angle is used, it is generally very small.
4.4.4 Application principle for base station antennas in rural areas
As rural areas require small amount of traffic but large coverage, the application of
antennas should follow the principles hereunder.
If the base station is required to cover its neighboring areas without obvious directions,
and the traffic around the base station is scattered, it is recommended in this case to
adopt the omnidirectional coverage of base station. It should be noted that the large
coverage herein does not mean long coverage distance but large coverage area
without apprarent directions.At the same time, we should also pay attention to the
following fact: as omni-directional base station has small gains, the coverage distance
is not as long as the directional base station.
If the equipment buyer requires farther base station coverage distance, it is required to
use three directional antennas to attain this objective. Normally, we should use a
4-25
directional antenna with horizonal half beam width of either 90 or 120 . Another
thing requiring attention is that vertical polarization antenna has more diversity effect
and stronger capacity against slow fading than dual polarization antenna. As required
for large coverage in rural areas, if conditions permit, we may substitute two pieces of
vertical polarization antenna for dual polarization antenna.
For high stations in mountaineous areas (the relative height of antenna is over 50
meters), we should generally select antennas with zero point filling function to solve
the problem with “blind under tower” in short range. While solving this problem via an
angle of downtilt, we should note the reduction of coverage area.
4.4.5 Application principle for antennas to cover highroads
To covcer highroad areas, the principle for selecting antenna is as follows:

For a base station designed to cover the areas along railways and highroads, narrow
beam directional antenna can be used to this effect.
To cover highroads and scattered villages around them, we may consider using an
omni-antenna.
To cover expressways, 8-shaped antenna may be used for this purpose.In this way,
the number of base stations may fall, so as to achieve the coverage of expressways.
To cover an expressway and the towns along the highroad, the antenna with horizonal
half power beam width of 210 may be used. It is recommended to give priority to 8-
shaped antenna and 210 antenna to cover highroads. The directional diagram of the
said two antennas is shown as follows.
210 directional diagram

town
highroad
base station
mountain
Figure 4-12 (a) 210-degree Antenna
4-26
8-shaped directional diagram
Base station
Highroad
Mountain
Figure 4-12 (b) 8-shaped antenna
4.4.6 Other factors in antenna application
The basic principles for selecting antennas in different places are described as above.
In fact, capacity expansion in the future and basic performances should also be taken
into consideration in selecting antennas.
Here is a simple example:
If 210 antenna is selected for an expressway, the quantity of carrier frequency should
increase to meet the demand on capacity expansion provided that the said area sees
a traffic rise in the future. Due to different CF configurations of base station, with the
increase of carrier frequency, insertion loss will increase. In this case, capacity
expansion will inevitably lead to the drop in coverage distance. Unless cavity combiner
is used, these problems should be anticipated when antenna type is selected.
In addition, in selecting antennas, consideration should be given to the distribution of
traffic and surrounding station types, especially in rural areas, where few types of
stations exist, this must be considered more carefully. In rural areas, if the traffic is
distributed equally around the base station, we may consider using omni-antenna. At
the same time, we should take into account of an omni-antenna with zero point filling.
If the traffic is only distributed on one side of the base station, and there is almost no
traffic on the other side, we may consider 210 antenna. If traffic exists only on a
narrow and long highroad, we may consider directional antenna of narrow beams or
8-shaped antenna.
In addition, as the azimuth angle of antenna requires regular adjustment during the
network optimization period, it is recommended to select an antenna with its azimuth
adjusted electrically after the antenna with electrically adjustable azimuth is mature
upon argumentation.
4.4.7 Notes on special antennas
Zero point filled antenna serve to solve the problem of “blind under tower” without any
effect in other respects. It is recommended that antennas with zero point filling are
used for all the omni-antennas so as to avoid the problem of “blind under tower”.
4-27
With regard to 8-shaped and 210 antennas, it is recommended to give top priority to
them in respect of expressway coverage.
If a base station installed on top of a mountain is required to cover the areas at the foot
of the mountain, it is recommended to select an antenna with wide vertical half power
beam for the coverage, such as omni-antenna with a gain of 8.5dBi or a directional
antenna of 14dBi with vertical beam width of around 20 .
4-28
4.4.8 Reference for antenna selection

Land form Statoin type Recommendation for antenna selection Remark
Normally, select antennas with low or
While installing an
medium gains and fixed electric angle of
antenna, make sure that
Directional downtilt, subject to the density of base
Urban area the mechanical downtilt
station stations; if an antenna with electrically
angle is no more than 10
adjustable azimuth is available, it should
degrees.
also be selected.
Normally, select antennas with high gains,
permitting of electrically adjustable
If mechanical downtilt
azimuth or mechanical downtilt angle.In
Directional angle is to be installed, the
Suburb addition, if some areas are not well
station angle should not be too
covered in some directions, antennas with
large.
its horizonal half power beam width of 90
degrees may be selected.
Generally, select an antenna of 90
Plains & rural Directional degrees or of 120 degrees. It is perferred Generally no downtilt
areas station to use vertical single polarization angle is added.
antenna.
First there must be zero point filled
Omnidirectional Generally no downtilt
antenna without regard to angle of
station angle is added.
downtilt.
First consider 8-shaped antenna and then
Directional consider 0.5/0.5 configuration using Generally no downtilt
Exressways
station power splitter; it is preferred to have zero angle is added.
point filling.
Directional
First consider 210-degree antenna, then
station + Generally no downtilt
consider the combination of directional
omnidirectional angle is added.
antenna+ omni-antenna
station
First consider antenna with zero point
Mountainous Omnidirectional Generally no downtilt
filling function, then consider antenna of
areas station angle is added.
lower gain before adding a downtilt angle.
First consider antenna with low gain and
Directional Generally no downtilt
vertical beam width before adding a
station angle is added.
downtilt angle.
4-29
4.5 Combining and distribution unit

The combining and distribution unit is mainly to achieve transceiver duplexing,
transmitting signal combiner, filtering and receiving signal filtering, low noise
amplification and distribution, and provide tower amplification with feeding circuit, and
share the same antenna unit with multiple signals transmitted and received.
4.5.1 Principle for combining and distribution unit
The combining and distribution unit has the following functions of detection and alarm:
(1) Standing wave dection: to monitor the status of antenna feeder; When it detects
that the standing wave exceeds the preset threshold (1.5:1 or 2.5:1), it will give
corresponding alarm signals and indication.
(2) Low noise amplifier fault alarm: as the fault signal is taken from the feeding current
of low noise amplifier, when the current exceeds a certain range or there is no current,
alarm signal will occur.
(3) Tower amplification alarm: when tower amplification works with the fault signals
taken from its feeding current, when the current exceeds a certain range or there is no
current, alarm signal will occur.
(4) Control function: to exercise the control of the power attenuation over the master
and slave receiving channel (dynamic state 15dB, step 1dB); perform function of
switching on and off feeding current; select different tower amplification feeding
current at the same time.
Take Huawei equipment for example, it has three kinds of modules that can provide
combining and distribution unit: CDU, SCU and EDU.
Schematic diagram of CDU is shown in Figure 4-13.
Figure 4-13 CDU Schematic Diagram
4-30
SCU schematic diagram is shown in Figure 4-14.
Combiner
TX1
TX2
Combiner
Combiner
TX3
TX4
TX-DUP
Figure 4-14 SCU Schematic Diagram
EDU schematic diagram is shown in Figure 4-15.
4-31
Figure 4-15 EDU Schematic Diagram
Different combining and distribution units have different losses, which are configured
and used in light of different station types. The following indexes are specified: for
each combination (two combined into one), in theory, insertion loss is 3dB and
duplexer insertion loss is 1dB or so.
4.5.2 Combining and distribution unit configuration
This section takes Huawei equipment to explain the configuration of various combining
and distribution units:
Regular configuration Large coverage
FC number for each cell Remark
plan configuration plan
Large station is mostly
located in the urban area,
7 8TRX 2CDU 2SCU
which is basically applicable
to large coverage.
In applying large coverage
configuration plans, it is
5 6TRX CDU+CDU+SCU CDU+CDU+SCU
necessary to combine
Huawei’s concentric circle
4-32
technology
3 4TRX CDU+SCU Dual CDU
EDU is only applicable to the
situation where each sector
1 2TRX CDU EDU or dual CDU has no less than 2 CF.
Changes are required in
capacity expansion.
What should be noted is that large coverage plan as mentioned above is a

recommendation on the precondition of not increasing antennas and feeders in each
cell. In practical network application, we may flexibly select different configurations
(antennal feeder + amplifier {40W 60W 80W etc})in light of the coverage and capacity
demands for different stations if the conditions for uplink and downlink balance are met;
and in combination with Huawei Company’s BSC software algorithm (such as
concentric circle control technology applicable to when each CF coverage is not the
same in the same cell), so as to attain the best coverage effects.
4-33
4.6 Outdoor antenna feeder system

Outdoor antenna feeder system includes antenna, tower amplifier, feeder cable,
jumper and lightning arrester, as shown in Figure 4-16. Antenna has been described
above and the following is devoted to tower amplifier and feeder cable.
Figure 4-16 Composition of outdoor antenna feeder system
4.6.1 Tower amplifier
In terms of technial principle, tower amplifier is to reduce the noise coefficient of the
base station receiving system, so as to improve the sensitivity of base station
receiving system. Tower amplifier makes different contributions to uplink, distinguished
from each other in light of the performance of low noise amplifier of the tower amplifier
itself, but it is not the right way only to focus on its gains. Generally, the uplink and
downlink balance with tower amplification increased should be modified and
calculated in accordance with the method for testing its actual sensitivity. Tower
amplifiers of sub band or all band should be seleted in light of different frequency
bands.
The principle for triplex tower amplifier is shown in Figure 4-17. This tower amplifier
shares signal transmission and reception (only one feeder tube is required) and has
bypass functioons (automatic bypass in the event of fault, when it receives a gain of
about.
4-34
Figure 4-17 Digram of Duplex Tower Amplifier
4.6.2 Feeder cable
It is very important to select feeder cables in the overall system design. As the line is
exposed outdoors, the cable needs to stand up to the water wash. Foam is pressed
into the cable as isloation medium and air can be also taken as isolation
medium.When bent, the air-insulative cable can easily result in short circuit; therefore,
it is seldom adopted.
I. Use of feeder cable
There are two types feeder cable in common use, that is, 7/8" feeder cable and 5/4" feeder
cable. They are used as follows:
(1) GSM900 feeder cable:
7/8" feeder cable is used for a length of less than 80m, while 5/4" feeder cable for a length of
more than 80m.
(2) GSM1800 feeder cable
7/8" feeder cable is used for a length of less than 50m; while 5/4" feeder cable for a length of
more than 50m.
II. Technical indexes for the insertion loss of several feeder cables
Standing wave
Feeder cable type 100 meter attenuation (dB)
(Any length)
1,000M 1,700M
890MHz 2,000MHz
Hz Hz
SYFY-50-22(7/8 inch) 4.03 5.87 6.46 1.15
LDF5-50A (7/8 inch) 4.03 4.3 5.87 6.46 1.15
LDF6-50 (5/4 inch) 2.98 3.17 4.31 4.77 1.15
M1474A (7/8 inch) 4.3 6.6 1.15
HFC22D-A (7/8 inch) 4.47 6.7 1.15
FSJ4-50B(1/2 inch) 11.2 11.9 16.1 17.7 1.15
4-35
III. Installtin of feeder cable
The feeder cable used for installation should be the shortest of all and easy for
installation and maintenance. The curvature of feeder cable should comply with the
requiremetn of manufacturers on feeder cable.Whether the antenna is installed on the
tower, roof and any other place, the external conductor of its feeder cable should be
grounded well before it goes into the equipment room.
4-36
4.7 Distributed antenna system

With the development of mobile communication, the subscribers have higher and
higher demand on service quality. People expect to communicate anywhere at any
time. However, as some places (complicated areas with multiple blocks such as inside
a large building, tunnel and metro) are not reachable if only covered by outdoor base
station antenna and there will arise some blind spots unreachable by signals, thus
causing communication interruption. In some areas, as the signals from different base
stations are all quite strong, the mobile station has to switch frequently, thus causing
communication interruption. Someone calls this pingpong effect. To resolve the above
problems, distributed antenna system comes into existence. Besides, we may also
transfer the capacity of a cell with excessive communication capacity to another area,
so as to solve the problem with the distribution of system capacity.
4.7.1 Principle for composition of distributed antenna system
Figure 4-18 is the schematic diagram of the composition of a distributed antenna

system. In terms of function, it is equal to one single poluarization antenna connected
to a base station.
Figure 4-18 Diagram of the Composition of a Distributed Antenna System
The downlink signals from the base station go to the distributed antenna system via
the interface. These signals form multiple tributaries via the power splitter, each of
which can be divided into smaller tributaries via the power splitter. The end of each
tributary is connected with a small antenna. Each small antenna covers a certain area.
When the signal is not strong enough, it will be amplified by bi-directional amplifier with
certain gains; on the contrary, the uplink signals in each tributary area, via small
antenna, power splitter and bi-directional amplifier, will reach the base station through
interface.
In the above system, the transmission and distributiojn of signlas can be performed
through coaxial cable and FR power splitter or through optical link. In addition, it can
also be a mixture of coaxial cable, power splitter and raditation antenna: disclosure
cable.
4-37
4.7.2 Types of distributed antenna system
I. Coaxial feeding distributed antenna system
Figure 4-19 Coaxial Feeding Distributed Antenna System
II. Disclosure cable
In some narrow and long coverage areas, it is a better way of coverage in using
disclosure cable. A terminal load is required at cable terminal.
Figure 4-20 Disclosure cable
Compared with coaxial feeding, the cost for the equipment and fees for installation for
disclosure cable are quite expensive.
III. 3. Fiber feeding distributed antenna system
For applications with large coverage and long transmission distance, optical
fiber can be used to replace coaxial feeding.
4-38
Figure 4-21 Fiber distributed antenna system
Figure 4-21 is the diagram of fiber distributed antenna system. The manufactures may
differ from each other in practice.Compared with coaxial feeding, fiber feeding for short
haul system is more expensive but the feeding loss is small. Its disadvantage is that it
requires local power and automatic detection equipment.
IV. Summary
Distributed antenna type Advantages Disadvantages
Flexible design
Coaxial feeding Low cost Large loss
High reliability
Disclosure cable Flexible design High cost
High cost
Low loss Poor design flexibility
Fiber feeding
Easy for installation The equipment at overage terminal requires
power
4.7.3 Indexes for component key technologies
I. Two-in-one combiner (mixed conducting bridge of 3dB)
The technical indexes of combiner are shown in the following table:

GSM900 GSM1800
Work frequency band 890 960MHz 1710 1880MHz
Port imbalance 0.25dB
Insertion loss 3.6dB
Port standing wave 1.5dB
Power capacity 300W
II. Equal power divider
Equal power divider works to distribute the energy of base station equally into several
tributaries, thus forming common components for coverage distribution. To simply the
project design, the system only adopts two types of equal power dividers, whose
indexes are as follows:
Description 1 to 2 1 to 4
Work frequency band 800 2000MHz
4-39
Power distribution ratio 1:1 1:1:1:1

Insertion loss 3.5dB 6.5dB
Port standing wave 1.5dB
Connector type N_Female
The insertion loss as defined in the above table includes the distribution loss.
III. Power coupler
The coupler here is bi-directional coupler, also known as unequal power divider. In
project design, couplers with different coupling degrees can be selected in light of
practical needs, to distribute the signals of the base station equally to each antenna in
order to ensure equal coverage and avoid waste of energy. With a view to reducing the
types of system components so as to bring down the cost, this system only selects the
following three types of couplers with different coupling degrees:
Description 7dB coupler 10dB coupler 15dB coupler
Work frequency band 800 2000MHz
Coupling degree 7dB 10dB 15dB
Insertion loss 1.2dB 0.5dB 0.3dB
Port standign wave 1.5
As we stipulate that this system is a small-sized one for simple indoor coverage, the
above three types of couplers can basically meet the requirement for project design. In
the system design of distributed antenna, we should try to avoid the existence of more
than two power dividion components (or coupler) along the path from the base station
to each antenna, so as to ensure power balance of uplink signals.
IV. Indoor antenna
In general, the distributed antenna system uses antenna of small gains and does not
specifically require the half power width of beams. This is attributed to the
characteristics of indoor coverage. The following three kinds of antenna is nice to the
look and enjoys desirable performance, which basically meets the requirement for
indoor coverage. For places with a small area to be covered by a single antenna, it is
recommended to use dual frequency omnidirectional antenna. If a long and narrow
area is to be covered, it is however recommended to adopt a directional antenna.
Dual frequency band 900M directional 1800M directional
omni-antenna antenna antenna
Work frequency band 890 960, 1710
890 960MHz 1710 1880MHz
1880MHz
Gain (2dBi) 2 7 8
Horizontal beam width 360 90 90
Form of polarization Vertical
Power capacity 300W
Standing wave <2 <1.5 <1.5
V. Coaxial connector
As the length of the feeder cable for indoor distribution system is not specified, it is
necessary to specify the length in light of practical needs and make connectors. The
system selects two types of coaxial connectors.
Type N type N type
4-40
Coaxial connector -N type

Coaxial connector-N type
connector -
connector-50Ω/right angle/male-nut
Description 50Ω/straight/female-
installation-configured with SYV-50-
configured with 7/8"LDF5-
7-1
50A cable
Type of calbe configured SYV-50-7-1 7/8"
Impedance 50Ω
Standing wave 1.2
VI. Disclosure cable
In such narrow and long coverage areas as tunnel and metro, it is a better way to use
disclosure cable. Disclosure cable is common cable with holes in its shell, so that the
electromagnetic wave may leak from the holes to cover a certain area. In this case,
each hole is equal to a small antenna.
Description
Characteristic impedance 50Ω
Attenuation constant 900MHz 0.051dB/m 1800MHz 0.076dB/m
900MHz 72dB 1800MHz 84dB; ( the loss 2 meters away from the
Coupling loss
coupling hole with an error of ±10dB)
Cable structure specification 7/8"
Type of supporting connetor 14040121
Fire-proof performance Able to prevent flaming and proof against ultraviolet
VII. Ordinary feeder cable
In the project design of antenna system, feeder cable should be used to connect all
the components. Two types of feeder cable in the list are selected. One is SYV cable
easy to be bent with a large loss but low cost; the other is 7/8 inch feeder tube with
little loss but high cost, which does not get bent easily. The former is applicable to the
tributary connection from the power divider to antenna, and the latter is applicable to
trunk connectioon from one power divider to another power divider.
SYV-50-7-1 LDF5-50A-7/8"
Performance impedance 50Ω 50Ω
900MHz: 0.22dB/m 1000MHz: 0.0446dB/m
Attenuation constant
1800MHz: 0.31dB/m 2000MHz: 0.0659dB/m
Type of N connection
14040184 14040121
configured
Bending properties Good Poor
VIII. Load
While using disclosure cable, its end may either use a small antenna as load or use
the load directly for match. The load index as defined in the list is:
Work frequency band 0 2GHz
Characteristic impedance 50Ω
Port standing wave ratio <1.15
Connector type N_Male
Power capacity 300W
4-41
4-42
Radio Network Planning Chapter 5 Design of Radio Network
Chapter 5 Design of Radio Network

The most important of all in designing a radio network concerns the design of network
layout. Such work involves the following in detail:
(1) Decide the way of frequency multiplexing in light of frequency bandwidth;
(2) Estimate the number of base stations required for the network based on
experience;
(3) Determine the theoretic position of the base station;
(4) Estimate network capacity;
(5) Assume parameters relevant to the base station (hierarchical structure of the
network, transmitting power, antenna type, height to be hung, direction and angle of
declination etc.);
On the basis of determining the basic layout of base station, plan the frequency and
adjacent areas, and then complete the related cell data, so as to accomplish the entire
planning process.
5.1 Design of Base Station Address
In planning a radio network, the design of base station address should generally meet
the following requirements:
(1) The address should serve to meet the objective of rational cell structure; make a
comprehensive analysis using an electronic map and a paper map of the urban area
(information about ground objects and surface relief preferred). Standby station
address is required in the course of selecting a base station. For this purpose, it is
required to consider the overall network structure, and make a choice in such major
respects as coverage, anti-interference and traffic balance. In practice, the operator is
possibly required to consult with the proprietors as to the station to be chosen. In
general, the station address should be arranged within a range of 1/4 radius of cellular
base station (r for minimum width). It is allowed to choose several standby station
addresses within this range.
During the stage where the network is established and there are few base stations, the
station should be generally located at the center of an area where most of the
subscribers live. In designing a station address, top priority should be given to
ensuring good communication in special areas such as the place of governmental
agencies, airport, railway station, news center and major hotels and avoid overlapping
coverage in these areas; for other areas requiring coverage, station addresses should
be designed in accordance with standard cellular structure, while address selection for
suburbs, highroads and rural areas with a large area to be covered is free of limit on
cellular meshes;
(2) Without affecting the layout of base stations, existing telecommunications buildings
and post offices should be chosen as the station address, so that their facilities such
as equipment room, power supply and iron tower can be fully utilized;
(3) Point the major lobe of antenna to the areas with dense traffic so as to enhance the
signal intensity in this area and thus improve the communication quality; deviate the
direction of antenna’s major lobe from co-frequency cells, so as to control interference
in an effective way. In urban areas, it is recommended that the overlapping coverage of
4-1
antenna in adjacent sectors should not exceed 10% in depth; the overlapping depth of cover
between the coverage areas in suburbs and towns with the directional included angle of
the sectors no less than 90°. Attention should also be paid to the correspondence
between the carrier wave number and the cell in designing. A larger number of carrier
wave should be configured for a cell of high density.
In designing an azimuth angle, it should be determined not only based on the
distribution of traffic around each base station but also from the perspective of the
overall network. In general, it is recommended to adopt, if possible, the same azimuth
for each urban base station, in order not to make it complicated to plan the network
when the cell breaks apart in the future; to avoid trans-regional coverage, the major
antenna lobe in populous downtown area should be kept from facing a straight street.
In places such as outskirts and trunk roads, the antenna bearing should be adjusted in
light of the objects to be covered.
(4) Generally, high mountains in urban areas or suburbs(over 200 300 meters higher
than the urban areas in altitude above sea level ) are not regarded as station
addresses in order to prevent co-frequency interference and avoid areas with weak
signals within their respective coverage areas, and to ease the difficulty in engineering
construction and make it easy for maintenance;
(5) New base stations should be installed in places, where traffic is convenient, electric
supply is available, the environment is safe without occupying much fertile land; such
places should not be near high-power radio transmitting station or other interference
sources, whose intensity should not exceed the indexes for the shield of base station
equipment against useless radiation;
(6) The designed station address should be kept far away from the forest so as to
avoid the fading of receiving signals;
(7) The designed station address must ensure the transmission link between it and the
base station controller is connected well;
(8) Attention must be paid to the effect of time dispersion in choosing an address from
mountainous areas, limnological regions with steep banks or many lakes, hills, cities
and an environment with high buildings. The address for a base station should be a
place near reflecting objects or put the directional antenna back on to the reflecting
objects when the base station is far away;
 Note:
Time dispersion mainly refers to the problem of cofrequency interference arising from
the time difference between master signals arriving at the receiver and other multipath
signals in terms of time for transmission in space (transmission distance); according to
GSM protocol, the receiver equalizer must be equipped with a time window of 16 ms
(equivalent to 4.8 Km). Multipath signals with a time window less than 16 ms are
harmless and even instrumental; but those with a time window of over 16 ms are
regarded as the cofrequency interference signals against the master signals. In this
case, it is required to consider whether the level difference between them meets C/I
value, that is, master signals are over 12dB greater than the multi-path signals. The
time window of Huawei receivers is more than 20ms.
(9) While choosing an address form urban high buildings, the height of building may be
wisely used to classify the network structure; the antennas for major base stations
should be a litter taller than the average height of buildings. In general, the base
station antenna in populous urban areas should be as high as 25 30 meters but it is
40 50 meters in the suburbs (or pointing to suburb cells);
4-2
(10) In choosing an address for highroads or mountain coverage, we should make the
most of land features, such an open area as the turn of a highroad.
4-3
5.2 Design of Parameters for Base Station Project

When an address is selected, it is required to determine the engineering parameters
for each base station, including: the latitude and longitude of the place of a base
station antenna, hanging height, antenna direction, gain, azimuth, angle of declination,
feeder line type and transmitting power of each base station cell. This work should be
done on the basis of field survey.
We must know well the generation situation about the project before the survey and
collect various data relative to the project, including various project documents,
background information, information about existing network and local map. In addition,
a contract configuration list, latest network planning and exploration survey of base
stations should be prepared. Such instruments as digital camera, GPS, compass, ruler
and laptop should be prepared. Make sure that such instruments are usable before
setting out.
Attention must be paid to the following during the survey: while using GPS to position
the latitude and longitude of a base station, do not allow other persons to stay around
GPS, in an effort to make the positioning accuracy less than 30 m; make a detailed
record of the surroundings around the base station, such as the distribution of
buildings, whether there is powerful interference equipment and shared address
equipment. On the one side, specify the antenna parameters and on the other side,
this record is to avoid oblivion in the case of numerous base stations; in using a
compass, substances made of iron should be avoided in order to magnetization, which
will cause overlarge difference in measurement.
Survey is an important part to specify the base station layout ultimately. A field survey
for base station involves optical measurement, spectrum measurement and address
survey. Optical measurement is to check if there is a barrier around the base station,
which may reflect the electric waves, such as high buildings. Spectrum survey aims to
know if the electromagnetic environment around the base station and the antenna at
present and in the near future is in good condition. Address survey is focused on the
conditions for installing antenna and equipment, power supply and natural
environment. The focus of the following description is on the installation and design of
antenna.
5.2.1 Environment for Antenna Installation
Installation environment involves the environment near the antenna and the
environment around the base station. For the environment near the antenna, the
interval between antennas and the effect of an iron tower and building floors on the
antenna are the main concern. For the environment around the base station, attention
is mainly focused on the effect of buildings less than 500 meters high on transmission.
To install a directional antenna on a wall, the antenna transmitting direction is
preferably perpendicular to the wall. If its azimuth angle must be adjusted, the included
angle between the antenna transmitting direction and the wall is required to exceed
75°. In this case, as long as the front-to-back ratio of antenna is more than 20dB, the
effect of signals reflected from the wall in its negative direction on those in the radiating
direction will be rather meager, as shown in Figure 5-1.
4-4
no more than 15
antennas direction vertical direction
Figure 5-1 Included Angle Between the Antenna and the Wall in Installation
To get a most desirable coverage, the headroom around the antenna is required to be 50
100m. For 900M GSM, the radius of first fresnel zone within this range is about 5m, which
means that the base of the base station antenna should be 5 meters higher than its environment.
By making a wise use of the height of the buildings around it, we are able to attain the base
station coverage as we have expected.
The requirement on the headroom around the antenna is shown in Figure 5-2.
antenna
5
(a)
antenna
<50-100m <50-100m
<5m
(b)
Figure 5-2 Headroom Requirement for Antenna
In installing antennas for a base station, we should also make sure if the antennas will
produce a large shadow in its coverage area. The huge barriers near the base station
such as high buildings and mountains often cause shadows. Thus, we should try to
avoid these barriers in installing the antennas. When a directional antenna is installed
on top of a building, attention must be paid to keeping the edges of the building from
holding up beam radiation. The antenna should be installed close to the building
edges, so as to reduce or eliminate shadows. As the building roofs are diversified and
complex, when the antenna is to be installed away from the building edges, the
antenna should be placed higher than the roof. At this moment, consideration must be
given to the bearing of the roof and the antenna under stress against the wind in terms
of engineering. Without regard to the effect of the antenna’s declination angle, the
following two tables give the recommended height of the antenna from the roof in the
case of GSM900 and GSM1800.
z GSM900
Distance from the antenna to the building edge
Height from antenna base to building roof H(m)
D(m)
0 1 0.5
1 10 2
10 30 3
>30 3.5
4-5
z GSM1800
Distance from the antenna to the building
Height from antenna base to building roof H(m)
edge D(m)
0 2 0.5
2 10 1
>10 2
5.2.2 Antenna Separation in GSM System
To avoid inter-modulation interference, there must be space between the receiver and
transmitter of the base station: Tx-Rx: 30dB; Tx-Tx: 30dB. This is also applicable to
the shared-address system for GSM900 and GSM1800. The antenna separation is
subject to the antenna radiation directional diagram, spatial distance and gain with no
regard to the attenuation caused by voltage standing wave ratio. It is worked out as
follows:
For vertical arrangement layout, v=28+40lg(k/λ) (dB)
For horizontal arrangement layout, Lv=22+20lg(d/λ)-(G1+G2)-(S1+S2) (dB)
Where Lv refers to required separation, λ is the length of carrier wave, k is vertical
separation, d is horizontal separation, G1, G2 are respectively the gains of the
transmitting antenna and receiving antenna in their maximum radiation direction (dBi),
and S1, S2 are respectively the secondary lobe level of the transmitting antenna and
receiving antenna in the direction of 90° (dBp, negative value relative to master beam).
Normally, 65° fan-shaped beam antenna S is about -18dBp, 90°fan-shaped beam
antenna S is -9dBp, and 120° fan-shaped beam antenna S is -7dBp, subject to the
special antenna directional diagram. In the event of omni-antenna, S is 0.
The antenna mount for GSM900 and GSM1800 systems should meet the following
requirements:
z Directional antenna
In the same system, the horizontal interval between the two antennas in the same
sector is equal to or more than 4m; the horizontal interval between the two antennas in
the same sector is equal to or more than 0.5m;
Between the two systems, when the two antennas of the same sector are in the same
direction, the horizontal interval between the antennas is equal to or more than 1m;
The vertical interval of antenna is equal to or more than 0.5 meters; the distance from
the antenna base to the enclosing wall on the roof is equal or more than 0.5 meters;
The included angle between the line connecting the lower antenna edge with the
antenna face pointing to the roof and the horizontal direction is more than 150;
The included angle between the connecting line of two antenna mounts and the
antenna direction should fall within the following range:
Antenna horizontal plane lobe width 60-70 90 120
Included angle between the connecting line of two antenna >40 45 >55 >70
mounts and the antenna direction
z Omni-antenna
antenna horizontal interval 10 meters or antenna vertical interval 0.5 meter; the
distance from the lower antenna edge to the enclosing wall on the building roof 0.5
meter.
4-6
5.2.3 Antenna Separation Form GSM and CDMA Base Station
The analysis of CDMA and GSM system interference should be based on the relation
between the frequency of two systems and their characteristics in transmitting and
receiving so as to study the interference in detail. The interference mainly involves the
following three aspects: scattering interference, block interference and inter-
modulation interference. Of these three different interferences, scattering interference
plays a major part and has the most effect. Thus it is the key concern in network
design. As there is less inter-modulation interference and block interference than the
scattering interference, it is not discussed herein. Take the scattering interference of
CDMA2000 1X against GSM900 for explanation.
Currently, the frequency bands of China Unicom’s CDMA2000 1X and the present
GSM900 are as follows:
BTS transmission (MHz) BTS receiving (MHz)
GSM900 935-960 890-915
CDMA 870-880 825-835
As the two are too close to each other, interference against each other will easily occur.
Mostly, the transmission from CDMA2000 1X will interfere with GSM900, which
receives disclosure signal beyond the CDMA band and fall within the channels of GSM
receiver, thus raising the noise level of GSM receiver only to worsen GSM uplink,
reduce the coverage of the base station, and worsen the network quality. If there is no
enough separation between two base stations or the send filter interfering the base
station fails to provide enough outband attenuation, then the signals falling into the
band width of the interfered base station might be very strong, and thus increase the
noise threshold of the receiver. The degree in system performance fall depends on the
intensity of interference signals, which in turn remain subject to the performance of the
sending unit of interfering base station, the performance of receiving unit of interfered
base station, frequency band interval and antenna separation.
The diagram of an interference model is shown as follows:
Figure 5-3 Diagram of Interference Model
Seen from Figure 5-3, the signals output from the amplifier of interference source base station
are first filtered by the send filter, then attenuate accordingly due to the separation between two
base stations, and finally they are received by the receiver of the interfered base station. The
power of scattering interference arriving at the antenna terminal of the interfered base station
can be expressed in the following formula:
WB int erf ered
Ib PTX−AMP Pattenuation I isolation 10 lg WB int erf ering
4-7
where, Ib refers to the interference level (dBm)received at the receiving terminal of the
interfered base station, PTX-AMP is the power (dBm) output from the interference source
amplifier, Pattenuation is the outband suppressed attenuation of the send filter, Iisolation
refers to the separation (dB) between base station antennas, WBinterfered is the signal
bandwidth of interfered base station, and WBinterfering refers to the measurable
bandwidth of interference signals, also understood as the defined bandwidth of the
scattering radiation. In figuring out the interference level of the interfered base station,
the difference and conversion between the two should be taken into consideration.
Regulate the above formula, and we will get:
WB int erf ered
I isolation PTX−AMP Pattenuation Ib 10 lg WB int erf ering
If the CDMA2000 1X transmitting frequency band is the last one at high end, that is 878.49MHz.
CDMA2000 1X amplification output with the scattering falling within 890-915MHz -
13dBm/100kHz. The specific measures for realization is to filter and combine each transmitting
frequency band using a band-limiting filter with a bandwidth of only 1.23MHz. The band-limiting
filter of this kind has great outband attenuation, and attenuates at 890MHz up to 56dB and at
909MHz up to 80dB. All things considered, the worst of all is that the high end of CDMA system
interferes with the frequency at the lowest end of GSM system.
Then,
Iisolation = (-13dBm/100kHz)- 56 - Ib 10lg (200kHz/100kHz)
Ib is the maximum interference level (dBm) received by interference base station allowed at its
receiving antenna terminal. To ensure that the sensitivity is not affected, the external
interference level is required to be lower than the bottom receiver noise by 10dB. In this case,
the affected sensitivity amounts to around 0.5 dB. The bottom noise of GSM receiver is: noise
density × bandwidth noise coefficient. Suppose the receiver noise coefficient is 8, the
bottom noise is expressed in logarithm as follows:
174 noise coefficient lg(200000)=-174+53+8 113dBm. Then the possible maximum

scattering interference is:
-113-10 -123dBm/200kHz
This requires the scattering interference or intermodulation of other systems falling on GSM
receiver should be less than this value. Only in this way will it cause serious interference against
GSM system.
Thus, we can get the following:
Iisolation = (-13dBm/100kHz)- 56 - Ib 10lg (200kHz/100kHz)
= -13 - 56 - (-123dBm/200kHz) + 10lg (200kHz/100kHz) = 57

dBm/200kHz
In other words, whether CDMA antenna and GSM900 antenna share a station address, there
should be a separation of 57dB between them.
There are many ways to reduce the interference: make the spatial distance between
the antennas enough; filter outband channel noises of receiver with the receiver
placed on different equipment, such as receiver, multiplexer and separator.
I. On equipment interference
As stipulated in IA/EIA-97 protocol, the scattering interference of CDMA antenna

interface falling with the receiving frequency band of GSM900 should be less than -13
dBm/100kHz, that is, CDMA system will cause serious interference against GSM900.
On this basis, we consider the problem of interferences between the two and shared-
address construction in the initial design. To be specific, at each transmitting frequency
band, use a band-limiting filter with a bandwidth of 1.23MHz for filtering and
4-8
combination. This band limiting will attenuate greatly outside the band, so as to reduce
the requirement for spatial distance.
II. Requirment of antenna separation
To minimize the above interferences, it is required to keep a proper separation

between the antennas of two systems. To quote the formula as defined in Section
5.2.2:
For vertical arrangement layout, Lv=28+40lg(k/λ)(dB)
For horizontal arrangement layout, Lv=22+20lg(d/λ)-(G1+G2)-(S1+S2)(dB)
Here are several circumstances to explain the requirement on the separation between
CDMA and GSM900 antennas:
1) CDMA and GSM900 antennas do not share a station address with antennas
installed horizontally opposite each other (or shared-address omni-antenna).
Suppose the effective gains between the two antennas in the maximum radiation
direction are 10dBi respectively (feeder line loss considered) with interference signals
of 890MHz. According to the foregoing analysis, the separation between CDMA2000
1X equipment and GSM should be at least 57dB.
According to the above formula, we can get the following:
57=22 20lg(Dh/λ) (10+10)
The horizontal interval between the two base station antennas d 180m
Effective antenna gain in the
Separation requirement (dB) Antenna interval requirement (m)
direction of radiation (dBi)
10 57 180
15 57 569
2) CDMA and GSM900 antennas share a station address (antennas placed on the
same platform and separated horizontally), directional antenna.
Suppose GSM900 and CDMA20001X antennas are placed horizontally and both
adopt 65 degree antennas; Suppose the antenna gains of GSM and CDMA20001x in
the direction of radiation are both 15dBi.
65°antenna plane side lobe is about -18dB in the direction of 90 degrees and then the
effective gains in the said direction are 15-18 -3dBi.
57=22 20lg(Dh/λ) (15+15) + ((-18)+ (-18))
According to the above formula, we conclude that the horizontal interval between the
antennas is d 9m.
Effective antenna gain in the
Separation requirement (dB) Antenna interval requirement (m)
direction of radiation (dBi)
10 57 3
15 57 9
3) CDMA and GSM900 antenna share a station address (antennas are scattered on
different platforms of the iron tower and vertically separated), omni-antenna and
directional antenna.
57=28+40lg(k/λ)
From the above formula, we come to an conclusion that the vertical interval between
the antennas is 为 d 1.7m.
4-9
What is described above is a way of deduction. In practical networking, we will have to

install antennas of other type at shared address, which requires us to figure it out on
our own in combination with the equipment indexes. The indexes of importance are as
follows: scattering radiation, calculation of interference power of the interference
signals against the interfered equipment and calculation of antenna separation.
5.2.4 Antenna Installation Interval
Diversity technology is one of the most effective measures to withstand attenuation. If

the two antennas on the plane are 10 wavelengths away from each other, attenuation
will be reduced. Although the receiving diversity requires two or more ports, it
obviously reduces attenuation, thus reducing the power of a mobile station and
improving the transmission quality, which serves as an advantage to the entire system.
In the event of space diversity, the distance between the two receiving antennas is
12 18λ; 1λ=0.32m (900MHz); 1λ=0.16m (1800MHz). In general, the horizontal
interval between diversity antennas stands at 0.11 times that of the effective height of
the antenna. The higher the antenna is installed, its horizontal interval of diversity
antenna will be greater. But when antenna interval is 6m, it is very difficult to install an
antenna to the tower. In addition, for diversity reception, vertical separation is required
to stand at 5 6 times that of the same diversity gain. Generally, in actual project, we
do not adopt vertical diversity but vertical separation, especially for omni-antenna.
When the effective installation height of diversity antenna is less than 30m, and
diversity antenna interval is less than 3m, the two pairs of antenna are within each
other’s near field, thus distorting the antenna directional diagram. In order to keep the
fluctuation of directional diagram caused by the effect of the two antennas upon each
other below 2dB, the diversity distance should be more than 3 meters in the event of
any antenna effective height.
In addition, attention should be paid to the following in the event of space diversity: to
cover a highroad, we generally make the connecting line (diversity plane) of two
receiving antennas perpendicular to the highroad.
Note: space diversity distance(4--6m for GSM)

actual installed distance
Figure 5-4 Diagram of Antenna Space Diversity Distance
The following table shows the requirement for GSM antenna interval (suppose there is
no barrier between the antennas; in practical project, for example, the iron tower holds
up between all omni-antennas, the horizontal interval can be reduced obviously):
Omni-antenna:
Separation requirement: TX-TX, TX-RX: 30dB
Vertical interval
Horizontal interval Remark
(recommended)
4-10
Antenna from tower

GSM900: TX-TX, TX-RX 0.5m Gain=10dBi: 10m
2m
Antenna from
GSM1800: TX-TX, TX-RX 0.25m Gain=10dBi: 5m
tower2m
GSM900+GSM1800: Antenna from
0.5m Gain=10dBi: 1m
TX-TX, TX-RX tower2m
Diversity requirement:
Antenna from
GSM900: RX-RX ------ 4m(recommended 6m) tower2m
2m(recommended Antenna from
GSM1800: RX-RX ------
3m) tower2m
Directional antenna:
Required separation between TX-TX, TX-RX: 30dB
Antenna of the same sector Vertical interval Horizontal interval Remark
No effect of the iron
tower structure in
GSM900: TX-TX, TX-RX 0.5m 4m
antenna forwarding
direction
tower structure in
GSM1800: TX-TX, TX-RX 0.25m 2m
antenna forwarding
direction
Adjacent sector antenna (placed on the same
Vertical interval Horizontal interval Remark
platform)
GSM900: TX-TX/TX-RX ------ 0.5m
GSM1800: TX-TX/TX-RX ----- 0.5m
Diversity requirement
4m tower structure in
GSM900: RX-RX ------
(recommended 6m) antenna forwarding
direction
2m tower structure in
GSM1800: RX-RX ------
(recommended 3m) antenna forwarding
direction
GSM900 and GSM1800 are installed in flexible forms, but whatever the form, GSM900
antenna and GSM1800 antenna shall meet the aforementioned requirements for
their respective interval.
4-11
5.3 Link Budget

After the project parameters for the base station are specified, it is necessary to work
out a link budget in order to further estimate its coverage. At this moment, it is required
to consider the sensitivity of the base station equipment selected. In mobile
communication system, the radio link is divided into uplink and downlink. An excellent
system should implement power budgeting in design, so as to strike a balance
between the uplink signals and downlink signals within the coverage area. Otherwise,
if the uplink signal coverage is greater than the downlink signal coverage, and the
downlink signals on the edge of cell are relatively weaker, such signals will easily be
“engulfed” by the strong signals from other cells; if the downlink signal coverage is
greater than the uplink signal coverage, the mobile station will be forced to wait under
this coverage, but the uplink signals are too weak and thus the voice quality is not
good enough. Of course, balance is not necessarily absolute equality. From the survey
report on Abis interface, we can judge clearly whether there is a balance between the
uplink and downlink signals. Normally, when the level difference between the uplink
and downlink signals reaches the sensitivity difference between base station receiver
and mobile phone receiver, it is deemed that a balance is reached. However, as the
fading of uplink and downlink channels is not totally the same, and as a result of such
factors as the difference in receiver noise deterioration performance, this difference
will generally fluctuate within a range of 2-3dB.
5.3.1 Link Budget Model
Figure 5-5 Link Estimation Model
To figure out uplink and downlink balance, it is necessary to take into account of a very
important component. The active parts of the bases station receiving system and the
thermal movement in RF conductor will cause heat noises, which reduce the signal-
to-noise ratio (S/N) of system reception, so that it restricts the base station sensitivity
from rising and reduces the communication quality. The principle for tower amplifier is
to add a low noise amplifier at the front end of base station receiving system, i.e. close
to the receiving antenna, so as to improve the receiving performance of the base
station.
4-12
In terms of technical principle, the tower amplification is to reduce the noise coefficient
of base station receiving system so as to improve the service quality inside the service
area. In this way, it functions to improve the receiving performance of the base station.
The contributions made by the power amplifier to the uplink shall be distinguished in
light of the performance of its own low noise amplifier rather than only based on the
gains. Normally, the uplink and downlink balance with amplifier added should be
modified and worked out according to the test method for its practical sensitivity.
I. No tower amplifier
Without a tower amplifier, the input interface of the multiplexer on top of the cabinet
should be taken as the reference point for sensitivity.
For a downlink signal link, the power of base station transmitter is Poutb, the combiner
loss is Lcb, feeder line loss is Lfb, base station antenna gain is Gab, the loss of space
transmission is Ld, the mobile station antenna gain is Gam, the receiving level of the
mobile station is Pinm, its fading margin is Mf and the noise deterioration at the side of
mobile station is Pmn. Then it follows:
Pinm+Mf=Poutb-Lcb-Lfb+Gab-Ld+Gam-Pmn (1)
For uplink signal link, the output power of the mobile station transmitter is Poutm, base
station diversity receives a gain of Gdb, the receiving level of the base station is Pinb
and noise deterioration at the side of mobile station is Pbn. In accordance with the
principle of reciprocity, the gain received and sent by the antenna is equal. Then it
follows:
Pinb+Mf=Poutm+Gam-Ld+Gab+Gdb-Lfb-Pbn (2)
Normally, Pmn Pbn, after consolidation, the following equation appears
Poutb=Poutm+Gdb+(Pinm-Pinb)+Lcb ( 3)
II. With tower amplifier
The tower amplifier input interface is taken as the reference point for sensitivity if there
is a tower amplifier. It is not necessary to consider the loss of uplink feeder line, thus
Equation (3) will change to Equation (4):
Poutb=Poutm+Gdb+(Pinm-Pinb)+Lcb+Lfb (4)
5.3.2 Reference point for base station sensitivity
I. Definition of sensitivity
Receiver sensitivity refers to the minimum signal level needed to be input from the
receiver input terminal under the circumstances where the receiver meets certain bit
error rate.
To measure receiver sensitivity aims to check the performance of receiver analog RF
circuit, intermediate frequency circuit, and modulation and decoder circuit.
Performances to measure receiver error bit rate are the three parameters including
FER, RBER and BER. When the function of bit error detection in the receiver indicates
a frame is at fault, this frame will be defined as deleted. FER is defined as the ratio of
the deleted frames to the frames received. For full rate voice channel, this is normally
caused when 3-bit cyclic redundancy check (CRC) detects errors or bad frame
indication (BFI) arising from other processing functions occurs. For signaling channel,
4-13
this is usually caused when the Fire code (FIRE) or other group codes detect errors.
No definition of FER is available for data services.
RBER is defined as the bit error rate of those not announced as deleted frames. That
is the ratio of number of bit errors in the fame detected as “good” to the total number of
bits transmitted in “good” frames.
Bit error rate (BER) is defined as the ratio of bit errors received to all the data bits
transmitted.
As channel bit error rate is random, we normally measure the receiver bit error rate by
statistical measurement. That is, conduct several sample measurements on each
channel. When the number of sample measurements is definite, and the bit error rate
gained from every measurement falls within a certain range of test errors, it is deemed
that bit error rate of this channel has met the requirement on bit error rate as stipulated.
The limit value of sampled number and test bit error should meet the following
requirements:
(1) For each independent sample test, the times through a “bad” unit should be kept as
low as possible (probability lower than0.2%);
(2) For each independent sample test, there is a high possibility of passing through a
“bad” unit probability higher than 99.7%};
(3) The measurement involves the statistical characteristic of height;
(4) The time for test should be reduced to the minimum.
As a result, we can measure the receiver sensitivity by measuring if the receiver bit
error rate meets the requirements as stipulated while inputting sensitivity level to the
receiver.
In light of different transmission conditions, the requirements for reference sensitivity
level under two conditions are stipulated with respect to receiver sensitivity: static
reference sensitivity level and multi-path reference sensitivity level. Let’s talk about the
requirements and measurement for these two kinds sensitivity level in GSM system as
follows.
Static reference sensitivity level
Static reference sensitivity level of a receiver is the signal level added by a standard
test signal to the receiver input terminal. At this point, of the data produced after
receiver demodulation and channel decoding, its FER, RBER or BER is better than or
equal to the value stipulated under static transmission condition for a specified type of
channel (such as FACCH, SDCCH, RACH and TCH).
Multi-path reference sensitivity level
Multi-path reference sensitivity level of a receiver is the signal level of a standard test
signal at the receiver input terminal. At this point, of the data produced after receiver
demodulation and channel decoding, its FER, RBER or BER is better than or equal to
the value stipulated under multi-path transmission condition for the specified type of
channel (such as FACCH, SDCCH, RACH and TCH). Typical multi-path transmission
conditions include TU50 (at a urban car speed of 50km/h), RA250 (at a speed of
250km/h in rural areas) and HT100 (at a speed of 100km/h in hill environment) etc.
Besides, attention should be paid to the following differences in defining the sensitivity:
without diversity sensitivity, with diversity sensitivity; the difference in bit error and error
frame indicator under the status of frequency hopping and no frequency hopping.
4-14
II. Sensitivity test point in the event of tower amplifier
Fi
Figure 5-6 Sensitivity Test on Base Station with Tower Amplifier
III. Sensitivity test point without tower amplifier
Figure 5-7 Sensitivity test of base station without tower amplifier
4-15
5.4 Design of Coverage Area
In practical project planning, the effective coverage of base station is subject to the
following factors: effective transmitting power of base station, the work frequency band
(900MHz and 1800MHz) used, the type and position of antenna, power budget, radio
transmission environment and the coverage indexes required by the equipment buyer.
Let’s combine the requirement on service quality index for mobile communication
network (for example), and through examples, give the coverage of base station
theoretically under various coverage requirements.
Minimum receiving
Application environment Other indexes
power (dBm)
Mobile phone sensitivity -102 dBm, fast fading protection
3dB, slow fading protection (indoors) 7dB (slow normal
Received by mobile phone, divergency, indoor 7dB, outdoors 8dB, reachability of
-70
inside the building 90% within the coverage area), penetration loss of
18dB, interference noise of 2dB, environmental noise
fading protection 2dB.
Received by mobile phone, Mobile phone sensitivity -102 dBm, fast fading protection
in a small sleeper car or 3dB, slow fading protection 5dB, penetration loss of
-80
inside the room on the first 10dB, interference noise of 2dB, environmental noise
floor of an ordinary building protection 2dB.
Mobile phone sensitivity -102 dBm, fast fading protection
Outdoors -90 3dB, slow fading protection 5dB, interference noise of
2dB, environmental noise protection 2dB.
Suppose:
z GSM900 and GSM1800 base station antennas are both 30 meters high;
z The sensitivity of GSM900 2W (33dBm) mobile station is -102dBm, and
-100dBm for 1800 1W (30dBm) mobile station;
z The mobile station antenna is as high as 1.5 meters with a gain of 0dB;
z When M900 uses CDU, its sensitivity is -110dBm; and M1800 sensitivity
is -108dBm;
z CDU insertion loss is 5.5dB, SCU insertion loss is 6.8dB;
z 65-degree directional antenna gain is 13dBd (M900) and 16dBd
(M1800);
z The feeder line is as long as 50m, 4.03dBm/100 meters (900MHz), and
5.87dB/100 meters (1800MHz);
z Select Okumura transmission model;
z Ordinary urban environment.
The calculation results are as follows:
(1) M900 outdoors coverage radius in urban areas
Mobile phone minimum receiving level is Pmr min = −90dBm. Coverage radius should be
the maximum transmitting power of TRX. The maximum transmitting power of M900
TRX amounts to W (46dBm).
40
The effective radiation power of base station antenna is:
4-16
EIRP = Pbt − L com − L bf + Ga b = 46 − 5.5 − 2.01 + 13 + 2.15 = 53.65dBm
Where L com is combiner loss, L bf is feeder line loss and Ga b is the gain of base
station antenna,
and maximum transmission loss possible is:
L p = EIRP − Pmr min = 53.65 − (−90 ) = 143.65dB
According to Okumura transmission model as described above:

L p = 69.55 + 26.16 lg f − 13.82 lg h b + (44.90 − 6.55 lg h b ) lg d − A h m
where h b refers to the height of base station antenna, h m is the height of mobile
phone antenna, and f =900MHz.
A h m = (1.1 lg f − 0.7 )h m − (1.56 lg f − 0.8 ) = 0.01dB
Substitute the above equation with each known member, and the result is d = 2.8km.
(2) M900 inside a building in urban area
Mobile phone minimum receiving level Pmr min = −70dBm.

L p = EIRP − Pmr min = 53.65 − (−70 ) = 123.65dB
d = 0.75km
This indicates the base station can cover an area of 2.8km in radius, but for the users
on the first floor of a building 750m away from the base station, the reception quality
falls short of the requirement.
(3) M900 coverage radius in the suburbs
mobile phone minimum receiving level Pmr min = −90dBm

L p = EIRP − Pmr min = 53.65 − (−90 ) = 143.65dB
Okumura transmission model for urban areas should be modified as follows:
L p = 69.55 + 26.16 lg f − 13.82 lg h b + (44.90 − 6.55 lg h b ) lg d

− A h m − 2[lg(f/28 )] 2 − 5.4
So d = 5.4km
It is obvious that in terms of the same configuration of base station, the coverage
radius base station in the suburb is better than that in the urban area.
(4) M1800 outdoor coverage radius in the urban area
mobile phone minimum receiving level Pmr min = −90dBm. As the maximum transmitting
power of M1800 TRX amounts to 40W(46dBm), the coverage radius should be the
maximum transmitting power of TRX.
EIRP = Pbt − L com − L bf + Ga b = 46 − 5.5 − 2.93 + 16 + 2.15 = 55.73dBm
L p = EIRP − Pmr min = 145.73dB
For 1800MHz, Okumura transmission model is:

L p = 46.3 + 33.9 lg f − 13.82 lg h b + (44.90 − 6.55 lg h b ) lg d − A hm
4-17
Besides, f = 1800 MHz, A h m = (1.1 lg f − 0.7 )h m − (1.56 lg f − 0.8 ) = 0.04dB

Substitute the above expression with each known member, and the result will be d =
1.7km.
(5) M1800 inside the room of an urban building
mobile phone minimum receiving level Pmr min = −70dBm.

L p = EIRP − Pmr min = 55.73 − (−70 ) = 125.73dB
d = 0.46km.
This indicates the base station is able to cover an area of 1.7km in radius, but for the
users on the first floor of a building 500m away from the base station, the reception
quality falls short of the requirement. The said results are summarized in the following
table:
Mobile phone
TRX transmitting Coverage radius
Application environment minimum receiving
power (W) (km)
power (dBm)
Inside the room of a
M900 40 -70 0.75
building
Outdoors in urban
40 -90 2.80
areas
In the suburbs 40 -90 5.40
Outdoors in urban
M1800 40 -90 1.70
areas
Inside the room of a
40 -70 0.46
building
From the table, it is clear that the coverage of M1800 is less than that of M900 and the
coverage of an urban base station is less than that in the suburb.
5.5 Capacity Distribution
5.5.1 Voice channel distribution
The capacity of base station refers to the number of channels to be configured for a
base station or a cell. It involves the number of radio voice channels and number of
control channels. According to the range of base station or cell and user density
distribution, figure out the total number of users, and then according to the index for
radio channel call loss and traffic, refer to Erl B table and work out the number of voice
channels to be configured.
(1) According to the bandwidth and multiplexing mode currently used for GSM network
within the planned area, we can get the maximum CF number to be configured with a
base station;
(2) Each CF has 8 channels; minus the number of control channels, we will get the
maximum number of voice channels to be configured with each base station;
(3) According to the number of voice number and call loss index (generally 2% for
dense traffic area and 5% for other areas), refer to Erl B table, and get the maximum
traffic a base station is able to load (Erl number);
(4) Divide this Erl number by the average user traffic when busy, and you will get the
maximum number of users a base station is able to satisfy;
4-18
(5) Using the data for user density, we may find out the coverage area of this base
station;
(6) When a region with different user density are specified, we can work out the
number of base stations to be configured through the area of the region with this user
density and the actual coverage area of the base station as known above;
(7) For important places, it is necessary to consider the backup of base station and the
realization of CF mutual aid function; at least two base stations are needed for an
important county and at least two CF for an important sector;
(8) For areas with possible bursting traffic (competition venues and seasonal tourist
resorts etc.), the resources for equipment (carrier frequency, microcell etc.) and
frequency resources should be reserved in advance;
(9) Such dynamic factors as roaming ratio, user mobility factor, new service
development (GPRS, WAP and SMS etc.), industry competition, rate change, one-way
toll and economic growth should be taken into account;
(10) To configure a base station, it is necessary to consider ABIS interface
transmission, such as the use of ABIS interface at 15:1 and 12:1 and cascading etc.,
and save transmission while meeting the capacity;
(11) Actively adopt cellular system plus distributed antennas to meet the urban
coverage and capacity; use economical micro base stations to provide coverage for
rural areas and high roads and use HDSL for transmission in these areas;
(12) Reserve in advance some CF, micro cells and micro base stations to cover newly
developed areas and for the selection in the optimization period;
(13) In some special areas, base stations made up of omni-directional/directional
mixed cells can be used to give full reign to their respective edges in coverage and
capacity. In this case, attention should be paid to the separation between the omni-
antenna and directional antenna. Installation in light of layers is preferred; in terms of
traffic control, algorithm in light of layers can be used for control;
(14) For some highroads requiring little traffic but large coverage, we may resort to
0.5+0.5 cell networking mode with single CF micro base station + power divider + two
sets of directional antennas.
Erl traffic model is used to work out the traffic density a network is capable of bearing.
Call loss may be 2% or 5% in light of practical conditions. Erl B table is shown as
follows:
CF number for each TCH Traffic (Erl)
cell number
2% 5%
1 6 2.27 2.96
2 14 8.2 9.73
3 21 14.03 16.18
4 29 21.03 23.82
5 36 27.33 30.65
6 44 34.68 38.55
7 52 42.1 46.53
8 59 48.7 53.55
9 67 56.25 61.63
10 75 63.9 69.73
From the above table, we can see that the larger the number of cell CF, the large the
call loss rate. The larger traffic each TCH is able to bear, the higher utilization rate of
TCH channel is. Channel utilization rate is an important indicator for assessing the
quality of planning and design. If the number of users in a base station is too small, the
construction unit will generally consider delaying the construction of this base station.
4-19
As a result of the limit on cell coverage and usable frequency bandwidth, it is

necessary to plan the cell capacity in a rational way in an effort to improve the channel
utilization rate under the precondition of ensuring sound voice quality. In considering
the share of traffic between these two in constructing a dual frequency network, wider
frequency bandwidth can be used to realize high utilization rate of the channel.
It is discovered in practical application that when the actual traffic via each line of a
base station cell reaches 85% 90% of TCH traffic (call loss 2%) given in Erl B table,
the probability of congestion in this base station cell will obviously rise. As a result, we
generally take 85% of the traffic as defined in Erl B table as the reference for the traffic
density a computer network is able to bear. These data estimated for traffic capacity
needs to be counted and completed gradually in the course of network construction.
I. Example:
The capacity of local network requires expansion. In accordance with service

development and in combination of population growth and network popularization,
users will reach 100,000 in 2 years; considering roaming factor (according to traffic
statistics and development trend) 10%, mobile factor (It mainly refers to the users
moves within the local network instead of roaming) 10%, dynamic factor 15% (with
bursting traffic considered), then we know that the network capacity as required is 10*
(1+10%+10%+15%)=135,000; however, in consideration of congestion, we generally
use 85% of the traffic as given in Erl B table as the reference for the traffic density that
the computer is able to bear; as a result, the designed network capacity is
13.5/(85%)=158,800, i.e. 160,000.
5.5.2 Configuration of control channel
I. SDCCH distribution
In GSM system, most of the time during the general call creation process and position
update process, the mobile station works on SDCCH channel. The following table is
the configuration principles recommended for SDCCH.
General configuration
General configuration Configuration of the edge of
TRX number (use Immediate ass. on
(SDCCH/8 + SDCCH/4) location area
TCH)
1 SDCCH/4 SDCCH/4 SDCCH/4
2 SDCCH/8 SDCCH/8 SDCCH/4
3 SDCCH/8 + SDCCH/4 SDCCH/8 + SDCCH/4 SDCCH/8
4 SDCCH/8 + SDCCH/4 2*SDCCH/8 SDCCH/8
5 2*SDCCH/8 2*SDCCH/8 SDCCH/4 + SDCCH/8
6 2*SDCCH/8 2*SDCCH/8+SDCCH/4 2*SDCCH/8
7 2*SDCCH/8+SDCCH/4 3*SDCCH/8 2*SDCCH/8
8 3*SDCCH/8 3*SDCCH/8 SDCCH/4 + 2 * SDCCH/8
It is very difficult to sum up a traffic model for SDCCH channel. In particular, it even
becomes almost impossible to do so after the large-scale application of layered
network and short messages. Fortunately, the equipment of some manufactures at the
present supports SDCCH dynamic allocation. SDCCH channel dynamic allocation
enables the dynamic adjustment of SDCCH capacity, so as to reduce the congestion
of SDCCH channel congestion, reduce the effect of SDCCH channel initial
configuration on system performance and increase the system capacity. This function
mainly involves the following aspects: dynamic allocation from SDCCH to TCH
channel and restoration from SDCCH to TCH channel. Use dynamic allocation
algorithm, and determine whether to perform dynamic configuration according to the
input parameters: at a point when the cell’s SDCCH chancel is busy and the number of
idle TCH channels exceeds a certain value, then the idle TCH channels will be
4-20
converted to SDCCH channels according to corresponding setting. After a while, when

the cell’s SDCCH channel stays idle, BSC will restore SDCCH channel dynamically
allocated to TCH channel.
II. CCCH allocation
Public control channels mainly include AGCH, PCH and RACH intended to send
access grant (i.e. immediate assignment) and paging message. All service channels
of each cell share CCCH channel. CCCH channel may either share the same physical
channel (one time slot) with SDCCH or solely use a physical channel. The related
CCCH channel parameters include the following: [CCCH configuration], [number of
access grant reserved channels], [frame number coding between identical paging].
[CCCH configuration] serves to designate the type of CCCH channel configuration, i.e.
Whether to share a physical channel with SDCCH channel. In the case of 1 or 2 TRX
in the cell, it is recommended that CCCH channel occupy one physical channel and
share it with SDCCH; in the case of 3 or 4 TRX, it is recommended that CCCH channel
occupy one physical channel and does not share it with SDCCH channel; in the case
of more than 4 TRX, it is recommended to work out the capacity of paging channel in
CCCH and perform specific configuration.
[number of access grant reserved channels]decides the ratio occupied by paging
channel and access grant channel on CCCH. The two parameters of [number of
access grant reserved channels] and [CCCH configuration] determine the capacity of
access grant channels. The value of [number of access grant reserved channel} in
principle is: on the precondition of ensuring the access grant channel is not overloaded,
minimize the said parameter as much as possible in order to shorten the time for
mobile station to respond to paging, so as to improve the service performance of the
system.
[frame number coding between identical paging]decides how many paging sub-
channels the paging group of a cell is divided into. In this way, along with [CCCH
channel configuration] and [number of access grant reserved channels] jointly
determines the total number of paging sub-channels in a cell. As each subscriber to
the mobile station (corresponding to each IMSI) belongs to a paging group, every
paging group in each cell corresponds to a paging sub-channel. The mobile station will
work out the paging group where it belongs in light of its own IMSI. After that, it works
out the position of the paging sub-channels belonging to the said paging group. In
practical network, the mobile station only listens in the contents in the paging sub-
channel it belongs to with no regard to the contents in other paging sub-channels.
5.6 Location Area Design
5.6.1 Definition of location area
Under GSM protocol, the entire mobile communication network is divided into
difference service areas in light of different location area codes, and the network calls
the entire location area in order to call the mobile user. The functions of a location area
are described as follows: call connection with mobile users should be created at the
side of network. It is necessary to record the location information about the said mobile
user at any time, so that the user may be called when necessary. The basic
information about the current location of local registered users (information about
MSC/VLR where the user is connected) is kept in the equipment at network side;
MSC/VLR, the equipment at network side, keeps the basic information and location
information about all the mobile users stationed currently under this MSC (information
about specific location area); SIM cards of mobile subscribers store the location
4-21
information of these users (specific information about location area). When a mobile
station is in service, after locked to a broadcast channel, compare the location
information, that is, compare to check if the location area information stored in SIM
card is consistent with that delivered by the broadcast channel. If inconsistent, the
mobile station will start up location update. The task of location update is to register
new location area in the current MSC/VLR. If MSC/VLR is discovered to have changed,
it is then necessary to send signaling to the registration place to modify MSC/VLR
information in HLR and delete old MSC/VLR information. When the mobile station is in
standby state, it will continuously intercept the location area information of broadcast
channels. Once it discovers the location information in SIM card is inconsistent with
the location information delivered by the broadcast channel, it will start up location
update without delay. When the mobile station is in communication state, it will
intercept the location information delivered by an associated channel. When it
discovers the location information stored in SIM card is inconsistent with the
information delivered from the associated channel, after the communication is over, it
will start up location update immediately. To ensure the paging to mobile subscriber is
not lost, it is requested that the location information kept in HLR, VLR and SIM card is
consistent with each other at any time.
Location area is a basic unit underlying GSM system, that is, the paging message will
be delivered on the basis of location area with the paging messages of one mobile
user in the location area delivered to all the cells. One location area may include one
or multiple BSC but it belongs to a single MSC, as shown in Figure 5-8.
PLMN
MSC MSC
CELL CELL CELL CELL
LA LA
CELL CELL CELL CELL
CELL CELL CELL CELL

LA LA
CELL CELL CELL CELL
Figure 5-8 Division of service areas
5.6.2 Division of location areas
To specify the location of a mobile station, the coverage of each GSM PLMN will be
divided into many location areas. The size of location area (i.e. coverage of one
location area code LAC) is a very key factor in the system. The following is the
principles for location area planning:
(1) Location area cannot be divided into over large or over small areas.
If LAC covers a too small area, the mobile station will undergo an increase in location
update processes, thus increasing the signaling flow in the system; on the contrary, if
the location area covers a too large range, then the same paging message in the
network paging mobile station will be delivered in many cells, thus leading to the
overload of PCH channel, and increasing the signaling flow at Abis interface. The
calculation of location areas is related to the paging strategies of different
manufacturers. Refer to “calculation of location area” as described in the next section
for details. Generally, it is recommended that the number of TRX in each location area
4-22
is around 300. In the initial stage where the network is first constructed, as there is no
much traffic, the number of TRX one LAC is able to accommodate may be greater than
this value; however, it is very necessary to monitor PCH load and traffic growth in the
long run. Of course, to add a slave BCCH channel may increase PCH capacity
effectively at a sacrifice of one voice channel.
(2) Perform LAC area division in light of the geographic distribution and action of
mobile subscribers, so as to reach the goal that there is fewer location updates on the
edge of the location area.
In the event of discontinuous coverage between the suburb and the urban area, it is
likely that mobile phone fails to perform location update when the update time is due at
the cyclic position. After the protection time (generally set in MSC) the system will
consider IMSI undergoes hidden separation. If this goes to the urban area, the LAC in
the urban area is consistent with that in the suburb, and then some mobile phones will
not perform normal location update immediately. Thus there arise some signals, which
are not in the service areas. As a result, in allocation of location arrears, the location
areas used for ordinary suburbs (counties) are different from those in urban areas. For
this reason, the location areas are distributed in the way of a concentric circle (the
urban area in the inner circle may be divided into several location areas due to
capacity factor. Inside the circle, the division may adopt the method in light of sections
or another inner and external ring or mixed way), so as to avoid the above phenomena.
Practice has proved that the LAC division in this way may not only decrease users not
in the service area but also improve the completion rate and call successful rate, as
shown in Figure 5-9:
Figure 5-9 Diagram of LAC Division
In addition, in big cities with high traffic, if there are more than two location areas, such
geographic factors as mountains and rivers in the urban areas can be used as the
boundary of location areas, so as to reduce the overlapping depth of different cells
under the two location areas. In the event of no such geographic environment, streets
should not be taken as the boundary for dividing location areas, and the boundary
shall not put in a place with high traffic (such as shopping malls). Generally, it is
required that the boundary of location area should not be parallel or perpendicular to
4-23
the streets but in oblique crossing. In the areas where the urban area meets the
suburb, the boundary of a location area should be located at the place of base station
on the outskirts, instead of at the place where the city proper adjoins the suburb with
dense traffic, so as to avoid the users in this area updating their locations very
frequently.
A dual-frequency network requires more in respect of location area division. Here is
some experience in the construction of a dual-frequency network with regard to the
division of location area:
(1) If M1800 and M900 use a MSC separately, their location areas will surely differ. It is
required to make the mobile station stay in M1800 cell, which absorbs traffic by setting
parameters, so as to reduce the switch and repeated selection between the two
frequency bands. At the same time, the load brought to the system arising from
location update should be taken into full account in designing signaling channels.
(2) If M1800 and M900 share in one MSC, in the initial period of network construction,
as long as the system capacity permits, it is recommended to use the same location
area; if it is necessary to divide it into two or more location areas due to limited paging
capacity, there are two ways of design: divided in light of geographic locations and
frequency bands. Refer to Figure 5-10 and Figure 5-11 for details.
Figure 5-10 Divide Location Areas in Light of Frequency Band
900 Cell 900 Cell 900 Cell 900 Cell
1800 Cell 1800 Cell 1800 Cell

1800 Cell 1800小区 1800 Cell
LA1 LA2
Divide location areas in light of geographic locations
Figure 5-11 Divide Location Areas in Light of Geographic Locations
4-24
To divide location areas in light of frequency band requires setting parameters in

consideration of frequent update due to the switch and repeated selection between
two frequency bands, so that the mobile station will remain in M1800 cell, which
absorbs traffic, so as to reduce the switch and repeated selection between the two
frequency bands. At the same time, the load brought to the system arising from
location update should be taken into full account in designing signaling channels. To
divide location areas in light of geographic locations may serve to solve the problem of
frequent location update arising from dual frequency switch and repeated selection,
but it is necessary to modify the office data of the previous M900 network. At the same
time, on the boundary of a location area, there exist the location updates caused by
the switch and repeated selection at the same frequency band and dual frequency
band, thus there is much signaling flow, it is required to design the location area
boundary carefully.
5.6.3 Calculation of location areas
I. For non-combination BCCH
(1) Purpose
Work out the number of users or CF number one location area accommodates.
(2) Prerequisite
(a) All the cells are configured with a non-combination BCCH
(b) Number of reserved access grant blocks is A
Note:
z Paging block is 9-A
z 1 frame=4.615ms, 1multiframe=51frame=0.2354s, that is, there are
1/0.2354=4.25 frames within 1 second; the number of
paging blocks is: 4.25×(9-A)
(c) The number of paging messages in each paging block is B:
Note:
z Paging times each paging block is able to deliver;
z Ratio of TMSI to IMSI in paging
X×(Y/(Y+1))×1 paging sub-block +X×(1/(Y+1))×2 paging sub-block = 4
Message sub-block number of each paging X=4×(Y+1)/(Y+2)
(d) Paging resending ratio is C
(e) Time length of average call is D (unit: second)
(f) Caller: called: received point-to-point short message = E: E: F
Note:
z Each paging block consists of 23 bytes, which can send:
2 IMSI pages;
2 TMSI and 1 IMSI page;
4-25
4 TMSI pages
z Call times corresponding to each page (caller or called) is: (2*E)/(E+F)
(g) Traffic of each user when busy G (unit: Erl)
(h) In consideration of the distribution of paging commands, we think when it exceeds
30%, the paging channel will undergo congestion.
(i) Each TRX has 7.2 TCH on the average, and the maximum of traffic of each
TRX on the average within 1 hour is 7.2
(3) Formula
Traffic in each location area: 4.25×(9-A)×B×30%×2×E×D/[(E+F)×C]
Number of users in each location area: possible traffic in each location area/G
CF number in each location area: possible traffic in each location area/7.2
Note:
z If some CF does not aim to improve traffic but to meet its coverage, the
number of CF it can support can be improved;
z If short messages burst suddenly, then the paging amount will increase
with supported users on the decline, which may require flow control
protection;
z Traffic models in different areas and different periods are different, so
each parameter should be submitted with different value.
(4) Example
If the number of reserved access grant blocks is 2, then 1 multiframe has (9-2)=7
paging block and 4.25×7=29.7 paging blocks can be sent within 1 second.
Suppose IMSI and TMSI paging occupies half, then each paging block is able to send
8/3 pages.
Then a maximum of 29.7×8/3 = 79.2 pages may be delivered within 1 second.
That is, 79.2×3600×30%=85536 pages can be delivered within 1 hour.
Suppose MSC paging resend ratio is 1.1, i.e. it supports 85536/1.1 = 77760 pages.
Suppose the duration of each call is 60S, then the traffic for 1 call is
60/3600=0.017ERL.
Suppose caller: called: short message (received) = 5:5:1,
Then 0.017ERL corresponds to 6/10 page, and it may support 57024 calls.
77760/0.6×0.017=2203.2ERL
If the traffic for each user when busy is 0.03, it may support 2203.2/0.03=73440 users,
And supports CF of 2203.2/7.2=306TRX.
4-26
II. For combined BCCH, supported number of CF will decrease.
III. For multiple BCCH, the number of supported CF will increase.
With a view to different traffic density, it is recommended to combine BCCH cells,

BCCH cells and multiple BCCH cells to make up a location area separately.
Generally speaking, it is necessary to consult with the operators in respect of the
planning for location areas for specification. Domestically, Numbering Rules and Post
& Telecommunications 900-1800 Technical System should be the reference for
principles for CGI and CI coding.
4-27
5.7 Design of Indoor Coverage System

Currently, the indoor coverage mainly depends on the extension of existing outdoor
coverage, such as the mode of direct station, outdoor high-power base station and
highly installed antenna. However, these solutions will lead to the following problems:
z As wall penetration involves a large loss and indoor coverage renders
bad effect, there will be a large number of blind spots impossible for
communication.
z Direct station mode requires much on source level and both the
intermodulation interference and co-frequency interference are serious
in bad communication quality at high rate of call drops.
z Capacity problem fails to be solved fundamentally. The network
capacity is limited at a low call successful rate.
z It affects the planning of frequency for the entire network. It is difficult to
increase the network capacity.
z Serious “detached island effect”
z As a result of quality and capacity, the development of value-added
services for group users is restricted (such as GPRS data service)
To improve the service level, it is urgently needed to solve the problem of indoor
coverage. In the design intended for a solution to indoor coverage, we need to
consider the following problems:
z Try to avoid the effect of newly-built indoor system on the existing
network, so as to distinguish indoor from outdoor
z How to provide sufficient indoor network capacity
z Support new services and new functions
Here is an analysis in terms of design of indoor antenna system, capacity design and
frequency plan.
5.7.1 Design of indoor antenna system
I. RF design
(1) Link budget

For indoor coverage, the formula for link budget is as follows:
Pant = MS sens + RFm arg + IFm arg + BL + LNFm arg + L path − G ant
P a n t = antenna input interface power
MS sens = −104dBm equipment receiving sensitivity
RFm arg = rayleigh fading margin
IFm arg = access margin (dependent on environment)
LNFm arg = design access, generally 5dB
4-28
B L= human body loss 900MHz 5dB 1800/1900MHz 3dB
G ant = antenna gain
L path =Path loss

Where path loss Lpath is:
Lpath 32.5+20logd (km)+20logf (MHz)+α
In the formula:
Free space loss Lp 32.5+20logd (km)+20logf (MHz)
α: Loss of other objects, floor and impediments; here are values of some typical
penetration loss:
z Partition wall block: 5~20dB
z Floor block: 20dB
z Block of furniture and other impediments: 2~15dB

z Thick glass: 6~10dB
z The penetration loss of train carriages: 15~30dB
z Penetration loss of lifts: 30dB or so
z Loss of signals from fixed signal source at the track curve of tunnels:
10~40dB /km
z Loss of oblong tunnels: 10~15dB/km
z The loss of column tunnel is 35~40dB/km, and thus tunnels usually use
disclosure cables for coverage
During the course of link budgeting, it is necessary to take the following key factors
into account: in an indoor multi-antenna system, the link budget for test points is
usually based on the link with minimum path loss; in the same coverage area, it is
ensured if possible that the effective radiation power (EIRP) of each antenna interface
is consistent with its error kept within 10dB; the level of designed level is quite high,
and thus it is not necessary to use antenna diversity to improve the density of uplink
signals; to reduce uplink interferences, it is necessary to configure the maximum
transmitting power for mobile phone and meanwhile enable the function of dynamic
power control of the mobile phone; in link budgeting, it is necessary to preserve some
margins in preparation for design error correction and the extension of antenna system
in the future; in estimating and designing interference margins, the margins will differ in
light of the distance away from the external walls of the building. The closer to the
external wall, the designed interference margins will be larger.
(2) Service quality design (degree of being interfered)
The degrees of being interfered in respect of an indoor cell are described as follows:
The building where the indoor cell is located is at the same height as the surrounding
buildings;
Frequency multiplexing 12 Little interference
The outdoor system covers the area where indoor cells are located not effectively;
The indoor system possesses dedicated frequency involving little cell frequency
multiplexing.
4-29
The use of environment and frequency between the two General interference
The building where indoor cells are located is a high-rise compared with the
Degree in
surrounding buildings
interference
Frequency multiplexing 9
The actual interference level will vary with the change of network layout and the fresh
planning of frequency; the actual interference level can be obtained through field test.
(3) Service quality design (interference design margin)
The higher the interference degree is, there are more interference design margins
(IFmarg) within the said area, and the higher the level that mobile phone needs to
receive, as shown in the following table. What needs to be noted is, in adopting indoor
dual-frequency system, the mobile phone will receive the designed level according to
the indexes as defined in 1800 system.
Actual level interference degree Receiving level the mobile phone requires (dBm)
Major interference degree -65
Medium interference degree -75
Minor interference degree -85
II. Antenna system design
The concept for the design of indoor distributed system is as follows: first survey the
type, structure, indoor structure, interference environment and service targets (general
public/business group users) with respect to the building, and then analyze the path
loss; set antennas in light of different areas (type, number and place for installation).
Hereunder are the antenna design guidelines for some typical areas:
(1) Guideline for the antenna wiring in a single cell
When a single cell achieves the building coverage, each antenna should be configured
to ensure the equal distribution of signals within the coverage area of the cell.
Generally, it is recommended to install the antennas in a zigzag way, as shown in
Figure 5-12.
Figure 5-12 Guideline for Antenna Wiring in a Single Cell
(2) Antenna Wiring Guideline for Multiple Cells

When multiple cells achieve the building indoor coverage, it is necessary to note that
there must be some interval between co-frequency multiplexing cells. Each antenna
4-30
should be configured likewise to ensure the equal distribution of signals within the
coverage area of the cell. If it involves compact frequency multiplexing, to ensure
sound service quality, it is generally recommended to install the antennas between
different layers in the same position, as shown in Figure 5-13.
Figure 5-13 Guideline for Antenna Wiring in Multiple Cells
(3) Antenna layout in a closed environment

When the exterior wall of the building is relatively thick, then the signals attenuate
greatly with little disclosure and little interference from outdoor co-frequency, thus the
frequencies between floors can be planned with ease, as shown in Figure 5-14.
Figure 5-14 Antenna Layout in Closed Environment
(4) Antenna layout in a half-open environment

If the exterior wall of the building is built of a structure of glass window/wall, there will
be little signal attenuation. If the inside of the building is an open meeting environment,
it will suffer large interference from outdoor co-frequency, thus necessitating dedicated
frequency for planning; or multi-antenna system with low output power is adopted for
this purpose, where the cell edge is confined to inside the building, as shown in Figure
5-15.
4-31
Figure 5-15 Antenna Layout in Half-open Environment
(5) Antenna layout for building of frame structure

When the building has many interior walls and these walls are thick, thus requiring that
the antennas are installed in the corridor, the output power of the antenna is generally
large so as to ensure sound coverage. In this case, some signals will leak through the
corridor windows. It requires dedicated frequency for planning. The interval between
the co-frequency cells of different floors is larger than that in other environments, as
shown in Figure 5-16.
Figure 5-16 Antenna Layout for Buildings of Frame Structure
(6) Antenna layout for office buildings

For such areas as offices of indoor business groups that require high service quality,
multiple directional antennas and omni-antennas are generally adopted for indoor
coverage. Rational design of effective cell radiation power will easily serve to control
the cell coverage, and thus having little interference against the outside, as shown in
Figure 5-17.
4-32
Figure 5-17 Antenna Layout for Office Buildings
(7) Antenna Layout for Parking Lots

Such areas as parking lots, which require some coverage but have no special need of
capacity, the receiving level of mobile phone is not required to be high (around -
90dBm). The key coverage areas are the lifts with large passage of people, automatic
moving stairs and entrance to parking lots, as shown in Figure 5-18.
Figure 5-18 Antenna Layout for Parking Lot
4-33
(8) Supermarket
Such areas as supermarkets have some requirements in terms of both coverage and
capacity, and the antenna system in these places may be set in light of the actual
building structure, as shown in Figure 5-19.
Figure 5-19 Antenna Layout for Supermarkets
III. Survey
Finalize the installation and wiring of antenna through survey, involving the following
aspects:
z Area of coverage in detail, requirement of signal coverage quality,
different from place to place;
z The distribution of existing signals in coverage area; understand the
blind spots, hot spots and signal point of impingement;
z Composition of buildings in the coverage area; block against signals;
z Access position and mode of signals;
z Examine the positions where equipment can be installed.
The topological structure, wiring diagram of the final output system, list of materials In
particular, it should be stressed that omni-antennas are generally installed at the
center of the ceiling, while the small directional antennas are installed, hung on the
exterior wall with its near side radiating indoors, so as to minimize its effect on outdoor
system, and meet the C/I requirement on outdoor system.
4-34
If possible, coverage test may be conducted, as shown in Figure 5-20; in accordance

with the test result, adjust the initial antenna design to meet the coverage requirement;
or plan the frequency anew to meet the requirement on voice quality. Normally, if the
radiation power of antenna interface is 10dBm, a small indoor omni-antenna of 2dBi
should be used. In this case, within the range of 30m of the antenna, if there are no
dense partition walls, the coverage level may reach -70dBm.
Figure 5-20 Diagram of Coverage Test
IV. Reduce switch from inside to outside through traffic control
The measures are as follows: in Idle status, set CRO and TO etc., to ensure
reasonable reselection relationship in the cells indoors and outdoors; as the indoor
high-rise coverage system with desirable indoor coverage may be regarded
independent of the outdoor system, it is only required to consider the switch
relationship between indoor cell and external cell at the entrance to the building, so as
to ease the impact of the switch and external network. At this moment, the priority level
of indoor cells may be set higher, so that all the traffic whose level is higher than a
certain switch threshold between layers is kept in the indoor cell, while the inter-layer
switch threshold and magnetic hysteresis can be specified and adjusted in light of
practical conditions about the network (coverage, interference etc).
5.7.2 Capacity Analysis and Design
Before capacity analysis, it is first required to specify the type of indoor service areas,
as shown in the following table:
Type of indoor service area Features of the service area Example
It is rather difficult to estimate the traffic,
for the average flow by the day and at
night will differ in different periods. It is
necessary to take the characteristic of Airport, shopping center and
Public service area
unequal capacity distribution and sports field etc.
bursting in a comprehensive way.
However, GOS and the traffic of each
user can be referred to in accordance
4-35
with the outdoor cells.

The utilization rate of the previous fixed
telephone network stands high, where
the traffic is relatively fixed easy for
Office buildings, star
Business service area estimation, but the service quality is
commercial hotels
required to be high. Generally, GOS is
1%, and the traffic of each user is also
high, up to 0.1Erl.
Distributed
antenna system
Distributed antenna system
Power Distributed
divider antenna system
Power Distributed
divider antenna system
Figure 5-21 (a) Diagram of a Single Cell (b) Diagram of Vertical Divided Multiple Cells
As shown in Figure 5-21, the current distributed system is organized in two cell ways:
single cell and vertical split. The former is applicable to indoor coverage requiring
small capacity, while the latter is applicable to areas with dense indoor traffic.
Likewise, when the capacity for indoor single cell falls short of requirement, it is also
necessary to perform cell split. But this is vertical split way. In the event of vertical cell
split, the original single cell is required to split into at least 3 cells so as to ensure
frequency multiplexing; co-frequency cell is generally to be separated at an interval of
four layers, as shown in Figure 5-22. To avoid frequency interference, indoor cell
should be prevented from splitting.
Frequency A
The cell frequency for

different floors can be
Frequency B multiplexed, but there is a
certain space between
them.
Frequency A
Figure 5-22 Vertical Cell Split
4-36
5.7.3 Frequency Plan
If dedicated frequency is adopted indoors, the frequency planning is relatively simple.

Generally speaking, the frequency multiplexing for business service areas and public
service areas is basically the same. If the frequency resources permit, dedicated
frequency band should be adopted for indoor coverage; if the frequency resources are
not enough, stealthy frequency should be used. As a result of quality and capacity
factors (such as the development of GPRS high rate data services), if 900M frequency
falls short of the requirement, 1800M frequency should be introduced in dual
frequency system.
If there is no frequency dedicated to indoor system and stealthy frequency is used,
make sure not select the adjacent frequency of these frequencies; try to ensure BCCH
frequency free of interference, while TCH layer can be planned in the manner of RF
jumping to reduce interference; at the same time, with the aid of BTS equipment’s
uplink frequency band scan function to search for uplink usable frequencies, and with
the aid of downlink function of roadside equipment to search for downlink usable
frequencies. Furthermore, it should also be noted that before the start of layered
network structure, the service cell is generally the cell with the strongest signal level,
and the adjacent frequency interference is not obvious; when the layered network
structure is started, the service cell is not necessarily the cell with the strongest signal
level. At this point, attention shall be paid to reducing the adjacent frequency
interferences.
As the urban environment is complicated, especially the effect of antenna back lobe,
the interference from medium and high buildings is generally rather serious. In
particular, the frequency plan for indoor coverage system of high buildings should pay
attention to this. Normally, the lower floors of a building adopts regular frequency plan,
but it is recommended to adopt dedicated frequency band for higher floors with heavy
interference. The ultimate frequency is selected on the basis of actual interference
environment test.
4-37
5.8 Design of Cell Data

To ensure the sound and stable running of the network, it is also required to design the
cell configuration data related to each base station, including such radio parameters
as cell system message parameters, various switches and power control algorithms.
What requires special explanation is: the selection of cell switching area, what
algorithm to start and whether to use frequency hopping, power control and DTX as
well as other functions should have been specified in the design, coverage estimation
and frequency planning for the base station.
4-38
4-39
Radio Network Planning Table of Contents
xl
Radio Network Planning Chapter 6 Frequency Plan and Anti-
interference Technology
Chapter 6 Frequency Planning and Anti-

6.1 Frequency Planning

Today, for the development of the cellular system, its capacity is limited by the given
frequency bandwidth. The frequency may satisfy the requirements of the capacity in a
certain area only by reusing. However, the frequency reuse, especially the compact
frequency reuse pattern, will certainly cause the problem how to reduce the common
adjacent frequency interference with which we must be faced: in the equivalent areas,
the more incompact the frequency reuse interval is, the less the common adjacent
frequency interference is, with less capacity; with more compact frequency reuse, the
capacity is promoted to a certain content, but with the promotion of the common
adjacent frequency interference. How to obtain the balance between the capacity and
the voice quality is the problem that must be settled by the frequency plan, in other
word, a good frequency plan may realize the promotion of the network capacity on the
basis of maintaining a good voice quality.
6.1.1 Frequency Division and C/I Requirements
The cellular system is generally divided into the GSM900M and DCS1800M systems
with the carrier frequency interval of 200 kHz, based on the frequencies. The division
of its uplink and downlink frequencies is as follows:
Network type Frequency bandwidth (uplink/downlink)(MHz)
GSM900 890 915/935 960
DCS1800 1710 1785/1805 1880
I. GSM900
It has total 124 frequency bands, the sequence numbers (ARFCN) are 1-124, with
200kHz of protective band on each end. According to the national regulation, the
Mobile occupies 890-909/935-954MHz, while Unicom occupies 909-915/954-960MHz.
The relation between the frequency and the sequence number (n) is as follows:
Base station receiving: f1(n) 890. 2 (n-1)×0. 2 (MHz)
Base station sending: f2(n) f1(n) 45 (MHz)
II. DCS1800
It has total 374 frequency bands, the sequence numbers (ARFCN) are 512-885. The
relation between the frequency and the sequence number (n) is as follows:
Base station receiving: f1(n) 1710. 2 (n-512)×0. 2 (MHz)
Base station sending: f2(n) f1(n) 95 (MHz)
The Mobile occupies 1710MHz-1720MHz, with the corresponding frequency

sequence numbers of 512-561; while the Unicom occupies 1745 MHz-1755MHz, with
the corresponding sequence numbers of 687-736.
6-1
III. C/I requirements
In the cellular system, since the frequency resource is limited, the replicated use of the
frequency is an effective approach for promoting the frequency availability. The
replicated use of the frequency would cause the interference with each other, so-called
common frequency interference. The closer the interval between both frequencies is,
the higher the frequency availability, but with higher interference. Figure 6-1 describes
the distribution of the interference. For the convenience of analysis, the cell is
indicated by the regular hexagon. In the figure, D is the reuse interval, and [fn] is the
reuse frequency. The strength of the interference power is dependent on the effective
emission power, reuse interval and path fading. By the derivation, the reuse frequency
cluster number K is obtained:
K=i2+ij+j2
where i, j are integers.
Figure 6-1 Interference schematic diagram
Let:
D
q= R = 3&K (1)
then the analysis of the common frequency interference is:
C C
=
I
Ik (2)
where Ik is number k interference signal, K=1,2,. . . N.
The above expression may also be:
C 1
=
I
(q k ) − (3)
where is number K common frequency interference factor, is the path fading
6-2
offset determined by the actual geographic environment, in the mobile environment,

the path fading value =3-5, generally it is 4.
For the base station with the omnidirectional antenna, the first level of the interference
source includes six (since the interference over the second level is small, it may be
omitted), if the conditions of the six interference cells are the same, the one with the
largest interference is to be taken into consideration, then
1
C
q −1 = (6 & I
) (4)
For the 120 degrees of directional base station, it is theoretically thought that there are
two interference sources, however, considering the influences of the antenna side and
back lobes, the interference sources are still calculated by six (the worst condition), it
can be obtained from the expression (4)
C (q −1 )
I = 6 (5)
The relation between C/I and q can be obtained from the above expression, and
further the relation between C/I and K. If the cellular arrangement is not proper, each
base station will undertake more interference sources.
GSM is an interference limited system, according to the demodulation requirements of
the signal in the air interface, GSM specifies that the common adjacent frequency
protective ratio should meet the following requirements:
Common frequency C/I: C/I 9dB; it has 3dB allowance in engineering, i. e. , C/I
12dB;
Adjacent frequency suppression ratio: C/A -9dB; it has 3dB allowance in engineering,
i. e. , C/A -6dB
Second adjacent suppression ratio: C/A2 -41dB.
6.1.2 Principles of the Frequency Planning
A good network structure is the basis of a good frequency planning. When the
frequency plan is carried out in a certain area, it is done in a geographic division mode,
but some frequency bands must be reserved (when the frequency is sufficient for use)
at the division junctures or the frequency bands are to be divided. The selection of the
juncture should be away from the hotspot area or complicated networking area.
Generally, the plan is carried out beginning from the place where the base stations are
closely packed. Due to the irregularity of the site distribution, it is difficult to guarantee
that the frequencies of the same level of carrier frequencies can be planed fully
according to the common pattern of 4×3 or 3×3, it is needed to be adjusted according
to the actual situations. Whatever patterns may be used for the frequency plan, the
following principles should be observed:
(1) It is not allowed that there are cofrequency frequency bands in the same base
station;
(2) In the same cell, the frequency interval between BCCH and TCH is preferably
over 400K;
(3) When the frequency hopping is not used, the frequency interval between TCHs in
the same cell is preferably over 400K;
6-3
(4) In non 1×3 reuse pattern, the direct adjacent base stations should avoid
cofrequency (even though the directions of their antenna main lobe are different, the
influences of the side lobes and back lobes may be difficult to be estimated due to the
reasons of the antenna and environment);
(5) Considering the complexity of the suspending antenna and propagation
environment, the base stations with closer distance should prevent from the opposite
cofrequency (including diagonal opposite) as possible;
(6) Generally, for the 1×3 reuse, it is ensured that the frequency hopping band should
double the number of the hopping carrier frequencies or over;
(7) Pay attention to the cofrequency reuse, the case that there are the same BCCH
and the same BSIC in the adjacent areas should be avoided.
(8) Enabling the PBGT handover, after the adjacent frequency suppression ratio is
determined via the parameter adjusting, the adjacent frequency may be employed in
the direct adjacent opposite cells. Since the PBGT handover algorithm is judged
based on the BCCH field density (path dissipation), when the BCCH frequency and
the TCH frequency are alternatively allocated, after the downlink power control is
enabled, the new adjacent frequency interference problem may be occur: for example,
when a mobile phone makes a call on the number 50 TCH of the cell A, the BCCH of
its adjacent cell B is 51, and the PBGT handover may not be occur because the field
density is less than that of the cell A; however, the downlink timeslot of the call on the
number 50 of the cell A may be less than BCCH of its adjacent cell B because of the
power control, which causes the new adjacent frequency interference. The solution is:
respectively allocating the independent frequency range to the BCCH frequency and
the TCH frequency without any interleaving as possible; reducing the overlapped
coverage between the cells; properly increasing the expected level of the downlink
power control.
6.1.3 Basic Frequency Reuse
The most basic frequency reuse pattern of GSM is the 4×3 frequency reuse, which is
the basis of other frequency reuse patterns. "4" refers to 4 sites, "3" indicates that each
site has 3 cells, total 12 cells are the frequency cluster. For various cells in the same
cluster, their frequencies are different. Figure 6-2 shows the 4×3 frequency reuse cell
cluster.
6-4
Figure 6-2 Basic frequency reuse 4×3 reuse cluster
For the 12 cells shown in the figure, their frequencies are different, covering other cells
in the figure, and reusing one grouplink of frequencies in the 12 frequency cluster. An
example is used to describe the 4×3 frequency reuse. It is assumed that the available
bandwidth is 12. 2MHz, the channel number is 34-95, the assignment of the 12
channel groups is shown in Table 6-1.
Table 6-1 4×3 frequency reuse assignment table
A1 B1 C1 D1 A2 B2 C2 D2 A3 B3 C3 D3
34 35 36 37 38 39
40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51
52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63
64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75
76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87
88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95
It can be seen from the table, in the case of 12. 2MHZ, the average largest site type is
S5/5/5. When allocating the frequencies to the base stations, the rule {A1, A2, A3} or
{B1, B2, B3} or {C1, C2, C3}, or {D1, D2, D3} is selected, the co-frequency or adjacent
frequency may not occur in the same cell and the adjacent cell.
6-5
6.1.4 Compact Frequency Reuse
When the network construction is developed to certain content, it will certainly bring
along the rapid increase of the capacity, and put forward more strict requirements for
the network construction in turn. With the application of cell splitting, micorcell and
distributive antenna system, how to appropriately plan the frequencies becomes a
challenging question, and various frequency compact reuse technologies emerge
accordingly. Currently, the most used are MRP, IUO and FRACTIONAL REUSE (1×3)
technologies.
Different frequency reuse technologies need the corresponding software and
hardware technology supports, and subsequently the handover, power control,
channel assignment algorithm and the functions such as DTX and frequency hopping
are improved and developed; it is put forward more strict requirements for the
selection of the antennas. In other words, as the frequency reuse is very compact, how
to reduce the interference is the key to guarantee the system service quality. For the
planning, it appears as the appropriate selection of the base station position and the
cell direction, the appropriate setting of the height and declination angle of the antenna
for reducing the cross-cell coverage; for the system function, it appears as the
utilization of the DTX and frequency hopping technologies, and of the PBGT handover,
uplink/ downlink power control, optimized channel assignment algorithm, and the like.
For the parameter settings, it includes the appropriate settings of various thresholds of
the base station static power and handover, and of the frequency hopping parameters
for reducing the possibility of the collision of the common adjacent frequencies to the
maximum extent; in addition, for the equipment, it puts forward more strict
requirements with regard to the stray indexes of the base station equipment and the
selective indexes of the adjacent channel.
Various compact reuse technologies utilize the multi-layer concept on the whole,
planning the BCCH and TCH in multi-layer, various layers utilize different frequency
reuse pattern. Considering that BCCH must at intervals send the system message for
the detection and contact of the mobile phones, so that the mobile phones can decode
correctly and the report correctness of the mobile phones may be increased, BCCH
should be assigned with at least 12 frequency bands. During the actual assignment,
considering the irregularity of the base station distribution and the change of the
directional angles of the cells, over 14 of frequency bands are generally assigned to
BCCH, and the frequency plan is to be made generally by utilizing the 4×3 or more
incompact frequency reuse pattern. TCH frequency plan is made by utilizing patterns
such as 3×3, 2×3, 1×3 and the like. It is to be mentioned here, the purpose for various
carrier layers to utilizing different reuse degrees is to prevent the interference as
possible, which is embodied in the following aspects:
z In the case of the non-uniform network site types, as not each of cells is
to utilize TRXs of the last layer or layers, TRXs of the last layer or layers
of TRXs may realize the more compact reuse degree (even though in
the case of no frequency hopping).
z Since each carrier layer is to utilize the different reuse patterns as
possible, the frequency bands of any two of the cells in the network are
not the same, that is, there are no thoroughly co-frequency cells.
z After the multiple frequency reuse is realized, while the interference is
increased, the TRXs are also increased in the cell, so that the
frequencies participated in the hopping are increased, increasing the
gain.
z If there are the frequency band with smaller interference and the
frequency band with larger interference simultaneously in a cell, after
6-6
the hopping technology is utilized, the frequency band with smaller

interference and the frequency with larger interference will be merged.
According to the characteristics of the Viterbi decoder, the interfered
frequency band may still be utilized normally. Although the interference
is variable with regard to each burst, the voice quality will be dependent
on the average value of the interference with regard to a specific
connection.
I. Multiple compact reuse pattern (MRP)
The multiple compact reuse technology is also called MRP (Multiple Reuse Pattern),
allowing the simultaneous existence of several different frequency reuse patterns,
which is put into operation, in the same GSM network. For example: BCCH utilizes the
4×3 reuse pattern, TCH utilizes 3×3 and 2×3 patterns, Figure 6-3 shows the schematic
diagram of its structure.
Figure 6-3 Schematic diagram of multiple compact reuse
In the figure, the same color refers to the same grouplink of frequencies that are
reused, the size of the circle refers to the coverage range. L1, L2, …, Lm refer to the
frequency layers in the cell, it can be seen from the figure, the reuse of the layer that is
closer to the top layer is more compact. In the case of the given frequency, comparing
the multiple compact reuse with the same reuses in various layers, the number of the
channels in the unit area will be increased significantly.
Essentially, MRP is a frequency planning method, without putting forward any special
software/hardware requirements. It is established based on the concept of a carrier
multi-layer. That is to say, all of available frequency bands are divided into several
groups, each of which acts as a carrier layer. According to the compact reuse rules,
the frequency bands arranged in each layer which are illustrated by way of the
following example, conform to the following expression: n1 n2 n3 n4 . . . . . . nm.
Layer Number of frequency band

BCCH n1
TCH1 n2
6-7
TCH2 n3
.....................
TCHm-1 nm
For example, assuming that the available frequency bandwidth is 10MHz and the
signal channel numbers are 46-94, the rules of the BCCH and TCH carrier layers may
utilize the continuous grouping pattern. For the continuous grouping pattern, the
BCCH frequency band is preferably added with 1-2 additional frequency bands for
planning, i. e. , total 12-14 frequency bands for planning. Table 6-2 has no reserved
frequency band.
6-8
Table 6-2 Continuously assigning MRP

Absolute carrier number of Number of the available
Carrier type
the available frequency band frequency bands
BCCH 46 57 12
TCH1 58 66 9
TCH2 67 74 8
TCH3 75 82 8
TCH4 83 88 6
TCH5 89 94 6
It can be seen from the above table, the above frequency bands are thus divided into 6
groups, the carrier layer where the broadcasting channel (BCCH) is located has 12
frequency bands for reusing, the service channel is divided into TCH1-TCH5, total 5
groups of the carrier layers, each grouplink is assigned with different numbers of
frequency bands for reusing.
Thus, in the case of 10MHz of the bandwidth, the base station configuration is made to
S6/6/6. According to the above assignment of the frequency bands for various carrier
types, the frequency plan is carried out in the entire network. In the case of the
traditional 4/12 reuse pattern, the maximum configuration of the base station can be
made to S4/4/4.
With regarding to the continuous grouping pattern, there may be the
cofrequency/adjacent interference in the base station frequency layer, and the
interference between the base station frequency layers occurs at the frequency
boundary point.
In addition to the continuous assignment, the interval assignment may be utilized,
Figure 6-4 shows the schematic diagram of the interval assignment. In the figure, it is
assumed that the frequencies that may be assigned to BCCH are 1, 3, 5, …, 37, from
which, 12 frequency bands are obtained for BCCH, the rest frequencies are assigned
to TCH1, THC2, THC3 and MICRO, each layer of frequencies are selected at regular
intervals. In the case that there are the adjacent frequency interference within the layer
instead of between the layers, when the traffic is not very busy, this pattern is useful for
reducing the network interference.
Figure 6-4 Discontinuous frequency assignment
6-9
The reason that MRP may realize the frequency compact reuse layer by layer so as to
realize the increase of TRX is: since not every cell needs the last layer of TRX during
the initial stage, the last layer of TRX may realize the more compact reuse. Further,
after MRP is utilized, while the interference is increased, TRXs are also increased in
the cell, so that the frequencies participated in the hopping is increased, increasing the
gains. If there are the frequency point with smaller interference and the frequency
point with larger interference simultaneously in a cell, after the hopping technology is
utilized, the frequency point with smaller interference and the frequency with larger
interference will be merged. The Viterbi decoder can still demodulate the code
element correctly. The interference appears in the concept of the average value, which
does not affect the normal operation of the base station.
It should be mentioned here, when the MRP frequency assignment is carried out, the
minimum frequency reuse degree of the TCH layer is recommended not less than 6;
and the average frequency reuse degree of the TCH layer is at least between 7-8. If
the frequency resources are available, in the initial frequency planning, it is very
effective to reserve a given frequency bands for the microcell and for settling the
troublesome problems in optimization.
II. Ordinary concentric circle technology
The ordinary concentric circle technology is to divide the ordinary cell into two service
layers, i. e. , the great circle and the small circle, to divide the frequency bands into two
parts, the TRX powers corresponding to some of the frequency bands are adjust down,
so that two concentric circles with different coverage in the coverage range. For the
mobile phones in the great circle, the frequency bands with more incompact frequency
reuse such as the BCCH frequency band, as possible; for the mobile phones in the
small circle, the frequency bands with the more compact frequency reuse such as the
frequency bands except BCCH, as possible, the system capacity can be effectively
increased by utilizing the compact frequency reuse pattern for the frequency bands
across the small circle. It is seen from Figure 6-5, since the mobile phones in the small
circle is far away from the interference source, the voice quality can still be guaranteed,
even though the frequency with the compact reuse is used. Also, since the mobile
phones in the great circle utilize the frequency with the incompact reuse, the voice
quality can be guaranteed.
Cell A Cell B
Signal Interference
Big Small
circle circle
Figure 6-5 Schematic diagram of the compact frequency reuse in the concentric circle cell
6-10
If the inner circle is overlapped with the excircle or inner circle of the other cell, the
inner circle can be switched to another cell directly, which can effectively reduce the
congestion condition in the excircle.
When the ordinary concentric circle technology is utilized, as the inner circle of the
concentric circle can utilize the more compact frequency reuse pattern, comparing to
MRP, it can increase the network capacity to the larger extent, and the network quality
is also guaranteed. In some special case, for example, when the excircle of the
concentric circle cell is configured with only one carrier BCCH, using 4×3 frequency
reuse pattern, and other TCH carriers are all configured on the inner circle with the
1×3 frequency reuse pattern, the concentric circle cell is just the same as the 1×3, and
the average frequency reuse degree is the same as the 1×3, therefore, the concentric
circle in this case can effectively reduce the interference in the entire network without
reducing the network capacity, so as to realize the network quality higher than 1×3.
The problem caused by the use of the ordinary concentric circle is that the traffic
control, i. e. , the handover control, between the inner circle and the excircle. Based on
the feature that the coverage ranges of the inner circle and excircle are different, the
signal level threshold and TA value threshold are generally regarded as the handover
basis; based on this feature, this technology may be used to guide the traffic in the cell
in which the coverage ranges of some carriers are different.
III. Intelligent underlay/overlay (IUO)
To guarantee that the coverage ranges of all the carriers in the base station are
identical, the intelligent underlay/overlay (IUO) technology is introduced, in which, all
the TRXs in the cell are the same. The design philosophy of the IUO is shown in
Figure 6-6.
Figure 6-6 Schematic diagram of the IUO structure
It is seen from the figure, the IUO philosophy is to divide the base station frequencies
into two parts, or so-called two layers, one layer is called "REGULAR layer", and the
other "SUPER layer". For "REGULAR layer", the interval of the frequency reuse is
larger, utilizing the incompact frequency reuse pattern; for "SUPER layer", the interval
of the frequency reuse is smaller, utilizing the compact reuse pattern. The frequency
assignment of IUO is described by way of an example, assuming that the assignable
frequency band is 10. 4MHz. Figure 6-7 shows the example of IUO frequency
assignment.
6-11
Figure 6-7 Example of IUO frequency assignment
BCCH reuse: 15
R TCH TRX reuse: 12
S TCH TRX reuse: 6
BCCH selects 15 frequency bands, utilizing the 4×3 reuse pattern. REGULAR layer
utilizes 24 frequency bands. The 4×3 reuse pattern is utilized. SUPER utilizes 12
frequency bands and the 2×3 reuse pattern. After the IUO technology is utilized, the
maximum site type is S5/5/5, if the 4×3 reuse pattern is utilized, the maximum site type
is only S4/4/4.
The problem caused by the use of IUO is that SUPER interference is larger, the
specific handover algorithm is needed to be provided by the equipment to judge the
interference in the network; once it is found that C/I goes beyond a given standard, the
system will switch the user to the REGULAR layer. Both of the judgment and handover
are completed automatically. When C/I>good threshold, the frequencies of the S layer
are used; when C/I<bad threshold, the frequencies of the R layer are used. For
example: when the frequency hopping is not used, C/I>17db, the frequencies of the S
layer are used, C/I<12db, the frequencies of the R layer are used; when the frequency
hopping is used, C/I>11db, the frequencies of the S layer are used, C/I<7db, the
frequencies of the R layer are used. The traffic of the R/S layers can be controlled by
adjusting the threshold value.
C/I detection is based on the RXLEV and RXQUAL of the BCCH channel in the
adjacent cell reported by MS, the cofrequency reuse cell is predefined in the system,
forcing it as the adjacent cell. The mobile phones report the best and strongest signal
of the six measurements, the base station judges the component of the cofrequency
cell, calculates the C/I, and obtains the criterion for the R/S layer handover.
IV. Fractional reuse technology (1×3 or 1×1 fractional reuse)
The fractional reuse technology and the 1×3 or 1×1 reuse technology are combined
with each other; for the 1×3 or 1×1 reuse, the reuse interval is smaller and the
interference is larger, the RF hopping technology should be utilized, the collection of
the available hopping frequencies is far lager than the number of TRXs, and the MA,
HSN, MAIO parameters should be set, so as to avoid the collision of the frequencies.
Assuming 10MHz bandwidth, 50 frequency bands, BCCH occupies 14 frequency
bands, and TCH utilizes 36 frequency bands. If the 4×3 reuse pattern is utilized for
planning, each cell is assigned with 3 TCH frequency bands, with the site type of
S4/4/4. If the fractional reuse 1×3 is used, the TCH frequency bands that may be used
by each cell are 12, and the actual available frequencies used by the cell are
dependent on the fractional reuse ratio; specifically, if FR LOAD is 50%, then
TRX=12×50%=6, with the maximum site type of S7/7/7.
According to the previously obtained relational expression of C/I and K and the relation
between K and FR, the curve chart 6-8 of FR and C/I is obtained, from which it can be
seen, the better C/I ratio (12dB) can be guaranteed when the average load factor is 0.
5, and C/I is unbearably deteriorated when the average load factor is 1, i. e. , the true
1X3 pattern; on the other hand, it is recommended that the actual average frequency
6-12
reuse degree is not less than 6, which is the bottom line of the current frequency reuse
degree.
In this reuse pattern, the interference may be expressed as the collision probability of
the common adjacent frequencies; the result of the simulation shows that the collision
probability is only relative to FR, independent from how much the available
frequencies are and how much the available TRXs are.
Figure 6-8 Relation graph of FR and C/I
It should also be mentioned, when this pseudo spread spectrum pattern is used, if the
initial plan is incorrectly made, comparing to the small traffic, the quality is seriously
deteriorated when the traffic increases. The preferred method is to simulate the
interference conditions with the large traffic by sending the idle Burst function when the
network is initially established, and perform the adjustment for optimization.
Figure 6-9 1×3 fractional reuse frequency assignment
6-13
Figure 6-9 shows the base station frequency arrangement in the case of the 1×3
fractional reuse pattern visually. Total N (>12) BCCH frequency bands and 18 TCH
frequency bands. The frequency bands assigned in a cell is to be described now,
TRX1 utilizes one of the N BCCH carriers, at a certain time, TRX2, TRX3 and TRX4
that are using the 1×3 pattern are assigned to the 3 frequency bands of the 6 TCH
carriers. Each TRX (2-4) is configured with the same MA and HSN, but MAIO is
different.
Now the specific application of the 1×3 reuse pattern will be described by an example
of the Unicom GSM900 network somewhere.
z Unicom 900 frequency band: 96-124
z Carrier configuration: S3/3/3
z BCCH carrier layer: 96-109 reuse pattern: 4×3
z TCH carrier layer: 110-124 reuse pattern: 1×3
(1) Sequence grouping solution
TCH is grouped in sequence, the three cells in the same base station utilize the same
HSN, different sites utilize different HSNs, all the carrier of the same layer in the
network utilize the same MAIO. Assuming that the frequency hopping groups are
allocated as follows:
Grouplink one: 110 111 112 113 114
Grouplink two: 115 116 117 118 119
Grouplink three: 120 121 122 123 124
HSN of the site A is 1, MAIOs of the two carriers TCH1 and TCH2 in each cell are 0
and 2 respectively, HSN of the site B is 2, MAIOs of the two carriers TCH1 and TCH2
are 0 and 2 respectively, and so on; in this way, the cofrequencies among the three
different cells in the same site are avoided; comparing to the TCH interval grouping,
the possible collision of the cofrequencies in the adjacent cells opposite to the different
sites are reduced; however, comparing to the TCH interval grouping, the possible
collision of the cofrequencies between the cells parallel to the different sites in
direction is increased.
(2) Interval grouping solution
TCH utilizes the interval grouping, the three cells in the same base station utilize the
same HSN, the different sites utilize the different HSNs, and the carriers of the same
layer in the same base station utilize the different MAIO. Assuming that the frequency
hopping groups are allocated as follows:
Grouplink one: 110113 116 119 122
Grouplink two: 111 114 117 120 123
Grouplink three: 112 115 118 121 124
HSN of the site A is 1, MAIOs of the two carriers TCH1 and TCH2 in the grouplink one
cell are 0 and 1 respectively; MAIOs of the two carriers TCH1 and TCH2 in the
grouplink two cell are 2 and 3 respectively, MAIOs of the two carriers TCH1 and TCH2
in the grouplink three cell are 4 and 0 respectively, HSN of the site B is 2, and so on. In
this way, the cofrequencies among the three different cells in the same site are
avoided; comparing to the TCH sequence grouping, the possible collision of the
cofrequencies in the adjacent cells opposite to the different sites are increased;
6-14
however, comparing to the TCH sequence grouping, the possible collision of the
cofrequencies between the cells parallel to the different sites in direction is reduced.
With respect to the question how to grouplink TCH so that the 1×3 frequency hopping
interference is relatively smaller, both sequence grouping and interval grouping
patterns have some defects; however, generally, the adjacent frequency influence of
the adjacent cell opposite to the central area where the base stations are compact
dense and are regularly distributed is larger than that of the adjacent cell parallel to the
central area in direction, it is obviously advantageous to utilize the sequence grouping
pattern; however, in the areas around the dense base stations, as the irregularity of
the base station distribution, it is useful for homogenizing the influence caused by the
interference by utilizing the interval grouping pattern. Therefore, which grouping
pattern being utilized should be considered together with the actual environment
situations. After the new channel allocation algorithm in the compact reuse pattern is
realized, it is recommended that the sequence grouping solution is to be utilized, thus,
the better guarantee of the service quality in the entire network will be actually
implemented.
6-15
6.2 Anti-interference Technology
6.2.1 Frequency hopping Technology
I. Several concepts
(1) Frequency hopping

Frequency hopping means that the carrier frequencies with useful information hop with
the time sequence under the control of a sequence called hopping sequence number
(HSN). A hopping sequence is an array that uniquely specifies all (N) frequencies, in
the set of the frequencies (MA) including N frequencies, by the hopping sequence
number (HSN), mobile allocation index offset (MAIO) and frame number(FN) through a
given algorithm. N channels in the different timeslots may utilize the same hopping
sequence, the different channels in the same timeslot in the same cell utilize the
different mobile allocation index offset (MAIO).
(2) Hopping mode
Hopping mode is divided into the frame hopping and slot hopping in terms of the time
domain, and into the RF hopping and baseband hopping in the carrier realization
mode.
z Frame hopping:hopping by the unite of TDMA frame, in this mode, each
carrier may be regarded as a channel; the TCH on the TRX carrier
where the BCCH is located during the frame hopping in a cell can not
participate in the hopping, other different carriers should have different
MAIOs, this is the special case of the slot hopping.
z Slot hopping: every slot frequency band of every TDMA frame changes
once, the TCH in the TRX where the BCCH is located during the slot
hopping may participate in the hopping, however, it is currently realized
only during the baseband hopping.
z RF hopping: both of the transmitting TX and receiving RX of the TRX
participate in the hopping. The number of the frequencies that
participate in the hopping in a cell may be larger than the number of the
TRXs in this cell.
z Baseband hopping: each transmitter works at a fixed frequency, TX
does not participate in the hopping, and the transmission hopping is
implemented through the switching of the baseband signal, but RX must
participate in the hopping. Therefore, the number of the hopping
frequencies in a cell may not be larger than the number of TRXs in this
cell.
(3) Frequency hopping algorithm
Now several parameters will be described first:
z CA: cell allocation table, it is the set of the frequencies used in the cell;
z FN: TDMA frame number, it is broadcast in the synchronous channel.
BTS and MS are synchronized through FN (0-2715647);
6-16
z MA: a set of the radio frequenc channels numbers used for the mobile
station, it is a subset of CA. MA includes N frequency channel
numbers, 1 N 64
z MAIO: mobile allocation index offset (0-N-1); during the communication,

the radio frequency sequence number used in the air interface is one
element of the set MA. MAI (mobile allocation index, 0-N-1) is used to
determine one specific element of the set MA, in other words, the
actually used frequencies are specified by the MAI. MAIO is a initial
offset of the MAI, its purpose is to prevent multiple channels from
scrambling for the same carrier in the same time.
z HSN: hopping sequence (generator) number (0-63); it is the sequent
hopping when HSN=0; and it is the random hopping when HSN 0.
Only after the actual functions of various parameters in the hopping algorithm and the
hopping mechanism are well understood, the relative parameters may be reasonably
set, so as to put the system in the optimized operation. Figure 6-9 is the flow chart of
calculating the actual operation frequency of the carrier at every hopping slot. Among
them: MAI=(S+MAIO) MOD N,RFCHN=MA (MAI); S is obtained by calculating
according to the frame number and hopping sequence number, and MAI is obtained
from S plus S hopping offset moding the number of the carriers in the MA set.
6-17
MAI MAIO FN HSN FN FN

(m0 mN-1) (0 N-1) T3(0 50) (0 63) T1(0 2047) T2(0 25)
NBIN bits 6bits 6bits 11bits 5bits

T1R= Represent
T1 MOD 64 in 7 bits
6bits 7bits
Exclusive OR
6bits
Addition
7bits
Look-up table
7bits
Addition
8bits
T=T3 mod
M'=M mod 2^NBIN
2^NBIN
NBIN bits NBIN bits
N Y
M'<N
S=(M'+T) mod N S=M'

NBIN bits
MAI=(S+MAIO) mod N
NBIN bits
RFCN=MA MAI
Figure 6-10 Hopping algorithm
In Figure 6-10:
mod: mode
^: power
NBIN: INTEGER (log2N+1)
Table:
6-18
Address Contents
000-009 48 98 63 1 36 95 78 102 94 73
010-019 0 64 25 81 76 59 124 23 104 100
020-029 101 47 118 85 18 56 96 86 54 2
030-039 80 34 127 13 6 89 57 103 12 74
040-049 55 111 75 38 109 71 112 29 11 88
050-059 87 19 3 68 110 26 33 31 8 45
060-069 82 58 40 107 32 5 106 92 62 67
070-079 77 108 122 37 60 66 121 42 51 126
080-089 117 114 4 90 43 52 53 113 120 72
090-099 16 49 7 79 119 61 22 84 9 97
100-109 91 15 21 24 46 39 93 105 65 70
110-113 125 99 17 123
(4) Concept of the synchronous cell

The concept of the synchronous cell is very important for the establishment of the
hopping strategy and the effective reduction of the interference in the network. BTS
and MS are synchronized through the appointment of the frame number. In the
synchronous cells, since the frame number used by each TRX in various cells are the
same, the same HSN may be used in various hopping group, and the MAIO is properly
set, so as to avoid the collisions of the common or adjacent frequencies of various
cells in the same base station or the collisions of the common adjacent frequencies in
one cell.
II. Frequency hopping function
The frequency hopping is introduced in the GSM system, because the frequency
hopping provides two functions: frequency diversity and interference averaging.
(1) Frequency diversity
The frequency hopping can reduce the influence of signal strength variations caused
by the multipath fading, this function may be equivalent to the frequency diversity. In
the mobile communication, due to the influence of the Rayleigh fading, the radio
transmission signal may change rapidly in the large amplitude, and this change is
relative to the frequency. As the difference between the frequencies is larger, the
fading will be more independent; for the mobile communication band, 200KHz
frequency interval basically guarantee the noncorrelation of the fading characteristics
between the frequencies, and 1MHz can thoroughly guarantee this noncorrelation. By
the hopping, all of the burst pulses containing the same voice frame code word will not
be damaged by the Rayleigh fading in a manner, as shown in Figure 6-11.
6-19
Received signal level
Distance
Figure 6-11 Fading
The statistics shows that the frequency hopping gain is relative to the environment
factor, especially to the movement speed of the mobile station. When MS moves in a
high speed, the position change of two burst pulses in the same channel will be
subjected to the influence of other fading; the higher the speed is, the lower the gain is.
However, for the numerous users who move slowly with the mobile phones, the
frequency diversity is advantageous.
Further, the hopping gain is also relative to the number of the frequencies , when the
number of the frequencies is reduced, the gain is reduced, too. The relation between
the number of the frequencies and the hopping gain in such a way that the hopping is
the pseudo spread spectrum, the obtained gain is the processing gain obtained from
the useful signal spread transmission frequency band. The basic method for actually
measuring the hopping gain is that, on the prerequisite that the same FER is required,
the receiver will require for different C/Is at various numbers of the frequency hopping
bands, and the difference between these C/I is the gain obtained from the hopping.
Some documents list the relation between the number of the frequency hopping bands
and the hopping gain (the actual gain will be subjected to the environmental influence):
The number of the carriers that participate in the
Frequency diversity gain
hopping
=1 0
2 3
3 4
4 5
5 5. 5
6 6
7 6. 3
8 6. 5
9 6. 8
10 6. 9
>=11 7
(2) Interference averaging
The frequency hopping provides the difference of the interference in the transmission
path, so that all the burst pulses that contain a part of the code words may not be
6-20
damaged by the interference in the same manner, and the original data can be
recovered from other part of the receiving stream through the correction coding and
interleaving of the system. Obviously, the frequency hopping may obtain a certain gain
only when the interference is distributed in a narrow band; if the interference is
distributed in a wide band, all the burst pulses will be damaged, and the original data
can not be recovered, so that no gain can be obtained. In the actual network, the
interference is generally distributed in a narrow band.
In the state of the hopping, it is found that the error bit ratio tends to upward in the test,
however, people subjectively feel that the voice quality is improved. The reason is that,
though the error bit ratio is increased, but the index of the voice frame erase ratio (FER)
is improved, in the view of the voice communication, it is understood that the voice
quality is improved; however, in the view of the data service, it may have some defects,
especially, when the data speed rate is very high, the frequency hopping becomes
harmful. This result will be seen from the simulation of the GPRS later.
6.2.2 Power Control
I. Mobile station power control
The mobile station power control is divided into two adjusting stages, i. e. , the stable
adjusting stage and the initial adjusting stage. The stable adjusting is the normal
method for performing the power control algorithm, while the initial adjusting is used in
the time when the call connection is initially started. When a connection is performed,
MS is output as the nominal power of the cell where it is located (the nominal power
indicates that the MS transmitting power is the MS maximum transmitting power
MS_TXPWR_MAX_CCH in the broadcast system messages on the BCCH channel of
the cell where it is located. If MS does not support this power class, the supported
power class that is nearest to it will be utilized, such as the maximum output power
class supported by the reported MS Classmark in the establishment indication
message). However, since BTS may simultaneously support multiple calls, the
receiving signal intensity should be reduced in a new connection as quick as possible,
otherwise, the quality of other call supported by this BTS may be deteriorated due to
the saturation of the BTS multi-coupler, and the call quality of other cells may be
affected due to the high interference. Therefore, the purpose of the initial stage power
control adjusting is to reduce the MS transmitting power as quick as possible until the
stable measurement report is obtained, so that the MS can be adjusted according to
the stable power control algorithm.
The parameters that must be selected in the uplink power control, such as the
expected desirable uplink receiving level, desirable uplink receiving quality, etc. , are
all set by the O&M data management console, the data configuration can be
dynamically carried out according to the actual situations of the cell. After a given
number of the uplink measurement reports is received, by the processing methods
such as interpolation and filtering, the actual uplink receiving level and the receiving
quality are obtained, then they are compared with the desirable uplink receiving level
and the receiving quality, with the power control algorithm, the power class to which
the MS should be adjusted is calculated; if it is different from the current MS output
power class and meets a given application restricted conditions (such as the power
adjusting step length restriction, MS output power range restriction), the power
adjusting command is sent. The essence of the uplink power control adjusting is to
enable the actual uplink receiving level and receiving quality obtained from
interpolation and filtering to progressively approach the desirable uplink receiving level
and receiving quality set by O&M. The purpose for the interpolation and filtering of the
measurement reports is to process the lost measurement report, clear the temporary
nature (spilliness), so as to ensure the stability of the power control algorithm.
6-21
The difference between the initial stage power control and the stable stage power
control is that the expected uplink receiving level and receiving quality in the initial
stage is different from that in the stable stage, the length of the filters are also different,
and only the downward adjustment is performed in the initial stage.
II. Base station power control
The base station power control is an optional function. The base station power control
is basically identical to the MS power control, except that the base power control
utilizes only the stable power control algorithm. The parameters that must be selected
in the power control include the receiving level threshold (lower limitation) to be
performed the power control and the receivable maximum sending level threshold
(upper limitation). The receiving level RXLEV is divided into 64 classes, with numbers
from 0 to 63, class 0 of the receiving level is the lowest, while the class 63 of the
receiving level is the highest.
The base station power control is divided into the static power control and the dynamic
power control, the later is the fine adjusting based on the former. The 0505 protocol
specification specifies that the base station static power class is divided into 6
(2dB/per class), when the maximum power output by the base station is 46dBm (40W),
the class 6 is 34 dBm. The static power level is defined in the cell attribute table of the
data management console, i. e., the maximum output power value Pn of the current
dynamic power control is specified. As the dynamic power control classes are set to 15,
the range of the dynamic power control is Pn-Pn-30dB. If the requirements cannot be
satisfied when the dynamic power control reaches its maximum value, the static power
control classes should be adjusted to increase the maximum output power value Pn of
the dynamic power control.
III. Power control process
(1) Interpolation of the measurement report

The actual measurement report (MR) will be lost, which is divided into several cases.
First, the MR message numbers reported by the BTS are discontinuous; second, the
MR message optional items reported by the BTS will cause the discontinuity of some
measurement reports no longer; third, the MR message is lost due to the error of the
MR message format reported by the BTS. In engineering, the first order interpolation
formula is used to estimate the lost measurement report, the purpose for doing so is to
avoid the call loss due to the lower power.
(2) Filtering of the measurement report
The purpose for the filtering of the measurement report is to clear the temporary
nature, so as to ensure the stability of the algorithm.
(3) Power control adjusting
The power adjusting calculation is made according to the difference degree between
the current receipt conditions and the expected value, so as to determine the power
value to be adjusted to.
6.2.3 Discontinuous Transmission
During a communication process, the mobile users are making calls only in 40% of
times, in most of times, no voice message is transmitted, thus, the system resources
are wasted greatly. With respect to this case, the discontinuous DTX mechanism is
introduced into the GSM, it prohibits the radio signals that is thought to be unwanted
6-22
by the users to reduce the interference level, so as to increase the efficiency of the
system.
Whether the downlink DTX in the network is used is to be set by the network operator
in the switching side, generally, it is controlled taking BSC as the unit, the control
message is transmitted to the base station baseband processing part through the
special signaling channel, and then to TC through the inband signaling of the TRAU
frame, notify whether the downlink DTX is used. Whether the downlink DTXs of some
manufacturers are used may also be set taking the cell as the unit.
The uplink DTX is set by the network operator in the radio side, i. e. , setting the DTX
parameter in the system message, this parameter is composed of 2 bits, its coding
mode is shown as the follows:
DTX Meaning
0 The mobile station may use DTX
1 The mobile station must use DTX
10 The mobile station is not allowed to use DTX
11 Reserved
The parameter DTX is included in the information unit "Cell options", and transmitted
regularly in the system message of each cell broadcast, the mobile phone is to
determine whether the uplink DTX function is enabled according to this message.
To implement this mechanism of the DTX, the source must be able to indicate when
the transmission is required and when is not. When the DTX mode is activated, the
voice encoder must detect it is either voice or noise, which uses the voice detection
VAD technology. By calculating some signal parameters and according to some
thresholds, VAD can determine whether the receiving signal is either voice or noise.
This judgment is based on a energy law: the energy of the noise is less than that of the
voice. The VAD technology is to generate a group of thresholds in every 20ms voice
block time, determining whether the next 20ms voice block is either voice or noise.
However, when the background noise is very high, the noise signal will be regarded as
the voice by the VAD and be encoded for sending. The downlink VAD is in TC, while
the uplink VAD is in the mobile phone.
DTX may be used in both uplink and down link, but they are two programs that is no
relative to each other. They may be activated by the system parameter according to
the respective situations, whether the other party activates this function. There are two
measuring methods in the GSM: one is called global measurement, which is to
average the level and quality in the 104 slots of the entire measuring period (26 multi-
frames of 4 TCHs); the other is called the local measurement, which is to measure and
average the level and quality of the 12 slots, including the 8 continuous TCH burst
pulses (for the TCH/F channel, 0-103 TDMA frames are taken as a circulation, these 8
burst pulse frame numbers are 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59 respectively; when no
voice and signaling are transmitted, they have the description information of the
comfortable noise, called SID) and 4 SACCH burst pulses carrying the measurement
report (0-103 TDMA frames are taken as a circulation, these 4 burst pulse frame
numbers are 12, 38 , 64, 90 respectively). For the conformity, whether the
uplink/downlink of the system activate the DTX function, the base station and mobile
station will complete both measuring methods; and whether the discontinuous
transmission mode is utilized during the last measurement report period is indicated in
every SACCH measurement report of the BTS ad mobile station, according to this
indication, BSC is to decide that either global measuring or local measuring is used for
judging.
6-23
The discontinuous transmission is applicable for the voice as well as the opaque data
transmission, however, the carrier where the BCCH is located does not use this
technology. DTX should be realized in every cell.
The main functions of the DTX technology in the uplink/downlink are: the uplink can
save the mobile phone battery and reduce the interference in the system; the downlink
can reduce the power consumption of the base station, reduce the interference and
reduce the crosstalk in the base station.
When the downlink DTX is utilized together with the uplink DTX, the C/I cofrequency
interference ratio of the system will be improved. This improvement may be applied to
the cell planning with the compact frequency reuse, especially, when it is used
together with the frequency hopping, larger system capacity may be obtained.
6-24
6-25
26
Wireless Network Planning Chapter 7 Parameter Design
Chapter 7 Parameter Design

The network planning is concerned with hundreds of parameters, which consists of
complicated algorithms and protocols. Only with deep understanding of the algorithms
and protocols can we flexibly apply these parameters to various different actual
environments. Therefore, this chapter mainly describes some protocols and
algorithms related to the network planning, such as system message, handover,
power control, channel allocation, etc. For description of other parameters, please
refer to Data Configuration Specifications for GSM900 and 1800 BSS Network
Planning.
The research on radio network parameters should take potential dangerous factors of
radio network (such as large traffic, abnormal user behavior, etc.) into consideration
(please do not limit your attention to individual small network).
Furthermore, the parameters are not independent from each other, and many network
problems and phenomena result from the combined function of many functional
algorithms and radio networking modes. For these integrated phenomena, please
combine the theoretic research and practical experiences to conduct complete and in-
depth analysis of special topics from various aspects such as MSC, BSC, BTS,
characteristics of radio network, etc. During the analysis, please pay attention to
application recommendations of actual networking algorithm and guide to problem
analysis, etc. Especially, when the radio network is getting more and more
complicated and the traffic and capacity are getting larger and larger, this task is more
urgent and it is more complicated and difficult to conduct integrated application of
these parameters with combination of the characteristics of radio network. To
accomplish this task, long-term practice and experience accumulation are needed.
In the GSM system, large quantities of radio parameters are set based on cell or local
area, while the inter-area parameters generally have strong relativity. Therefore,
please consider the influence of parameter setting in an area upon other areas or
especially neighboring areas during parameter planning and adjusting, or the
parameter adjusting may lead to great side effect.
In addition, if certain problem occurs to local area in the network, please firstly
determine whether the problem is caused by equipment fault (including connection
problem). Only when you confirm that the network problem is really caused by service
can the radio parameter adjustment be made.
7.1 System message

To obtain or provide various services, the MS needs many messages from the network,
and these messages broadcast at radio interfaces are called system messages. The
system message includes main radio network parameters at are interfaces,
specifically speaking, including network identification parameters, cell selection
parameters, system control parameters and network function parameters. Through
receiving the system messages, mobile phones can correctly access and select
appropriate network and can fully utilize various services provided by the network so
as to perfectly cooperate with the network. The system message can be divided into
two parts: System messages transmitted in BCCH channel, mainly including system
messages 1, 2, 2BIS, 2TER, 3 and 4; and system messages transmitted in SACCH
channel, mainly including system messages 5, 5BIS, 5TER and 6. To support GPRS,
Huawei BSC also supports system message 13, which will not be described in this
section.
6-1
I. System message 1
System message 1 mainly describes Random Access Control information (RACH) and
Cell frequency Allocation table (i.e., CA table), transmitted in BCCH channel.
System message 1 mainly includes information of the following parameters: CA table,
maximum retransmission times (MAX retrans), number of expanded transmission
timeslots (Tx_interger), cell access barred (CELL_BAR_ACCESS), Access level
Control (AC), Call reestablishment enabled (RE), Emergency Call enabled (EC), etc.
II. System messages 2, 2bis and 2ter
System message 2 mainly describes RACH, Network Color Code Permitted NCC
Permitted} and frequency allocation table of neighboring cells (i.e., BA1 table),
transmitted in BCCH channel. In general, system messages 2, 2BIS and 2TER
different parts of the BA1 table respectively, and mobile phones can conduct cell
reselection in idle mode through reading and decoding the BA1 table. For a 900
mobile phone in PHASE 1, it only identifies frequency of neighboring cell described by
system message 2, but neglects frequency messages of neighboring cells carried by
2BIS and 2TER messages.
System message 2BIS mainly describes RACH and expanded frequency allocation
table of neighboring cells (it is also a part of BA1 table). It is optional and transmitted in
BCCH channel. Generally, the frequency allocation table carried by system message 2
can only describe a limited number of frequencies, so system message 2BIS carries
information of other frequencies (which are in the same frequency band as system
message 2) in the BA1 table.
System message 2TER mainly describes expended frequency allocation table of
neighboring cells (part of BA1 table), transmitted in BCCH channel. Only dual
frequency mobile phones read this message (single frequency 900 or 1800 mobile
phones will neglect this message. Since this message carries frequency information of
different frequency band from the frequency of current cell, so these messages are
unnecessary for single frequency mobile phone.
System message 2, 2bis and 2ter mainly includes information of the following
parameters: Neighboring cell description (BA1 table), NCC Permitted, RACH Control
Para, extended neighboring cell description (Extended), multi-band reporting
(Multiband_Reporting), etc.
III. System message 3
System message 3 mainly describes location area identifier, cell identifier, RACH and
parameters related to cell selection. It is compulsory and is transmitted in BCCH.
System message 3 is one of the most important system messages.
System message 3 mainly includes information of the following parameters: Cell
Global Identity (CGI), IMSI Attach-Detach allowed (ATT), Common control channel
configuration (CCCH-CONF), number of accessed modules allowed to be reserved
(BS_AG_BLKS_RES), number of paging channel multi-frames (BS-PA-MFRAMS),
Periodic location updating timer (T3212), power control indication (PWRC),
discontinuous transmission (DTX), radio link timeout (Radio_Link_Timeout), Cell
Selection Hysteresis, maximum power level of control channel
(MS_TXPWR_MAX_CCH), accessible minimum received level
(RXLEV_ACCESS_MIN), additional reselection parameter indication (ACS), half-rate
indication (NECI), RACH Control Para., etc.
6-2
IV. System message 4
System message 4 mainly describes location area identifier, RACH, cell selection
parameter and optional CBCH channel information. It is compulsory and is transmitted
in BCCH. The optional IE CBCH description and the MA describe the configuration of
the CBCH channel and corresponding frequency information when the system
supports cell broadcast.
System message 4 mainly includes information of the following parameters: Location
Area Identity (LAI), Cell Selection Para., RACH Control Para., CBCH channel
description and CBCH MA, cell reselection parameter indication (PI), Cell Bar
Qualification (CBQ), Cell Reselection Offset (CRO), Temporary Offset (TO) and
Penalty Time (PT).
V. System message 5, 5bis, 5ter
System message 5 mainly describes frequency information of neighboring cells (i.e,

BA2 table). It is compulsory and is transmitted in the SACCH channel. Different from
system message 2, mobile phones can read frequencies described in system
message 5 in communication state and report relevant information of neighboring cells
in measurement report so that the report can be used as basis of handover. Similarly,
for a mobile phone in PHASE 1, it only can identify neighboring cell frequency
described in system message 5, but neglects frequency information of neighboring cell
carried by messages 5BIS and 5TER.
System message 5BIS mainly describes frequency information of neighboring cells
(part of BA2 table). It is optional and is transmitted in SACCH. Generally, the
frequency allocation table carried by system message 5 can only describe a limited
number of frequencies, so system message 5BIS carries information of other
frequencies (which are in the same frequency band as system message 5) in the BA2
table.
System message 5TER mainly describes frequency information of neighboring cells (it
is also a part of BA2 table). It is transmitted in SACCH channel. Similarly, only dual
frequency mobile phones can read this message (single frequency 900 or 1800 mobile
phones will neglect this message).
System messages 5, 5bis and 5ter mainly include information of relevant parameters
such as neighboring cell description (Neighbor Cell Desc.), extended neighboring cell
description (Extended), etc.
VI. System message 6
System message 6 mainly describes location area identifier, cell identifier and some
parameters describing cell functions. It is compulsory and is transmitted in SACCH
channel. System message 6 is also one of the important system messages.
System message 6 mainly includes information of the following parameters:
Information on relevant parameters such as CGI, Cell Option, NCC Permitted, etc.
7.2 Cell Selection and Cell Reselection

In idle mode, mobile phone can conduct the following operations: Network selection,
cell selection/reselection and location update.
6-3
7.2.1 Network Selection
The mobile station always preferably selects Home Public Land Mobile Network
(HPLMN). If a mobile phone is not within the coverage area of the HPLMN, then the
mobile phone will select Visit Public Land Mobile Network (VPLMN). Even in roaming
mode, the mobile station will still periodically attempt to search for the HPLMN.
(1) Power on or start network selection when entering coverage area
(2) Subscriber reselection
A subscriber can start network selection at anytime.
(3) Periodically searching for HPLMN in national roaming mode
In national roaming mode, the mobile station will periodically attempt to search for the
HPLMN. Its periodic value T is stored in the SIM card (If T is not available in the SIM,
then please use the default value of 30 minutes).
Success sign of network selection by mobile station:
z Successfully finding appropriate resident cell in the network.
z Successful location update
There are two network selection modes: Automatic mode and manual mode.
(1) Automatic mode
The mobile station automatically select available network of the highest priority.
(2) Manual mode
The mobile station provides a network list and the subscriber selects the network to be
accessed. This network list includes “PLMN not allowed”.
The mobile phone stores a “PLMN not allowed” list in the SIM card. When the mobile
phone conduct the location updating of location registration in the VPLMN and
receives the location updating rejection including “PLMN not allowed”, it will add the
network (VPLMN) to the list. After successful location update in manual network
selection mode, the network (VPLMN) will be deleted from the list. After power-off or
pulling out the SIM card, the list is still reserved. The HPLMN is not included in the list.
7.2.2 Cell Selection and Reselection
In the selected network, the mobile station will search for an appropriate resident cell
according to the descending order of the received level strength so that the mobile
station can receive system messages from the network.
I. Conditions of appropriate and normal resident cell
The priority of cell can be divided into: Normal, low priority and bar access. Only when
there is no appropriate “normal” cell will the “low priority” cell be selected.
The appropriate conditions include:
(1) The cell belongs to the selected network.
(2) The cell is not barred.
(3) The cell does not belong to barred national roaming location area.
6-4
(4) The radio path loss between MS and BTS is under the threshold set for the
network.
The cell priority is determined by both CBQ(CELL_BAR_QUALIFY) and CBA(CELL_
BAR_ACCESS).
CELL_BAR QUALIFY CELL_BAR ACCESS Cell selection priority Status for cell reselection
0 0 Normal Normal
0 1 Barred Barred
1 0 Low Normal
1 1 Low Normal
II. Cell selection
To implement cell selection and reselection, mobile phones require that all monitored
frequencies should maintain an average received level grade. The average received
level (RLA_C) should be unweighted average value of the receiving signal level
measured with dBm.
(1) Normal cell selection
A mobile phone will search all RF channels in the system (at least 30 RF channels for
900M system, at least 40 RF channels for 1800M system and at least 40 RF channels
for PSC1900) to obtain the received level of each RF channel and to calculate the
corresponding RLA_C. The averaging of the received level of each TRX should at
least based upon five measured samples (with a time about 3 to 5 seconds). The
measured samples of different RF TRXs are uniformly distributed within this period of
time.
Then the sequencing according to the descending order of the levels will be performed
and BCCH will be selected. The cell of normal priority will be selected preferably
among these TRXs. If the appropriate cell is only the cell of low priority, the mobile
phone will also select the cell of best level. However, in this case the mobile phone has
already performed all decoding and identification of the above frequencies. If no
appropriate cell is available, the mobile phone will continue to search.
The maximum time to synchronize a BCCH TRX is 0.5s and the maximum time to read
the data of a synchronized BCCH TRX is 1.9s. Where the time to obtain system
message is exceptional, being n*1.9s(n>1).
(2) “Storage table” cell selection
In this case, the mobile station has a previously stored BCCH frequency list of the
selected network (more than one). For each stored BCCH TRX of the selected
network, the mobile phone executes the same sampling process as normal cell
selection (only aiming at the stored BCCH TRX). If the “storage table” cell selection
fails, please start normal cell selection. Please note that if all the cells in this case are
cells of low priority, the mobile phone will also finally select a cell of the highest level
(but the mobile phone has conducted the decoding of TRXs in all the BA lists. When a
mobile phone over 900M network enters the 900/1800 network, the mobile phone may
select the 900 network regardless of the priority, since all the contents of the BCCH
frequency list stored in the mobile phone only cover 900M frequencies.
(3) Cell selection criteria
The path loss criteria parameter C1 should be used for cell selection:
C1=RLA_C - RXLEV_ACCESS_MIN- MAX((MS_TXPWR_MAX_CCH- P), 0)
For DCS 1800 3 mobile phones, C1 is:
C1=RLA_C-RXLEV_ACCESS_MIN-MAX((MS_TXPWR_MAX_CCH+POWER
OFFSET- P), 0)
6-5
Where all the parameters have the same unit dBm. The meaning of each parameter is
as follows:
RLA_C: Average received level of mobile station
RXLEV_ACCESS_MIN: Minimum accessible received level of mobile station
MS_TXPWR_MAX_CCH: Maximum CCH power level
P: Maximum transmitting power level of mobile station.
POWER OFFSET: Power offset used by DCS 1800 3 mobile phones, which is related
to MS_TXPWR_MAX_CCH
The so-called appropriate cells should meet the requirement: C1>0.
III. Downlink signaling link fault
The downlink link fault criteria are based upon downlink signaling link fault counter
(DSC). When the mobile phone resides in a cell, the DSC will be initialized to an
integer close to 90/N to the greatest extent (N stands for BS_PA_MFRMS---number of
frames among same paging, with a value range: 2 to 9). Therefore, when the mobile
phone attempts to decode the message in the paging subchannel, the value of DSC
will increase by one whenever a message is successfully decoded (but should not
exceed the initialized value). If the message decoding fails, the DSC will decrease by
four. If ≤
DSC
0 , then a downlink signaling link fault occurs. The downlink signaling link
fault will lead to cell reselection.
IV. Cell reselection
After the cell selection and when the cell reselection starts, the mobile phone will
synchronize and read information of 6 BCCH TRXs (with highest signal level) not in
the service cell as soon as possible (The BCCH TRXs should be in the BA table). For
multi-frequency mobile phones, the TRXs with strongest signal level possibly are
distributed in different bands.
In idle state, the mobile phone will keep on monitoring the information of all the BCCH
TRXs specified by the BCCH allocation table (BA), and also within the time period
from 5s to Max {5 , ((5 * N + 6) DIV 7) * BS_PA_MFRMS / 4}s, the mobile phone will
average each received level of the BCCH TRX (where, N refers to the number of
BCCH TRXs not in the service cell). For each RLA_C (average received level), at least
five level measurement samples are needed (RLA_C value is often updated). With
respect to service cell, each paging block of the mobile phone at least needs one
received level sample. The RLA_C is calculated by averaging the sampled level
values received from 5s to Max (5s, five consecutive paging blocks of that MS).
Each time when the measurement of RLA_C is updated, the TRXs in the list (in BA
list)of 6 BCCH TRXs with the highest signal level not in service cell will be updated
either (possibly the frequencies will be updated faster).
The mobile phone at least attempts to decode all BCCH data of the service cell every
30s, and it at least attempts to decode the BCCH data block (which exerts influence
upon cell reselection parameters) carried in 6 BCCH TRXs (with the highest signal
level) not in service cell every five minutes. When the mobile phone finds that a new
BCCH TRX has become one of the six TRXs with the highest signal level, the data of
this BCCH TRX should be decoded in 30s. At least every 30s, the mobile phone
attempts to detect the BSIC (base station color code) of the 6 BCCH TRXs (with the
highest signal level) not in service cell so as to confirm whether it monitors the same
cell. If the BSIC changes, then this TRX will be regarded as a new TRX and the BCCH
data will be read once again.
6-6
The mobile station in resident state will keep on selecting cell better than the current
cell. Corresponding to the parameter C1 applied to cell selection, the path loss criteria
parameter C2 is used for cell reselection. C2 is determined by the following formula:
C2=C1+CELL_RESELECT_OFFSET-TEMPORARY_OFFSET*H(PENALTY_TIME-T)
When PENALTY_TIME< >31,
C2 = C1-CELL_RESELECT_OFFSET When PENALTY_TIME =31,
where:
CELL_RESELECT_OFFSET: Cell Reselection Offset (CRO) is used to manually
correct C2.
TEMPORARY_OFFSET: Temporary Offset (TO),
PENALTY_TIME: Penalty Time (PT), determining the action time of the TO.
T: A timer with the initial value of 0. When a certain cell is recorded in the list of the six
neighboring cells with the highest signal level by the mobile station, the counter T
corresponding to this cell starts to count to the accuracy of a TDMA frame (about 4.62
ms). When this cell is deleted from the list of the six neighboring cells with the highest
signal level by the mobile station, the corresponding cell will be reset. If cell reselection
is needed, the previous service cell enters the list of the six neighboring cells with the
highest signal level, and the T value is PENALTY_TIME.
H(x) :
For non-service cells (neighboring cells): H(x) = 0 when x < 0
= 1 When x > 0
For service cell: H(x) = 0
If CELL_RESELECT_PARAM_IND in system messages 3 and 4 broadcast in BCCH is
set as 1, then the cell reselection parameters CELL_RESELECT_OFFSET,
TEMPORARY_OFFSET and PENALTY_TIME are also broadcast in BCCH system
messages 3 and 4. If CELL_RESELECT_PARAM_IND is set as 0, then the mobile
phone will think that all cell reselection parameters are 0, therefore, C2=C1.
At least every 5s, the mobile phone will calculate C1 and C2 of the service cell. The
mobile phone will calculate C1 and C2 of all cells not in service (neighboring cells)
again if necessary. The mobile phone will keep on checking the following conditions:
(1) The path loss (C1) of the current service cell is decreased to a value less than 0
within 5s. It indicates that the path loss of the cell is too great.
(2) The C2 value of an appropriated non-service cell keeps on exceeding C1 value of
the service cell in 5s and also meets the following conditions:
(a) If the new cell is in different location area, C2 value of the new cell subtracted
by cell reselection hysteresis (CELL_RESELECT_HYSTERESIS, broadcast in
system messages 3 and 4 in BCCH channel of the service cell) keeps on
exceeding C2 value of the service cell.
(b) If cell reselection occurs in recent 15s, then the C2 value of the new service
subtracted by 5dB keeps on exceeding C2 value of the service cell in 5s.
A new cell meeting the above condition is the better cell. If the better cell is available,
then the mobile phone will perform cell reselection.
After finding the better cell and cell reselection, the mobile phone should not reselect
the previous resident cell in 5s, although the cell may meet the cell reselection
conditions.
6-7
To summarize, the following conditions will lead to cell reselection:

(1) The radio path loss of the current resident cell is too great (C1
≤0 ).
(2) The downlink of the current resident cell fails (DSC
≤0 ).
(3) The current resident cell has been barred.
(4) According to the cell reselection parameter C2, it is found that there is a cell better
than the current resident cell in the same location area, or with the application of the
Cell Reselection Hysteresis parameter (CRH), there is a better cell in another location
area of the network.
(5) The random access times reaches the maximum retry times broadcast in BACH,
but the mobile phone has not successfully accessed to the current resident cell yet.
7.2.3 Location Updating
I. Normal location update (location update of offside location area)
When a mobile station moves from one location area to another location area, it
should make registration, that is to say, once the mobile station finds that the LAI in its
memory is different from the LAI number of the current cell, it will request the network
to change the stored location information. This process is called location update.
Firstly, considering mobile station powered on in idle state, which moves in the same
location area, and if cell reselection occurs in this case and the service cell of the
mobile station has changed, the mobile station will not inform the network of the
change. That is to say, the mobile station only conducts cell reselection, but not the
location update, so the network does not take part in the processing. If two cells are
not in the same location area before and after reselection, the mobile station must
inform the network of the location area change. This process is called “forced
registration”.
According to the different location update identifiers, i.e., in broad sense, the location
update can be divided into normal location update (location update of offside location
area), periodic location update (corresponding to T3212) and IMSI attachment
(corresponding to mobile stations powered on). Dividing specifically, the location
updating division depends whether the location update program belongs to the same
VLR and whether the participation of IMSI number is needed. It can be divided into the
following several types of location update.
(1) Location update of different location areas in the same VLR (INTRA VLR
LOCATION UPDATE)
This is the simplest location updating process. During this process, the mobile station
does not need to provide IMSI number. The updating is conducted I the current VLR,
without the need to notify HLR.
During the initialization, the mobile station has marked in the initialized message
carried by SABM frame sent to the network that the direct access reason is location
updating request (MM LOCATION UPDATING REQUEST). This message carries the
TMSI number and LAI numbers of the mobile station with clearly indication of normal
location updating. If the MSC sends this message to the VLR when it receives it, the
VLR will update the location message of the mobile station and store the new LAI
number, and also it will send a new TMSI number (it is appropriate for the TMSI re-
allocation command not to carry the TMSI number, but in this case the mobile station
will still use the previous TMSI) to the mobile station. After the TMSI re-allocation of
the mobile station is finished, the MSC will send the “location update accepted”
6-8
(LOCATION UPDATE ACCEPT) to the mobile station. After this, it releases the
channel location update end.
(2) Extra-VLR Location update and the TMSI number is transmitted
When a mobile station enters a cell, if it finds that the stored LAI number is different
from the current LAI number, then in the location updating request, it will send its old
LAI number and the stored TMSI number to the VLR through the MSC. When the VLR
finds that the LAI number does not belong to itself, it will educe the previous VLR
address according to the old TMSI and LAI numbers and also it will request the old
VLR to send the IMSE and authorization parameters (MAP_SEND_IDENTIFICATION).
The old VLR will return the IMSI and authorization parameters of the mobile station to
the new VLR. If the new VLR cannot obtain the IMSI due to certain reasons, the VLR
will send identity request message to the MS to ask for the IMSI number. After the VLR
obtains the IMSI number, it will send location updating message to the HLR of the MS.
The location message includes MS identifier and relevant information so that the HLR
can query data and set up path. After the HLR receives this message, if the new
MSC/VLR has normal service authority, then the HLR will store the current VLR
number and will also send “Cancel location message” to the old VLR
(MAP/D_CANCEL_LOCATION). The old VLR will delete all the information of the MS
after receiving the message and will also send “cancel location confirmation” message
back to the HLR (MAP/D_CANCEL_LOCATION_RESULT). The new VLR will
continue the process of authorization encryption and TMSI re-allocation. After that, the
HLR will provide the VLR with necessary subscriber information through originating
message of inserting subscriber data (MAP_INSERT_SUBSCRIBER_DATA),
including information such as authorization parameters, etc. When the HLR receives
the response of the VLR, it will send location updating confirmation message to the
VLR.
(3) Extra-VLR Location update and the IMSI number is transmitted
The location updating process is the same as the above one and is simpler, since it
directly request authorization parameters from the HLR through the IMSI number.
II. IMSI attachment and detachment
The IMSI attachment and detachment means to add a binary mark to the subscriber
record in the MSC/VLR. The IMSI attachment process means to set the mark as
access allowed, while the IMSI detachment means to set the mark as access not
allowed.
When the mobile phone powers on, it should notify the network of the power-on state.
This notification process is implemented as follows: The mobile station sends an “IMSI
attachment” message (IMSI ATTATCH)” to the network so that the network can know
that the current state of the mobile phone has changed. The network will indicate
clearly the current subscriber state in the system data when receiving this message,
such that the network can originate its paging program when the paging message of
the mobile station arrives.
After power-on, if the mobile station finds that its stored LAI number is consistent with
the current LAI number, then it will perform the IMSI attachment process. It program
process is basically the same as that of INTRA VLR LOCATION UPDATE, and the
only difference is that the LOCATION UPDATING REQUEST message clearly
indicates that the location updating type is IMSI attachment. Its initialization message
includes the IMSI number of the mobile station.
After power-on, if the mobile station finds that its stored LAI number is not consistent
with the current LAI number, then it will execute normal location updating process.
6-9
It the mobile station wants to power off, it will define to trigger the IMSI detachment
process through a key. During this process, only one command is sent from the MS to
the MSC/VLR. This is a piece of unconfirmed message. When the MSC receives the
IMSI detachment request, it will notify the VLR to add the “Detach” mark to the IMSI,
but the HLR is not informed of the message that the subscriber has detached from the
network. When this subscriber is paged, the HLR will request the roaming number
(MSRN) from the VLR where the subscriber is located. In this case, the HLR will be
informed that the subscriber has detached from the network. Thus, the paging
program will not be executed and the paging message will be directly treated, such as
playing the announcement “The subscriber is powered off”, etc. After the MS sending
out this message, the RR connection will be abandoned automatically.
III. Periodic location updating
If the following conditions occur, the network will always lose connection with the
mobile phones: (a). When the powered-on mobile station moves out of the covered
area (i.e., blind area) of the network, in such case, the mobile station cannot send any
instructions to the network, therefore, the network cannot know the current state of the
mobile phone and it will still think that the mobile station is in attachment state. (b).
When the mobile station sends the “IMSI Detach” message to the network, if the link is
off poor quality due to certain interference in the uplink lf the radio path, then the
network possibly cannot correctly decode the message. Therefore, it means that the
system still think that the MS is in attachment state. (c). When the mobile station is
powered off, it still cannot inform the network of its current state, so the two of them
lose connection. When the above three cases occur, if the mobile station is being
paged, then the system will send the paging message in the location area which the
subscriber has registered before. The result is of course that the network cannot
receive the paging response, which will lead to invalid system resources seizure.
To solve this problem, the GSM system takes corresponding measures to force the
mobile station to report its current location to the network after a certain period of time.
Thus, with this kind of mechanism, the network can understand whether any change
occur to the current state of the mobile station. This is the periodic location updating
mechanism. With the help of the system broadcast message of BCCH in the cell, the
BSS sends the periodic location updating time (T3212) to all subscribers in the cell so
as to force the mobile stations to automatically originate the location updating request
to the network after the timer is timeout (the request reason should be marked as
“periodic location updating”. After the cell selection or reselection, the mobile station
will read T3212 from the system message of the current service cell, and also it will set
the timer and store it in its SIM card. After that, the mobile station will automatically
originate location-updating request to the network if it finds that the T3212 is timeout.
Correspondingly, for the NSS part, the network will periodically query the subscribers
marked as IMSI attachment in its VLR and it will change the identifier of the
subscribers (which do not have any connection with the network during this period of
time) as IMSI detachment (IMSI DETATCH), so as to prevent paging for such mobile
stations (such paging will lead to waste of system resources). This period of time is
called the IMSI detachment time. To improve the connected rate, it is expected that the
time be set as a shorter value (on the precondition that it is longer than periodic
location updating time). However, the coverage differs greatly for different areas. This
difference should be taken into consideration in LAC division, and meanwhile, it is
much better to set the IMSI detachment time with LAC as unit for the convenience of
matching with the periodic location updating time setting.
The periodic location updating is an important means for the close connection
between the network and mobile subscribers. Therefore, the shorter the periodic
location updating time, the better the overall performance of the network. However,
frequent location updating will lead to side effects: On one hand, the signaling traffic of
the network will be greatly increased and the utilization ratio of radio resources is
6-10
decreased, which will exert some influence upon the processing capacity of MSC,
BSC and BTS; on the other hand, the power consumption of the mobile phone will be
severely increased, so the standby time of the mobile phone in the system is greatly
shortened. Therefore, please take the actual conditions into integrated consideration
in T3212 setting.
7.3 Huawei Handover Algorithm

To adapt to the rapid development of mobile communication service and to solve the
problems of insufficient frequency resources and network congestion, Huawei
M900/M1800 system has adopted hierarchical network architecture, as shown in 7-1.
Umbrella
Cell GSM 900
GSM900
GSM 900 GSM 900 GSM 900
Cell
GSM1800 GSM1800 GSM1800 GSM1800

Cell
GSM900 GSM900 GSM900 GSM900

Micro Cell
GSM1800 GSM1800 GSM1800 GSM1800
Figure 7-1 Hierarchical network architecture
The whole network uses four layers as the basic framework: Umbrella, Macro, Micro
and Pico. Each layer can be configured with 16 priorities, which provides operators
with sufficient network planning space so as to adapt to various complicated
networking environment. Where, the Macro layer is the main force 900 layer, the Micro
layer is the main force 1800 layer and the Pico layer is the microcell layer of 900 and
1800.
Purpose of hierarchical network design:
z To rapidly expand the network capacity with the application of the
hierarchical network and to remove the bottleneck of network frequency
resources.
z Try best to guide the dual frequency mobile phones to be resident in
M1800 cells so as to ease the congestion state of the original M900
network.
z To widen the coverage range and to improve the signal quality of hot
spots and large-traffic areas.
7.3.1 Handover Decision Flow
The decision flow of Huawei handover algorithm is shown in Figure 7-2.
6-11
Figure 7-2 Decision flow of Huawei handover algorithm
7.3.2 Measurement Report Pre-processing
The measurement report pre-processing mainly includes the following two functions:
I. Measurement Result (MR) Interpolation
Generally, the MS will periodically report the measurement results of the uplinks and
neighboring cells, and the BTS will combine the measurements of corresponding
uplinks to form Measurement Result and then will report to the BSC. If due to some
reason, the received measurement results are discontinuous, then these lost
measurement results should be interpolated within a certain loss limit. This processing
is called MR interpolation calculation.
The continuity of the MR is judged by Measurement result number, and the
interpolation algorithm adopts simplified one-order interpolation method (the lost value
is calculated according to the measurement value at both ends of the lost
measurement result).
II. MR filtering (MR Time Evaluation)
The series of measured values corresponding to a radio link will not be a smooth curve.
To remove accidental factors in handover decision, smooth processing should be
conducted for various measured values. This process is regarded as MR filtering.
There many methods for MR averaging. At present, we use the method of obtaining
current values for decision-making by the simple forward averaging. The number of
forward obtained values is called filter length. For different types of measured values,
there are different filter lengths.
6-12
7.3.3 Penalty Processing
I. Penalty for handover failure
Among existing algorithms, when the service cell fails in handover to the neighboring
cell, it will terminate regarding the neighboring cell as the destination cell, but continue
handover attempts to the cell. Thus it will lead to frequent invalid handover attempts
and exert great influence upon the system performance. Therefore, in cell handover,
once the handover fails, the destination cell should be punished during a certain
period of time so as to avoid frequency unsuccessful handover attempts.
II. BQ and TA penalty
For emergency handover caused by BQ and TA, after handover to the destination cell,
once the destination cell needs handover due to reasons such as traffic, priority, etc.
(since in this case it cannot obtain the TA and receiving quality of the original service
cell except the received level), if the received level of the original cell is higher, then
the MS will still possibly be handed over back to the original service cell, thus leading
to “ping-pong handover”. Therefore, the penalty-processing module also includes the
handover penalty for BQ and TA, i.e., After the MS is handed over to its neighboring
cell due to TA and BQ, the original service cell will be punished during a certain period
of time.
7.3.4 Handover Sequencing Algorithm
To select an appropriate destination handover cell, the neighboring cells will be

queued according a certain sequencing principle. The M criteria, K criteria and 16bit
criteria.
I. M criteria
Firstly, determine whether the received levels of the neighboring cells are higher than
the minimum received level, since only the neighboring cells whose received lever is
higher than the minimum received level can enter the candidate cell list, i.e., the
neighboring cells are tailored according their received levels.
For the service cell:
RXLEV(o) >MSRXMIN(o) + MAX(0,Pa(o))
For neighboring cells:
RXLEV(n) > MSRXMIN(n)+ MAX(0,Pa(n))
Where,
RXLEV(o) and RXLEV(n) are MS received levels of the service cell and the
neighboring cell respectively, while MSRXMIN(o) and MSRXMIN(n) are the minimum
received levels of the MS required by the service cell and the neighboring cell.
Pa(o)=MS_TXPWR_MAX(o)-P;
Pa(n)=MS_TXPWR_MAX(n)-P;
P =max_power_of_ms;
MS_TXPWR_MAX(n) is maximum transmitting power of mobile phone limited by the
BSS.
6-13
max_power_of_ms is the maximum transmitting power of the mobile phone itself.

The method can be described as follows: The existing algorithm only considers the
minimum received power threshold of downlink and does not consider uplink. Thus, if
the maximum power of the mobile phone exceeds the maximum transmitting level
required by the BSS, then Pa is equal to zero, i.e., the uplinks of the mobile phone can
also meet the requirements; to the contrary, the minimum received level of downlink
should be added with a compensation value to meet the requirements of uplink
received level of the neighboring cell.
II. K criteria
The sequencing of candidate cells is based upon the received level. A hysteresis
exists among the cells, i.e., the K hysteresis, which is equivalent to a threshold
between different cells and plays the function of handover stabilizer. The actual
received level of the downlink of a neighboring cell subtracted by a virtual offset (K
hysteresis) is the received level of the neighboring cell finally obtained by the service
cell. All neighboring cells are sequenced according to this value and the priorities of
the neighboring cells are reduced from front to back.
III. 16 bits criteria
Huwei BSC handover algorithm is based upon the 16bit criteria of each cell, the cell
with the minimum value is selected as the handover cell.
16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
The specific meaning of each bit is as follows:

Bits 1 to 3: Sequencing based upon the received level of each cell. It results from the
sequencing of six candidate cells and one service cell according the received level
(with the combination of the received level and the corresponding penalty).
Bit 4: the handover hysteresis comparing bit between cells of the same layer. Bit 3 of
the service cell is zero all the time. When the received level of a neighboring cell
subtracted by the received level of the service cell is greater than the inter-cell
handover hysteresis, it is set as 0; when the received level of a neighboring cell
subtracted by the received level of the service cell is less than the inter-cell handover
hysteresis, it is set as 1.
Bits 5 to 10: Bits in handover layering and leveling. The bits are used for determine the
layers and priority levels (when the level of the neighboring cell or service cell is lower
than relationship between the inter-layer handover threshold and hysteresis, they will
be screened and set as 0). There are 64 priorities.
Bit 11: Load adjusting bit. If the candidate cell is the service cell and the load is greater
than or equal to the local handover start threshold, then it is set as 1, or it will be set as
0; if the candidate cell is the neighboring cell and the load is greater than or equal to
the local handover receiving threshold, then it is set as 1, or it will be set as 0. For the
load handover start threshold and receiving threshold, please refer to the load
handover data table. No matter whether the load handover switch is opened or not, the
bit plays its due function.
Bit 12: Common BSC adjusting bit (i.e., sharing the same BSC). If the level of the
neighboring cell or the service cell is lower than the relationship between the inter-
layer handover threshold and hysteresis, it will be screened and set as 0.
6-14
Bit 13: Adjustment bit sharing the same MSC. When the level of the neighboring cell or
service cell is lower than relationship between the inter-layer handover threshold and
hysteresis, they will be screened and set as 0.
Bit 14: Inter-layer handover threshold adjusting bit. Whether the level of the
neighboring cell is higher than the inter-layer handover threshold + hysteresis or the
level of the service cell is higher than the inter-layer handover threshold – hysteresis.
The bit is set as 0 or 1.
Bit 15: Cell type adjusting bit (mainly used for 70KM extended cell).
7.3.5 Emergency Handover
The emergency handover means that the triggering of the handover is rapid. At
present, the emergency handover mainly destinations at four cases: High TA, poor
receiving quality, rapid decrease of received level and great interference. During
emergency handover, the best cell will be selected only according to the current cell
sequencing, not multiple sequencing, so as to speed up the time response
characteristic of the system.
I. Handover caused by high TA
The timing advance can serve as a criterion for restricting cell size in a sense. The
BSC will judge whether the TA of the current MS exceeds the defined maximum TA
threshold TALIM (Timing Advanced LIMit). If it does, the BSC will originate an
emergency handover due to high TA value.
II. Emergency handover caused by BQ
The transmission quality of links is measured with BER (Bit Error Ratio). The reason of
high BER may result from low signal power or channel interference.
III. Emergency handover caused by rapid level decrease
This is mainly used to judge the emergency handover due to rapid decrease of the
received level of the MS. Since in this case, if the normal handover flow is used (i.e.,
the handover is triggered when the received level of the MS is lower than the edge
handover threshold), then the MS may be disconnected without rapid trigger since it
still is making P/N decision. The judgement of rapid level decrease is the emphasis of
this part. The decision method is to introduce the concept of fast filter.
For rapid level decrease, considering over fluctuation of the original level, it is planned
to filter the level for a short period of time and then to judge whether the level is rapidly
decreased with an appropriate filter (the filter is specially used to judge rapid level
decrease). The averaged filter length is set as QCKFALLLEN (3 by default). After
filtering of the averaging filter, then use the filter for judging the rapid level decrease to
conduct appropriate processing, shown as follows:
m
CF(nT) = $C((n − i)T) <
i=0
Where, C(nT) (when j=0) is the measured value of the current signal strength and
C((n-j)T) is the corresponding measured result in the Jth period (T) before the current
period.
6-15
IV. Emergency handover caused by uplink/downlink interference
If the BER of the link increases, but the received level is still high, then it is thought that
the channel has been interfered and the emergency handover due to uplink/downlink
interference will be originated.
7.3.6 Load Handover
The so-called load handover means that when the load of a cell is too heavy, then the
load will be appropriately distributed to neighboring cells of low load so that the load is
uniformly distributed over the whole network and to decrease the blocking rate. If the
allowed identifier of load handover is set as HoClsAcc, then the system is allowed to
perform load handover, i.e., the system allows the load to be handed over to its
neighboring cell and also it allows to accept the subscribers handed over due to load
reason, otherwise the cell neither can hand over subscribers to the neighboring cell
due to heavy load nor the cell will accept the subscribers handed over from other cell.
The traffic load handover can only be performed in cells of the same BSC. The current
design supports the handover between different layers of the hierarchical network.
To implement the load handover function, first of all please judge whether the flow
level of the current system is higher than the allowed load handover threshold
(ClsSysFlowLvl). If it is, then the load handover will not be performed, so as to prevent
great influence of load handover upon the overall system. During load handover,
please judge whether the local of the cell where the subscriber is located is higher
than the load handover threshold (ClsLevel). If it is and also the subscriber is within
the load handover area, then the subscriber will be handed over to the neighboring cell
(if the load is lower than the received threshold ClsAcc, then the ClsAcc must be lower
than ClsLevel). The purpose of setting the load handover area is to prevent that too
many subscribers are handed over to the neighboring cell simultaneously. The load
handover area refers to the area between the edge handover threshold and the edge
handover threshold plus load handover area offset (ClsOffset). Please refer to Figure
7-3.
Load Normal handover

handover boundary
area
Cell A Cell B
CONF_HO_RXLEV+CLSOFFSE
T CONF_HO_RXLE
V
CONF_HO_RXLEV+CLSRAM
P
Figure 7-3 Schematic diagram of load handover
Thus, it can be seen that if the system permits the load handover, then all the
subscribers within the load handover area will become load handover objects
simultaneously and will be handed over to Cell B. This will exert great influence upon
the BSC processor and meanwhile it may lead to blocking of the destination cell.
Therefore, please gradually hand over the load to Cell B. The gradual handover to Cell
6-16
B is controlled by classified load handover step (ClsRamp). When the load handover is
allowed, the system allows the subscribers within CONF_HO_RXLEV and
CONF_HO_RXLEV+ClsRamp to be handed over to Cell B and in the meantime, the
system will start the load handover timer (TimerTCLS). When the timer reaches a
certain time (ClsPeriod), the system allows the subscribers within CONF_HO_RXLEV
and CONF_HO_RXLEV +2*ClsRAMP to be handed over to Cell B. This process
continues until all subscribers in the load handover area are handed over to Cell B.
Hereafter, all subscribers in the load handover area can be handed over to Cell B.
Functions such as CRO, leveled traffic control, load handover and direct reuse, etc.
are applicable to abnormal traffic peak in local area of the radio network as emergency
measures or real hierarchical implementation, so they should not be regarded as the
main solutions to traffic congestion, since such means will change the normal cell
layout and will cause accidental network quality problems such as strong signal
fluctuation, etc. If a local area of the network always needs load handover or direct
reuse, then please consider adjusting the sector TRX configuration of the base station
and the network layout.
7.3.7 Normal Handover
I. Edge handover
In N MRs, if P uplink levels of the MS or service cell are lower than the edge handover
threshold, then the edge handover will be triggered. The edge handover requires that
the candidate cells should be in front of the service cell in the queue of candidate cells.
II. Leveled cell handover
The handover of dual frequency system is implemented through setting the cells as
different levels (CellLevel) and different priorities (CellPriority). That is to say, the dual
frequency system is regarded as a network. According to the actual requirements, the
GSM1800 system can be set as higher priority. Here, please note the lower the level,
the higher the priority and the lower the priority level, the higher the priority. For
example: The cell of level 1 has a priority higher than the cell of level 2, and the cell
with priority set as 1 has a higher priority than the cell with a priority set as 2.
The cell leveling function is implemented through setting cell levels and priority of cells
in the same level. The cells are divided into four levels, and each level is divided into
16 priorities. After basic cell sequencing, the cells will be sequenced again according
to the levels and priorities of the candidate cells, and the cell of high priority will be
sequenced at the front. Thus, it is guaranteed that in the same condition, the MS will
be handed over to cell of high priority preferably. Thus, the cell levels and priorities will
play function in the sequencing of the candidate cells to which the MS may be handed
over. This part is implemented in the network characteristic adjusting module of the
handover algorithm.
The network characteristic adjusting module will simultaneously judge whether the
neighboring cell and the service cell share the same BSC/MSC, because in order to
meet the requirements of independent networking and to reduce handovers between
BSC and MSC as much as possible, and the priority of whether the cells share the
same BSC is higher than the leveled priority, therefore, the relationship between cells
should be judged. Here, please set the On/Off of CO_BSC_MSC_TREATMENT. If it is
set as “On”, then please adjust the queue of the candidate cells according to whether
the neighboring cell and the service cell configured by the data management console
share the same BSC/MSC.
6-17
III. PBGT handover
In regions with dense network architecture, the actual radio coverage range is greatly
larger than the distance between base stations. Thus, if the MS keeps communication
in a cell, it cannot be effectively handed over to a closer cell needing lower transmitting
power. Therefore, it will lead to extra-cell coverage phenomenon, which increases
interference upon the radio environment and influences networking planning and
optimizing. To solve this problem, please introduce the PBGT handover algorithm
based upon path loss.
The PBGT handover algorithm is a handover algorithm based upon path loss. The
PBGT handover algorithm searches in real time whether there exists a cell which has
smaller path loss and meets certain system requirements and also it will judge
whether the handover is needed. The PBGT handover at least can bring about the
following advantages:
(1) Solving the problem of extra-cell coverage.
(2) Reducing the dual frequency handover times.
(3) Providing more flexible means for traffic guidance and control.
(4) Providing subscribers with best current service quality all along.
The GSM05.08 protocol describes the calculation of the PGBT in it appendix as
follows:
PBGT(n) = (Min (MS_TXPWR_MAX,P) - RXLEV_DL - PWR_C_D)
- (Min (MS_TXPWR_MAX (n),P) - RXLEV_NCELL(n))
--Equal to the downlink received level of the neighboring cell -(Downlink received level
of the service cell + Power control level)
The meaning of each parameter is as follows:
MS_TXPWR_MAX: The maximum MS transmitting power allowed by the service cell
MS_TXPWR_MAX (n): The maximum MS transmitting power allowed by the
neighboring cell n
RXLEV_DL: The downlink receiving power of the service cell
RXLEV_NCELL(n): The downlink receiving power of the neighboring cell n
PWR_C_D: The difference of the maximum downlink transmitting power of the service
cell and the actual downlink transmitting power of the service cell caused by power
control
P: The maximum transmitting power of the MS
When PBGT(n) > HO_MARGIN(n), the PBGT handover can be triggered.
The triggering criterion of the PBGT handover is: If the path loss of the neighboring cell
is less than the path loss of the service cell by a certain threshold and also meets the
P/N criteria during a certain period of measurement time, then the PBGT handover will
be triggered.
Specifically speaking, P measurements among N measurements meet PBGT(n) >
PGBT_Ho_Margin(n).
Where P, N and PBGT_Ho_Margin(n) are set in the Data Management Console, and
PBGT(n) is calculated according to the parameters configured through the Data
Management Console and the measurement results reported by the BTS.
6-18
In addition, the PBGT handover can only be performed between cells of the same
level and priority and also can only be triggered in TCH channel.
IV. Speed sensitivity handover
The handover will be conducted according to the relative speed of the mobile station
so as to reduce the handover times and disconnection rate.
Here, we describe the speed sensitivity handover in the Active mode. Generally,
portable mobile stations are relatively fixed, unreasonable extra-cell handover times
will not be resulted even in dense mircocell network. However, there exists another
problem: A portable mobile station can be regarded as making fast motion relative to
cell size. If processed by macrocell network, such rapid motion may lead to quite a
number of extra-cell handovers so that it is difficult to implement call control. Therefore,
macrocells are used to provide service for these mobile stations with fast motion so
that the extra-cell handover times will not increase considerably. How to judge whether
a mobile station is making fast motion and what method should be used to hand over it
to the macrocell are problems to solve.
Principle 1: If the mobile station is making fast motion relative to the microcell network,
the please hand over it to the macrocell network.
Principle 2: To prevent the fast mobile station registered in macrocell from entering the
microcell network, time penalty should be applied to the microcell.
If the service cell is a macrocell:
To prevent the fast mobile station registered in macrocell from entering the microcell
network, time penalty should be applied to the microcell. If the penalty time of a certain
neighboring cell is not 0, then when the neighboring cell passes the M criteria, please
start the time penalty timer. Subtract the received level of the cell by a larger value
before the timer is timeout so that the cell will be sequenced at the back of the queue
of candidate cells. Generally, the MS will be handed over to this cell only in emergency
handover.
If the service cell is a microcell:
This algorithm adopts the method of obtaining statistic of the microcells the MS passes.
Among the P microcells, if Q microcells think hat the MS is in fast motion, then the MS
will be handed over the macrocell, and in the meantime, the corresponding statistical
parameter will be cleared.
7.3.8 Power prediction after handover
If the transmitting power after handover is the maximum transmitting power of the MSs
allowed by the new cell, then perfect connection quality can be guaranteed even for
MSs in the edge areas of the cell during extra-cell handover. However, if the MSs are
very close to the base station during the extra-cell handover (especially when the
distance between base stations is very short), then it is unnecessary to use the
maximum allowed transmitting power. Although the power control can rapidly reduce
the transmitting power of a mobile station to an appropriate level, the RF power peak
after extra-cell handover may lead to uplink/downlink interference upon the radio
network. Furthermore, excessive power level will shorten the battery life of the MS.
Please refer to Figure 7-4.
6-19
Min(MS_TXPWR_MAX(n), P)
MS_TXPWR(n)
BTS1 HO BTS2
Figure 7-4 In case without handover power prediction
In fact, we can set the optimum uplink received level of the cell so as to guarantee
perfect communication quality during and after handover. Based upon this, we can
deduce the optimized algorithm of the initial MS transmitting power after handover so
as to replace the maximum allowed transmitting power with optimized initial MS
transmitting power. It can also reduce the uplink power control times after handover so
that the uplink level can verge to the expected power control value faster.
Please define the following variables:
MS_TXPWR_MAX(n): The maximum MS transmitting power of mobile phone allowed
by neighboring cell n
MS_TXPWR(n): The actual transmitting power of mobile phone allowed by
neighboring cell n
BSPWR(n): Output power of the base station transmitter of neighboring cell n
BSTX_MAX(n): The maximum allowed transmitting power of neighboring cell n
PATH_LOSS_UL(n): The uplink path loss of neighboring cell n
PATH_LOSS_DL(n): The downlink path loss of neighboring cell n
RXLEV_NCELL(n): The downlink signal level of neighboring cell n
MsOptLevel(n): The optimum uplink received level of neighboring cell n
After handover, please guarantee that the uplink received level is a perfect value so as
to prevent possible handover failure or call disconnection. This value is represented
with the optimum received level.
When the received level of the base station approaches to the optimum uplink
received level, the received level of the MS » the received level of the base station, i.e.,
the received level of the MS is also approaches to the optimum uplink received level.
The difference between the received level of the MS and the optimum uplink received
level reflects the difference between the maximum transmitting power of the base
station and the required transmitting power after handover. This difference is equal to
the difference between the maximum transmitting power of the MS and the required
transmitting power after handover.
Therefore, the calculation formula of the initial transmitting power of the MS after
handover is as follows:
MS_TXPWR(n) MS_TXPWR_MAX(n) - Max(0,(RXLEV_NCELL(n)- MsOptLevel(n)))
Function Max( ) guarantees that the difference between the downlink level and the
optimum uplink received level of the destination cell is not negative.
6-20
To guarantee the calculated power is not beyond the MS capability and to set the
lower limit (MSTX_LIM_MIN(n)) of the MS transmitting power so as to prevent too low
MS transmitting power due to improper parameter setting, then
MS_TXPWR(n) » Max( Min( A, P ), MSTX_LIM_MIN(n) )
Where, A=MS_TXPWR_MAX(n)-Max(0,(RXLEV_NCELL(n) - MsOptLevel(n)))
MS_TXPWR_MAX(n)
RXLEV_NCELL(n)
MS_TXPWR(n)
MsOptLevel(n)
BTS1 HO BTS2
Figure 7-5 Case with handover power prediction
If the uplink power control of the destination handover cell is not opened, then the
initial transmitting power of the MS after handover should use the maximum allowed
transmitting power (not the optimum value). For inter-office handover, please do not
calculate the optimum value of the initial transmitting power of the MS after handover.
7.3.9 Concentric Circle Algorithm
The division of inner circle and excircle of Huawei concentric circle cell is based upon
the downlink received level and timing advance of mobile phones (such as Figure 7-6).
According to the received level threshold and timing advance threshold, the border of
inner circle and excircle can be adjusted flexibly such that the inner circle and excircle
can reasonably share traffic in the precondition of guaranteeing various network
indices.
The transmitting power of the inner circle is less than that of the excircle, so when a
subscriber is in the inner circle area, then after the connection of inner circle has been
set up, the measured value of the service cell obtained from the MR (Measurement
Result) is based upon measured inner circle value of small power, while the measured
value of the neighboring cell is based upon measured excircle value of large power
(indicating a kind of unequality). In this case, please make power compensation for the
inner circle so that the service cell will have equal position as the neighboring cell
during sequencing. The power difference of the inner circle and excircle is generally
the sum of the power difference of inner circle/excircle power amplifier, insertion loss
difference of combiners, path loss difference of difference antennas and path loss
difference of difference frequencies. If the inner circle and excircle shares the same
antenna, then please select any a test point, close the uplink power control function
and set up communication connection in the inner circle and excircle respectively, and
then measure the stable signal strength difference of the inner circle and excircle in
communication state (the data is configured as this difference). If the inner circle and
6-21
excircle does not share the same antenna, then please select three test points and
test according to the previous method, and finally average the difference.
In the figure, the TA threshold and path loss threshold are the thresholds preset by the
system and the broken line stands for the actually configured threshold. There is a
hysteresis between the value of the real limited area and the configured value.
The inner circle area can be expressed as:
received level > Received level threshold + Received level Hysteresis and TA<TA
threshold - TA Hysteresis
The excircle area can be expressed as:
received level ≤ Received level threshold -Received level Hysteresis or
≥ TA TA
threshold + TA Hysteresis
Obviously, there is a “blank” segment between the inner circle and excircle expressed
by the formulas, i.e.:
Received level threshold≤- Received level Hysteresis < Received level Received
level threshold≤+Received
TA< TA level Hysteresis and TA threshold - TA Hysteresis
threshold - TA Hysteresis
This area is the hysteresis area of the concentric circle. It is the same as the hysteresis
concept of ordinary handover algorithm. Its main function is to prevent the ping-pong
handover.
If the TA value is 63 and the TA Hysteresis value is 0, then the border of the inner
circle is completely determined by the received level parameter; if the received level
threshold is 63 and the received level Hysteresis is 0, then the border of the inner
circle is completely determined by the parameter TA.
Excircle
Receiving level
threshold
Receiving level
hysteresis
TA threshold
nner circle
TA hysteresis
Figure 7-6 Division of inner circle and excircle for concentric circle cell
I. Channel allocation technology of concentric circle cell
With the consideration of the characteristics of concentric circle cells, the channel
allocation technology of the concentric circle cell adopts different allocation policies for
different channel allocation conditions, mainly including the following conditions:
6-22
(1) Instant assignment
There are not the received level and TA for reference during the instant assignment.
To guarantee the service quality, the SDCCH channels in the excircle will be allocated
preferably. The signaling channels of the inner circle will be allocation only when there
is not any available signaling channel in the excircle.
(2) Assignment
The channel allocation policy of concentric circle is used for channel allocation. Firstly,
please judge the subscriber position according to the MR in SDCCH. When the
subscriber is within the inner circle range, then try best to allocate the inner circle
channels, and when there is not any available inner circle channel, then allocate the
excircle channels. Similarly, when the subscriber is within the excircle range, try best
to allocate the excircle channels, and when there is not any available excircle channel,
then allocate the inner circle channel, so as to implement the purpose that the
appropriate service layer provides subscribers with appropriate services.
(3) Internal handover of BSC
It is applicable to non-concentric circle handover and direct handover to neighboring
cell from the inner circle. The concentric circle channel allocation policy is used for
channel allocation such that the appropriate service layer will provide service for
mobile phones handed over to the cell. The basic principle is: through adding the
measured value of BCCH in the destination cell to the handover request message
between BSC cells, provide the values for concentric circle cell decision and select the
service layer to allocate channels preferably. The decision method in this case is
basically the same as that of the concentric handover decision. However, the TA value
of the destination cell cannot be obtained, so the TA condition in the concentric circle
decision cannot be considered.
(4) Inter-BSC handover
Since the received level and TA of the neighboring cell cannot be obtained, the mode
of preferable inner circle/excircle selection without policy is applied with switch
selection. For example, in ordinary networking condition, the inter-BSC handover is
triggered at cell edges, so in this case the excircle channels can be selected preferably;
While in dual frequency networking condition, 900/1800 shares the same station in
most cases, in such a case, if there is a great number of incoming handovers
(generally such handover is not triggered at cell edge), therefore, the inner circle
channels can be selected preferably.
II. Concentric circle handover technology
Generally, the inner circle has more channels, so the traffic bearing capacity of the
inner circle is far greater than the excircle. Therefore, if an MS sets up connection in
the excircle, then when the MS moves to the service area of the inner circle, it should
be handed over to the inner circle. The inner circle only has a limited coverage,
therefore, if an MS sets up connection in the inner circle, then when the MS moves to
the border of the inner circle and excircle, the MS should be handed over to the
excircle channel so as to maintain the connection. In generally, the concentric
handover is inter-cell handover. In some special cases, maybe the MS needs to be
handed over to a neighboring cell directly from the inner circle, for example when the
excircle is congested. Call disconnection may occur if the MS is not allowed to be
directly handed over to the neighboring cell from the inner circle.
Decision criteria of concentric handover:
6-23
(1) Handover from excircle to inner circle

When the current service layer is the excircle, if P among N measurement times meets
the following condition
Rxlev > Received level threshold +Received level Hysteresis – Downlink power
control compensation,
and also
If TA < TA threshold - TA Hysteresis,
then handover from the excircle to the inner circle will be triggered. IN this case, if the
inner circle does not have any available channel, it will directly return the handover
rejection message (the cause value is “no available channel”).
When the handover from the excircle to the inner circle is triggered, then the handover
to the neighboring cell is not allowed. Because, the condition for triggering the
handover from the excircle to the inner circle is that the received level of the current
service cell is higher than a threshold, while the inner circle has higher traffic bearing
capacity and has higher priority level, so the concentric circle handover is triggered.
However, in this case if the handover to the neighboring cell is triggered, the network
optimization is not reflected and the handover may increase the excircle load of the
neighboring cell. The handover from the excircle to the neighboring cell can be
implemented through other handover modes, such as PBGT handover, edge
handover, etc.
(2) Handover from inner circle to excircle
When the service layer is the inner circle, if P among N measurement times meets
≤
Rxlev Received level threshold -Received level Hysteresis – Downlink power control
compensation
or
If TA threshold + TA Hysteresis
≥ ,
then the handover from the inner circle to the excircle will be triggered. When the
handover from the inner circle to the excircle is triggered, the direct handover to the
neighboring cell is not allowed.
In this case, if the excircle does not have any available channel, then it will directly
return the handover rejection message (the cause value is “no available channel”).
Where, the meaning of each parameter is as follows:
Rxlev: The downlink received level of the current channel
Downlink power compensation: Due to power consumption of the current channel
caused by the downlink power control, the calculation is the current BS power level
multiplied by 2. Please not that the BCCH TRX channel needs special processing.
P: P/N decision parameter, i.e., data configuration [Statistic time of concentric
circle handover]
N: P/N decision parameter, i.e., data configuration [Duration of concentric circle
handover]
6-24
7.4 Huawei Power Control Technology

The second generation of Huawei power control algorithm can implement the following
functions:
(1) MR (Measurement Result) compensation
(2) Filtering of predicted MR
(3) Canceling initial adjustment stage (relative to the first generation of Huawei power
control algorithm)
(4) Adjusting power calculation decision optimization
After power control, the MR compensation is a kind of remedial measure to solve the
problem that the received level in the MR before power adjustment obviously cannot
reflect the current receiving condition. These MRs may be used to estimate the current
receiving condition or to predict future MR values. For high accuracy, appropriate
compensation should be made. The MR prediction filtering function is mainly an
improved means for dealing with in sufficient power control hysteresis. To achieve
concise and explicit concept and in the meantime prevent the initial adjustment after
introduction of accessed level optimization measure from becoming a useless
adjustment process, the initial power adjustment has been cancelled in the second
generation of power control algorithm. Our main design considerations include: firstly,
put forward power adjustment requirements according to receiving quality and
received level, and then implement the decision with combined consideration. Thus,
the power control efficiency can be improved and the instability of the algorithm can be
removed since such solution can bring about more information for reference and better
power control policy adjustment can be conducted.
6-25
Se con d gen era tion of Huaw ei

power control algorithm
Is MR compensation allowed
Yes
MR queue compensation
No
MR queue compensation No MS power processing No
Yes Yes
MS power
processing
Uplink MR prediction filtering MS power processing
MS power Control MS power processing
Figure 7-7 Flow diagram of the second generation of Huawei power control algorithm
7.4.1 MR Preprocessing
I. MR compensation
Every time when an MR is received, the MR will be placed in the MR queue to serve
as the original materials for power control and handover decision. To make decision,
take integrated consideration of certain number of new MRs. We had such an
assumption before that these MRs were obtained in the condition of constant
transmitting power. Thus, if we found that the average received level had changed, we
thought that the path loss had changed, so the change would be compensated on the
basis of the current transmitting power. However, the present situation is that, these
latest MRs possibly are obtained in different transmitting power conditions. Thus, the
method of using the MRs before power adjustment to estimate the received level in
current transmitting power condition will surely lead to error. To reduce such error, the
MRs before power adjustment should be compensated. The specific method is to
compensate the received level for the historical MRs at the moment when the power
adjustment changes (considering adjustment delay, we can judge whether the
transmitting power has changed according to the actual MRs).
6-26
The MR compensation after power adjustment is to guarantee the accuracy of the MR

prediction function of the second generation of power control algorithm.
II. Prediction filtering
The power control is a process of transmitting power control based upon the current
received level and the receiving quality. The sending and transmission of power
control command and power adjustment will take certain period of time, so there will
exist certain hysteresis between the receiving change and corresponding transmitting
power adjustment. If the hysteresis is very severe, then the transmitting power change
not only cannot compensate the receiving change, but to the contrary, it will accelerate
this change, so the power adjustment cannot play its due active function. In general,
after the transmitting power adjusment command on the uplink is sent out, the
transmitting power will be adjusted after three MRs. However, after the power
adjustment command on downlink is sent out, the transmitting power will be adjusted
immediately. Therefore, the power control hysteresis is mainly applied to the uplinks. It
can be predicted that, the delivering of power control command in advance will
facilitate the effective control of the received level, which is beneficial to stable
received level and high receiving quality.
The basic principle of the prediction filtering is: Firstly, calculate the weighed mean
value (P1) of the received levels in N1 MRs approaching to the calculation moment,
and then calculate the weighed mean value (P2) of N2 points before N1 points, and
finally predict received level (Py) of the subsequent points according to N1 and N2.
Thus, the prediction filtering value of the received level is: Py=P1 + (P1-P2) × a (a
stands for the amplification coefficient)
Here, the time weighing is used. The newer the MRs is, the larger the weighed value
will be. As, the newer MRs reflect comparatively current situations more accurately.
This value can be directly used during average decision of power control. This value
can also serve as a new MR to predict the next reference value with the same method,
and so on. To improve the system controllability, the prediction times can be set in the
background.
7.4.2 Second Generation of Huawei Power Control Policy
According to the actual communication state based upon different power adjustment
requirement combinations, the second generation of Huawei power control algorithm
adopts pertinent power control policy so as to guarantee the validity and stability of the
power control algorithm. The following three steps are taken for the calculation of
adjustment power:
I. Calculating adjustment power step according to the received level

(AdjStep_Lev)
To improve the system flexibility and to prevent power control fluctuation, the dual-
threshold power control policy is used. To guarantee rapid and accurate positioning of
the power adjustment, the variable step power control is used. Please refer to the
current receiving quality in final determination of step adjustment, because according
to our estimation of the actually measured results, different receiving quality values
correspond to different average received levels. Generally, the corresponding average
received level when the receiving quality is 0 is far greater than the average received
level when the receiving quality is not 0. When the receiving quality is not 0, the
average received levels are almost the same. When the receiving quality is 0, if the
received level requires that the transmitting power should be decreased by 6dB, then
after the power adjustment, the receiving quality is possibly 0. Thus, the power control
6-27
is implemented. When the receiving quality is 1, then similarly, if the received level
requires that the transmitting power should be decreased by 6dB, then after the power
adjustment, the receiving quality possibly turns to 4. Thus, the receiving quality may
require higher transmitting power. Therefore, the power adjustment just now is not as
good as that when the receiving quality is 0. With such consideration, we take the
measure of appropriately referring to the current receiving quality in the adjustment
step based upon the power of the received level, so as to better match with the actual
situations and to make the power adjustment more efficient. Based on the first
generation of Huawei power control algorithm, the second generation of Huawei
power control algorithm has been improved with direct requirements for control target.
The adjustment step based upon the final power of the received level will use the
smaller one of the following two values.
(1) The adjustment step AdjStepThr_Lev based upon the comparison of the actual
received level and the threshold.
z When the received level is low, the power will increase.
In this case we can judge that when Rxlev<PcLowerThresoldsLev,
AdjStepThr_Lev=IncrStep_Lev
=(PcLowerThresoldsLev+PcUpperThresoldsLev)/2-
Rxlev
z When the received level is higher, the power will decrease.
In this case, when we judge Rxlev>PcUpperThresoldsLev,
AdjStepThr_Lev=DecrStep_Lev
=Rxlev-
(PcUpperThresoldsLev+PcLowerThresoldsLev)/2
z When the received level falls between the upper threshold and the lower
threshold, the transmitting power will not be adjusted.
In≥ this
Rxlev
case,
≥ when we judge that when PcUpperThresoldsLev
PcLowerThresoldsLev, the transmitting power will not be adjusted.
In the above formula, the data:
Rxlev is the actual received level after prediction filtering.
PcLowerThresoldsLev PcUpperThresoldsLev stands for the upper/lower threshold,
which is set through the background. The distance between the two thresholds should
not be too great, or the power control will be not so sensitive to the change of the
received levels and will lead to greater fluctuation of the received levels. However, it
also should not be too small, or the power control will be too sensitive to the change of
the received levels, which will lead to power control fluctuation easily and will
excessively restrict the improvement space of the transmitting power due to low
receiving quality. It is recommended that the appropriate distance be 6 to 10dB. The
range can float upwards/downwards according to the actual requirements.
IncrStep_Lev, DecrStep_Lev and AdjStepThr_Lev are the calculated values,
respectively standing for increased power step, decreased power step and the
adjustment step based upon the comparison of the received level and threshold.
(2) The maximum reference adjustment step of the current receiving quality
(CurQulMaxStep). For the convenience of more effective adjustment, some actual
receiving conditions are taken into consideration. The receiving quality is divided into
three quality areas (0, 1 to 2, above 3), and each quality area specifies a maximum
reference adjustment step (can be set in the background). The higher the receiving
6-28
quality is, the greater the step. The lower the quality, the smaller the step, because in
this case, the system faces more interference and is quite sensitive. Thus it facilitates
in guaranteeing the stability of the algorithm. The setting of the maximum allowed
adjustment for each quality area is based upon two aspects: (a). The setting should
not be too small, or the algorithm cannot attain the purpose of fast power control. (b).
The setting cannot be too great, or the due reference function cannot be implemented,
which will lead to decreased power control validity. It is recommended that the
maximum reference adjustment step of quality area 0 be 8 to 16dB, that of quality area
1 be 4 to 8dB and that of quality area 2 be about 3dB or 4dB.
The adjustment step calculated according to the received level is: AdjStep_Lev =min
(AdjStepThr_Lev, CurQulMaxStep).
II. Calculating adjustment power step (AdjStep_Qul) according to receiving

quality
Generally, the receiving quality varies with interference. The main interference in the
GSM system is the cofrequency interference generated during frequency multiplexing.
This interference is mutual, the increased power of a call is equivalent to the increased
interference of another call. Therefore, please pay attention to the power adjustment
caused by receiving quality change so as to prevent the vicious cycle of improving
transmitting power due to low quality. The result of such group effect is that all GSM
systems use the maximum transmitting power, but the receiving quality is not
improved at all.
The receiving quality threshold is also set as dual threshold. The transmitting power
will not be adjusted for receiving quality within the quality area, but the transmitting
should be adjusted for those out of the quality area. Because you cannot estimate the
influence of the transmitting level change upon the receiving quality, and furthermore,
to guarantee the stability of the algorithm, please try to prevent large step during
power adjustment. We have used the fixed step. This value can be set in the
background.
(1) Improving transmitting power for low receiving quality
If Qulity>PcbadThresoldsQul, please increase the transmitting power and increase the
step to AdjStep_Qul.
(2) Decreasing transmitting power for high receiving quality
If Qulity<PcgoodThresoldsQul, please decrease the transmitting power and decrease
the step to AdjStep_Qul.
(3) Please do not adjust the transmitting power when the receiving quality falls
between the upper/lower thresholds
If ≥
PcbadThresoldsQul
Qulity≥ PcgoodThresoldsQul , please do not adjust the
transmitting power.
Data in the formula: Qulity is the actual receiving quality value after filtering.
PcgoodThresoldsQul PcbadThresoldsQul stands for the good/poor receiving quality
thresholds, which can be set through the background. Generally, it is recommended
that the good threshold be 0 and the poor threshold be 2.
AdjStep_Qul is the adjustment step of the receiving quality and is also set through the
background. This value should not be too great, since in most cases, the receiving
quality improvement is based upon the transmitting power increase. In this case, the
receiving quality is very poor, so please increase the transmitting power gradually. It is
recommended that the value be set as 2 to 4dB.
6-29
III. Combining the two power control requirements
When taking the two requirements into combined consideration, on one hand, try best
to meet its requirements, and on the other hand, when the two requirements are not
consistent or completely opposite, then please consider the stability of the algorithm
and forbid unstable adjustment. Based upon the above principles, the following power
adjustment table is obtained:
Adjust step according to received Adjust step according to receiving Take adjustment results into
level quality comprehensive consideration
Reduce Max (AdjStep_Lev,
Reduce AdjStep_Lev Reduce AdjStep_Qul
AdjStep_Qul)
Reduce AdjStep_Lev Add AdjStep_Qul No action
Reduce AdjStep_Lev No action Reduce djStep_Lev
Add AdjStep_Lev Add AdjStep_Qul Add Max(AdjStep_Lev, AdjStep_Qul)
Add AdjStep_Lev Reduce AdjStep_Qul Add AdjStep_Lev
Add AdjStep_Lev No action Add AdjStep_Lev
No action No action No action
No action Reduce AdjStep_Qul Reduce AdjStep_Qul
No action Add AdjStep_Qul Add AdjStep_Qul
Furthermore, besides the adjustment as shown in the above table, please pay
attention to the power control fluctuation due to mutual action of the received level and
the receiving quality. For example, after, the transmitting power should be decreased
by 4dB according to the received level, the poor receiving quality requires an increase
of 4dB, and after than the received level again requires an increase f 4dB. Thus, the
fluctuation is generated due to cyclic increase/decrease. The method to avoid such
fluctuation is: If only the receiving quality has power adjustment requirement, then
please check after the adjustment, whether the received level will exceed the dual-
threshold range. If it will, then please do not conduct the power adjustment, so as to
avoid power control fluctuation. Thus, we can obtain the power step to be finally
adjusted. The uplink/downlink adjustment policies should be consistent.
7.5 New Channel Allocation Algorithm

The new channel allocation algorithm is based upon the optimization mechanism.
Comparing with the classical first generation of channel allocation algorithm based
upon rotation, the new channel allocation algorithm can provide subscribers with
communication channels as good as possible.
The new channel allocation algorithm considers the following optimization factors:
Interference priority, TRX priority and historical seizure record priority.
(1) Interference priority
The interference priority is consistent with the interference carried by the radio
resources indication message, reflecting the channel quality.
(2) TRX priority
TRX priority: It is determined by the network parameter “TRX optimization level”.
The higher the level is, the more preferable the channel allocation will be.
The lower the level, the more difficult the channel allocation will be.
(3) Historical seizure record priority.
Successful seizure: Priority increased;
Failed seizure: Priority decreased
6-30
Call disconnection during seizure: Priority decreased

Interference during seizure: Priority decreased.
To restore the historical seizure record priority of channels after deterioration, every
period of time, we should increase the historical seizure record priority by a constant.
7.6 Dual-band Network Technology
7.6.1 Necessity for Building Dual-band Network
Predicted according to the 4 × 3 networking mode of macrocells, the maximum

subscriber number supported by the GSM900 macrocell is about 40 million, that is to
say, if there is not a fast, economic and effective expansion scheme, the mobile
communication frequency resources and radio channels will become more insufficient.
There are many methods for GSM system expansion, including adding macrocell base
stations, reducing distance between base stations, adopting multiple frequency
multiplexing technology (MRP), expanding microcell, half-rate application, etc.
However, these methods cannot slove the problem of insufficient network capacity
fundamentally.
Comparatively, the introduction of GSM1800 (1805 to 1880MHz and 1710 to 1785MHz)
network will bring about the following advantages:
(1) The application of different frequencies from GSM900 (935 to 960MHz, 890 to
815MHz) and the communication bandwidth as high as 75M can effectively solve the
bottleneck of GSM900 frequency resources.
(2) It has the same specifications as the GSM900 system and can repeatedly utilize
the existing GSM900 sites. Therefore, the building of the GSM1800 network is a fast
and effective means to solve the expansion problem fundamentally.
7.6.2 Fast Fading Characteristic and Coverage Problem of GSM1800
Since the working frequency of GSM1800 is one time that of GSM900, according to
the COST-231 model and actual experiences, within the horizon, the transmission loss
of GSM1800 is higher than that of GSM 900 by 6dB; while beyond the horizon, the
transmission loss of GSM1800 is higher than that of GSM by 10dB; and within
buildings, it is higher than that by 5 to 17dB (depending different media).
The fast fading characteristic of GSM1800 goes against perfect coverage of GSM1800
(the coverage of the GSM1800 exerts direct influence upon the network performance.
I. GSM1800 Coverage requirements
(1) Outdoor coverage

If the distance between base stations is not so great, then the outdoor coverage is
easily implemented. If necessary, besides the building of GSM1800 sites on the
original GSM900 sites, you should also considering building new sites in necessary
places.
(2) Indoor coverage
To guarantee perfect indoor coverage of the GSM1800 system, the distance between
base stations in downtown area should not be greater than 1000 meters. The city
6-31
buildings in China mainly adopts the reinforced concrete structure with high
transmission loss, therefore, it is recommended that the distance between base
stations be about 500 to 800 meters.
II. GSM1800 characteristics in different coverage degrees
(1) Perfect consecutive coverage

The GSM1800 system has the following characteristics: easy to absorb traffic, small
number of inter-layer handover, high operation quality, easy to implement frequency
allocation and network optimization, easy to control traffic distribution, one-step station
building, gradual expansion according to TRX setting, convenient to construct and
maintain, big investment and difficult to determine all stations at one time.
(2) Consecutive coverage in hotspot regions
The GSM1800 system has the following characteristics: Only absorbing limited traffic,
large number of dual-band handovers, high requirements for determining traffic
hotspot, difficult in frequency allocation and network optimization due to irregular
distribution of GSM1800 base stations, inconvenient to construct and maintain, and
gradual station building in high-dense regions so as to save investment.
(3) Sporadic coverage in hotspot regions
The GSM1800 system has the following characteristics: SM1800: Only absorbing very
small, frequent dual-band handover, high requirements for determining traffic hotspot,
difficult in frequency allocation and network optimization due to irregular distribution of
GSM1800 base stations, inconvenient to construct and maintain, and small volume of
initial investment.
7.6.3 Dual-band Networking Structure
There are three dual-band networking modes: Independent MSC networking, MSC-
sharing/independent BSC networking and BSC-sharing networking. The first two
networking modes are generally called independent networking and the BSC-sharing
networking is also called hybrid networking. The independent networking relatively
increases inter-office handover and location updating times, and it also increases the
load of signaling links. The independent networking is concerned with cooperation of
different manufacturers. Technically speaking, there does not exist any problem, but
manual factor exerts great influence. However, these problems can be avoided. With
consideration of long-term application, the independent networking is superior to the
hybrid networking.
6-32
I. Independent MSC networking
BTS
MS BSC MSC/VLR
BTS
EIR
OMC
SMC HLR/AUC
BTS
MS BSC MSC/VLR
BTS
GSM900 GSM1800
Figure 7-8 Independent MSC networking mode
Characteristics:
(1). It will not exert any influence upon the original network.
(2). It is characterized by explicit networking planning, clear network data configuration
and easy engineering implementation.
(3). It meets the requirements for long-term network expansion.
(4). It is convenient for whole network management and new service development.
(5). It needs large volume of initial investment in network building and small volume of
unit user investment.
(6) Competition is introduced so as to decrease equipment investment and improve
service quality.
(7). Both MSC and BSC have backup to enhance the network security.
II. MSC-sharing/independent BSC networking
BTS
MS BSC
BTS
EIR
OMC
MSC/VLR
SMC
HLR/AUC
BTS
MS BSC
BTS
GSM900 GSM1800
Figure 7-9 MSC-sharing/independent BSC networking mode
6-33
Characteristics:
(1) It will exert great influence upon the original network.
(2) It needs re-planning of the NSS and it is quite difficult to implement the
engineering.
(3) It has limited expansion space, so it may lead to difficulty in engineering and
maintenance for network development.
(4) It needs small volume of initial investment in network building and small volume of
(5) Competition can be introduced so as to decrease equipment investment and
improve service quality to some degree.
(6) The BSC has backup so as to achieve certain network security
III. BSC-sharing networking
BTS
MS BSC
BTS
BTS EIR
OMC
MSC/VLR
SMC
HLR/AUC
BTS
MS BTS BSC
BTS
GSM900 GSM1800 BTS GSM1800/GSM900
Figure 7-10 BSC-sharing networking mode
Characteristics:
(1) It may exert great influence upon the original network. This characteristic is more
obvious when the BSC capacity is smaller.
(2) It needs re-planning of the NSS and it is quite difficult to implement the
engineering.
(3) It has limited expansion space, so it may lead to difficulty in engineering and
maintenance for network development.
(4) Restricted new service development
(5) Competition cannot be introduced, so it is hard to deduce the price and improve the
service.
(6) It needs small volume of initial investment in network building, but largest volume of
6-34
7.6.4 Traffic guidance and Control Policy of Dual-band Network
According to original intention of building the 1800 network, the following principles
should be followed:
z During the initial period of dual-band network construction, please try
best to let 1800M cells to absorb dual-band subscribers.
z When the dual-band subscribers reach a certain number, then all
frequencies share the traffic so as to reduce handover times and to
provide quality service.
z To implement different traffic control policies, the operators only need to
adjust different parameters.
To implement flexible and effective dual-band traffic guidance and control, various
control policies are used:
(1) In the idle mode, when a subscriber powers on a mobile phone to perform cell
selection or to perform cell reselection in standby state, through setting the system
parameters, the 1800M cell will have higher priority or better cell measurement
comparison value so as to become the service cell of dual-band subscriber more
easily. Thus, the subscriber will spend more time in waiting for the 1800M system
before communication so as to avoid unnecessary handover.
(2) During call connection setup, the mobile phone can adjust the traffic allocation
through direct retry.
(3) In communication state, through the division of cells into different levels and the
division of the same layer cell into different levels (HCS, hierarchical cell system), the
traffic will goes to 1800M cell of lower level and low priority as much as possible.
(4) Various dual-band traffic handover methods can be used to implement reasonable
cell traffic load.
I. ECSC and MBR
In the GSM system, the service capability, support band, power capability and
encryption capability of mobile stations are characterized by the level (CLASSMARK)
of mobile stations. The CLASSMARK of mobile stations can be divided into
CLASSMARKs1, 2 and 3. In a general GSM system, the network can understand
various capabilities of mobile stations through querying the CLASSMARK of mobile
stations.
ECSC can either be Y or N. Y indicates that after link setup, the mobile station should
immediately report its CLASSMARK3 to the network, and N indicates that the mobile
station is not allowed to report its CLASSMARK3 to the network. The main information
in CLASSMARK3 targets at dual-band application, therefore, please set ECSC as NO
for single frequency GSM application area and set it as YES for dual-band GSM
application area.
In single frequency GSM system, when a mobile station reports the measured result of
the neighboring cells to the network, it only needs to report the contents of the 6
neighboring cells with the highest signal level in a frequency band. If multi-band
networking, generally, according to the actual network situations, the operator hopes
that the mobile station will enter a certain frequency band preferably during extra-cell
handover. Therefore, it is hoped that the MR reporting of the mobile station is not only
based upon signal strength, but also based upon signal frequency band. The
parameter “Multi-band report (MBR)” is used to indicate the mobile station needs to
report contents of neighboring cells at multiple bands.
6-35
0: According to the signal strength of the neighboring cells, the mobile station will
report the measurement results of the six allowed neighboring cells with the highest
signal level and with known NCC, regardless of the band the neighboring cells are
located.
1: The mobile station needs to report the measurement result of an allowed
neighboring cell at each band (not including the band used by the current service cell)
with highest signal level and know NCC included in the neighboring cell table. The
neighboring cell at the band of the current service cell will be reported in residual
position. If there are still residual positions, then the conditions of other neighboring
cells will be reported (regardless of frequency band).
The value range of MBR is 0 to 3. In multi-band application environment, the value is
related to the service traffic at each band. Generally, please refer to the following
principles in setting the value:
z If the traffic of each band is basically the same, then when the operator
does not need band selectivity, please set the MBR as “0”.
z If the traffic of each band is obviously different and the operator hopes
the mobile station to enter a certain band preferably, then please set the
MBR as “3”.
For the case between the above two conditions, please set the MBR as “1” or “2”.
II. Cell selection and reselection
In cell selection, whether the mobile phone accesses the 1800 cell or 900 cell depends
upon the cell priority (it depends upon parameter C1 if the priorities are the same).
However, the 1800M signals is of great attenuation, so C1 value of 900M cell is
generally higher that of 1800M cell. Therefore, we make the 1800 cell have higher
priority by setting parameters CBQ (Cell Bar Qualification) and CBA (Cell Bar
Accesses).
In the idle mode, through reasonable parameter adjustment, try best to make
subscribers wait in the 1800 cells so that the calls are also set up in the 1800 cells.
through the setting of CRO, TO, etc., 1800 cells will have higher reselection priorities.
III. Direct retry
Provided that during the call originating process in 900M band, a mobile station has
implemented switching, connection and control of certain number of signalings
through the control channel, then the SDCCH is used to assign TCH so as to
connection the voice channel. However, in this case, it is found that the service
channel is full, then please use the direct retry so that the SDCCH will assign a TCH
for the mobile station, so as to guarantee successful call connection. Thus, the
function of traffic-loading is implemented.
IV. Dual-band handover
In communication state, reasonable traffic distribution between the frequencies can be

implemented with the application of various Huawei dual-band handover algorithms,
such as leveled handover, load handover, speed-sensitive handover, PBGT handover,
etc.
6-36
V. Others
In current 900/1800 dual-band networking, there exist the following objective

phenomena:
(1) With the CRO value during cell reselection, a mobile phone can easily reselect the
1800M network from the 900M network so as to guide the traffic. However, in
independent MSC networking, the inconsistency of LAC leads to the location updating
one more time (i.e., if the mobile phone approaches to a 900M, then when it selects a
1800M cell through CRO, it needs the location updating one more time).
(2) The 1800M coverage is not continuous, especial in indoor environment, the mobile
phone may have to select a 900M cell since it possibly cannot find 1800M signal at all.
(3) A considerable number of single frequency 900M mobile phones still exist.
According our original recommendations, through the selection of CAQ and CBA
values, the 900M cells become cells of low priority, while the 1800M cells become cells
of normal priority. However, in most cases (e.g., the above cases (2) and (3)), when
powered on, the mobile phones are very slow to access the network.
Therefore:
(1) In current network condition, set the CBA and CBQ such that the 900M 1800M
cells have the same normal priority, thus, when powered on, the mobile phones can
access the network at fastest speed. The traffic guidance is implemented with CRO.
However, in independent MSC networking, such method will lead to a redundant
location updating. In current poor 1800M coverage condition, the location updating this
time can be neglected among the total number of locations, while in MSC-sharing
networking condition, it only leads to cell reselection one more time.
(2) When the 1800M network basically implements continuous coverage and most
mobile phones are dual-band ones, in the precondition that the 1800M network shares
most of the traffic, we can set CBA and CBQ such that the 1800 cells have higher
priority. Thus, when powered on, most mobile phones will access the 1800 cells and
most of them will not reselect the 900M cells.
7.6.5 Dual-band Networking Engineering Implementation
For engineering implementation, the policy of stepped debugging and gradual opening
is used for dual-band network construction and optimization, which facilitates the
debugging of the newly-built GSM1800 network and the newly-expanded GSM900
network respectively. Based upon perfect adjustment of individual single networks,
then conduct gradual dual-band network cutover debugging according to sites so as to
finally implement the construction f the whole dual-band network.
The construction of the whole dual-band network can be divided into three stages as a
whole: Deployment preparation, single 1800 network debugging and 900/1800 dual-
band network debugging.
I. Deployment preparation
It mainly implements dual-band network technology coordination and network

planning. The dual-band technology coordination is the precondition to implement
dual-band cooperation of different manufacturers. Huawei has been focusing on the
research on the cooperation of dual-band technologies all along and has sufficient
technical reserve strength. The network planning is the first tache in radio network
construction, including site survey, electromagnetic test, coverage test, etc.
6-37
II. Single 1800 network debugging
Without the need of data modification of the original 900M network, the 900 network
still provides service for subscribers and the 1800 network does not absorb any traffic.
At this stage, conduct the complete test of the single 1800 network, including,
coverage, dialing, handover, power control, interference, uplink/downlink power
balance, contrast test of power adjustment, contrast test of 900 and 1800 coverage,
etc. On one hand, these tests aim to find existing network problems, and on the other
hand, the tests (power, obliquity, parameter adjustment, etc.) and the optimization of
parameters such as transmitting power and obliquity, etc. of each cell in the 1800
network aims to guarantee the perfect operation of the single 1800M network.
III. 900/1800 dual-band debugging
After the GSM900/1800 dual-band network is put into service, please try to find
existing network problems through various means such as drive test, etc., conduct
optimization adjustment targeting at the problems and verify the optimization results.
The tests include: Cell reselection and location updating test, traffic load control,
continuous communication mode test, automatic re-dialing and frequency sweeping
test, dual-band network handover test, main street call and handover test, edge area
handover test, poor coverage area and indoor dialing test, outdoor dialing test in major
regions, etc. Please observe the stable operation of the dual-band network after
cooperation, analyze the traffic measurement data of the whole network and check the
network operation index. According to the drive test data analysis and traffic
measurement data analysis, determine the existing problems and necessary
adjustment measures, and then please conduct test again after adjusting relevant
network parameters until the network indices meet the design requirements.
Through the above-mentioned three stages of work, implement the process of “Design
of dual-band cooperation—Debugging of single network operation—Debugging of
dual-band network operation” and finally implement the construction and optimization
of the dual-band network.
6-38
6-39
Radio Network Planning Chapter 8 Traffic Statistics
Chapter 8 Traffic Statistics
Huawei BSC traffic statistics system provides perfect measurement types and rich
counters, facilitating the network operators to learn about the BSC running status, to
locate the network problems and to optimize the network. The BSC traffic statistics
system consists of the BAM, the traffic statistics terminal, the OMC server, etc. The
specific statistics flow is as follows: after registering on the traffic statistics terminal, the
statistics task will be sent to the foreground host via the BAM for statistics, then the
statistics result will be returned back to the BAM. Therefore we can view the statistics
result on the traffic statistics terminal. In order to have an understanding of the
statistics points of all indexes and to analyze problems, we will introduce some
important calling flows first.
8-40
8.1 Brief Introduction to the Calling Flows
8.1.1 Ultra-early TCH Assignment Flow
MS BTS BSC MSC

Channel Request (RACH)
Channel Required
Channel Activation (TCH)
Channel Activation Acknowledge
Immediate Assignment Command
Immediate assignment (AGCH)
CM-Service Request
Complete layer 3 information CM-Service Req
CM-Service Accept
CM-Service Accept
Assignment Request
Mode modify
Mode modify ACK
Channel Mode modify
Channel Mode modify ACK

Assignment Complete
8-41
8.1.2 Calling Flow (Calling Party)
MS BTS BSC MSC

Channel_req
Channel_Active
Channel_Active_Ack
IMMEDIATE ASSIGN COMMAND
First SABM
Establish_IND( CM Service Req)
CR(Complete_l3_information)
CC
CM Service Accepted
Setup
Call Proceeding
Assignment_Req
Channel_Active
Channel_Active_Ack
ASSIGNMENT COMMAND
First SABM
Establish_IND
ASSIGNMENT CMP Assignment_CMP
Alerting
Connect
Connect Ack
Conversation
Disconnect
Release
Release Complete
Clear_CMD
Clear_CMP
8-42
8.1.3 Handover Flow within the BSC
The handover process within the BSC is controlled and implemented by the BSC.
After the completion of a handover, the BCS will inform the MSC of this handover in a
piece of Handover_performed message.
MS BTS1 BSC BTS2 MS MSC

Measure Report from MS
Channel_Active
Channel_Active_Ack
HANDOVER COMMAND
Handover Access
Handover_Detect
PHY INFO
PHY INFO
first SABM Establish_IND
HANDOVER COMPLETE
Handover_Performed
8-43
8.1.4 Handover Flow between the BSCs
When realized through the A interface, the handover between the BSCs goes like this:
an originating BSC originates Handover_Request to the destination BSC, and MSC
requests the destination BSC for handover and gets Handover-Request_Ack, then it
sends the handover command “Handover_CMD” to the originating BSC. When
realized through the A-bis interface, the originating BSC sends the handover
command to the original BTS, and the n0w BTS will report Hand_Detect on detecting
the handover and access of MS, and then report HANDOVER COMPLETE after
establishing a link with MS. And the old A-bis interface will disconnect the link to
release the resource.
MS BTS1 BSC1 MSC BSC2 BTS2 MS
Measure Report from MS

Handover_Required
Handover_Request Channel_Active
Channel_Active_Ack
Handover_Request_Ack
Handover_CMD
HANDOVER COMMAND
Handover Access
Handover_Detect
Handover_Detect
PHY INFO
PHY INFO
first SABM
Establish_IND
HANDOVER COMPLETE
Handover_Cmp
Clear_CMD
Clear_Cmp
8-44
8.1.5 Handover Flow between MSCs
Mobile
MS MS
Um A E B
BSS1 MSCa MSCb VLRb
A Um
Measurement of radio
transmission signal
BSS2
HANDOVER REQ.
Perform handover(MAP)
(The global destination cell table)
(The global destination cell I HANDOVER REQUEST (PCM&Channel type)
The global service cell ID HANDOVER REQUEST (Including new TCH and handover reference number )
Channel type ) ACKNOWLEDGE
(Assign handover number )

Allocation handover number
Radio channel ack.(MAP)
Send handover report (HON.) (Send handover report )
Including new TCH and HON
Radio channel acknowledge
IAM
ACM
HANDOVER COMMAND HANDOVER DETECT
HANDOVER CMD
Forward MS to new HANDOVER COMPLETE
channel via original BSS Send end signal(MAP) BSS2 selects a new TCH to connect to the PCM circuit
Send end signal
CLEAR COMMAND Release PCM0 MS enters the destination cell
CLEAR COMPLETE
ANS
~~ Release (TUP/ISUP) ~~
Disconnect the physical link
between MSCa and MSCb
End signal End signal(MAP)
Handover report
Release handover report
8-45
8.1.6 Subsequent Handover Flow (MS Roams from MSVb to MSCb )
Roam
MS MS
E MSCb' VLRb'
MSCa MSCb VLRb BSS2'
BSS2
Measurement of radio
transmission signal
HANDOVER REQUIRED (The destination cell table )
Perform subsequent handover (MAP)

(The destination cell table , The destination cell ID ,MSC No.)
Perform handover
HANDOVER REQUEST (PCM&Channel type)
(The destination cell ID , The service cell ID, Channel type )
HANDOVER REQUEST ACKNOWLEDGE (Including new TCH number and handover number )
Allocate handover number(Assign handover number )

Radio channel acknowledge
Send handover report(HON) (Send handover report )
Radio channnel ack. (MAP) (Include New TCH and HON)
IAM
ACM
Subsequent handover ack.

HANDOVER COMMAND
HANDOVER DETECT
HANDOVER COMPLETE
Send end signal (MAP)
ANS
End signal (MAP)

Release handover report Release HON
CLEAR COMMAND
CLEAR COMPLETE
Release (TUP)
Disconnect the physical link between MSCa and MSCb
~
~~ End signal (MAP) ~ Release handover report Release HON
Release (TUP/ISUP) Disconnect the physical link between MSCa and MSCb’
8-46
8.2 Analysis of Key Indexes of Traffic Statistics
8.2.1 TCH Drop-off Ratio

No 001 Index name TCH drop-off ratio (%)
Measurement type General BSC performance measurement/cell performance measurement
Formula description TCH drop-off ratio=TCH drop-off times /TCH occupation success ratio
TCH drop-off times:
(1) When the message CLEAR REQ is sent to MSC, the current occupied channel is of TCH type.
Successful TCH occupation times:
(1) Receive the message CH_ACT_ACK during the immediate assignment, if the channel is of TCH type.
Analysis of the statistical point of the original
index (2) Receive the message CH_ACT_ACK in the state of CS_WAIT_RR_EST, and the current channel is of TCH type. (3) The message of
the completion of assignment is sent in the process of assignment
(4) Receive the message MSG_ABIS_HO_DETECT during incoming BSC for handover. At this time the handover is not of SDCCH type.(5)
Receive the message MSG_ABIS_HO_DETECT during handover within the BSC. At this time, the handover is not of SDCCH type.
1. In the “General BSC performance measurement”

The calculating formula of the “call loss ratio” in the former version:
Others Call loss ratio (%) =Drop-off times after conversation/(Successful connection times + Successful incoming BSC handover times) * 100%
The calculating formula of “TCH drop-off ratio” in the updated version:
TCH drop-off ratio (%) =TCH drop-off times / Successful TCH occupation times *100%
Configuration of the parameters that affect the drop-off ratio:
(1) “Number of SACCH multiframes”, “Maximum retransmission times of physical information”, “Timer for radio link connection” in the Cell
Attribute Table.
(2) “Counter for radio link failure” in the Cell System Message Table.
8-47
8.2.2 SDCCH Drop-off Ratio

No 002 Index name SDCCH drop-off ratio (%)
Measurement type Cell performance measurement
SDCCH drop-off ratio=SDCCH drop-off Times / SDCCH occupation
Formula description
success times (All)
SDCCH drop-off times(1)send out CLEAR_REQ, and the channel is
of SDCCH type;
(2) When receiving ERROR_IND, the channel is of SDCCH type;
With respect to (1) there are following cases:
Incoming SDCCH handover the message HO_DETECT is illegal.
Incoming SDCCH handover the message HO_CMP is illegal.
Incoming SDCCH handover sending the message HO_CMP fails
TN_WAIT_HO_DETECT, TN_WAIT_HO_CMP (SDCCH handover)
Analysis of the statistical point of the Time out
original index TN_WAIT_INTER_HO_CMP (SDCCH handover) time out
TN_T8 (Outgoing BSC handover is completed) time out
Internal clearance resulted from other various reasons.
SDCCH occupation success times (All):(1) When receiving
CH_ACT_ACK in the process of assignment, the channel is SDCCH.
(2) When receiving the message CH_ACT_ACK in the state of
CS_WAIT_RR_EST, the current channel is SDCCH.
(3) Incoming SDCCH handover receives HO_DETECT.
(4) In the BSC SDCCH handover receives HO_DETECT.
Others None
8.2.3 Intercell Handover Success Ratio Within the BSC
The factors which affect the handover success ratio include:(1) Base station clock,
BSC clock and MSC clock and judge if these clocks are out of frame; For MSC: ∆f/f
(frequency offset)≤ 1E-8; For BSC/BTS : ∆f/f(frequency offset)≤5E-8 . (2) The
handover-related data configuration; Check Tables BA1, BA2 and the handover data
table under the handover menu see whether the data configuration are correct and
handover threshold settings are reasonable. For the handover involved between the
MSCs, it is necessary to check or confirm if the opposite MSC has been configured
with the handover data of the local MSC. If not, then there is handover request, but the
successful handover is not available.
Inter-cell handover success ratio within
No. 003 Index name
the BSC (%)
Measurement type General BSC performance measurement
Inter-cell handover success ratio within the BSC=Times of successful
Formula description inter-cell handover within the BSC/ Times of Inter-cell handover
attempts within the BSC.
Times of successful inter-cell handovers within the BSC:
Analysis of the statistical point of the (1) The completion of handover in the BSC.
original index Times of the inter-cell handover attempts within the BSC.
(1) When receiving the handover requests (inter-cell within the BSC)
Others None
8-48
8.2.4 Incoming BSC Handover Success Ratio

Incoming BSC handover
No 004 Index name
success ratio (%)
Incoming BSC handover success ratio =Incoming BSC handover
Formula description
success ratio/ Incoming BSC handover attempts
Successful incoming BSC handover times(1) When HO_CMP is sent
Analysis of the statistical point of to MSC successfullyTimes of successful handover within the BSC:(1)
the original index When the incoming handover request message from MSC is
received.
Others
8.2.5 Outgoing BSC Handover Success Ratio

Outgoing BSC handover success ratio
No. 005 Index name
(%)
Outgoing BSC handover success ratio =Times of successful outgoing
Formula description
BSC handovers/ Times of outgoing BSC handover attempts
Times of successful outgoing BSC handover:
(1) For outgoing handover CLEAR_CMD is received because of
Analysis of the statistical point of HO_SUCC.
the original index Times of outgoing BSC handover attempts:
(1) Statistics begins when the message HO_REQ is sent to MSC
(including direct operation retry)
Other
8-49
8.2.6 TCH Congestion Ratio
TCH congestion ratio (handover excluded)=Times of TCH occupation failures

(handover excluded)/Times of TCH occupation requests (handover excluded)*100%
TCH congestion ratio (handover included) =Times of TCH occupation failures
(handover included)/ Times of TCH Occupation requests (handover included)*100%
TCH congestion ratio (handover
100 No. 007 Index name
excluded)(%)
TCH congestion ratio (handover excluded)=(Times of TCH call
occupation Failures + ultra-early assigned TCH occupation failures) /
Formula description
(Times of TCH call occupation requests + Times of ultra-early
assigned TCH occupation requests
Times of TCH call occupation failures
(1) Send out assignment failure message.
Times of ultra-early assigned TCH Occupation Failures
(1) Receive CH_ACT_NACK in the process of ultra-early assignment
(including receiving CH_ACT_NACK when the satellite transmission
state is WAIT_RR_EST.
(2) CVI_INTERNAL_ERR (internal error) is the return cause when
channels are distributed in the process of ultra-early assignment
(3) CVI_NO_ACCEPT (illegal channel request) is the return cause
when the channels are distributed in the process of ultra-early
Analysis of the statistical point of the assignment
original index (4) Channel has not been assigned when the channels are
distributed in the process of ultra-early assignment
(5) TN_WAIT_CH_ACT timed out in the process of ultra-early
assignment
Times of TCH call occupation requests:
(1) Receiving MSC assignment request message.
Times of ultra-early assigned TCH occupation requests:
(1) No resource is available and the immediate assignment is
allowed when distributing SDCCH;
(2) When the channel request is received, the channel is of TCH type
(for example, the emergency call).
Other None
TCH congestion ratio (handover

No. 008 Index name
included)(%)
TCH congestion ratio (handover included)=(Times of TCH call
occupation Failures +Times of ultra-early assigned TCH
occupation failures +Times of incoming cell handover within the
BSC TCH Occupation Failures (due to congestion)+ Times of
between BSCs incoming cell handover TCH occupation failures
Formula description
(due to congestion) / (Times of TCH call occupation requests
+Times of ultra-early assigned TCH occupation requests + Times
of within the BSC Incoming cell handover TCH occupation
requests +Times of between BSCs incoming cell handover TCH
occupation requests)
Times of TCH call occupation failures:
(1) Times of ultra-early assigned TCH occupation failures
Times of TCH call occupation requests:
Analysis of the statistical point of the
(1) Times of Ultra-early Assigned TCH occupation requests
original index
The above indexes please refer to the analysis of No.008 indexes
Times of within the BSC incoming cell handover TCH occupation
failures (due to congestion)
8-50
1) TCH channel assignment fails during incoming cell handover

within the BSC. Times of between BSCs incoming cell handover
TCH occupation failures (due to congestion):
(1) The reason for sending handover failure message when
incoming cell handover between BSCs is that the TCH channel
has not been assigned.Times of incoming cell handover TCH
occupation requests in BSC:
(1) When receiving inter-cell incoming cell handover request
message within the BSC. (TCH handover)
Times of incoming cell handover TCH occupation requests
between BSCs:
(1) When receiving incoming handover request message (TCH
handover).
Others None
8-51
8.2.7 SDCCH Congestion Ratio

No 006 Index name SDCCH congestion ratio %)
SDCCH congestion ratio (%)=Times of All Busy SDCCH occupation /
Formula description
Times of SDCCH occupation requests (All)
Times of all busy SDCCH occupation:
(1) When SDCCH channel has not been assigned Times of SDCCH
occupation requests (all)
Analysis of the statistical point of (1) Receiving the channel request message (the channel is SDCCH)
the original index (2)Once receiving the channel request message immediately assign
TCH. And SDCCH can be assigned when there is no TCH
(3) SDCCH handover within the BSC
(4) Incoming BSC handover the handover is of SDCCH type
Other None
8.2.8 Radio Connection Ratio

No 009 Index name Radio connection ratio
Measurement type
Formula description Radio connection ratio (1-SDCCH congestion ratio)*(1-TCH
congestion ratio)*100%
The respective indexes in this formua are illustrated as follows:
Analysis of the statistical point of the
For calculation of SDCCH congestion ratio and TCH congestion
original index
ratio please refer to Sections 8.2.6 and 8.2.7.
Others This index is specified in the report of the mobile office.
8.3 Description of Traffic Statistics Registration
8.3.1 Routine Performance Measurement Tasks Necessary to Be Registered
1. The general BSC performance measurement task is compulsory.

All the indexes under this statistics function type should be registered as much as
possible either at the beginning of the deployment or at the stable system running
stage.It is suggested that the statistics circle be 60 minutes, and the statistics time
period be 00:00~24:00
2. Cell performance measurement task is compulsory.
It is suggested that the statistics circle be 60 minutes, and the statistics time period be
00:00~24:00
8.3.2 Performance Measurement Tasks Used for Network Optimization and

Location Problems
Incoming and outgoing cell handover performance measurement, defined and

undefined adjacent cells performance measurement, receiving quality, receiving level
performance measurement, drop-off performance measurement, power control
performance measurement, uplink and downlink balance performance measurement,
uplink frequency band scanning statistics, and interference band statistics after
sending idle Burst, are all the good instruments both for checking whether the data
8-52
configuration is reasonable and for network optimization. At the beginning of

deployment, this kind of tasks should be registered as many as possible, and in the
stable system running stage they could be deleted.
SCCP protocol performance measurement and MTP link performance measurement
can be used to detect whether NO.7 link and the A interface are normal. LAPD
protocol performance measurement is used to monitor whether LAPD link and Abis
interface are normal. This task could be deleted in the stable system running
stage.Except the SCCP protocol performance measurement, the tasks of the above
types consume subtask numbers extremely. Therefore the tasks of these types should
be registered with pertinence in case of the subtask numbers being inadequate for
use.
8-53
Radio Network Planning Chapter 9 Network Optimization
Chapter 9 Network Optimization
Network optimization serves for the pursuit of a maximum application of network

resource and a maximum improvement of QoS. Meanwhile, it also contributes to
foundations and principles for future network expansion. Optimization here refers to
optimization based on a sound implementation of network planning. In this sense,
optimization is a supplement to the aspects failing to be taken into adequate
consideration or resource adjustment for burst situations as suggested in a large
traffic burst. Generally, drive test, traffic statistics and subjective perception on the
part of human are taken as the basis for optimization, moreover signaling tracking
and analyzing almost plays a crucial role in solving difficult problems.
9.1 Process of Network Optimization

The mobile communication network of GSM generally falls into Mobile Switching-
Transporting Part and Radio Part. Due to the mobility of subscribers and the
complexity of radio waves in propagation, the Radio Part always becomes the
decisive factor affecting the QoS of the GSM network. Radio network optimization
refers to reasonable modification to planning and designing of communication
networks according to certain principles so that a more reliable, more economic
network operation, a higher QoS, and a higher utilization ratio for network resource
can be achieved. Undoubtedly, this is of great significance for network operators and
subscribers. Procedures for network optimization are as follows:
Preparatory Work
Obtaining Basic Information

of Network on Site
Drive Test and Traffic Statistics

Collection
Data Analysis
Network Parameter Modification
N Does it meet the
performance indices?
Y
Network Optimization Report
Preparatory work at early stage include obtaining knowledge of progressive status in

network construction, analyzing the operation status of network, preparing for
optimization test equipment and software, network planning report, collection of
8-1
engineering and designing documents, etc. Obtaining of basic network information at

site include further inspections on local radio environment, hot spots of traffic,
confirmation of engineering parameters and network indices for practical installation,
communication with customers to understand specific demand of customers. Data
collection covers subjective reflection of mobile subscribers, data collection in drive
test, OMC data collection, etc. Data analysis include background analysis of
optimization software, OMC traffic statistical analysis, tools for network optimization
analysis, etc. Network Parameter modification includes network engineering
parameter modification and network function parameter modification. Network
performance indices are in conformity with the General Indices of State Standard.
Network Optimization Report covers measures used in this optimization, network
performance indices expected, and positive suggestions for network development.
8-2
9.2 Common Tools Used in Network Optimization
9.2.1 ANT Drive Test Equipment
ANT software can be used in re-selection test with mobile station in idle state,
frequency scanning test, timed call-up test, continuous connection test, etc. Through
simulating the actual state of subscribers in practical application, field intensity
distribution, Carrier-To-Interference Ratio, voice quality and other on site data can be
obtained. Meanwhile, the actual installation status of antenna and feeders can also
be verified. Various test measures can be applied in combination with others
according to demand. According to test result, modification to system parameters,
antenna status shall be implemented accordingly. Among them, modification to
system parameters mainly covers modification to transmission power, frequency
configuration, handover level, parameters of adjacent cells, traffic load, the numbers
of SDCCH and TCH channels for configuration, etc. Modification to antenna state
has an important effect on coverage improvement and interference reduction. It
mainly covers adjustment to antenna height hanging on masts, azimuth, down tilt, etc.
Functions of ANT test software are mainly as follows:
I. Supports Multimode Test
ANT optimization software supports frequency scanning and call connection test in
full frequency band. In two-handset-test mode, the software supports dual network
test and interference test.
II. Real-time Graphic Description Window
In idle state, the ANT Optimization software can display real time BCCH field
intensity and main information of the host cell and six neighboring cells. In
connection mode, ANT optimization software can also display real time handover
behavior and all indices of connection quality.
III. Geological Positioning Function
ANT Optimization Software applies high precision GPS in geographical positioning.

Path of drive test and all performances of a handset (as Call Drop, handover failure,
assignment failure, etc) can be displayed in real time icons. In background analyzing,
data playing-back, problem positioning and geographical representation of all indices
can be implemented.
IV. Data Analysis and Statistical Function
Background analysis of ANT optimization software cover Blind Zone of network

coverage, lonely island positioning, co-channel interference and adjacent channel
interference, frequency scanning analysis, etc. According to user’s demand, ANT
optimization software can automatically create radio measurement and statistical
report including interference statistics, radio indices statistics, system performance
evaluation, and engineering parameter inspection.
8-3
9.2.2 Signaling Analyzer
Signaling Analyzer MA-10 can be used in on-line test of the ABIS interface signaling
information, A-G interface signaling information, SS 7 interface signaling information
of ISUP, TUP, and INAP. It can also be applied in testing of error code covering PCM
BERT and GSM BERT in transmission routes and analyzing in background offline
state by opening the signaling information files. There are five sub application
programs in MA-10 Test Software. Respectively they are “MA-10 Control (on-line test
of interface signaling for ABIS interface, A-G interface, and error code), “MONITOR
ABIS offline” (ABIS interface signaling analysis offline), “MONITOR MSC offline” (A-
G interface signaling analysis offline), “GSM-BERT offline” (error code inspection and
analysis offline), “PCM-BERT offline”(error code inspection and analysis offline).
With Signaling Analyzer MA-10, a network optimization engineer can collect and
analyze data of Abis interface and A interface, survey the complete process of
signaling connection, extract survey report, and carry out contrastive study of these
data against downlink signal collected from drive test (This ingenuous use of time
points as indices and a combined application of latitude and longitude stored in
equipment for downlink drive test can generate a uplink coverage graph and quality
graph), so that the operation state of the entire network can be obtained. In this way,
major causes and locations of Call Drop, handover failure, traffic congestion and
other problems in a cell can be spotted.
9.2.3 Spectrum Analyzer
A spectrum analyzer is mainly used in test of attributes of a frequency domain

including spectrum, power of adjacent channels, quick scanning of time domain,
spurious radiation, inter-modulation attenuation, etc. A spectrum analyzer is
frequently used in network optimization to carry out electromagnetic background test.
The following example presents the HP E4402 in application.
In electromagnetic background test, a small omni-directional antenna can be
connected to the spectrum analyzer to implement broadband omni-directional test.
As HP E4402 is equipped with a built-in pre-amplifier, no external amplifier is needed.
At this time, scanning frequency of the spectrum analyzer is generally set in 880
960MHz 900MHz or 1700 1890MHz 1800MHz . Reference level can be set as
0dBm and amplitude of each line as 10dBm. Shall a signal be detected, scanning
bandwidth will be narrowed down according to frequency band of the signal, and
reference level, amplitude of each line, and resolution bandwidth will also be properly
modified to carry out a detailed analysis of the signal.
Signal positioning is similar to this operation. The only difference between the two
lies in that the omni-directional antenna is changed into a directional antenna. By
swinging the directional angle and watching the magnitude of the signal, location of
the signal can be spotted.
9.2.4 Network Optimization Software
Network Optimization Software is a kind of application software. It can, in a proper

way to indicate statistical data of calls, to assist commission and maintenance
personnel and network optimization personnel in spotting network problems.
Software Input includes configuration data of Data Management Terminal, traffic
statistical results and commissioning engineering data recorded in BSC Traffic
Statistical Terminal. Data output of the software is in diagrams and tables along with
8-4
failure spotting and suggestions for solutions. In addition, the output also supports
flexible report forms.
Functions of general network optimization software shall be as follows:
z Introduction of Traffic Statistical data, configuration data, and
network planning data
z Display of digital map in geographical representation
z Trend representation with flexible customization
z View Traffic Statistical result: Multi-functions and View with self-
defining configuration
z Data Filter: automatic detection of unusual points and indicate in
geographical representation
z Index analysis and failure diagnose.
z Free report function covers self-defined report, template management,
report preview, lead into and out of report, report in any format,
creation of report across BSCs.
z Parameter Analysis includes, but is not limited to co-channel
searching, neighboring channel searching, BSIC searching, CGI
agreement inspection, neighboring cell searching and geographical
representation
z Function of Experience Lab
z Engineering Management
Good optimization software can adequately act as everyday work platform for radio
engineers and maintainers (supervisors and optimizers). HUAWEI possesses a self-
developed Optimization software SNA.
8-5
9.3 Radio Network Problems Positioning and Solving
9.3.1 Obtaining Basic Information
The purpose of obtaining basic information of a network lies in finding out possible
aspects with problems and making out a test plan and an optimization plan according
to actual situations so as to avoid blind operation.
Firstly, a familiarity with planning state of earlier stages is prerequisite. To this end,
document for earlier stage network planning is needed. The documents may include
planning report, table of engineering parameters, network topology, report for
frequency planning, report of cell parameter design, etc. This may offer a general
idea of the network. Distinctive problems can also be detected from it.
Secondly, progressive status of the present project is also needed. For example,
status of base station installation completion, modifications to planning, especially
those to engineering parameters, state of commissioning and simple drive test.
Special attention shall be paid to network loophole caused by engineering erection
quality or progressive status. The example suggested in handover failure and
interference in large areas caused by uncompleted construction of base stations or
erection errors is a good case in point.
The following cases of optimization all refer to optimization after a sound earlier
stage planning and a good implementation of the planning. In optimization practice,
however, there are always installation problems and hardware problems as
suggested in installation of antenna in opposite directions, problems with some
carriers of base station, etc. This optimization is a continuous effort of error
correction. No more details will be accounted here.
I. Traffic Statistical Data
From major indices including TCH Call Drop rate, TCH congestion rate, SDCCH Call
Drop rate, SDCCH congestion rate, handover completion rate, network operation
status can be understood.
With traffic volume on the network, traffic statistical data is an important method to
understand network performance.
II. Drive Test Data
For a network in commissioning, an extensive drive test shall be carried out to

understand the network status when traffic volume becomes very low or nil. If
necessary, transmission function of idle BURST in the base station can be started to
study the downlink interference status under high traffic simulation. Necessary
adjustment shall be furnished for practical problems.
Shall failure be proved within a specific area according to traffic statistics, a practical
drive test in this area can be used to confirm the failure a step further so that proper
solution may be adopted.
8-6
III. An Overall Knowledge of Network Coverage, Interference State, Traffic

Distribution
IV. Subjective Sense
Possible problems of the network can be judged from complaints of customers,

suggestions of telecom companies, subjective senses of engineers on site, etc.
9.3.2 Coverage
Range of cell coverage is one of the important indices in QoS evaluation for GSM
networks. Major factors affecting coverage are as follows:
I. Blind Zone for Signals
A Blind Zone results from no overlapping between coverage areas of two base
stations or no overlapping caused by obstructions.
Should there are more subscribers in the non-overlapping area of two base stations,
or dimension of the area is relatively bigger, construction of a new base station is
expected. Increasing the coverage range of these two base stations (as the case
suggested by increasing transmission power, height of antenna) so that the
overlapping depth of coverage may reach a level of 0.27R (R here refers to radius of
the cell). Meanwhile, care should be taken to possible co-channel interference and
adjacent channel interference caused by coverage expansion.
(2) A Blind Zone caused by valley and back hillside can be recovered by constructing
new base stations and repeaters in those areas. Repeaters can effectively recover
Blind Zones in coverage area and expand the scope of coverage. On the other hand,
repeaters can also bring about inter-modulation interference, co-channel interference
and adjacent channel interference to other cells. Therefore, interference should be
taken into consideration in introduction of repeaters in application.
(3) Blind Zones within tunnels, underground garages, and tall buildings can be
recovered by introduction of repeaters, leak cables, or micro station technologies.
II. Cross Cell Coverage
In actual networks, signals emitted from high base stations can be transmitted on
hilly landforms or along roads to places far way. Hence the “island” problem was
created. When a call is connected into the “island” of a base station, which is far from
the base station, configuration handover in this cell may immediately result in Call
Drop once the mobile station leaves this “island” area. To solve this problem, down
tilt or gain of the antenna should be modified. Transmission directly along road
should be largely avoided so as to eliminate island effect by reducing the coverage of
base stations.
In coverage optimization, modification to azimuth and down tilt is often used to
change service range of the cell. Problem of Blind Zone caused by co-channel
inference, adjacent channel interference and inter-modulation interference between
TACS and GSM can be solved by eliminating interference.
8-7
9.3.3 Capacity
I. Traffic Congestion
With OMC traffic statistics data, TCH congestion rate can be obtained (with
occupation at all busy). It is also possible to judge the traffic congestion status by
comparing the busy hour traffic volume against calculation capacity of each base
station cell. For congestion cells, it is recommended that more carriers be added, or
cell split, or construction of new base stations in common sites be adopted. It is also
advisable to adopt new dual frequency networks, micro cells, etc.
II. Traffic Balance
For some base stations with congestions, measures to ease the congestion are as
follows:
(1) Modify the antenna height, down-tilt, transmission power of base stations and
handset.
(2) Modify the configuration for part of parameters
In overloaded areas, the minimum access level may be suitably increased and
handover threshold may be appropriately decreased to reduce traffic. Accordingly,
the minimum access level may be properly reduced and handover threshold may be
appropriately increased to increase traffic.
Moreover, by setting CBQ and CBA of low traffic cells, these cells may be assigned
with higher selection PRI. A suitable increase in CRO can make it more easily for the
cell to be re-selected.
(3) Start-up Load Handover and Directional Retry
8-8
9.3.4 Interference
PLMN cellular system makes use of frequency multiplexing to improve application

efficiency of spectrum and to increase system capacity. Meanwhile, it also brings
forth co-channel interference and adjacent channel interference (This is called
internal interference of the system.) In addition, there are also interferences caused
by Multi-path Effect and external factors of the network as the interferences of TACS
and repeaters.
I. Interference Positioning
GSM is a dual system with a difference of 45MHz between uplink frequency and
downlink frequency. There might be interferences in both uplinks and downlinks.
Downlink interference can be measured with instrument for drive test by maintaining
the conversation status. Level of voice quality can be used in positioning. Voice
quality are of 7 levels. Corresponding bit error rates are listed in Table 3-1. General
requirement of voice quality shall not be lower than 3, i.e. the code error rate shall be
less than 1.6%.
Table 3-1 Relational Correspondence between Signal Quality Level and Error Rate
RxQual class Mean Ber (%) Ber range
0 0.14 <0.2%
1 0.28 0.2 ... 0.4%
2 0.57 0.4 ... 0.8%
3 1.13 0.8 ... 1.6%
4 2.26 1.6 ... 3.2%
5 4.53 3.2 ... 6.4%
6 9.05 6.4 ... 12.8%
7 18.1 >12.8%
Uplink interference can be positioned with the numbers of interference bands and
Call Drop rates in HUAWEI OMC traffic statistics terminal. Interference band is an
indication of idle TCH levels of 5 grades in all. Level ranges can be set through Data
ConfigurationTerminal. Look at the following example:
Table 3-2 Level Range of Interference Band

Interference Band 1 -110 -105dBm
Generally, shall idle channel fall into Interference Band 4 and Interference Band 5
continuously, it can be determined that there exists interference.
Beside, measurement report for uplink and downlink can be viewed from Signaling
Analyzer MA-10 connected to ABIS interface. In this way, uplink interference and
downlink interference can also be positioned.
8-9
II. Ways to reduce interference
(1) Increase the distance between two adjacent cells of the same or neighboring
frequencies;
(2) Decrease transmission power of base stations;
(3) Modify antenna height;
(4) Modify azimuth of the antenna;
(5) Modify down tilt of the antenna;
(6) Optimization of frequency configuration;
(7) Start-up of anti-interference techniques used in GSM as Power Control,
Discontinuous Transmission, Frequency Hopping, etc.
(8) Due to non-linearity feature of TACS-TX amplifier, inter-modulation interference
may be generated (as tertiary interference). Shall the signal be in the bandwidth of
GSM receiver, it may have interference on the GSM receiver. Shall the TACS and
GSM share a common site, inter-modulation interference may also be created. Inter-
modulation reduction may be accomplished by increasing the transmission power of
GSM downlink and optimizing the frequency configuration.
9.3.5 Handover
When a mobile subscriber moves from one cell into another, handover must
beimplemented. Otherwise, voice quality may be greatly reduced. In some cases,
even Call Drop may occur. Frequent handover problems include voice quality
declination or Call Drop caused by handover failure and handover delay, voice
quality declination and system load increase caused by frequent handovers,
unbalance traffic caused by unreasonable ratios of outgoing and incoming
handovers.
Drive test equipment can be used in testing of continuousconnection, tracking of
handover failures, handover delays or frequent handovers, etc. With OMC traffic
statistical data, handover completion ratio, incoming and outgoing handover ratio of
the cell can be analyzed.
Causes and resolvent of abnormal handover are as follows:
(1) Handover threshold configrated too low
(2) Congestion in adjacent cells, no idle channel available
(3) Configuration of relation with neighboring cells missing
(4) Handover hysteresis and handover priority configuration inappropriate
(5) Configuration for the best statistical time N, P inappropriate

(6) Networking in combination with other cells consisting of products by other
manufactures, parameters of these external cells must be secured correct. These
parameters cover LAC, CI, BCCH, etc.
8-10
9.3.6 Call Drop
In GSM network operation, Call Drop has been the hot spot of complaint from
customers. Call Drop here refers to Call Drop after distribution of traffic channels.
There are various causes of Call Drop with the direct ones as field intensity,
interference, and inappropriate configuration for parameters.
For our products, there are two critical parameters affecting Call Drop. One is radio
link timer failure for downlinks, the other is the number of SACCH multi-frames for
uplinks. These two parameters shall be suitably configured according to traffic
volume and coverage.
Causes of Radio Link Failure are as follows:
(1) When the mobile station enters into a Blind Zone for field intensity coverage, Call
Drop may result from RF factors.
(2) Internal or external interference of the network may result in SACCH frame
decoding failure. This further leads to CallDrop.
(3) When a mobile station approaches cell boundary in driving, the mobile station
requests for handover. As the definition for neighboring cells was lost, or there are
congestions in neighboring cells, there would be no cells available for handover. This
finally leads to a CallDrop.
(4) With imbalance between uplinks and downlinks, a handover may result in
CallDrop. For example, take the mobile station is in CELL 1. There exists imbalance
between uplink and downlink in the neighboring cells, CELL 2 (suppose that there
are good downlinks but very weak uplinks.). According to downlink level, the mobile
station then makes out the sequence of cells to for incoming handover. The mobile
station may be directed into CELL 2. After the handset is directed into CELL 2, Call
Drop may occur due to bad uplink.
There are also Call Drops caused by non-radio link reasons as Abis interface failure,
A interface failure, etc.
8-11
9.4 Problem Positioning according to Network Indices

An important method to testify the effectiveness of optimization effort is to inspect
major network indices covering TCH Call Drop rate, TCH Congestion rate, SDCCH
Call Drop rate, SDCCH congestion rate, handover completion rate, traffic volume, etc.
These indices can be expertly used in the analysis of network operation status.
In analyzing traffic statistical indices, the first thing to be made clear is whether there
are cells with abnormal indices. Should there be, the abnormal cells must be
analyzed one by one. In view of the seriousness caused by abnormal indices, major
indices can be basically arranged in the order importance as follows: TCH Call Drop
rate, TCH congestion rate, SDCCH Call Drop rate, handover completion rate, etc.
Interference and coverage, however can affect many other indices at the same time,
as many indices are inter- related. Shall the problem of low handover completion rate
be properly solved, Call Drop may be improved to a certain extent. Therefore, in
practical analysis and solution of a certain problem, effort may be focused on a
certain index with combination of others.
9.4.1 TCH Call Drop Rate
Causes of high rate of call drop are as follows:

(1) Interference (network internal interference, external interference, interference
from the equipment itself.)
(2) Bad coverage (Blind Zones, Lonely Islands)
(3) Inappropriate handover (planning of adjacent cells, handover parameters.)
(4) Imbalance between uplinks and downlinks (Tower Amplifier, Power Amplifier,
Antenna Direction)
(5) Inappropriate Parameter configuration (Counter for radio link failure, number of
SACCH multi-frames
(6) Equipment problem (Carrier board, Power Amplifier, Tower Amplifier)
Each factor will be analyzed as a subject as follows
I. Interference (network internal interference, external interference)
Judgment :
(1) Analyze the regular patterns of interference band in traffic statistics
With more than one idle channel presented in interference band three, four, and five,
a judgment can be passed that there is interference in a general sense. Shall the
interference be an internal one, it generally increases with the increase of traffic.
Usually, an external interference bears no relations with traffic volume. It shall also
be noted here that interference band is reported uplink to BSC via RF resource
indication message by carrier channels of base stations in idle state. With busy
channels at present, resource indication message becomes difficult to be reported
uplink. The interference band statistics shall be considered in a comprehensive
approach.
8-12
(2) Measurement of receiving level performance (A matrix indicating relationship

between level and quality is expected.)
This is a statistical task specifically for carriers. If there are too many high levels of
low quality, it suggests that there are co-channel interference, adjacent channel
interference, or external interference for the frequency band of this carrier board.
(3) Proportion of bad Quality Handovers
In the measurement of cell performance / the measurement of inter-cell handover
performance , or in the measurement of outgoing cell handover performance,
number of attempts for outgoing cell handover caused by all sorts of reasons was
recorded in traffic statistics. Shall there be too many handovers caused by bad
quality, it suggests that there is interference. More handovers caused by bad uplink
quality suggests uplink interference. More handovers caused by bad downlink quality
suggests downlink interference.
(4) Measurement of receiving quality performance
Specifically for carriers, the statistical data of average receiving quality will be made
for reference.
(5) Measurement of Call Drop performance
The average level and quality of Call Drop is recorded for reference.
(6) Too many handover failures together with too many recovery failures.
It is very possible that there is interference within the cell. This is for reference.
Solution:
(1) In actual drive test, check the road section with interference and inspection
distribution of signal quality. Origins of overlapping signals causing interference
should be made clear in cells. According to actual status, interference can be
avoided by modifying the transmission power, down tilt of antenna, relations between
adjacent cells, handover parameters, or frequency band planning of a cell
concerned.
(2) With a spectrum analyzer, interference frequency band can be detected. Source
of interference can be spotted.
(3) Adopt frequency hopping, DTX and power control.
(4) Solve the equipment problems (as TRX self-excitation).
II. Coverage (Blind Zones, and lonely islands)
Judgment:
(1) Measurement of power control performance, the average uplink signal intensity
and down link signal intensity are too low.
(2) Measurement of receiving level performance, the ratio of low receiving level is
detected too high.
(3) In measurement of cell performance and performance of handover between cells,
threshold level for handover prompt and average receiving level are detected too
low.
(4) In Call Drop Performance measurement, level at Call Drop too low and TA
abnormal before Call Drop are detected.
8-13
(5) Performance measurement of defined adjacent cells. Adjacent cell with too low
an average level can be spotted.
(6) The average level of a undefined adjacent cells is too high. There are too many
such cells(lonely islands).
(7) Performance measurement of defined adjacent cells. Average receiving level of
defined adjacent cells is detected too high (excessive coverage).
(8) Measurement of power control performance, see if the average distance between
MS and BTS is in conformity with design ideology.
(9) Measurement of power control performance, see if the maximum distance
between MS and BTS are overdue in several consecutive periods.
(10) Performance test of outgoing handover from a cell, low handover completion
rate into a certain adjacent cell.
Solution:
(1) A drive test is recommended to be carried out in areas with estimated bad
coverage.
(2) Modify network parameter according to drive test. (transmission power of a base
station, down tilt and height of the antenna, minimum access level of handset,
relations of adjacent cells, the minimum access threshold of handover candidate
cells.
(3) Increase base stations.
III. Inappropriate handover (planning for adjacent cells and parameters for
handover)
Judgment:
(1) Check the handover parameter. See if there is inappropriate parameter
configuration.
(2) Performance measurement of handovers between cells. More handover failures
together with more recovery failures are detected.
(3) Performance measurement of handover between cells. Too many handovers
together with too many recovery completions are detected.
(4) Performance measurement of undefined adjacent cells. Levels of undefined
adjacent cells are too high and the number of report for undefined cells goes beyond
standard.
(5) Performance measurement for outgoing handovers: low rate of outgoing
handover completion out of a cell (for a specific cell). Find out an adjacent cell with
low incoming handover completion rate so that causes can be further detected from
target cells.
(6) Low rate of incoming handover completion. Inappropriate parameter configuration
for counterpart cells is detected.
(7) TCH Performance measurement: Times of handover is not in proportion to times
of TCH call occupation completion. (handover/call>3)
Solution:
(1) Add appropriately adjacent cells.
8-14
(2) Modify handover parameters.
IV. Imbalance between uplinks and downlinks (Tower Amplifier, Power

Amplifier, antenna direction.)
Judgment
(1) Register “measurement for balance performance between uplinks and downlinks”
in traffic statistics. Analyze if there really exists imbalance between uplinks and
downlinks.
(2) Register “Call Drop Performance Measurement” in traffic statistics. Analyze the
level and quality of uplinks and downlinks at Call Loss.
(3) Register “Power Control Performance Measurement” in traffic statistics. Analyze

the average receiving level of uplinks and downlinks.
Solution:
(1) Check Tower Amplifiers and Power Amplifiers. Specifically for Tower Amplifiers
with alarm, the test may be focused on the Tower Amplifiers with alarm. Current
values should be the main concern.
(2) Check to see if the antenna direction is in accordance with design direction.
(3) Check to see if it was caused by combiner alarm.
(4) Check the MA-10 measurement report.
(5) Check the BSC data configuration (Handset, transmission power of base stations,
minimum access level of the handset.)
V. Inappropriate configuration of radio parameters (counter for radio link

failure, number of SACCH multi-frames.)
Positioning of Problems:
Check configuration for parameters concerned:
z System information data sheet: counter for radio link failure.
z Sheet of cell attributes: number of SACCH multi-frames, timer for radio
link connection.
Solution:
Modify inappropriate configuration for parameters mentioned above.
VI. Equipment problems (carrier board, Power Amplifier, Tower Amplifier)
Judgment:
(1) TCH Performance measurement: times of A interface failure abnormal with TCH
occupation.
(2) TCH Performance measurement: TCH application ratio abnormal.
(3) TCH Performance measurement: too many times of Call Drop and interruption on
ground link failure.
8-15
(4) Shall Call Drop rate and congestion rate of this cell remain high, there might be
problems with part of the equipment.
Solution:
(1) Watch over transmission and board alarm (TC board failure, Alarm for PCM
synchronization loss at A interface, LAPD broken link, Power Amplifier board, HPA,
TRX board alarm, CUI/FPU alarm). According to alarm data, analyze to see if there
is transmission break or board failure (as suggested by carrier board failure or poor
contact.)
9.4.2 TCH Congestion Rate
Main reasons of high TCH congestion rate are as follows:

(1) Inadequate system capacity
(2) Too much interference
(3) Coverage
(4) Handover reason
(5) Inappropriate parameter configuration (system information)
Every factor will be analyzed as a topic:
I. Inadequate System Capacity or Traffic Imbalance
Judgment:
(1) Too high a traffic for each line (DGT specifies that a cell with a traffic load greater
than 0.8 per line is taken as a super busy cell. A cell with traffic load smaller than 0.1
is taken as a super idle cell.)
(2) With an applicable rate of 100% for channels, when there are too many times of
occupation at all busy, there will be a long term all busy.
(3) Traffic imbalance (inspect traffic imbalance between three sectors of a base
station or between several stations)
(4) In performance statistics of incoming handover into a cell, there are too many
handover failures because of congestion.
Solution:
(1) Capacity expansion or modification to carrier configuration between busy cells
and idle cells.
(2) Modify the cell coverage (modify transmission power of base stations, modify
azimuth, down tilt, and height of antenna.)
(3) Modify major indices of cell (modify CRO, modify the minimum access level for
handsets, start-up load handover, modify cell priority, modify cell handover
parameters).
II. Interference (network internal interference and external interference)
TCH congestion rate falls into two parts. One is TCH occupation at all busy. This
results in real channel allocation failure and further leads to channel request failure.
8-16
The other one is channel assignment failure caused by various reasons after the
assignment command being sent out.
Times of TCH occupation failure (including handover)--times of TCH occupation at all
busy, i.e. channel assignment failure caused by non-assignment availability factors.
With too many occupation failures, there is possible interference within the network.
Judgment and solutions:
Refer to judgment and solution to interference in TCH Call Drop.
III. Causes of Handover (imbalance between incoming handovers and

outgoing handovers)
Judgment:
(1) Times of handover is not in proportion to that of TCH call occupation completion
(3 handover/call specifically for the cell)
(2) Times of incoming handover is far greater than that of outgoing handover (this
results in traffic imbalance).
Solution
Modify handover parameters.
IV. Parameter Configuration Inappropriate
Judgment:
Check the handset configuration for the minimum access level.
Solution:
Modify the inappropriate parameter configuration
V. Coverage (Blind Zones, lonely island)
Judgment and solution:

Refer to judgment and solution to coverage in TCH Call Drop rate.
9.4.3 SDCCH Call Drop Rate
For SDCCH Call Drop Rate, refer to analysis for TCH Call Drop Rate.
9.4.4 SDCCH Congestion Rate
Main factors causing high SDCCH congestion rate are as follows:

(1) Inappropriate parameter configuration (system information)
(2) Inadequate system capacity
Each factor will be analyzed as a special topic as follows:
8-17
I. Inappropriate parameter configuration
Judgment:
Measurement of random access performance:
Times of immidiate assignment completion (the sum of location update + the sum of
calls and other reasons)/Times of immidiate assignment< 85%
The above formula presents the ratio of handset report uplink est_ind against
immidiate assignment command downlink. The ratio generally should be in the range
of 80 90%. With this ratio in abnormal, it suggests that there might be inappropriate
configuration for relevant parameters.
(1) The ratio of immidiate assignment success is too low.
(2) Ratio of location update times against times of all assignment instructions (too
many location update).
Solutions:
(1) Parameter modification (threshold of random access error, RACH access
threshold),maximum times for retransmission, the number of TS in transmission
expansion.
(2) Pay attention to parameter configuration for partition of location area and location
update (configuration for 1800MHz dual band network, CRO, cell reselection
hysteresis parameters, time for periodic location update, etc.)
(3) In dual band networks, excessive location update may be caused by excessive
handover between mobile switch centers. Modification shall be made to handover
parameters of the 1800MHz dual network, CRO, etc.
II. Inadequate system capacity
Apart from factors mentioned above, there might be capacity problems. SDCCH
configuration number shall be increased or dynamic SDCCH assignment function
and TCH carrier shall be engaged.
9.4.5 Rate of Handover Completion
Subject for analysis: Adjacent cells with low rates for outgoing handover completion
and service cell with low rates for incoming handover completion.
First, judgment shall be passed onto the following issues according to inter cell
Performance measurement: Is the rate for incoming handover completion low? Is the
rate for outgoing handover completion low? Low rate of outgoing handover
completion shall be further studied via cell Performance measurement to detect
which is the adjacent cell with the lowest outgoing handover completion rate.
Main reasons of low handover completion rate:
(1) Inappropriate handover
(2) Equipment failure (damage in certain carrier boards, etc.)
(3) Congestion
(4) Interference
(5) Coverage
8-18
(6) Imbalance between uplinks and downlinks

(7) Clock problem (The base station changes into an internal clock, the upper clock
becomes unstable or the upper clock is overly floating.)
In analysis, configuration of handover parameters, relations of adjacent cells, BTS
synchronization loss with BSC, and other problems can be eliminated in the first
place. Further analysis may be carried out over other factors affecting low rate of
handover completion.
I. Inappropriate handover (planning for adjacent cells, handover arameters.)
Position and Solution:

(1) Check to see if the configuration for handover thresholds of TA and BQ and
handover switch is appropriate.
(2) Performance measurement of undefined adjacent cells: level and the number of
measurement reports of undefined adjacent cells exceed standard. Adjacent cells
shall be suitably added.
(3) In defining the Performance measurement of adjacent cells, defined adjacent

cells with few handovers can be spotted. These cells can be recommended to be
deleted.
(4) Times of handover is not in proportion to that of TCH call occupation completion.
With handover/call>3, there might be ping-pong handovers. In this case, handover
parameters shall be inspected and modified. (Handover parameters include
configuration of layers, inter layer handover hysteresis, inter cell handover hysteresis,
PBGT threshold, etc).
(5)Inter cell handover Performance measurement: the average level for handover
prompt is detected too low. This may result from too low a handover threshold
including edge threshold in configuration.
II. Equipment problem
Subject for Analysis:

A service cell with low rate of incoming handover completion and adjacent cells with
low rate of outgoing handover completion.
(1) There are channels being activated in target cells but NACK, TIMEOUT.
(2) TCH availability abnormal.
(3) Too many times of Call Drop and call interruption resulted from terrestrial link
problem.
(4) Shall Call Drop rate and congestion rate remain high in a cell, there might be
problems with part of the equipment.
(5) Survey the transmission and board alarm (TC failure, A interface PCM
synchronization loss alarm, LAPD broken link, Power Amplification board, HPA, TRX
alarm, CUI/FPU alarm) According to alarm data, see if there is a transmission failure
or a malfunctioning board (as a carrier board failure or bad contact).
(6) Check the provision of clock alarm.
8-19
(7) Due to the fact that handover between base stations is limited by access level
and quality, care shall be taken to configuration for relevant parameters (RACH
access threshold, Random Access Error Threshold.)
III. Congestion
Subject for Analysis:

A service cell with low rate of incoming handover completion and adjacent cells with
low rate of outgoing handover completion.
After the problem of inappropriate parameter configuration and equipment failure
being solved, if there are
(1) Too many incoming handover failures (caused by congestion) in measurement of
incoming handover performance;
(2) Times of outgoing handover attempts - times of outgoing handover is too great in
measurement of handover performance between cells. It suggests that there is no
channel available to be applied. There might be congestion in the target cell.
With phenomenon mentioned above, the maximum number of TCH in all busy, the
time of all busy shall be studied to confirm the existence of congestion. Congestion
shall be solved as follows.
Solution:
(1) Modify cell coverage (modify transmission power of base stations, modify the
minimum access level, modify RACH access threshold, modify random access error
threshold, modify down tilt of antenna.)
(2) Modify major parameters of the cell (modify CRO, start-up load handover, modify
cell priority and handover parameter of the cell.)
(3) Capacity expansion or modification to configuration of carriers of the cell.
IV. Others
After the problems of parameter configuration, equipment failure, and congestion

being solved, with reference to TCH Call Drop analysis, the problem of cells with low
rate for incoming handover completion and adjacent cells with low rate incoming
handover completion can be solved by interference, coverage, balance for uplink and
downlink analysis and solution.
9.4.6 Traffic Analysis
Calculate traffic volume of the specific area (mean traffic per line) to see if it is
necessary to implement capacity expansion.
Make out a list of super busy cells and super idle cells.
Traffic trend. Based on historic traffic data, estimate the future trend of traffic.
Analyze if there are cells with abnormal traffic volume.
8-20
i
Radio network Planning Chapter 10 Special Topic
Chapter 10 Special Topic
10.1 The Problem of Coverage

At present there are more or less problem of coverage in the network. The problem of
coverage concerns a large number of aspects. This section analyses the problem of
coverage that is available on-line from the perspective of base station selection, carrier
configuration, antenna feeder organization, antenna installation, installation quality
and parameter setting, etc.
10.1.1 Equipment Configuration
I. Combiner Configuration
Solution recommendations under normal circumstances:

For cells with less than, or equal to 2 TRXs, use EDU.
For cells with less than, or equal to 4 TRXs, use CDU combiner.
For cells with more than, or equal to 5 TRXs, consider using cavity combiner or four-
in-one (SCU) combiner.
II. Tower Amplification
For some areas or bands whose uplink signal quality needs to be strengthened,
consider designing tower amplification.
III. Antenna
Using high gain antenna can improve the base station’s coverage capacity to a certain
extent.
When doing network planning, first consider the network quality from the perspective
of network coverage and select appropriate antenna. Under normal circumstances the
900M directional antenna gain shall be in the range of 15-17dBi; the 1800M directional
antenna gain shall be in the range of 15-18dBi. For city areas the directional antenna
with horizontal half power angle of 65 degrees is preferable.
When high gain antenna is used, the problem of “Shadow right under the tower”
should be taken into account. Preferably zero-point filling antenna should be used. If
the omni-antenna is built over high mountains, the problem of “Shadow right under the
tower” should be taken into account too. Preferably omni-antenna with built-in low
incidence should be used.
8-1
10.1.2 Base Station Site Selection
I. Bad base station location and antenna installation will lead to the problem of
coverage.
When there is a possibility that bad station location and antenna installation may lead
to the problem of coverage, the on-site surveying personnel shall insist their
viewpoints from the perspective of network coverage. The issue shall be explained
thoroughly if it cannot be solved ultimately. What shall be explained is also the base
station’s coverage areas and objectives (in particular government offices, hotels,
airports, residential areas, main roads, shopping centers and former cell’s coverage
margins), as well as the cell’s carrier frequency configurations. Usually for intensively
populated urban areas the height of the base station’s antenna is 25-30 meters; the
height of the base station’s antenna in the suburbs (or the ones that point to the
suburbs) is 40-50 meters. The planning personnel shall assist the network carriers to
decide the coverage areas and objectives after a thorough study of the geographical
features, the buildings’ absorption and loss features, and multipath effect to ensure
that the base station will be constructed as expected. Furthermore, the base station, in
particular the omni antenna base station shall not be too high. This is because the
omni antenna’s vertical beamwidth is narrow. If the base station is too high, it will have
bad coverage on the nearby area and good coverage on the faraway area where there
aren’t many subscribers. Usually the height of the omni antenna base station shall not
be 50-60 meters more than the covered area. For base stations that are too high, the
built-in down-tilt omni antennas or antennas with broad vertical beam are desirable.
II. The antenna direction difference between the old and newly built network
For directional cells, if the antenna direction of the newly built network is different from
that of the old network, such as: the old antenna’s direction was 0/120/240, while the
newly built antenna’s direction is 60/180/300. For omni cells, if the antenna direction of
the newly built network is different from that of the old network, such as: the old
antenna’s direction (transmit and diversity antenna) is 0/180, while the newly built
antenna’s direction is 90/270. This will cause the change of the diversity surface and
transmit antenna position. This may make the previous good coverage a bad one, and
previous bad coverage a good one. But the mobile phone subscribers are only
concerned with the change from good to bad, which will give rise to complaints.
Solution recommendations: During the engineering design, the antenna shall be so
designed as to make the direction of it as identical as that of the old one. In cases
where the direction change is desired, the main beam of the directional antenna or the
direction of the omni antenna shall point to the places where heavy coverage is
emphasized. Due explanations are also desirable.
III. The difference of the antenna height between the old and newly built
network
The engineering design shall be so made as to ensure that the height of the new
antenna is not lower than that of the old antenna. If the tower platform has not enough
space to install the antenna, the explanations shall be given for decreasing the
antenna height.
IV. Concerning the directional antenna’s down-tilt of the newly built network
Preferably the down-tilt shall not change. In cases where such change is desired due
to the increase of the base station in the urban area for purpose of controlling the
coverage area, such change shall be duly recorded.
8-2
V. Change omni cell to directional cell
As the half power angle of the directional antenna’s beamwidth is 65 or 90 degrees,

and the beamwidth of the omni antenna is 360 degrees, after the change, the marginal
coverage of the cell within the directional base station can be worse than that of the
previous omni station. During the planning, make sure that the main beam of the
directional antenna points to the area where emphatic coverage is desired and
describe the coverage differences between the omni-antenna and directional antenna.
10.1.3 Antenna Engineering Design and Installation
I. The problem of the directional antenna installation
Generally, the base station’s uplink and downlink signals are balanced. Bad antenna
installation may leave the mobile phone subscribers such impression that the base
station’s uplink coverage capacity is weak.
(1) The transmitting antenna is installed inverse.
Transmitting feeder and the cell’s antenna were mistakenly connected or BTS set top
jumper was mistakenly connected.
Possible phenomenon clue for fault discovery:
z The mobile phone is somewhere in the cell but cannot call out (the
receiving antenna is in the other direction, the uplink is bad);
z Unilateral call connection;
z From a distance of the cell, drop-off happens frequently (infrequent near
the base station);
z Drop-off after frequent handovers (the handovers are found to be mostly
caused by weak uplink signal strength or bad uplink quality);
z The field intensity distribution of the BCCH frequency band between the
adjacent sectors were found to be displaced during the drive test;
z Unexpected severe interferences with the adjacent frequencies.
This type of error is easy to discover in the network. It can be found by checking
installation or by analyzing the field intensity distribution of the BCCH frequency band
during the drive test.
(2) Wrong receiving antenna installation:
This problem, which cannot be found by analyzing the field intensity distribution of the
main BCCH frequency band in the downlink, can cause bad uplink in the current cell.
After excluding the possibility that it is caused by transmitting antenna, check if the
jumper or feeder of the receiving antenna are wrongly installed, also review the
measurement report to see if the uplink level is too low, or if there are any call-out or
handover problems, power control triggered by the uplink signal, or irrational handover
ratio, etc.
II. The problem of shadow adjacent to the coverage area in the directional cell
During the installation of the directional antenna, caution must be taken to avoid the
creation of large area of shadow in its coverage area. Shadow usually comes into
being as a result of huge hindrance near the base station, such as skyscrapers, or
mountains. Caution must be taken to circumvent such hindrance during the installation.
8-3
When the directional antenna is installed at the surface of the top of the building,
caution must be taken so that the wave beam is not hindered by the edge of the
building, and that the antenna is not installed near the edge, thus reducing or
extirpating the shadow. Due to the complexity of the antenna surface, when the
antenna must be installed away from the edge of the building, it must be installed high
above the antenna surface. For this reason, the bearing capacity of the building
surface and the antenna’s against-wind force must be taken into account during the
engineering.
III. The problem of the directional antenna diversity interval
The effective horizontal interval of the 900M directional antenna space diversity should
be more than 4m (at least greater than 3m); The effective horizontal interval of the
1800M directional antenna space diversity should be more than 2m.
IV. The problems during the omni-antenna installation
Omni base stations are mostly located along the roads from villages to counties, or
from counties to other cities. These base stations are mainly to serve the mobile
subscribers along the road or subscribers in the villages. The common mistake that is
made during the installation of the antenna feeder is that the distribution of the above
subscribers are not fully taken into account, leading to the incomplete utilization of the
performance of the base station, leaving the subscribers such impression that the
coverage is bad. There are mainly 3 points concerning the design and installation of
the omni antenna:
(1) The interval between the omni antennas and the interval between the antenna and
the tower
(2) Diversity direction: the diversity surface should be directed to the area where
subscribers are heavily populated
(3) The position of the host transmitting antenna (TX) (the host transmitting antenna
refers to that of the BCCH transmitting channel). The main transmitting antenna
should be directed to the area where the subscribers are heavily populated. The
following figure is on the direction of the base station omni antenna that covers the
roads:
8-4
MS_TXPWR_MAX(n)
RXLEV_NCELL(n)
MS_TXPWR(n)
MsOptLevel(n)
BTS1 HO BTS2
8-5
Figure 10-1 Installation of the base station omni antenna that covers the roads
In addition, a distance of more than 2m is required between the omni antenna and the
tower. The horizontal effective interval for 900M omni antenna is more than 4m; The
horizontal interval for 1800M omni antenna is more than 2m.
10.1.4 Antenna feeder, combiner (divider), CDU connections
When the amplifier work normally, the antenna and feeder’s VSWR is normal but
downlink signal is weak, check if the connector between the amplifier and CDU
(combiner) and the connector between CDU and set top are correct; When the
antenna-feeder connection is correct but the uplink is weak, check if the divider
connection is correct and the divider is open. Also note if the fan works normally.
10.1.5 Parameters settings and others
The parameters that affect the coverage include base station static transmitting power
level, RACH access threshold, and the mobile phone’s minimum access threshold.
I. Static Power Setting
To reduce the interference with the adjacent frequencies, lower the height of the
antenna, increase the down-tilt, or decreasing the base station’s transmitting power.
Usually, decreasing the transmitting power can also worsen the indoor coverage. So
what are commonly adopted arefalling down the height of the antenna and increasing
the down-tilt.
II. RACH Parameters Setting
To control the uplink access (call, paging response), and to balance between the
coverage and call drop ratio, Huawei adds the parameter “RACH access threshold” in
the BTS3.X base station. The parameter can go upward from –110dBm, and
effectively controls the mobile phone’s uplink access.
III. Cell Selection and Reselection Parameters
C1 and C2 decide the cell selection and reselection. RXLEV_ACCESS_MIN is

commonly set between -100dBm to –105dBm. Setting the parameter too great will
make it difficult for the mobile phone to select the cell, which, when viewed from the
subscriber’s perspective, is the mobile phone’s call drop and no coverage; Setting the
parameter too small will lead to the situation that the mobile phone can receive the
signal but cannot call out.
During the parameter setting, also note the differences of sensitivity and maximum
transmitting power between the 900M and 1800M networks, ignoring which may
cause the unbalance between the uplink and downlink.
IV. Other Parameters and Phenomena
The setting of the random access error threshold can also restrict the mobile phone’s
access. Its value, which is usually greater than 180, is set subject to the radio
environment’s bottom noise and statistical result. The other parameters settings that
have effect on the mobile phone attached, access, handover, and connection are:
BSIC, NCC_PERMITTED, CELL_BAR_ACCESS, CELL_BAR_QUALIFY, radio link
failure timer, the number of mobile phone’s maximum retransfer, the number of send
8-6
distribution time slots (the number of extended distribution time slots), the number of
SACCH multi-frames, the number of maximum physical retransfer, radio link
connection timer, location update and paging-related parameters (including LAC
distribution), handover-related parameters, power control-related parameters, flow
control-related parameters, roaming permit-related parameters, TRX power settings of
different CDU channels, etc.
When the base station’s upper clock is bad, MCK (TMU) is failure, propagation is
unstable, or the carrier frequency board is failure (no warning, sometimes stable
interferences), the mobile phone’s accessing, call and handover (usually
asynchronous handover) will be affected.
When the system information is wrong or is not delivered correctly, the mobile phone’s
accessing, call or handover will be affected.
When the frequency interference is severe, the mobile phone’s accessing, call and
handover will be affected.
When the channel is congested the mobile phone’s handover and call access will be
affected.
Multipath effect can lead to signal fluctuation
During the cell reselection and frequent location border update, the signal of the
mobile phone will fluctuate.
During the connection, direct re-try and load handover caused by congestion can lead
to strong fluctuation of the signal; Priority handover (for layered network) and edge
handover (the edge handover threshold is set too low and there is no PBGT handover)
can also lead to strong fluctuation of the signal. If the power control and handover
parameters are not set properly during the signal fluctuation, the fluctuation will be
strengthened until call drop happens.
The cross-area coverage or coverage in the border areas for different services can all
cause problems, leading to the subscriber’s huge increase of roaming bill. To solve the
problem, the coverage area should be controlled or enlarged during the planning and
optimization phase to avoid mutual cell reselection or only single-direction cell
reselection. Solve the problem by adjusting the height, down-tilt, and direction of the
antenna, CRH and MS minimum access threshold, and BAI table.
The mobile phone subscriber having not sufficient understanding on the terrain,
construction material’s absorption loss, or multipath effect will tend to rise questions on
coverage.
8-7
10.2 TCH Congestion

In 2001, the mobile phone companies in all the provinces presented five indexes as
network quality criteria. They are: long distance call success ratio, traffic call drop ratio,
traffic channel availability ratio, radio successful connection ratio, and worst cells ratio,
the last two of which are directly influenced by TCH congestion ratio.
10.2.1 The Causes of High TCH Congestion Ratio
The causes for high TCH congestion ratio are many, among others, data configuration
problems, hardware problems and external interference. But in light of solution steps
and sequence, it is desirable to first check the software and hardware problems of the
equipment per se, and then check other equipment-unrelated factors such as external
interference and constraints due to complex terrain
(1) Interface A trunk circuit data configuration errors.
(2) Carrier frequency board faults or unstable performance, leading to high congestion
ratio.
(3) Bad base station hardware installation causes unbalanced uplink and downlink
level, leading to TCH congestion.
(a) Uplink branch: antennaÆtower amplifierÆfeeder lineÆdischarge arresterÆset top
connectorÆdivider or CDUÆTRX board
z Divider cascaded half-rigid cable connection error, leading to uplink
level discrepancy;
z Half-rigid cable distortion or loose connector, leading to the problem;
z Data bus problem.
(b) Downlink branch: TRXÆHPAÆcombiner or CDUÆset top connectorÆdischarge
arresterÆfeeder lineÆtower amplifierÆantenna
z The transmit branch has antenna feeder – standing wave ratio warning;
z Half-rigid cable distortion or loose connector;
z Cell antenna connection error or TRX natural transmit channel
discrepancy cause the discrepancy in the coverage direction and area
of main BCCH carrier and expansion carrier, leading to TCH
congestion.
(4) The repeater station is subordinated to the host cell. The repeater station doesn’t
expand as the cell does.
(5) Interferences leading to congestion
(6) Isolated station or complex terrain causes TCH assignment failure, leading to
congestion.
(7) Huge real traffic leading to congestion.
8-8
10.2.2 Positioning Methods of High TCH Congestion Ratio
I. Remote Analysis of Congestion Ratio Cause
(1) By traffic statistics analysis

z By conducting traffic statistics analysis on the cell’s TCH performance,
check if TCH congestion is due to all-busy congestion. If it is, the
problem can be solved by network optimization which delegates the
cell’s traffic to other cells, or by advising the operator to expand.
z If the problem is not due to all-busy congestion, check if the congestion
is related to interference, namely, check interference 1 to 5. If interfered,
the cell’s call drop ratio can be a little high.
z Register the receiving performance measurement traffic statistics tasks.
Query the traffic statistics result by object and see if the uplink/downlink
measurement report in the same TRX is balanced to decide if the
uplink/downlink hardware branch is balanced. Query the traffic statistics
result by time and see if there is any exceptions regarding the
measurement report number in the same cell to decide if the congestion
is related to that board.
(2) View the warning
Check the station warning to which the high-congestion-ratio cell belongs to see if
there are any abnormal warning, such as VSWR warning, PCM synchronization lost
warning, uplink data bus warning, etc, and decide if the congestion is related to that
warning, taking into account the traffic statistics.
(3) Remote maintenance terminal of the base station
Check if the software of the boards in the base station is uniform. The version upgrade
shall be subject to the notice from SUPPORT website.
Use the maintenance terminal of the base station to congest in turn the cell carrier
board’s TCH channels that have high congestion ratio to see if the high congestion
ratio is related to that cell’s carrier board. Solution principles:
z If the fluctuation of the congestion ratio is related to the block of the
carrier board’s channel, then very possibly that board is at fault. Check if
there is any co-channel interference. Check the hardware performance
of the uplink, downlink, and the board.
z If the congestion is not related to the carrier board, then the whole cell
may be interfered or affected by the terrain.
(4) Use the Signaling Analyzer to diagnose the ABIS interface message.
According to the call flow and TCH assignment failure statistics, use the Signaling
Analyzer to trace the ABIS interface message at every high-congestion-ratio cell. The
figure shown here uses MA10 Signaling Analyzer, the detailed analysis of which is as
follows:
Analyze the assignment command Assignment CMD delivered in SDCCH, as the TEI
value in figure 10-2, to determine the carrier board that SDCCH is in. The carrier board
that TCH is in can be determined by referring to the ARFCN radio frequency band.
Determine if the assignment failures are all in a TRX. Also analyze the causes of the
assignment failures by focusing on the mobile phone’s TA value, uplink/downlink level
value, and uplink/downlink signal quality in the measurement report. Local calling is
required.
8-9
If assignment failure points to a certain TRX board, the cause can be one of the
following:
z TRX board down or unstable performance;
z Caused by bad uplink/downlink level. The uplink branch/downlink
branch hardware is at fault;
z Bad uplink/downlink signal quality. Decide which branch is interfered,
taking into account the mobile phone’s TA value.
Figure 10-2 ABIS signaling
If the assignment failures are randomly distributed over the carrier boards of the whole
cell, the analysis on the measurement report may point to the following causes:
(1) Complex terrain within the coverage area of the base station;
(2)Interference of the frequency band within the whole the cell, such as the one from
the repeater station
II. Examination on the local base station
(1) Local maintenance: See if there are any abnormal warnings and solve them timely.
(2) Check if there are any such hardware problems in the uplink and downlink antenna
feeder branch as loose connector, inverse antenna, half-rigid cable connection error,
and backplane loose wiring, etc.
(3) Use mobile phones for calling in the same place;
z Calling by every carrier or by every channel to see if there are any time
slots or boards that cannot be assigned.
z Check weather all the carrier’s downlink levels are approached. For
carrier board whose levels are uneven, replace the board or
uplink/downlink antenna feeder system to look for the causes.
8-10
Note: for frequency hopping cells, use command line parameters to change that cell to
non-frequency-hopping cell for the convenience of local calling.
(4) Do the drive test by the network optimization software ANT-PLOT to see if there is
any handover exceptions, downlink interference for any clues on the problem of
congestion.
(5) Use the spectrum analyzer to look for the interference source.
(6) See if the terrain of the station’s coverage area is complex.
8-11
10.3 Voice Prompt

The voice prompt in GSM is controlled by the MSC of GSM network and broadcast to
the subscribers. MSC plays the pre-recorded voice prompt in the channel
corresponding to the voice card according to the different cause values and data
configuration of the message. Typical voice prompt problems can take the following
forms:
(1) When the called is in idle state, “The subscriber you’re calling is busy” or “The
mobile phone you’re calling has turned off” is delivered.
(2) When the called is in idle state, “The subscriber you’re calling is out of the service
area” is delivered.
(3) When the called is in idle state, “For the time being the subscriber you’re calling
cannot be accessed” is delivered.
The reasons that cause the above phenomena can be some of the following:
Subscriber status management exception on the NSS side, roaming number fetch
failure, or no paging response.
In the following section we emphasize on the analysis of the problem “Subscriber out
of the service area”.
10.3.1 Paging Strategy
The primary causes for the problem of “subscriber out of the service area” are twofold:
one is paging response time over; the other is no paging response. First let’s look at
how the paging is done. The paging strategy can be divided into the following three
parts as per MSC, BSC, and BTS.
I. MSC Paging Retransfer and Paging Mode Selection
MSC can page the same message for a maximum of four times. If the latest paging is
not responded, it will retransfer the paging message. The resend time interval is 3
seconds, 3 seconds, 2 seconds, and 2 seconds respectively. Two seconds after the
last resend, i.e., twelve seconds after the first retransfer, if the paging is not responded,
MSC will regard it as time-over and deliver prompt tone of “Subscriber out of the
service area” to the subscriber. The paging methods MSC can choose are TMSI and
IMSI.
II. BSC Paging Group Calculation and Paging Message Transfer between the
Modules
After BSC receives the Paging Request delivered by MSC, it will calculate the paging
group that the paging belongs to by the last three digits of IMSI, the cell’s CCCH
channel configuration, and the paging block configuration, and then deliver Paging
Command to that cell. Under multiple modules conditions, the Paging Command
needs to be transferred between the modules.
III. BTS Paging Queue and Paging Combination
After BTS receives the Paging Command from BSC, it will put the paging in the Paging
Group Queue that the Paging Command designates, and send the paging content of
8-12
the paging group at intervals of the same paging frame period. At present, every
queue length of the paging group in BTS is 9.In one paging reserve block, 2 IMSI
paging or 4 TMSI paging can be delivered. So every time the paging is delivered, BTS
must combine the paging according to the paging message type in the queue.
IV. MS Paging Detection and Paging Response
When in idle state the mobile phone can not only receive the system information from
the broadcast channel, but also detect paging in its Paging Sub-channel. Therefore
when the mobile phone receives the paging that is directed to it, it will send Channel
Request to the Network Side and finish an immidiate assignment process. If the
assignment is successful, it will report the Paging Response in the assigned SDCCH
channel and complete a call connection process.
Faults in any one of the above-mentioned four steps will lead to the problem of
“subscriber out of the service area”.
10.3.2 Paging procedure
When in idle state, the mobile phone will stay in a cell that belongs to a location area.
The mobile phone’s location area information is stored in VLR. When a mobile phone
is being called, MSC will read the mobile phone’s location area and status information
from VLR. If the mobile phone is in “Attached, Idle” state, it will send Paging Request
to the BSC to which the location area belongs. The BSC will calculate the mobile
phone’s paging subgroup, create Paging Command, and deliver the Paging Command
to all the cells in the location area. When in idle state the mobile phone can not only
receive the system information from the broadcast channel, but also detect any paging
in the Paging Subchannel to which it belongs. Therefore after the mobile phone
receives the paging that is directed to it, it will send Channel Request to the Network
Side and finish an immidiate assignment process. If this immidiate assignment is
successful, it will report Paging Response to the assigned SDCCH channel and
complete a call connection process.
Note: The Paging Response is reported in Establishment Indication.
For example: all the cells in a region belong to one location area, the common control
channel parameter configuration for the cells is as follows:
One non-combined CCCH
The number of frames between the same paging: 6
The number of access reserve block:1
Thus, there are 6x(9-1)=48 paging groups in every cell. The mobile phone will decide
the paging group it belongs to according to the last three digits of its IMSI and the
number of the paging groups, then detect in the relevant sub-channel. For a mobile
phone whose number is 13013362000, and the IMSI is 460013361000037, the last
three digits of its IMSI is 037, its paging sub group is 37.When in idle state, the mobile
phone will always listen to the paging sub channel related to the No. 37 paging group.
If someone calls 13013362000, the paging will be sent to that subscriber from the cells
in that area. After the mobile phone receives the paging directed at 460013361000037,
it will send a channel request, and finish an instant assignment according to the instant
assignment from the network side. If there is idle SDCCH channel in the cell, a
SDCCH channel will be assigned to that mobile phone, the mobile phone establishes
the connection in the channel, and reports the paging response.
8-13
10.3.3 Analysis on the Problem ”Subscriber Out of the Service Area”
The reasons that cause “Subscriber out of the service area” are the time-out of the
mobile phone’s response to the paging or no response. From the flow of the paging
response report and analysis on the real cases, there are the following reasons that
cause this problem:
I. MSC subscriber status management
If MSC subscriber status management is down and the request cannot be delivered to
BSC, then MS will fail to receive the paging and to respond, leading to time-out. In real
situations, there are cases when MSC didn’t deliver the paging. There were also such
abnormalities as faulted called being regarded as caller and 3Tick release
abnormalities. Such abnormalities are non-recurrent. And can be identified by being
traced by the GSM subscriber interface of MSC Maintenance Station.
II. Receiver in the base station
If the receiver of the base station, including DSP, TRX, and antenna feeder, is down, it
will fail to detect the mobile phone’s access pulse or to establish connection with the
mobile phone within the time limit, the paging response (in essence the instruction to
set up connection) cannot be reported to BSC, leading to paging response time out or
no paging response. For example, we found that T2688 in somewhere is slow in
getting online. After the amplifier and the antenna feeder are discarded, the access
speed can be 10 seconds faster. As this situation involves air interface and sometimes
can be caused by the problems of MS, the diagnosis of it is difficult and dictates
experts equipped with special devices.
III. The differences of the mobile phone’s fake accessing and accessing mode
According to the protocol, whenever the MS is performing open/close, it must update

its position and do the IMSI detachment according to the system’s requirement. Some
mobile phones, mostly Ericsson, don’t perform the above operations. If the mobile
phone fails to update its position when attempting open, it will display the message
that it has already been attached. But what happens is that there is no message
reported and the subscriber status doesn’t change. Dialing that subscriber will receive
the message that it is close. Another example is that IMSI is not detached when the
mobile phone switches off, so the subscriber status is still “attached”. Paging is still
delivered to that subscriber when it is called. “Out of service area” message will come
out when the time is out.
Different mobile phones have different accessing mode and speed after the drop-off,
causing some to have long time in accessing, leading to the problem of “Subscriber
out of the service area”. Under the protocols of GSM 02 and 03, after the call drop the
mobile phone follows the principles of ASAP (as soon as possible) and energy saving
to access the network. The mobile phone will attempt to access the network in
receiving signal’s strength order. 900M mobile phones search 30 frequency bands;
1800M mobile phones search 40 BCCH frequency bands; Double frequency mobile
phones search 70 frequency bands. After the failed attempt, the mobile phone will
decide when to start next time according to its own algorithm. Mobile phones of
different models have different algorithms. For example, some models of Motorola
mobile phones can set accessing network frequency. Under the low speed accessing
mode, it takes 50 minutes to access the network after the mobile phone drops off the
network and re-enter the coverage area. In addition mobile phones of different
manufacturers have different accessing mode. Some mobile phones, after several
failures in finding the network, will stop doing so for a long time to come. So, this
8-14
problem is related to the mobile phone itself and can be solved by the switch on and
switch off of the mobile phone.
IV. Uplink / Downlink Unbalance of Radio Link
The radio signal can be classified into uplink and downlink according to the
propagation direction. Ideally the uplink-downlink are at balance, that is to say, at any
area the base station and the mobile phone can receive (or not receive) the other
side’s signal simultaneously. The uncertainty of the radio signal propagation and the
discrepancy of the actual circumstances dictate that complete balance within the
whole network is impossible. So in the network there must be some areas where he
downlink signal can cover but the uplink signal cannot. In these areas, the subscriber
can receive message sent by the network, while the network cannot receive the
message reported by the subscriber, including paging response. Therefore in these
areas it is very common for the “Subscriber out of the service area” message to occur.
To solve such problem of “Subscriber out of the service area”, adjust the radio
parameters such as “RACH access threshold”, “random access error threshold”, “MS
minimum access level”, and “RSSI check” to optimize the balance. In particular, note
that the displacements of the measured level value in the measurement report for
different versions of base stations are different.
V. SDCCH Congestion
After the mobile phone receives the paging command, it will send channel request to
the network side. If there is no SDCCH channel available, or if the procedure to set up
SDCCH channel fails, the paging response cannot be delivered to the network side,
thus the problem of “Subscriber out of the service area” occurs. The causes for the
SDCCH congestion are SDCCH all busy, random radio link failure, etc. For the
SDCCH all busy situation, adjust that cell’s coverage area to reduce the SDCCH
congestion. For congestion caused by other reasons, such as random radio link failure
or surface link failure, the solution is subject to real situation.
VI. PCH Overload
The paging message in the network is random. Due to the restrictions on the structure
of the radio channels and the limitations on the capability to send the paging command,
it is possible that some of the paging groups are overloaded, leading to failure to send
the paging messages out timely, and the resend paging cannot be responded within
the valid time, thus causing the problem of “Subscriber out of the service area”.
This situation can be improved by modifying CCCH configuration parameters “the
number of frames in the same paging”, “the number of access grant reserved block”,
and “CCCH channel allocation”. Reducing “the number of access grant reserved
block” to a proper extent will increase the number of PCH sub channels, thus
increasing the capacity of the paging channels; Reducing “the number of frames in the
same paging” will improve the frequency of sending the paging message; Increasing
the number of CCCH channels in the cell can significantly improve the system’s
paging capacity, but at the same time reducing the number of TCH configurations.
Thus this method is seldom used. If PCH is severely overloaded, the size of the
location area needs to be reduced, thus lowering the flow of the paging message.
VII. Mobile Phone Quality
When the mobile phone’s radio frequency module is down, the antenna loosens, or
the battery is down, its receiving sensitivity goes down, the uplink signal quality
worsens, and the capability to receive the paging command and access the network
lowers. Mobile phones with such problems are prone to have the phenomenon of
“Subscriber out of the service area”. The evaluation on the quality of the mobile phone
8-15
sometimes requires special devices. The problems of the mobile phone can take the
following forms:
(1) Bad power supply leads to insufficient uplink transmitting power and uplink access
failure.
(2) Faulted mobile phone software leads to the mobile phone’s exceptional dead-end
and failure to respond to the paging message.
(3) Problems in the radio frequency part of the mobile phone will lead to failure to
receive, unstable transmission, or high frequency error within some frequency band.
VIII. Non-comprehensive Coverage
In areas where the radio signal coverage is not good, usually indoors, the signal
quality is likely to be bad, and the call drop is not uncommon .As the subscriber status
in the VLR has not changed, when that subscriber is being called, the network side
can deliver paging message normally, but the subscriber cannot receive the paging
message and cannot respond to the paging message. Or because of the low quality of
the signal, the paging response cannot reach the network side. It is normal under this
circumstance that “Subscriber out of the service area” occurs. For such “Subscriber
out of the service area” phenomenon, the quality can be improved by increasing the
number of the base stations and perfecting the coverage.
There is a significant percentage of complaints concerning the problem of “Subscriber
out of the service area” that is due to bad coverage.
10.3.4 Supplementary Notes
In the radio network, because of the radio channel congestion or radio signal coverage,
it is certain that the problem of “No paging response” occurs.
In some areas where the coverage is bad, bad signal quality will lead to the failure to
deliver the paging or paging response to the peer side, causing the phenomenon
“Subscriber out of the service area”.
For example, due to the temporary congestion of the SDCCH channel, the MS cannot
be assigned an SDCCH channel, and the paging response cannot be reported, in
which case the first dial may receive the prompt tone of “Subscriber out of the service
area” and the second dial may succeed. As the paging sub channel of the cell where
the subscriber is in is fixed, so the chance for that sub channel overload increases
significantly. Calling that subscriber many times will be very likely to encounter the
phenomenon of “Subscriber out of the service area”. These phenomena are all normal
no-paging-response.
It is an exception only when the attempt to call an idle state subscriber with good
signal continuously for a long time receives “Subscriber out of the service area”.
8-16
10.4 The Problem of Signal Fluctuation

The causes that can lead to the mobile phone’s signal fluctuation are:
(1) Fluctuation in the base station’s transmission power
(2) Cell reselection (in idle state) or handover (in conversation state)
(3) Power control, DTX
(4) TRX faults
(5) Interference
(6) Huge traffic, leading to channel congestion
(7) Multipath effect
10.4.1 Examine the Stableness of the Base Station’s Transmission Power
(1) Directly measure the base station’s output power

(a) Use Spectrum Analyzer 8594, connect to the HPA’s amplifier interface that sends
BCCH through 30dB attenuator.
Spectrum 30dB HPA

analyzer 8594 attenuator
Figure 10-3 Directly measure the base station’s output power
(b) Connect the base 13M clock and CMD57 reference clock input by the clock line
and synchronize the equipment to the frequency band to test every timeslot’s power,
frequency error, and phase error.
If the test result shows that every timeslot’s frequency error and phase error conform
to the standards, and that base station’s 13M clock works stably, then the possibility
that signal fluctuation is due to the 13M clock’s fluctuation can be excluded.
After ensuring the output power stability, let’s check the installation quality of the
antenna feeder to see if there is any instability in the standing waves. If the installation
quality is good, then the possibility that the signal fluctuation is due to the equipment’s
output power instability can be excluded.
(2) Within the visual distance of the antenna (about 1km away. The purpose is to test
the influence of the multipath propagation), test the base station’s transmitting level to
see if it is stable.
(a) Use the spectrum analyzer 8594 and do the test by feeding the signal received
through omni-mini antenna to the spectrum analyzer directly, as shown in the following
figure:
8-17
spectrum Omni-mini
analyzer 8594 antenna
Figure 10-4 Use the mini-antenna to test the base station’s transmitting level
(b) Use the mobile phone SAGEM and the test software MobileShow to do the test at
the place that is within visual distance and is 1 km away. Preserve and test the signal
wave by the laptop computer to see weather the transmitting level is stable.
By the above test, we can determine if the output power at the amplifier interface is
stable. The shortcoming of it is that it cannot obtain the concrete value of the output
power in the amplifier interface.
It seldom happens that the output power of the base station is unstable.
10.4.2 Cell Reselection (in idle state) or Handover (in conversation state)
Both cell reselection and handover can lead to the fluctuation of the signal. To find the
causes, use the following testing methods:
(1) Watch and test the mobile phone to see if the cell reselection or handover occur as
the signal level changes;
(2) Use the test mobile phone SAGEM and software MobileShow to see if the cell
reselection and handover occur as the signal fluctuates.
By the above tests we can decide if the signal level fluctuation is caused by the cell
reselection or handover. This phenomenon normally happens at the edge of the cell.
But if the network has serious trans-cell coverage,, frequent cell reselection and
handover can also arise, leading to the fluctuation of the signal.
10.4.3 Power Control and DTX
When the power control or DTX is down, the receiving level in the mobile phone
fluctuates. If the threshold value for the uplink power control is set too low, the uplink
signal from the mobile phone to the base station will be weak, This, together with the
normal fluctuation in the radio space, will give rise to handover. During handover, if the
adjacent signal’s quality is not strong to maintain the conversation, call drop will arise.
Naturally the Level Indicator in the mobile phone will go down to one scale or zero
scale from the previous full scale.
Phenomenon:
The Level Indicator points to full scale, suddenly the peer’s voice at the other end of
the line cannot be heard in the middle of the conversation; the Level Indicator in the
mobile phone points to one scale or zero scale. Call drop happens. After several
seconds the conversation is on again.
Procedure and Analysis:
The Level Indicator pointing to full scale means that mobile phone is in good receiving
quality. The level value at this time is about -75dBm. If the downlink level exceeds this
value, the level fluctuation cannot be displayed in the mobile phone. So such
fluctuation is not easy to be seen when the signal is strong. So when the network’s
downlink power control is on, it is desirable to set the downlink level control to -
8-18
75dBm.One further note: the level indicated in the mobile phone is the mean value of
its radio frequency level. So the signal fluctuation of the narrow pulse duration will be
partly smoothed away. So the scale change in the Level Indicator is not the real-time
performance of the receiving signal’s strength. It is delayed. During diagnosis, we did
the following monitoring and testing: Test the downlink power at the combiner’s test
interface, no fluctuation was found; the downlink power at the drop-off point was
measured to be -85dBm by the spectrum analyzer. Though there was a fluctuation of
10-15dB, its minimum level was not enough to drop off the mobile phone; Next we
monitored and tested the downlink level of the mobile phone by connecting it to mobile
show, we found that starting from a certain time (subject to small differences every
time), the level went down from –85dBm along the 60 degree slope, when it went to
the middle of the slope, there happened a handover, but the strength of the signal
continued to go down, until at last the level was almost the same with that of the other
areas (about –105dBm), and maintained at this value for about 10 seconds and then it
dropped off. If after 10 seconds it didn’t drop off, it went upward along the 60 degree
slope after another 10 seconds, and there happened a handover in the middle of the
slope. Then it continued to go upward, and maintained some time for conversation at
about –85dBm.Then it repeated the above procedure, making its path like a sloped
square wave, until it dropped off at some trough. By watching the Um interface from
the background, we found that before or after the drop-off and handover, the downlink
receiving level was strong and stable, and the uplink level was mostly at –105dBm.So
it can be determined that the handover and drop-off were caused by the bad uplink
quality, that is to say, because of the effect from the uplink power control, the uplink
signal has almost approached the uplink level’s minimum threshold value when it
reached the base station. That, along with the normal fluctuation under the radio
environment, will cause the base station to think that the conversation quality in that
cell is poor, so it orders the mobile phone to hand over to the adjacent cell. If the
quality in the adjacent cell is good, the conversation goes on, otherwise, there will be a
drop-off. In light of the call drop, the level indicated in the mobile phone after the
handover is the downlink level of the adjacent cell. And the downlink level of the
adjacent cell is quite small, so naturally the mobile phone’s level goes down to 1 scale
or 0 scale. If the signal in the adjacent cell is not sufficient to sustain the conversation
or the drop-off, the base station will order the mobile phone to hand over back to the
previous cell. If this time it is successful, the conversation can go on, the level in the
mobile phone will return to full scale from 0 scale. This is the reason why the
conversation suddenly cuts off but doesn’t call drop, and after a while, the
conversation recovers. When the subscriber is having long time conversation, due to
the periodicity of the above square waves, along with the randomness of the
environment’s fluctuation in the radio space, the subscriber will experience intermittent
cutoff and recovery, (not necessarily cutoff at every trough, but certainly weakening of
the conversation quality), until call drop happens. As the uplink power control makes
any level from the mobile phone to the base station very weak, giving rise to drop-off
regardless of the distance. Certainly as the radio fluctuation for the mobile phones that
are near to the base station is small, so is its chance of call drop. As the indoor radio
fluctuation is greater than outdoor radio fluctuation, so is its call drop ratio. In addition,
the antenna is usually placed at high tower, , the radiation lobe is in fusiform, so the
area right under the tower is blinded. The coverage only reaches to the edge of the
lobe. The carrier’s office is usually located at that area, and they keep performing trial
dialing, so the chance for the fluctuation is greater.
Solution:
First make some brief judgments according to the above analysis. If the situations are
likewise, call the uplink power control parameters from the background and set the
reasonable threshold value (preferably –80dBm.In addition the parameters concerning
the handover need to be set as per the real situation, the reasonableness of which will
affect the quality of the network and the fluctuation of the signal. Please do the
modifications only after a thorough understanding of the meaning of each parameter,
and test the modifications.
8-19
10.4.4 TRX Down
Phenomenon:
The mobile phone’s Receiving Signal Indicator points to the full scale. When the
subscriber dials the number and press <OK>, the mobile phone drops out within a few
seconds, at the same time the Indicator lowers to one scale or zero scale. This
phenomenon happens intermittently.
Cause and Analysis:
After <OK> key is pressed, BCCH assigns a TCH to the mobile phone through
SDCCH. When the TRX where the TCH is located is down, such as no power output
or output too small, then the TCH will fail to set up the communication, leading to
drop-off, and the Indicator lowering from full scale to 1 scale or 0 scale. After a few
seconds it will return to the Wait Status, and the Indicator returns to full scale. As the
TCH’s assignment is dynamic, that is to say, the first subscriber occupies the first
carrier frequency, the first time slot; the second subscriber occupies the first carrier
frequency, the second time slot, and so on. After eight subscribers’ calls, (or one
subscriber’s eight consecutive calls), TCH will switch to the second carrier frequency,
thus leading to normal conversation after several calls. As the number of callers is
large, the interval for the examiner to encounter such fault may vary. And the more the
number of carrier frequencies in the cell, the more difficult for it to discover the cause.
On the other hand, there is no fault warning when the carrier frequency is not being
used, but the warning of Power Too Small after the assignment.
Solution:
See if there is any warning in the TRX at the background when the mobile phone is
having call test. If yes, replace that TRX with the adjacent carrier frequency amplifier
or TRX, decide where the fault is and substitute the standby board for the at-fault
board. Furthermore, this method can be one of the effective ways to determine if there
are any faults in the carrier frequency channels at the cell. At the opening phase, use
two mobile phones and finish continuous testing on all the carrier frequencies at the
cell within several minutes.
10.4.5 Interferences
Interferences can lead to signal fluctuations. Interferences can cause the timeout for
the DCS counter (90/the multiframes between the same paging) in the mobile phones
at the current service area, thus leading to cell reselection, which when reflected on
the mobile phone side, is the fluctuation of signals.
10.4.6 Cell Congestion
First let us explain the problem by analyzing the signals: After a call is initiated by the
mobile phone, first SDCCH channel is assigned, after the corresponding signaling is
finished, a TCH will be assigned to the mobile phone for its use by the network. What
is the normal procedure is that BSC activates a TCH channel by sending to BTS in the
current cell a signal activation command, and then the channel is assigned to the
mobile phone. But what actually happens is that (in times when the current cell is
congested) the network gives the mobile phone a command to switch to other cells,
whose signal is weaker than the current cell. As a result, the level goes down
immediately, leading to the fluctuations of the signal. It is possible that after the penalty
time the mobile phone switches to other cell again, whose signal is stronger, in which
case the level indicated in the mobile phone goes up. Or after hooking the mobile
phone is in IDLE state and receives the BCCH signal from the cell where the mobile
8-20
phone is in, which reflected in the Indicator is the going up of the signal strength.
Therefore the essential cause of this problem is too much traffic, causing congestion in
the cell.
10.4.7 Multipath Effect
Multipath effect is one of the main causes that lead to the signal fluctuation in the
network. The performance of the radio communications system is largely constrained
by the radio channel. The propagation path between the transmitter and receiver is
very complex, ranging from the simple visual distance propagation to encountering
such terrain as buildings, hills and trees. The form the electromagnetic wave takes to
propagate is diverse. In the main, it can take the forms of reflection, diffraction, and
scattering. Most cellular radio systems operate in the city. There is no visual path
between the transmitter and receiver, and what’s more, the skyscrapers produce
strong scattering loss. Furthermore, as different objects have different multipath
reflections, the electro-magnetic waves, after passing paths of different length,
interfere to produce multi-path loss. At the same time the strength of the electro-
magnetic waves attenuates as the distance between the transmitter and receiver
increases. The attenuation in the radio environment can be classified into fast
attenuation and slow attenuation according to the estimation on the field intensity.
In skyscraper cities, as the height of the mobile antenna (mobile phone) is much lower
than that of the surrounding buildings, there is in most cases no visual propagation
between the mobile station to the base station, thus causing attenuation. Even if there
is such a path for visual propagation, multipath effect may still arise due to the
reflection of the surface and the surrounding buildings. The incident waves arrive in
different directions and have different propagation delay. The signal received by the
mobile station at any position in the space consists of many signal waves, which have
randomly distributed amplitude, phase, and incident angle. These multipath
components are combined in vectors by the receiver, thus giving rise to the
attenuation and infidelity of the signal being received. Even when the mobile receiver
is static, attenuation can still arise as the signal being received is affected by the
propagation medium (the air flow change), or by the moving objects where the radio
channel is in.
The method the base station uses to solve the fast-attenuation phenomenon is space
diversity (polarized diversity), i.e. host diversity antenna. The effectiveness of this host
diversity receipt is guaranteed by the irrelevancy of the host diversity antenna receipt.
By irrelevancy, it means the signal received by the host antenna doesn’t have the
simultaneous attenuation feature with the signal received by the diversity antenna.
This requires that the gap of the host diversity antenna is 10 times greater than the
radio signal wavelength (for GSM 900M the antenna gap must be greater than 4
meters), or that the polarized diversity is used to guarantee the different attenuation
features of the signals received by the host diversity antenna. Whereas the single
antenna mobile station (mobile phone) is helpless before the fast-attenuation feature
under the radio environment. So multipath will lead to the fluctuation of the mobile
phone’s receiving level.
10.4.8 Other causes
(1) Poor antenna feeder connection will lead to ups and downs of the standing wave,
which when reflected in the mobile phone, is the fluctuation of the signals
(2) Serious propagation flickers will lead to the amplification of the on/off in the base
station.
8-21
(3) Some mobile phones will also have fluctuation of the level when doing location
area updating. This is especially so when in the location area border of the city.
(4) The signal level after the assignment will fluctuate deeply due to the difference of
the carrier combination method or the disaccord of transmission channel gain within
the cell.
8-22
10.5 Other Main Problems
10.5.1 Poor Voice Quality
(1) Hardware faults, poor propagation and bad grounding will lead to poor voice
quality.
(2) Worse interference leads to poor voice quality, especially when the frequency is
density reuse.
(3) Poor coverage, leading to poor receiving level and receiving quality.
10.5.2 Failure to attach the network
Cannot update the location area The CGI table of MSC fails to keep record of the cell,
leading to location area update failure and network access failure
10.5.3 Slow to attach the network
Possibly related to the mobile phone’s access mode. Generally when the mobile
phone is opened, it will try to access the network according to the information stored
when the mobile phone was closed last time. In cases when the information is invalid
or there is no stored information, the mobile phone will try to access the network by
scanning for the strongest signal. As the scanning method may differ, so does the
access speed. Furthermore as the mobile phone needs to decode the scanned
frequency band according to the level, when the cell has a low access priority, it can
only access the network after ensuring that there is no higher priority. This will also
cause the slow attach speed.
As the network access procedure includes authority verification on the mobile phone,
the speed is also related to the performance, propagation and system processing of
the cell. Notwithstanding the foregoing, many factors shall be considered in an
integrated way.
10.5.4 Access slow
Possible causes:
(1) Effect on the same number of paging multi-frames. The paging may be delayed for
0-0.235N seconds. Certainly its setting is related to many a factor such as location
area. Its parameter change shall be considered in an integrated way.
(2) Effect on the number of time slots during propagation extension. In areas where
coverage is poor, when the first access request is not decoded successfully, resend
may be delayed for 55x0.477 to 1 second. (Subject to the parameters)
(3) Related to the system processing performance.
8-23
10.5.5 unilateral connection
The common cause may come from the equipment or transmission. This problem will
be introducted in detail in other documents.
8-24
8-1
Radio Network Planning Chapter 11 Development of Network Planning Techology
Chapter 11 Development of Network Planning

Technology
11.1 GPRS Basic Principle
11.1.1 GPRS Network Structure
GPRS network has introduced such concepts as packet switching and packet
transmission, which enhanced GSM network’s support for data services in terms of
network system. Figure 11-1 and Figure 11-2 are the composition graphs of the GPRS
network from different perspectives. GPRS, in fact, is another network superimposed
on the existing GSM network. The GPRS network adds to the original GSM network
such entities as Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN), Gateway GPRS Support Node
(GGSN), etc. GPRS shares the BSS system of the existing GSM network, but both the
software and hardware need the corresponding update. Meanwhile, the interfaces of
all the entities of the GPRS network and the GSM network have to be defined
correspondingly. Besides, the MS is required to support the GPRS service. GPRS
supports the interconnection with PSPDN via GGSN, and the interface protocol may
be X. 75 or X. 25. At the same time, GPRS also supports direct interconnection with IP
network.
Figure 11-1 GPRS Network Structure
11-1
SMS-GMSC
SMS-IWMSC SM-SC
E C
Gd
MSC/VLR HLR
D
Gs
A Gc
Gr
Gb Gi
TE MT BSS SGSN GGSN PDN TE
Gn
R Um Gn Gf
Gp
EIR
SGSN GGSN
Signalling Interface
Other PLMN
Signalling and Data
Transfer Interface
Figure 11-2 GPRS Network Composition
11.1.2 GPRS BSS and MS Function Introduction
I. BSC
BSC is the core control part of the GSM/GPRS base station subsystem. One BSC can
control several BTSs.
For circuit-switched services, the main responsibilities of BSC include:
z Various kinds of radio resources management
z The mapping from the radio service channel to terrestrial circuit;
z Circuit-switched call control;
z A interface support and Abis interface support.
For packet-switched services, the responsibilities of BSC include:
z Packet radio channel configuration;
z Controlling the conversion of the radio channel between packet-
switched services and circuit-switched services;
z Providing necessary packet calling control support for cells without
PBCCH.
Besides, the operation and maintenance commands on BTS via OMC must be
controlled or transferred by BSC, and the channel configuration for the PCU and the
Pb/G-Abis interface configuration are mainly conducted at BSC.
II. BTS
BTS is the radio part of the BSS, and controlled by BSC, BTS is the radio transceiving
equipment serving a specific or several cells.
The main responsibilities of BTS include:
11-2
z Realizing the radio transmission and the related control function

between BTS and MS via the Um interface;
z Accomplishing the layer 1 and layer 2 functions of the Um interface, and
transparently transmitting layer 3 message;
z Helping BSC accomplish part of the layer 3 function of the Um interface.
III. PCU
PCU is the equipment introduced by BSS to support GPRS, and its main functions
include:
z Most of the packet radio resource management functions;
z Packet calling control function;
z Packet data transmission;
z Supporting the Gb interface, the G-Abis interface, and the Pb interface
IV. GPRS MS
(1) Terminal Equipment

Terminal Equipment (TE) is the computer terminal equipment operated and
maintained by terminal subscribers. It is used to transceive the packet data of terminal
subscribers in the GPRS system.TE can be independent desktop computer. The
functions of TE can also be integrated into the hand-held mobile terminal equipment,
and become one entity with the mobile terminal (MT). To some extent, all the functions
provided by the GPRS network are to set up a packet data transport passageway
between TE and external data networks.
(2) Mobile Terminal
Mobile Terminal (MT) on the one hand communicates with TE; on the other hand, it
communicates with BTS via air interface, and the logic link to SGSN can be
established. The MT of GPRS must be configured with GPRS function software to
access GPRS system services. In the data communications process, from the
perspective of TE, the function of MT is equivalent to the Modem connecting TE to the
GPRS system. The functions of MT and TE can be integrated into one physical device.
(3) Mobile Station
Mobile Station (MS) can be viewed as the integrated entity with all the functions of MT
and TE. It can be one physical entity or two (TE+MT).
MS has three types:
Type A: it allows simultaneous packet switching service and circuit switching service.
Type B: it can be attached to the GPRS network and the GSM network simultaneously,
but it does not allow the simultaneous circuit switching service and packet switching
service.
Type C: it cannot attach to the GPRS network and the GSM network simultaneously.
(4) MS Multiple time slot Capability Level
MS can be divided into 29 levels based on the multiple time slot capability, which has
been detailed in the following table. MSs at different levels have different packet
channels simultaneously available. A handset reports its multiple time slot capability
level in the packet resource request information. BSS should comprehensively
11-3
consider such aspects as the MS data traffic, required class of quality of services,
available radio channel condition, etc. when assigning radio resources for MS. The
multiple time slot capability of MS should try to be met with the observance of the
principle of making full use of the radio resources. The multiple time slot capability is
usually represented as X (RX)+X (TX), that is the maximum time slot number allowed
for the downlink and the maximum time slot number allowed for the uplink. For
example, 3+1 GPRS handset refers to the one with three time slots maximally allowed
for the downlink reception and one time slot maximally allowed for the uplink
transmission.
Multislot Multislot
Maximum number of slots Maximum number of slots
class class
Rx Tx Sum Rx Tx Sum
1 1 1 2 16 6 6 NA
2 2 1 3 17 7 7 NA
3 2 2 3 18 8 8 NA
4 3 1 4 19 6 2 NA
5 2 2 4 20 6 3 NA
6 3 2 4 21 6 4 NA
7 3 3 4 22 6 4 NA
8 4 1 5 23 6 6 NA
9 3 2 5 24 8 2 NA
10 4 2 5 25 8 3 NA
11 4 3 5 26 8 4 NA
12 4 4 5 27 8 4 NA
13 3 3 NA 28 8 6 NA
14 4 4 NA 29 8 8 NA
15 5 5 NA
11.1.3 GPRS Signaling Model
The signaling model of GPRS BSS is shown as in Figure 11-3. Its main responsibility
is to accomplish the protocol layer function such as RLC/MAC, BSSGP, and NS, as
well as the air interface radio frequency related functions.
GMM/SM GMM/SM
LLC LLC
Relay
RLC RLC BSSGP BSSGP
MAC MAC Network Network

Service Service
GSM RF GSM RF L1bis L1bis
Um Gb
MS BSS SGSN
GMM: GPRS Mobility Management LLC: Logical Link Control
RLC: Radio Link Control MAC: Medium Access Control
BSSGP: Base Station System GPRS Protocol
11-4
SM: Session Management

Figure 11-3 The Signaling Model of GPRS BSS
11.1.4 Radio Packet Channel Configuration
I. Radio Packet Logic Channel Types
The radio packet logic channels include the following four types:
(1) Packet Data Traffic Channel (PDTCH)
PDTCH is used to transmit subscriber data in the packet switching mode, and the
transmission rate ranges from zero to 22. 8kbps. All PDTCHs are unidirectional, either
uplink (that is PDTCH/U used for the data transmission form MS to the GPRS network)
or downlink (that is PDTCH/D used for the data transmission from the GPRS network
to MS).
(2) Packet Broadcast Control Channel (PBCCH)
PBCCH is to broadcast the necessary parameters resulted from MS access to the
network because of packet services. Besides, it also broadcasts circuit switching
service parameters, which have already been broadcast by BCCH. MS in the GPRS
Attach mode only monitors PBCCH, and pays no attention to BCCH.
If there is PBCCH in a cell, BCCH will indicate it. That is to say, via system message,
SI13 tells MS that this cell has already been equipped with PBCCH. If there is no
PBCCH, BCCH will broadcast parameters that will be used in the packet services.
(3) Packet Common Control Channel (PCCCH)
PCCCH includes the following types of channels:
z Packet Paging Channel (PPCH): it is only used in downlink to page MS.
z Packet Random Access Channel (PRACH): it is only used in uplink to
request one or more PDTCHs.
z Packet Access Grant Channel (PAGCH): it is only used in downlink to
assign one or more PDTCHs.
z Packet Notification Channel (PNCH): it is only used in downlink to notify
MS of point-to-multipoint multi-path transmission (PTM-M) calling.
If there is no PCCCH in a cell, packet services information can be transmitted via
CCCH. If there is PCCCH, circuit switching services information can be transmitted via
PCCCH.
(4) Packet Dedicated Channel
Packet dedicated channels have the following types:
z Packet Associated Control Channel (PACCH): bidirectional, used to
transmit packet signaling in the data transport process.
z Packet Timing advance Control Channel Uplink PTCCH/U: it is used to
transmit random access pulse so as to estimate the timing advance of
MS for packet services.
11-5
z Packet Timing advance Control Channel downlink (PTCCH/D): it is used

to renew transmission timing advance information for several MSs. One
PTCCH/D corresponds with several PTCCH/Us.
The PCU of Huawei Technologies Co, Ltd. can support all packet channel functions.
II. Packet Logic Channel Combination Types
The combination types include:

z PBCCH + PCCCH + PDTCH + PACCH + PTCCH
z PCCCH + PDTCH + PACCH + PTCCH
z PDTCH + PACCH + PTCCH
Where PCCCH = PPCH + PRACH + PAGCH + PNCH
When a cell is required to be equipped with PBCCH, the first type will be adopted, and
one cell can only have one channel combination of this kind. When there are quite a
few MSs in a cell and the PCCCH is relatively busy, one or several channel
combinations of the second type can be added. Only when there exists channel of the
first combination type can exist the channel of the second combination type in a cell.
Channels of the third combination type are mainly used for uplink and downlink packet
data transmission. Each cell can be equipped with one or several channels of this
combination type.
The GPRS PCU system of Huawei Technologies Co, Ltd. supports all of the channel
combination types, where the third type can be divided into fixed PDCH and dynamic
PDCH. The fixed PDCH is specially used for GPRS packet data transport, and cannot
be forcefully occupied by circuit-switched services, while the dynamic PDCH can
dynamically switch from TCH and PDTCH according to service requirements. It is TCH
in the initial state of the system, and it will switch to PDCH when there is packet
service demand, while it will switch from PDCH to TCH when there is circuit service
demand.
III. The Mapping from Logic Channel to Physical Channel
GPRS packet channel adopts 52 multiframe structure, and each packet channel has
52 multiframes. Every four frames constitute a radio block. Therefore, each radio
channel can be divided into 12 radio blocks and four idle frames. Its structure is shown
as in Figure 11-4.
B0 B1 B2 X B3 B4 B5 X B6 B7 B8 X B9 B10 B11 X
B0~B11 12 radio blocks X: idle fram es
Figure 11-4 Radio Channel Structure
where:
z PBCCH channel: it can be mapped to such radio blocks as B0, B3, B6,
and B9. The specific number is determined by the busy degree of its
broadcasting channel, and the mapping sequence is in conformity with
the above-mentioned order.
z PCCCH: PAGCH and PPCH can map to any radio block of the downlink
channels except the one occupied by PBCCH. PRACH is the uplink
11-6
frame corresponding with the radio block occupied by PBCCH, PAGCH,

PPCH, etc.
z PDTCH: it can map to all the radio blocks, and it is used for packet data
transmission.
z PACCH: it can map to all the radio blocks, and it is used to transmit the
radio signaling of the air interface.
z PTCCH: the 12th and 38th uplink frame of each 52 multiframe is a
PTCCH uplink channel, and the 12th and 38th downlink frame of two
consecutive 52 multiframes constitute a PTCCH downlink channel.
11.1.5 Packet Access Mode
When data transport occurs in the upper layer of MS, the RLC/MAC of MS will initiate
the packet access. MS packet access mainly includes the following types: short
access, one-phase access, two-phase access, single block without establishing TBF
access, paging response, cell renewing, and mobility management.
z When the data to be transmitted are less than eight RLC blocks, the
channel request type of MS will be short access, where he number of
data packet will be determined by CS-1 coding.
z When the data to be transmitted are more than eight RLC blocks, and
the RLC mode is required to be the confirmed mode, the channel
request type of MS will be one-phase access or two-phase access.
z If what is to be transmitted is the MS measurement report, the channel
request type is single block without establishing TBF access.
z Besides, the channel request type also includes paging response, cell
renewing, and mobility management. However, this kind of channel
request type is often treated as one-phase or two-phase access.
For short access and one-phase access, MS will be assigned radio resources once
and for all such as TFI, dynamic assigned USF or fixed assigned radio block bit table,
etc. Then MS begins transmitting data. For two-phase access channel request, for the
first time only one radio block will be assigned to MS, and MS transmits packet
resource request information via the single assigned radio block. After that, MS will
undergo resource assignment (including TFI, USF, or radio block bit table) for the
second time, and MS begins transmitting data via the assigned resources. Because
the packet channel request is only the eight-bit or eleven-bit access pulse, the carried
information is very little, whereas the packet resource request is a RLC/MAC signaling
packet coded by CS-1. Therefore, it carries comparatively much more information
including TLLI of MS, the multiple time slot capability of MS, radio priority, etc. , which
is of benefit to the proper resource assignment for MS.
The system of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. supports all the access types, where
such access types as paging response, cell renewing, and mobility management will
be treated as two-phase access treatment.
11.1.6 Paging Processing
In the GPRS/GSM system, paging includes packet paging and circuit paging, which
will be introduced in the following.
11-7
I. Packet Paging
When there is downlink data to be transmitted to MS, SGSN should initiate packet
paging to accurately locate MS. The paging request message initiated by SGSN will
be sent to PCU via Gb interface, and PCU will transform it into packet paging request
to be transmitted via Um interface. If there exists PCCCH in the BSS system
configuration, the request message transmits directly via PPCH. If there is no PCCCH
in the BSS system configuration, PCU will send this message to BSC via Pb interface,
and BSC will transmit it via PCH.
After MS receives the packet paging message, it will initiate uplink temporary block
flow (TBF) to establish a procedure, and then send to PCU the paging response
packet as data mode via air interface. PCU then transfers it to SGSN. After SGSN
receives the paging response, within a certain processing period, the downlink data
will be able to be transmitted.
II. Paging Co-ordination
In the GSM network, when a circuit call reaches the MSC which is expected to locate a
certain subscriber, MSC determines the location area the MS has registered in, and
sends the circuit paging message to all BSCs in this location area.
If there exists Gs interface between SGSN and MSC, the GPRS/GSM system will be
run in the Network Operation Mode One. The circuit paging of the GSM service can be
sent via GPRS packet channelThat is to say, if an MS is already GPRS attached, its
circuit paging will go through Gs interface and Gb interface, and reach SGSN via MSC,
and then reach PCU via SGSN. PCU determines which channel will be used for the
transmission.
In Network Operation Mode One, if the MS has been assigned PDCH, then PACCH
will be used for the transmission. If no PDCH has been assigned, and the system has
been configured with PCCCH, then PPCH will be used for the transmission. If no
PDCH has been assigned and the system has not been configured with PCCCH, then
PCU transfers the paging message to BSC via Pb interface, and BSC will transmit this
circuit paging via PCH.
If there is no Gs interface between SGSN and MSC, and the GPRS/GSM system can
only run in the Network Operation Mode Two and Three, the circuit paging message
will be transmit via CCCH.
MS connects to RACH on the reception of this circuit paging message, and initiates
circuit connection establishing process. If the MS is currently engaged in the GPRS
service, it will initiate GPRS SUSPEND process to suspend the GPRS service. The
MS will not resume the GPRS service until the circuit is released.
The PCU of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. supports the above-mentioned packet
paging and circuit paging functions.
11.1.7 Discontinuous Reception (DRX)
In order to reduce the power consumption when the MS is idle, MS should adopt DRX.
The MS supporting DRX only receives the paging message (packet paging and circuit
paging) from its corresponding paging group in the paging channel, whereas the MS
not supporting DRX has to interpret all the paging messages in the paging channel.
Obviously, MS will greatly reduce its power consumption if it can support DRX. The
algorithm adopted by MS to determine the paging group is the same with that of PCU
or BSC.
11-8
During the MS ATTACH/GPRS ATTACH process, it should be informed whether the

GPRS/GSM network supports DRX and the other DRX parameters or not.
11.1.8 Radio Resource Distribution
I. Medium Access Control Mode
There are three kinds of Medium Access Control (MAC) modes: fixed distribution,
dynamic distribution, and extended dynamic distribution.
z Fixed Distribution
The radio block used by the MS has been allocated by PCU before hand. If the radio
block has been used up and there are still data to be transmitted, PCU has to
distribute radio blocks for a second time.
z Dynamic Distribution
The radio block used by the MS has been allocated by PCU temporarily. When PCU
distributes radio resources to MS, it will assign MS several radio channels and the
uplink state flag (USF) value for each radio channel. After the MS receives the
assignment message, it will monitor the USF value of the downlink radio block of the
assigned channel. If this value is the same with the assigned USF value, then MS will
transmit data in the corresponding uplink radio block.
z Extended Dynamic Distribution
The resource distribution mechanism is the same with that of dynamic distribution. The
only difference lies in that the number of time slot used by the MS may exceed its
multiple time slot capability. After MS receives the USF value of one of the channels, it
can transmit data in this channel and the other channels with a bigger number.
The BSS system of Huawei Technologies, Co., Ltd has realized the dynamic
distribution function. It can choose MAC mode according to the subscriber
configuration within the cell or the TRX range.
II. MS Multiple Time Slot Capability
The multiple time slot capability of MS can be divided into 29 grades, which can be
referred to ETSI GSM 05. 02 Standard. MS with different grade may have different
number of packet channels that can be used concurrently. When PCU distributes radio
resources to MS, it should take into consideration the MS data transmission quantity,
the required quality grade of services, available radio channels, etc. The MS multiple
time slot capability should try to be satisfied while observing the principle of making full
use of radio resources.
The PCU system of Huawei Technologies at present supports MS with 1~12 grade
multiple time slot capability, and can make the best resource distribution based on the
MS multiple time slot capability and the radio resources.
11.1.9 Packet System Message
The packet system message is mainly used to broadcast the parameters necessary
for MS to access network because of service demand in a cell. When the cell supports
the GPRS service, BCCH should add new SI13 message. Otherwise, SI13 message
will not be broadcast if GPRS is not supported. The cell can be configured with
PBCCH, or not be configured. MS will be notified whether there is PBCCH in the cell
11-9
via SI13. PBCCH mainly broadcast the packet system message dedicated to the
GRPS service.
The packet system message includes the following types: PSI1, PSI2, PSI3, PSI3bis,
PSI4, PSI5, and PSI13.
z PSI1 mainly includes information like cell selection, PRACH control,,
control channel description, and power control parameters.
z PSI2 mainly includes reference frequency list, cell allocation table,
GPRS mobile allocation table, and PCCCH description.
z PSI3 mainly includes the BA table of the adjacent cells, serving
cell/nonserving cell selection parameters, etc. PSI3bis mainly includes
the BA table of the adjacent cells, nonserving cell selection parameters,
etc.
z PSI4 mainly includes the PDCH list used in the MS measurement in the
serving cell.
z PSI5 mainly includes measurement report, network control cell
reselection information, etc.
z PSI13 is the same as the SI13 which is broadcast via the BCCH, and it
mainly includes the access-related information which is unique of the
GPRS cell.
PSI1~PSI4 can be broadcast both via PBCCH and via PACCH. PSI5 can be broadcast
only via PBCCH. PSI13 can be broadcast only via PACCH. When there is PBCCH in a
cell, the PSI13 message then will not be broadcast via PACCH, which will however
cyclically broadcast PSI1. When there is no PBCCH in a cell, PACCH can only
cyclically broadcast PSI13 message.
The BSS system of Huawei Technologies, Co, Ltd. can perform the transmission of all
the system messages related to the GPRS service, and it can realize the control
retransmission, fast retransmission, low-speed retransmission of the system
messages. It can also control the system message transmission via PACCH based on
the PBCCH/PCCCH configuration of the cell.
11.1.10 Radio Link Control
Radio Link Control (RLC) layer is mainly responsible for the LLC-PDU packet
disassembling and assembling. It uses a kind of slide-window protocol and ensures
that data are transmitted between the corresponding layers by employing confirmed or
unconfirmed mode. The size of the GPRS RLC slide-window is 64.
When confirmed mode is adopted, each transmitted data block of Temporary Block
Flow (TBF) needs the confirmation from the receiver. Otherwise, it has to be
retransmitted. The TBF cannot be released until all the data have been transmitted
and the confirmation by the receiver has been received. When the unconfirmed mode
is adopted, the transmitted data block needs no confirmation from the receiver. The
lost data or the error data can be replaced by filling bits. TBF can be released once the
data transmission is finished.
The PCU system of Huawei Technologies, Co. Ltd. supports both the confirmed and
unconfirmed modes. It can specify the uplink data transmission RLC mode according
to the MS request information, and determine the downlink data transmission RLC
mode according to the downlink LLC-PDU packet type.
11-10
11.1.11 Channel Code and CS Change Control
GPRS has four types of channel coding modes. The transmission rate and the number
of transmitted RLC/MAC packet bytes of each coding mode are as follows:
Channel Coding Mode RLC/MAC Data Block Size (octets) Rate (kbps)
CS-1 23 9. 05
CS-2 33 13. 4
CS-3 39 15. 6
CS-4 53 21. 4
Different channel code modes have different transmission rates and different
requirement for air transmission quality. The higher the transmission rate is, the higher
the requirement for transmission quality is. In the data transmission process, BSS can
dynamically adjust channel code mode according to the changes of radio transmission
quality so as to realize the purpose of trying to improve transmission rate on the
principle of making full use of radio resources and guaranteeing the transmission
quality.
The PCU system of Huawei Technologies, Co., Ltd. at present supports four code
modes: CS-1~CS-4. It can dynamically change between these four modes according
to the radio transmission quality.
11.1.12 Radio Link Monitoring
In order to enhance the transmission efficiency in the GPRS system, several kinds of
link monitoring methods have been applied to the Um interface. The PCU system of
Huawei Technologies, Co., Ltd. has realized the following kinds of link monitoring
functions as specified in the protocol:
I. Link Monitoring in the Uplink Dynamic Distribution Mode
When MAC is in the dynamic distribution mode, PCU assigns resources for each TBF
via USF. MS determines its uplink usage right by detecting its USF value on the
assigned channel. Once MS detects its assigned USF, it will transmit data block on the
corresponding uplink channel. If the radio link quality is bad, and MS cannot properly
receive its USF value, it will not be able to transmit data block to the network in the
corresponding uplink block. According to the protocol requirement, PCU detects the
validity of the links by monitoring the size of N3101. N3101 is initialized to be zero
when the TBF is established. PCU each time assigns one block to one TBF. After that,
it will expect to receive the information of this TBF. If no corresponding data block has
been received, then N3101 will be added one. During this process, once the MS data
block is received, N3101 will return to zero. If the value of N3101 reaches its maximum
value N3101_max, PCU will activate timer T3169. When T3169 spills, TBF will be
released, and the corresponding resources can be used again.
II. Downlink Monitoring
For the downlink TBF, PCU assigns uplink signaling channel for MS by setting the
RRBP on the downlink data block. PCU monitors this signaling channel via N3105
counter so as to test the validity of TBF. N3105 is initialized to be zero when the TBF is
established. PCU each time sets RRBP on downlink data block of TBF. After that, it
will expect to receive the control information of this TBF on the corresponding uplink
block. If no corresponding data block is received, then N3105 will be added one. If
correct reception occurs, then N3105 will return to its original state. If the value of
N3105 is larger than or the same as its maximum value N3105_max, PCU will activate
timer T3195. Once T3195 spills, TBF will be released, and the corresponding
resources can be used again.
11-11
III. Uplink Release Monitoring
PCU ensures the normal release of the uplink TBF via 3103 counter according to the
protocol. N3103 is initialized to be zero when the TBF is established. After PCU has
correctly received all the uplink TBF data, it will send Packet Uplink Ack/Nack (FAI=1
indicates the last confirmation) to MS, and set RRBP in hope that MS will confirm this
message. If PCU does not receive correct packet control Ack/Nack information in the
corresponding uplink block, then N3103 will be added one. If N3103 exceeds the
preset maximum value, PCU will activate T3169. When T3169 spills, TBF will be
released, and the corresponding resources can be used again.
11.1.13 Radio Frequency Power Control
I. Uplink Power Control
The PCU system of Huawei Technologies, Co, Ltd. provides uplink open loop power
control algorithm. The detailed formula can be referred to in the ETSI GSM 05. 08
protocal. The basic idea of the open loop power control is that supposing the uplink
and the downlink have the same path loss, MS therefore can adjust the output power
based on the received signal level. In the GPRS cell there will be SI13 message
broadcast, in which exists a parameter named ALPHA, which will be used by MS to
calculate the output power value of its uplink PDCH (PCH). That is to say, the power
value actually adjusted by MS results from the calculated adjustable power value
multiplied by the ALPHA coefficient. ALPHA ranges from 0. 0 to 1. 0. At present values
except 1. 0 are not used. They are reserved. When the value is 0. 0, it means that
the handset does not perform power control.
II. Downlink Power Control
At present, the PCU of most companies does not support downlink power control.
It should be explained that the above-mentioned condition refers to that in which
handsets perform packet data communications. When voice communication is needed,
it will return to the normal GSM control flow.
11.1.14 Cell Reselection Control
I. Cell Reselection Network Control Mode
There are three kinds of GPRS network control modes: NC0, NC1, and NC2. The
meaning of each network control mode is as follows:
z NC0: MS performs cell selection automatically, and does not send
measurement report.
z NC1: MS performs cell selection automatically, and sends measurement
report.
z NC2 network control: MS sends measurement report and accepts the
cell reselection of the network control.
The BSS system of Huawei Technologies, Co., Ltd can determine network control
mode according to the subscriber data configuration. At present, NC0 mode is
supported.
11-12
II. Cell Automatic Reselection
MS monitors the PBCCH/BCCH carrier of the adjacent cell at any time, and
determines the best cell to attach based on the information such as the carrier signal
intensity, the base station color code in the carrier, etc. Meanwhile, it informs the
system of its own route area by initiating the route area update flow.
III. Cell Change Control
MS regularly submits measuring report to BSS according to the cell system message
broadcasting parameters. BSS takes full consideration of the MS measurement report,
the load of each adjacent cell, etc. and sends cell change command to MS, requiring
the MS to attach to a specific cell.
11.1.15 Flow Control and QoS Guarantee
I. Flow Control
Due to the different physical medium and transmission protocol between Gb interface
and Um interface, the transmission rate of these two kinds of interfaces is different.
The transmission rate of Gb interface is higher than that of Um interface. Besides, in
the downlink data transmission, data transmission via Um interface is limited by such
factors as MS multiple time slot capability, radio quality, available radio channels in the
cell, etc. Therefore, the transmission rate is not constant, and the downlink data needs
flow control.
In the normal work of a cell, the PCU system should activate flow control program, and
regularly reports the bucket size and bucket flow speed of this cell according to the
radio packet channel condition. Meanwhile, it also reports the bucket size and the
bucket flow speed of MS based on the MS occupied radio resource condition (the
bucket of a cell refers to the maximum packet data quantity saved that this cell allows.
It changes as the number of packet channels in the cell changes. The bucket of MS
refers to the maximum packet data quantity this MS allows. It changes as the number
of assigned MS channels changes. The bucket flow speed refers to the data
transmission rate). SGSN appropriately adjusts the downlink data flow speed of the
cell and each of the MS according to the reported parameters so as to realize the flow
control on the downlink data.
The PCU system of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. can realize the downlink data flow
control, and is able to regularly report the bucket size and bucket flow speed of the
active cell and the active MS to the SGSN. It is also able to adjust the parameters to
be reported according to the cell packet resources and the variation of the MS
occupied resources.
II. QoS Guarantee
The quality of service (OoS) of GPRS mainly includes the following indexes: priority,
delay grade, reliability grade, peak load grade, and average load grade. Each index
can be divided further into several grades. Because these indexes are the point-to-
point requirements for the entire packet data transmission, and it involves many
factors like the air interface radio resources, Gb interface frame relay link resources,
GPRS backbone network transmission bandwidth, and various kinds of GPRS
equipment processing capabilities, the QoS requirement is met all according to the
Best Effort grade at present. That is to say, data will be transmitted as soon as
possible according to the principle of making the best use of resources.
11-13
Because services with different QoS occupy different system resources, and the
subscriber service quality is also different, carriers can differentiate subscribers
according to the different QoS grades and adopts flexible charge policies, which is
beneficiary for the spread of the GPRS service.
The PCU of Huawei Technologies, Co., Ltd can assign MS radio resources based on
the radio priority required by the data transmission, peak load grade, and average load
grade. The MS with higher radio priority and higher load grade will be granted priority
in the radio resources distribution. The QoS requirement will be met according to the
Best Effort grade.
11.1.16 Mobility Management and Communication Management
I. Mobility Management
The mobility management is used in PLMN (Public Land Mobile Network) to support
the function of tracing the current location of MS. The mobility management function of
the GPRS network is similar to that of the current GSM system. One or several cells
form a route area (a subset of a location area), and one SGSN provides services for
one or several route areas. The MS location tracing is determined by the MS mobility
management status.
GPRS mobility management mainly includes GPRS Attach/Detach, cell/route area
update, joint route area/location area update, paging, etc. After an MS accomplishes
GPRS Attach, SGSN will establish mobility context for the MS and store the current
location and status information of the subscriber. When the MS roams between
different cells and route areas in the future, it will activate cell/route area update flow,
and SGSN will also store the latest information of this MS so as to realize the location
tracing for the MS. When MS performs such flows as joint GPRS Attach/IMSI Attach,
joint cell/route area update, SGSN will communicate with MSC about MS location
information via Gs interface. In this way only once mobility management flow can
realize the MS location tracing by the packet switching service and circuit switching
service. The detailed flow can refer to ETSI GSM 03. 60 protocol.
Because the layer-by-layer encapsulation feature of packet data, in the mobility
management all the flow signaling except the paging flow is transmitted as data in
BSS. That is to say, BSS is only related to the paging function of the mobility
management. After BSS gets the paging packet from SGSN, it selects the necessary
information and sends the paging information via the air interface.
II. Communication Management
GPRS communication management mainly includes conversation management,

billing management, etc. However, because the upper layer signaling is transmitted as
packet data, BSS almost does not participate in the conversation management
process except transmitting signaling data. In addition, the billing information collection
is mainly performed in SGSN and GGSN. BSS does not participate in the billing
management.
11-14
11.2 GPRS Network Planning
11.2.1 GPRS Capacity Planning
The voice traffic calculation already has mature mode, that is the Erlang table. Traffic
(A), channel number (N) and call loss rate (B) have the following relation. If any two
out of the three parameters are known, the third one can be worked out by the
following formula.
AN
N
B N = An
n!
The packet data traffic can not directly employ the Erlang B table, which is due to the
unique features of the packet data. The packet traffic of the fixed network has a
calculation solution, which is very difficult to be used in the mobile environment.
GPRS data traffic model has something to do with application occasions such as
Email, web browsing, online games, etc. Different types of application have different
data quantity, which is determined by the byte number, packet number, delay class,
and service type.
I. The Calculation of Subscriber Average Access Rate
In the real application planning, the busy hour average traffic for each subscriber
should be estimated. Before the estimation, we should first estimate the average
subscriber access rate, which is determined by the CS1-CS2 ratio (the GPRS channel
coding at the initial stage generally employs CS1-CS2), subscriber’s multiple time slot
capability, BLER, header, and the average load factor. Before the calculation of
subscriber average access rate, we should make a series of hypothesises:
z There is no SNDCP compression or decompression, nor segmentation
or recombination (such an IP packet is transmitted as a single LLC PDU
at the LLC layer)
z The LLC frame format is: LLC header (9-byte)+SDNCP header (4 byte)
+ IP data +FCS (3 byte). Each packet occupies one RLC length of
indication byte.
z LLC employs unconfirmed transmission mode; while RLC employs
confirmed mode and considers 10% retransmission rate.
z The average IP packet length is 150 bytes.
z The IP data stream should be continuous at least within the range of ten
IP packets.
z In the RLC confirmed transmission mode, each comparatively long time
interval of IP packets means a TBF connecting and releasing process.
Normaly during each TBF connecting and releasing process, the
consumption of RLC/MAC control block occupies 20% of that of the total
radio block. And also includes the processing time for connecting and
releasing TBF.
Besides, we already know
11-15
z Every 20ms one radio block will be transmitted;

z The RLC/MAC header usually occupies three bits. In this condition,
except the tail bit, in such coding methods as CS1, CS2, CS3, and CS4,
the number of the LLC PDU bits transmitted by each RLC data packet is
20 bytes, 30 bytes, 36 bytes, and 50 bytes respectively.
z The protocol header of the FR, NS, BSSGP, LLC, and SNDCP of the Gb
interface is 53 bytes.
The following formula can be used to estimate the average data rate of the IP layer in
various kinds of CS coding methods.
M A1 / B
T (M M 0. 2 M 0. 1 ) 20
VIP A2 / T
VGb VIP (150 53) / 150 1. 327 VIP
Where:
z M is the minimum RLC data block number necessary to transmit n LLC
PDUs
z A1 is the total number of all the bytes in n LLC PDUs
z A2 is the total number of all the bytes of n IP packets
z B is the total number of all the LLC PDU bytes supported by each RLC
data block
z T is the time necessary to transmit n LLC PDUs, that is n IP packets
z VIP is the estimated IP layer carrying rate of each PDCH
z VGb is the estimated carrying rate at the Gb interface layer of each
PDCH
X represents the upper round-off for X, while X represents the lower round-off
for X.
The result of the calculation is as follows:
CS-1 CS-2 CS-3 CS-4

(Kbps) (Kbps) (Kbps) (Kbps)
U interface physical layer speed 9.05 13.4 15.6 21.4

IP carrier speed 5.42 8.14 9.77 13.63
Carrier speed needed at the Abis
16 16 32 32
interface physical layer
Carrier speed needed at Gb interface
7.19 10.79 12.96 18.09
physical layer
Suppose the proportion of the CS1 and CS2 in the designed network is 1:9. The
average IP layer rate per time slot in the network is:
5. 42*10% 8. 14*90%=7. 868Kbps.
11-16
Suppose the future mainstream MS type is 3+1, and the subscriber multiple time slot
capability is employed by 60%. The average access rate for each subscriber will be 7.
868*3*60%=14. 162Kbps.
II. The Calculation of Subscriber Average Traffic
At present, the estimation for the subscriber average data rate generally adopts the
following method:
The fixed IP Model (from ChinaNet) will be referred to, and with the consideration of
the mobile data characteristics, the average bandwidth for each subscriber in the
GPRS field can be worked out:
z S = r1 r2 (A n T r3 R / 3600)
z V = S/A = r1 r2 n T r3 R / 3600
where:
z S stands for the local network traffic
z V is the network busy hour subscriber average traffic
z A stands for local subscriber number
z n stands for the average network access times of a subscriber in a
month
z T stands for the average communication duration each time
z r1 stands for the busy day concentration coefficient, which refers to the
percentage of the traffic in the busiest day agaist the traffic in a whole
month. It has nothing to do with the service type, and usually is set to be
1/20 or so.
z r2 stands for the busy hour concentration coefficient, which refers to the
percentage of the traffic in the busiest hour agaist the traffic in a whole
day. It has much to do with the service type.
z r3 stands for idle-seizure ratio, which refers to the ratio between the
data downloading period and the whole online period. It is set to be 1/4.
z R stands for the subscriber access rate
According to the above method, China Mobile has conducted an estimation on the
average traffic for each GPRS subscriber during 2001-2002, and the result is 180bps.
After the average traffic for each subscriber has been estimated, it will not be hard for
us to plan the capacity of the whole network.
11.2.2 GPRS Coverage Planning
The coverage area of the GPRS is determined by the channel coding scheme. In a
certain coverage area, E/N is a restriction factor. For interference restriction areas, C/I
is the major restriction factor.
In the GPRS system, various GPRS voice channel correction coding schemes should
be in conformity with standard requirement.
BLER(Block Error Rate)=10%
11-17
In the condition that BLER=10%, the required C/I value has been worked out by
simulating the four GPRS channel coding schemes (CS1, CS2, CS3, CS4) in some
reference. The simulation condition aims at the RLC/MAC layer. The result is shown in
Table 11-1:
Table 11-1 GPRS Channel Coding Scheme~C/I
Channel Coding C/I (dB, with FH) C/I (dB, without FH)
CS-1 7. 1 10. 8
CS-2 11. 5 12. 8
CS-3 13. 6 13. 7
CS-4 20. 8 17. 2
The coverage area estimation still adopts Okumura-Hata Model (for the distance
longer than one kilometer) and Walfish-Ikegami Model (for small base stations).
Suppose the interference in the serving area is constant and there is no frequency
hopping, it stands for the serving area in different channel coding condition. Compared
with voice and circuit-switched data subscribers, it theoretically refers to the serving
area when the C/I is 9dB.
Table 11-2 The Percentage of the Serving Area with the GPRS Channel Coding Compared with Voice Subscriber Serving
Area (%)
Channel Coding Okumura-Hata Walfish-Ikegami
CS-1 79 80
CS-2 61 63
CS-3 54 57
CS-4 34 37
The channel coding scheme of data subscribers based on circuit-switching
corresponds to 4. 8kbps and 9. 6kbps. We can compare them with the 14. 4kbps
GPRS data subscribers serving areas. For the voice serving area, the GPRS 14.
4kbps data subscriber serving area reduces to 85%; for the 9. 6kbps circuit-switched
data subscribers, GPRS data subscriber serving area reduces to 92%. Figure 11-5
illustrates the coverage of various GPRS channel coding.
cs-1
cs-2
cs-3
cs-4
Figure 11-5 GPRS Various Channel Coding Schemes Coverage Graph
The real GPRS network coverage planning, which is based on the voice coverage
serving area, should determine the GPRS coverage area according to the
corresponding scale, and also determine whether the GPRS network is capable of
continuous coverage or not.
At present, in the GPRS performance estimation, the related performance curve can
be worked out by simulation tools. Figure 11-6 illustrates the relationship between C/I
and distance. The result shows that in the normal GSM busy hour traffic condition,
when the cell peripheral C/I=9dB, 90% coverage can be realized. Once the GPRS
load functions, C/I will decrease with the increase of the GPRS load. When the GPRS
load is 100%, the GPRS coverage area will reduce to the 88% of the original.
11-18
Figure 11-6 The relationship between C/I and distance (GPRS load 0--100%)
Figure 11-7 illustrates the relationship between C/I distribution probability and GPRS
load. The curve also shows that C/I decreases with the increase of the GPRS load. On
the other hand, when the C/I is 9dB, the coverage rate falls from 90% to 86%.
Figure 11-7 The relationship between C/I distribution and GPRS load (0 100%)
Figure 11-8 illustrates the relationship between C/I and multiplexing factor, where k
ranges from seven to nineteen. k=7 is not the best condition for the GPRS. The bigger
the multiplexing factor is, the more powerful it will be to support comparatively heavy
GPRS load.
11-19
Figure 11-8 The relationship between noncoverage rate and K (GPRS load from 0-100%)
11.2.3 GPRS Frequency Planning
The GPRS network frequency planning should consider the network data rate.
Different channel coding schemes should be adopted for different data rates. Just as
what has been mentioned above, different channel coding requires different C/I. The
frequency multiplexing mode is determined by the requirement for C/I.
The classical analysis method can still be used in the study of frequency multiplexing
modes. Suppose the serving cell is represented by the symmetric regular hexagon
and the co-channel interference cell is calculated with the six cells at the first layer.
The following formula can be worked out:
C Q
I = 6 (1)
D
. Q= R = 3&N (2)
Where C stands for carrier;
I stands for co-channel interference;
g stands for path radio transmission factor, whose value is often set to be 2~5;
D stands for multiplexing distance;
R stands for the cell radius;
N stands for the number of the cells in a multiplexing family.
The first formula has considered Rayleigh attenuation environment rather than the
effect of the log-normal attenuation. Corrections with a certain dB will be made to get
the number of frequency multiplexing families required by different channel coding in
the GPRS network.
11-20
11-21
Table 11-3 GPRS Frequency Multiplexing Family

Channel Coding
C/I Threshold (dB) N
Scheme
Voice 9 7 9
CS-1 10. 8 9
CS-2 12. 8 12
CS-3 13. 7 13
CS-4 17. 2 >19
The frequency close multiplexing technology of the current GSM network, which
targets the improvement of the frequency efficiency and has a low requirement for
error code for the voice service, can be used in the GPRS network. But the data
communication has a high requirement for error code, and the dense multiplexing
technology cannot meet the data transmission requirement. Generally, the data
service and the voice service will exist together. The channels required by the GPRS
data services and voice services are dynamically distributed. Therefore, all the
channels which are used by the GPRS services should be guaranteed to satisfy the
C/I requirement in the design.
The fixed GPRS channels should choose the frequencies whose multiplexing distance
can meet the C/I requirement.
The GPRS channels which are not fixed should start choosing the frequencies from
those that have longer multiplexing distance. Compared with voice channels, they
have an option mechanism.
11.2.4 Summary
The GPRS network planning should try to guarantee the QoS of the existing voice
services, and try to reduce the unfavorable effect on the voice services caused by the
GPRS services. At the initial stage, in order to simplify the network planning work, a
location area can include only one routing area. After the GPRS service has been
developed, a location area should be divided into several routing areas according to
the geographic distribution condition and GPRS service distribution condition.
Frequency hopping has no obvious advantage for the GPRS service. It can improve
the CS-1 performance, has no obvious influence for CS-2/3, and lower the CS-4
performance. At the initial stage of the GPRS introduction, in order to avoid network
planning complexity, the original frequency hopping parameters should not be
changed. In order to make full use of the GPRS coding technology advantage and to
reduce the effect on the voice services, independent frequency planning should be
taken for the GPRS network.
It is recommended that at the beginning only the uplink power control be adopted, and
the downlink power control be gradually introduced.
Frequent change of the channel coding method should be avoided. Otherwise, the
concussion effect will be present.
GPRS is a new planning subject. The unsolved problems require further study in the
future.
11-22
11.3 WCDMA System Overview

Universal Mobile Telecommunication Systems (UMTS) is the third generation mobile
communication system adopting the WCDMA air interface. The UMTS system is also
called WCDMA communication system. The UMTS system uses the same structure
as that of the second generation mobile communication system. It includes some logic
network units. Different network units can be divided into groups according to
functions, or subnetworks they respectively belong to.
From the functional view, network units can be divided into radio access network (RAN)
and core network (CN). RAN deals with the functions related to radio access, while CN
deals with all the voice calls, data connection, the switching and routing with the
external networks within the UMTS system. The two units and user equipment (UE)
jointly form the whole UMTS system. Its system structure is shown as in Figure 11-9:
UE RAN 3G CN EXTERNAL
3G CS
MSC VLR GMSC gsmSSF PSTN
SERVICE
UTRAN APPLICATION
HLR, SCP
3G PS Internet
SGSN,GGSN
Figure 11-9 The System Structure of the UMTS System
From the perspective of the GPP R99 standard, UE and UMTS Terrestrial Radio
Access Network (UTRAN) have completely new protocol composition, whose design
is based on the WCDMA radio technology. CN adopts the GSM/GPRS definition,
which can realize the smooth transition of the network. Besides, at the beginning
phase of the 3G network construction, the global roaming can be realized.
11.3.1 UMTS System Network Composition
Uu lu
Node B
MSC/ PLMN PSTN
RNC GMSC
VLR ISDN,etc
USIM Node B
Cu lub lur HLR
ME Node B
RNC SGSN GGSN INTERNET
Node B
UE UTRAN CN External Networks
Figure 11-10 UMTS Network Unit Composition
11-23
Figure 11-10 illustrates that the UMTS network unit includes the following part:
I. User Equipment (UE)
UE is the subscriber terminal equipment. It mainly includes radio frequency processing

unit, baseband processing unit, protocol stack module, and application layer software
module. UE transceives data to and from network equipment via Uu interface so as to
provide subscribers with circuit-switched or packet-switched services including POTS,
broadband voice, mobile multimedia, and Internet applications such as Email, WWW
browsing, FTP, etc.
UE includes two parts:
z The Mobile Equipment (ME) provides application and services.
z The UMTS Subscriber Module (USIM) is responsible for the
identification of the subscriber identity
II. The UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN)
UTRAN can be divided into base station (Node B) and radio network controller (RNC).
z Node B
Node B is the base station of the WCDMA system (radio transceiver), which includes
radio transceiver and baseband processing parts. It can interconnect with RNC via the
standard Iub interface to accomplish the. Uu interface physical layer protocol
processing. Its major functions include: spectrum spread, modulation, channel coding,
and dispread, demodulation, channel decoding, and the mutual conversion between
baseband signals and radio frequency signals.
Node B is composed of the following logic function modules: RF transceiving
amplification, radio frequency transceiving system (TRX), baseband part (BB),
transmission interface unit, and base station control part.
z Radio Network Controller (RNC)
RNC is radio network controller, mainly responsible for the connection establishment
and disconnection, handoverhandover, macro diversity combination, radio resources
management, etc. The detailed functions are as follows:
(1) The function of system message broadcast and system access control.
(2) The mobility management function of handoverhandover and RNC transfer.
(3) The radio resources management and control function of macro diversity
combination, power control, and radio load distribution.
III. CN Core Network
CN is responsible for the connection to other networks and the communication and
management of UE. The major function modules are as follows:
(1) VMSC/VLR
VMSC/VLR is the WCDMA core network CS domain function node. It connects to
UTRAN via Iu CS interface, connects to external networks such as PSTN, ISDN, and
other PLMN via PSTN/ISDN interface, connects to HLR/AUC via C/D interface,
connects to VMSC/VLR or SMC via E interface, connects to SCP via CAP interface,
and connects to SGSN via Gs interface. The major function of VMSC/VLR is to
11-24
provide CS domain call connection, mobility management, authentication, and

encryption.
(2) GMSC
GMSC is the gateway node between WCDMA mobile network CS domain and
external networks. It is a selectable function node. It connects to external networks
such as PSTN, ISDN and other PLMN via PSTN/ISDN interface, connects to HLR via
C interface, and connects to SCP via CAP interface. Its major function is to accomplish
the incoming and outgoing calling routing function of the VMSC functions.
(3) SGSN
SGSN is the WCDMA core network PS domain function node. It connects to UTRAN
via Iu_PS interface, connects to GGSN via Gn/Gp interface, connects to HLR/AUC via
Gr interface, connects to VMSC/VLR via Gs interface, connects to SCP via CAP
interface, connects to SMC via Gd interface, connects to CG via Ga interface, and
connects to SGSN via Gn/Gp interface. The major functions of SGSN is to provide PS
domain functions such as routing transfer, mobility management, conversation
management, authentication and encryption.
(4) GGSN
GGSN is the gateway GPRS support node. It connects to SGSN via Gn interface and
connects to external networks (Internet /Intranet) via Gi interface. GGSN provides data
packet routing and encapsulation between WCDMA mobile network and external data
networks. The major function of GGSN is the interface function for the external IP
packet networks. GGSN should provide the gateway function for UE to access
external packet networks. From the perspective of external networks, GGSM functions
as all the subscribers’ IP router of the addressable WCDMA mobile network. It needs
to exchange routing information with external networks.
(5) HLR
HLR is the home location register of the WCDMA mobile network. It connects to
VMSC/VLR or GMSC via C interface, connects to SGSN via Gr interface, and
connects to GGSN via Gc interface. The major function of HLR is to provide functions
like subscriber signature information storage, new service support, and enhanced
authentication.
IV. OMC
OMC function entities include equipment management system and network

management system.
The equipment management system performs the independent network element
maintenance and management, which include performance management,
configuration management, fault management, billing management, and security
management.
The network management system can realize the unified maintenance and
management for all the network elements in the network. The detailed functions also
include performance management, configuration management, fault management,
billing management, and security management.
V. The external networks
The external networks can be divided into two kinds:
11-25
z Circuit-switched networks (CS networks) support circuit-switched

connection service such as POTS service. ISDN and PSTN belong to
CS networks.
z Packet-switched networks (PS networks) support data packet
connection service. Internet belongs to PS networks.
11.3.2 System Interface
Figure 2-2 shows that the WCDMA system has the following interfaces:
I. Cu Interface
Cu interface is the electric interface between USIM card and ME. Cu interface adopts
standard interface.
II. Uu Interface
Uu interface is the radio interface of WCDMA. UE connects to the fixed network part of
the UMTS system via Uu interface. It can be said that Uu interface is the most
important open interface in the UMTS system.
III. Iu Interface
Iu interface between UTRAN and CN. It is similar to the A interface and Gb interface of
the GSM system. Iu interface is an open standard interface. This enables the UTRAN
and CN connected by Iu interface to be provided by different equipment
manufacturers.
IV. Iur Interface
Iur interface is between RNCs. Iur interface is a unique interface of the UMTS system.
It is used for the mobility management of MS in the RAN. For example, in the soft
handoverhandover between different RNCs, all the data of MS are transmitted from
the working RNC to the candidate RNC via Iur interface. Iur is an open standard
interface.
V. Iub Interface
Iub interface connects Node B and RNC. Iub interface is also an open standard
interface. This also enables the RNC and Node B connected by Iub interface to be
provided by different equipment manufacturers.
11.3.3 Basic Principle of Spread Spectrum Communication
Because the mobile subscribers are expected to be randomly moving all the time, the
multiple access technology which can be used to differentiate and identify dynamic
subscribers’ address must be introduced in establishing the connection between them.
It is the same with the signal multiplexing technology in the fixed communications. In
fact, both of these technologies belong to the signal quadrature partitioning and
designing technology. The difference lies in that the signal multiplexing aims at
differentiating multipath, while multiple access technology aims at differentiating
multiple dynamic addresses. The multiplexing technology realizes in base band or
intermediate frequency part, whereas the multiple access technology realizes in radio
frequency. It makes use of the electronic wave radiated by the radio frequency to
identify dynamic mobile addresses. The familiar multiple access modes include FDMA
11-26
and TDMA. When signals are differentiated by quadrature codes, it is CDMA. CDMA
has two major types: DS-CDMA and time slot coding/frequency hopping. The vivid
explanation of DS_CDMA is that the spectrum is spread by multiplying the positive
negative binary base band data wave by the pseudo-random positive negative binary
wave with code snippet rate much higher than the signal rate. As far as energy is
concerned, wave spectrum intensity is reduced to a very low level, which is similar to
the noise. In the DS-CDMA, all subscribers occupy the same frequency band and the
same time slot. The addresses are identified not by the quadrature parameters or the
time slot, but by the self-correlation function of different address signal code groups.
The DS-CDMA has become the most important multiple access mode in 3G. The DS-
CDMA communication is frequency spread communication. To be more accurate, it
should be called spectrum spread communication, because it is the signal spectrum
bandwidth that has been spread. It is a kind of broadband communication system. Its
major feature is the signal code bandwidth before the spread is far less than the
spread code series (chip) bandwidth.
I. Narrowband and Broadband Communication System
(1) Definition: suppose R stands for the rate of the signal code element to be
transmitted; T stands for the duration of signal code element; F stands for the
bandwidth occupied for the transmission of signal spread code series.
If R*T=F*T 1, that is when F=R or F=2R, it is called ordinary narrowband

communication system. In digital communication system, frequency shift and phase
shift all belong to the narrowband communication system.
When F R, that is when F/R=10-10 6 (10-60dB), then the system is broadband

communication system.
(2) The broadband communication system is realized by the narrowband
communication system via spectrum spread. The CDMA communication system is a
typical broadband communication system.
II. The Basic Principle of Spread Spectrum Communication System
Following the principle of communication and the famous Shannon formula of the
information theory, C=F*T*lg(1+) as is shown in Figure 11-11:
In the formula, F stands for the frequency-limit bandwidth;
T stands for time-limit time slot, which is usually set to be 1 in the
communication principle;
S stands for the power signal/noise ratio;

C stands for channel capacity.
This formula shows a time-limit (T), frequency-limit (F), power-limit (S) continuous
white Gaus channel, whose capacity can be vividly represented by the volume, which
is determined by three most important parameters.
11-27
Figure 11-11 Channel Capacity C
These three parameters F, T, and lg(1+ S ) forms the volume C. when the volume is
invariant, the three variables can be mutually changed. The revelation of this
dialectical relationship facilitates multiple new communication mechanism
establishment. The spread spectrum communication is a typical example.
(3) In the mobile communications, S is the most important contradiction. The

improvement of S/N can be at any cost. Shannon formula indicates that S/N can be
improved by sacrificing frequency band F. When C is invariant, the increase of F can
reduce the receiving S/N threshold value of the receiver lg(1+). This is the basic
principle of spread spectrum communication: bartering F for S/N.
III. The Major Technical indexes of DS-CDMA
Compared with the traditional communication system, the spread spectrum system
adds spread spectrum modulation at the transmitting end and dispread at the
receiving end. The major technical indexes of the DS_CDMA system include
processing gain G and interference tolerance M.
(1) Processing Gain G
z It refers to the S/N improvement degree after the dispread by the spread
system.
z Additionally, there are two kinds of equivalent definitions: code element
spread multiple at the transmitting end or signal bandwidth spread
multiple.
z It can be represented in the following formula:
(S/N) OUT R PN NR F PN NB
N= (S/N) IN = R = R = B = B
where, stand for pseudo code rate and information code rate respectively;
F stand for pseudo code bandwidth and information code bandwidth.

G (dB)=10 lg(N)(dB). The processing gain will be represented by decibel.
11-28
(2) Interference Tolerance M

z It refer to the decibel value of the interference higher than the signal the
input end of the receiver can tolerate in the normal working condition:
M = G − [L S + 10 lg S/N OUT ] L S stands for the actual transmission
path loss (dB);
z M explicitly shows the maximum interference receiving value (in decibel)
allowed by the receiver of the spread spectrum system.
z For example,
In the WCDMA system, the 12. 2kbps voice service requires the typical value of Eb/No
to be 5. 0dB or so for the base band demodulation. In the condition that the code
snippet rate is 3. 84Mcps, the processing gain G is 10lg(3. 84M/12. 2k)= 25dB.
Therefore, M=5dB-5dB=20dB, that is, C/I>-20dB, which is far smaller than the GSM
required C/I >9dB. The reason that the capacity of CDMA is larger than the previous
cell system mainly is the lower requirement for C/I and shorter frequency multiplexing
distance, which is 1*1 multiplexing.
IV. The Major Advantages and Disadvantages of Spread Spectrum

Communication
Advantages:
(1) Strong anti-interference capability, and the larger the G is, the stronger the anti-
interference capability is.
(2) For digital communication system, the physical interpretation of the anti-
interference capability of the spread system:
P E l f(E/N 0 ) = f( NE/T
0 $F
% FT) = f(S/N % FT)
It illustrates that is in direct proportion with the power S/N and signal base FT.
When is invariant, S/N is in inverse proportion with FT. Therefore, when FT=10-
10 6 , and is invariant, communication can continue in very low S/N. That is to say,
very strong interference is allowed.
(3) It has good security. No matter it is direct spread or frequency hopping, after
spread, it will be similar to white noise. Therefore, it has a good security performance.
Digitalized subscribers can have further encryption.
(4) Low power spectrum density. Because the spread belongs to the broadband
system, the wider the frequency spectrum is, the lower the power spectrum intensity
will be. Therefore, it has good concealment performance. At the same time, it has little
interference for other communication systems and human bodies.
(5) It is easy to realize large capacity multiple access communication. Time and
frequency two-dimension address division increases the number of potential
addresses. Strong anti-interference capability and low power intensity means more
subscribers allowed for interference-limit systems.
(6) It is easy to realize accurate timing and distance measurement. It is suitable for the
parametric variation channel radio communication. The spread system is more likely
to realize diversity reception in various forms and improve the anti-interference
capability.
Disadvantages:
11-29
(1) It will occupy signal frequency bandwidth. The code series (chip) bandwidth after
spread is far wider than the information code series bandwidth before the spread.
(2) The system realization is complicated.
(3) It is difficult to realize synchronization on time variation channels.
(4) At present, it is difficult to realize large capacity communication due to the limitation
of detecting the number of address codes.
11.3.4 Some of the Key Technologies in the WCDMA System
I. WCDMA Channel Coding Scheme
The WCDMA channel coding scheme includes the following parts: correcting
coding/decoding (including speed adaptation), interleaving/deinterleaving,
transmission channel mapping to/separating from physical channel. Besides, some
service combinations may require certain degree of service multiplexing, which will
also be embodied in the design of the channel coder and decoder.
Figure 11-12 illustrates that channel coding scheme is not merely a matter about
correction selection, codec algorithm, and interleaving algorithm. It is also involved in
the communication with the high layer messages, in the acquisition of service quality
instruction from the high layer, and in the acquisition of service multiplexing mode so
as to realize different coding and multiplexing schemes for different services and
provide various kinds of service combinations in the highest efficiency. In order to get
adapted to the transmission in various rates, the channel coding scheme includes the
rate adaptation function. The WCDMA proposes a rate adaptation algorithm aiming at
adapting various service rates to a standard rate.
Speed matching
Si CRC Channel coding and inner-frame DPDCH1
crossing
Inter reuse frame
crossing
and DPDCH2
physical channel
mapping
Speed matching
Sj CRC Channel coding and inner-frame DPDCHL
crossing
Pilot labels
TPC labels MUX DPCCH
Other bit control labels
Figure 11-12 WCDMA Channel Coding and Service Multiplexing
11-30
Of course, what determines the channel coding performance is still its error control
scheme. In the WCDMA proposal, there are three kinds of forward error correction
codes: convolution code, Turbo code, and service specific code. The convolution code
follows the second generation technology. The restriction length is 9, and the common
code rate is 1/3 and 1/2. The decoding is the Viterbi algorithm based on the maximum
likelihood. Turbo code is a new technology able to provide higher service quality.
Turbo code is a new cascading recursion system convolution code. It is made of two
recursive system convolution (RSC) coders with the same structure, by the cascading
of internal interleaver. The major advantage of Turbo code is that among the AWGN
channels, its error correction capability can be close to Shannon limit.
The above analysis shows that the convolution coding and decoding technology
similar to the second generation mobile communication system is still used for low rate
and low performance requirement in WCDMA, while for high rate and high
performance requirement, Turbo code codec scheme will be used. At present, Turbo
code codec technology develops fast, and it has developed into an FEC technology
branch including many kinds of codec methods.
II. Space-time Code
With the increase of mobile subscribers, and the mobile communication service
demand tendency from ordinary voice service to multimedia service, frequency
spectrum resources become scarce. Therefore, the pursuit for the highest frequency
utilization ratio has become a challenging problem for the present and in the future.
This challenge has stirred people to develop highly efficient coding technology,
modulation technology, and signal processing technology to improve the efficiency of
radio frequency. The space-time code is one of the most important solutions proposed
in recent years, aiming at improving radio frequency utilization ratio. In the research of
the space-time code, on the one hand, Da-shan Shiu, Joseph M. Kahn, G. D. Golden
and Foschini have done much work on the layered space-time (LST) code; on the
other hand, Tarokh from AT&T, based on the summary of the previous research on the
transmission diversity, has done some innovative research on the space-time code
based on the transmission diversity. All the analysis and simulation indicates that the
utilization ratio of the two space-time codes above-mentioned can reach 20-40bps/Hz,
which means they can achieve good frequency band utilization ratio. It can be
anticipated that the future mobile communication system featured by the space-time
code will have extremely large system capacity, excellent communication quality, and
extremely high frequency utilization ratio.
(1) Layered Space-time Code. The layered space-time code is first proposed by
Foschini. It divides the signal source data into several sub data stream and performs
coding and modulation independently. Therefore, it is not based on transmission
diversity. The basic structure of the layered space-time code is as follows: the
transmitter has n transmitting antennae, while the receiver has m receiving antennae
(m ≧n). In the transmitter data from the channel coding will be divided into n
directions, and flow to n antennae. The m receiving antennae at the receiving end
simultaneously receive the signals sent by the n transmitting antenna, and then
perform demodulation, channel estimation, and decoding. The layered space-time
code has the following features:
(a) n antennae use the same frequency band. The sign is in synchronization. The
same constellation graph will be used.
(b) The signals sent by n antenna are independent. This is why the layered space-time
code is not based on transmission diversity.
(c) The total power of the transmission unit antennae is constant, which has nothing to
do with the number of the transmitting antennae n.
11-31
(d) The single channel with high SNR will be divided into n overlapping channels with
low SNR so as to improve the frequency spectrum efficiency.
(e) The advantage of layered space-time code is that when m ≧ n, it can be proven
that the system capacity is almost in direct proportion with the number of the
transmitting antennae n.
(f) The channel gain between different receiving antennae has no relationship.
(2) The space-time code based on transmission diversity. In mobile communication
system, diversity is one of the most important methods to provide reliable
communication. The ordinary diversity modes include: time diversity such as channel
coding, interleaving, which are very effective for fast attenuation, but not effective for
slow attenuation; frequency diversity such as spread spectrum; and space diversity.
Multiple antennae receiving diversity and transmitting diversity both belong to space
diversity. In the actual mobile communication system, because of the limitation of MS
size, the battery energy, and the asymmetry of media services, the best mode is that
the base station uses multiple antennae to realize receiving diversity and transmitting
diversity, while MS should not be required to use multiple antennae. Based on this,
Tarokh and other people from AT&T, based on the transmission delay diversity,
formally proposed the space-time code based on transmission diversity. Generally, the
transmitting diversity is considered to be an important technology to enhance the radio
link performance. The space-time code based on transmission diversity can be divided
into Space-time block code and Space-time trellis code according to different coding
modes.
III. High-speed Power Control
A typical problem for the CDMA network is the near and far effect. Because all the
subscribers in the cell use the same frequency, it is important for the whole system to
ensure that every subscriber uses the minimum power to transmit signals. The quality
of the power control mainly determines the CDMA system capacity. It is also far more
complicated than that of GSM.The power control of GSM only considers signal
strength, but the power control of CDMA must be based on S/I.
The power control of CDMA includes forward and backward. The forward power
control includes measurement report power control, EIB power control, and forward
fast power control, which are the three forward power control algorithm gradually
developed. The power control rate develops from 2 times per second, to 50 times per
second, to 800 times per second. It becomes higher and higher, and the performance
is also becoming better and better. The backward power control includes open loop
and closed loop. The open loop means that MS based on the received power
estimates the necessary transmitting power. Because the attenuation feature of the
forward and backward links is different, the estimation can only get an average
transmitting power. The transmitting power of the backward channel should be
determined both by the estimation result and by the adjustment of the closed loop
power control. The closed loop power control means that the base station judges the
transmission quality on the backward channel, and sends it to the MS to make the
transmitting power adjustment.
IV. RAKE Reception
In the WCDMA system, the multi-path propagation is no longer a negative factor.

Instead, it is an ideal result, because RAKE receiver can combine the signals with the
delay of at least 1 Chip (the data transmission rate of the WCDMA network is 3. 84
Mbps, that is 1Chip=0. 26 microseconds, equivalent to 78 meters) into useful signals.
The working principle of the RAKE receiver is that it demodulates several signals with
different time delay respectively, and then algebraically combines them to improve
reception performance.
11-32
V. Multi-subscriber Detection Technology
In the year 1979 and the year 1983, K. S. Schnedier and R. Kohno respectively
proposed the multi-subscriber receiver (multi-subscriber detection) idea, which means
realizing the multi-subscriber detection without multiple access interference by making
use of other subscriber’s known information to get rid of the multiple access
interference, and they also pointed out some research directions. This is the earliest
multi-subscriber detection document. In 1986, S. Verdu developed the multi-
subscriber detection theory. He proposed the asynchronous CDMA best detection with
adaptation filter group and Viterbi decoding. After that, the multi-subscriber detection
has achieved great development and has formed several comparatively clear
thoughts.
Although there are many kinds of multi-subscriber detection algorithm, the basic idea
of the algorithm is the same: trying to make use of the whole subscriber signal
resource to suppress multiple access interference and to avoid near and far effect.
The following part is the brief introduction to various kinds of multi-subscriber
detectors.
(1) Linear Multi-subscriber Detector
The linear multi-subscriber detector is based on certain judgment principle, and makes
judgment of the output series after adding a linear factor to the adaptation filter whose
subscriber number is linear. This kind of detector mainly includes two types:
decorrelation linear multi-subscriber detector and minimum mean-square error multi-
subscriber detector.
(2) Nonlinear Multi-subscriber Detector
It is a hot problem to eliminate multiple access interference by making use of effective
nonlinear multi-subscriber detector. The nonlinear multi-subscriber detector can
mainly be divided into the following kinds: judgment feedback multi-subscriber
detector, serial/parallel interference suppressor, multi-group multi-subscriber detector,
the multi-subscriber detector based on neural network.
The serial/parallel interference suppressor is developed from the traditional CDMA
detector. It first restore interference signal and then takes out the useful signal. The
idea is to arrange the demodulated subscriber signal into order by the signal intensity.
That is to make the signal intensity of the first subscriber greater than that of the
second subscriber, and the rest can be done by analogy. At first the normal
demodulation method will be used to demodulate the first subscriber’s signal, and the
information bit can be acquired after judgment. Making use of the first subscriber’s
demodulated signals, the second subscriber’s interference signal can be restored.
Judgment will be made after subtracting the second subscriber’s signal by the first
subscriber’s interference. In the same way, subtracting the third subscriber’s signal by
the first and second subscriber’s interference. The rest can be conducted by analogy.
The advantage of this treatment is dual. First, the judgment is made for the strongest
signal. Because it suffers least from the multiple access interference, the judgment
can be most accurate. Secondly, the judgment of other subscribers has already
subtracted the strongest multiple access interference signals. The serial interference
suppressor has simple structure and it greatly improves the performance of the
traditional detector. The requirement for it is that the calculation speed should be great
so as to avoid bringing big time delay for weak subscribers. If the energy of two
subscribers is similar, the serial interference suppressor can be replaced by the
parallel interference suppressor. Good performance can be achieved even without
ordering subscribers. The interference risk device is most likely to get applied in the
WCDMA system due to its simple structure.
11-33
In recent years the integration of various technologies has attracted wide attention of
researching people. It includes the following kinds: space-time two perspective signal
processing technology, multi-subscriber detection and channel codec integration
technology, and multi-subscriber detection and power control integration technology.
VI. Soft Handover
GSM only has hard handover, which means connecting to new base stations after
disconnecting the original connection. The soft handover of CDMA refers to the fact
that a handset can connect to several base stations at the same time. Therefore, the
handover from the serving cell to the adjacent cells will not cause any effect.
Meanwhile, in the uplink, the soft handover can bring diversity gain (in fact, in the
downlink there also may be gain, which is determined by the macro diversity gain and
the resultant interference). Soft handover can reduce the undesirable disconnection
and improve the cell peripheral service. The design should take into consideration of
the feature that a cell has soft capacity.
In a cell softer handover may occur. CDMA also have hard handover like GSM
between different frequency points, MSC, and different systems.
VII. Code Planning
In the TDMA system, the frequencies used by one cell cannot be used in the adjacent
cells. But the CDMA frequency multiplexing coefficient is 1. Compared with the current
TDMA, CDMA frequency planning is simple, but it has introduced the code planning.
The code planning at the initial stage of the network construction is very simple.
However, with the frequent use of repeaters, the network will become complicated and
the code planning will also become quite complicated.
VIII. Others
Some of the key technologies in the WCDMA system have been discussed. Research
has indicated that space-time code, intelligent antenna, multi-subscriber detection are
all effective tools to improve the spectrum utilization ratio, and will be used widely in
the future WCDMA mobile communications system. However, there is much to be
improved for the systematic theoretical analysis of the space-time code, and there is
much work to do to combine the space-time code technology with intelligent antenna
technology, multi-subscriber detecting technology, and equilibrium technology. There
is some distance to cover for the real application of the intelligent antenna and multi-
subscriber detecting technology.
Besides, there exists a dynamic relationship between the coverage and the capacity of
the CDMA system. Therefore, the capacity and coverage design of CDMA system is
much more difficult than that of TMDA, and CDMA can provide more service types. In
the 3G phase, it can provide high-speed data service.
11.3.5 The Receive Sensitivity of the WCDMA System
I. Receiver Sensitivity
In the WCDMA system, sensitivity is related to many indexes such as service rate,
noise coefficient, and interference threshold.
Assuming there is 50% load:
For 12.2kbps channel, the typical value of the uplink sensitivity is -121dBm, while that
of the downlink sensitivity is -117dBm.
11-34
For 144kbps channel, the typical value of the uplink sensitivity is -114dBm, while that
For 384kbps channel, the typical value of the uplink sensitivity is -111dBm, while that
II. The Related Factors of the Receiver Sensitivity
1Receiver sensitivity is jointly determined by receiver noise level and baseband

demodulation performance. It is to ensure the lowest signal level of the connection
quality.
(1) Receiver Noise Level.
The base station receiver noise is the minimum noise threshold that communication
system must overcome.
Receive heat noise = KTF*BW
−23
K: Bridgman Constant (= 1.38 % 10 J/K)
T: Kelvin temperature: 290K in normal temperature
The result is: KT= -174dBm/Hz
F: receiver noise coefficient. According to Huawei NodeB1. 1 actual measurement
data, in normal temperature the value is 2. 3dB, 3dB should be guaranteed within the
full range of temperature. UE receiver noise coefficient is set to be 7. 0dB (the protocol
requires it be no more than 9.0dB).
BW: receiver noise bandwidth. Considering the fact that the entire receiving channel
includes baseband matching filter function, the noise bandwidth should be set to be 3.
84MHz.
(2). Baseband Demodulation Performance
The baseband demodulation performance is influenced by many factors such as
transmission environment, UE moving speed, diversity, and the adopted demodulation
algorithm.
A. Basic Performances Regulated in the Protocol
In the static channel condition, 12. 2kbps voice channel demodulation should be
Eb/N0. The protocol regulates it should be no more than 5. 1dB. The simulation works
out that the baseband demodulation needs 2. 8dB. With the channel physical
realization deterioration 1. 5dB, the demodulation threshold of NodeB is calculated to
be 4. 3dB.
B. The Demodulation Performance under the Power Control Condition
The demodulation performance regulated in the protocol is measure under the
condition that there is no closed loop power control. In the real system, the closed loop
power control is functioning. In this condition, the above demodulation performance
cannot be used directly in the link estimation.
Because the closed loop power control speed is limited, it does little good, sometimes
even bad, to the closed loop power control for the fast moving UE, whose speed is
larger than 50km/h according to the 5. 15. 4 clause of the Wideband CDMA for Third
Generation Mobile Communications protocol. Therefore, the link estimation in high-
speed environment can directly use the demodulation performance in with the
condition that there is no power control.
11-35
The base station baseband demodulation performance in the condition that the power
control is started is as follows:
z CASE 1 Channel
The fixed-point simulation shows that the baseband demodulation needs 4. 49dB.
With the consideration of physical realization deterioration 0. 5dB, the demodulation
threshold of NodeB is calculated to be 4. 99dB. The baseband demodulation threshold
in suburb/rural areas adopts CASE1 channel condition.
z CASE 2 Channel
The fixed-point simulation shows that the baseband demodulation needs 4. 71dB.
With the consideration of physical realization deterioration 0. 5dB, the demodulation
threshold of NodeB is calculated to be 5. 21dB. The baseband demodulation threshold
in urban areas adopts CASE2 channel condition.
11-36
11.4 WCDMA System Network Planning
11.4.1 The Content of the WCDMA Network Planning
The WCDMA system uses different RTT technology with the GSM system, and the
WCDMA system introduces vast support for data service, and carries out the control
based on the QoS of services. Therefore, there exist obvious differences between the
system design methods of the WCDMA and GSM systems.
Take a vivid example first:
In a party there are many guests. Many people speak together, which makes difficult to
figure out what the speaker is saying. If you can speak with your friend at the other
side of the room at the beginning, it will be impossible for you to hear clearly when the
noise rises to a certain degree. This means the radius of the conversation area has
shortened. In this situation you can still talk with your friend as long as you and your
friend speak loudly. This will cause the noise in this room even greater. What the
CDMA network planning engineers are facing now is a similar dynamically varying
network.
The WCDMA system adopts 1*1 frequency multiplexing mode. Cells and subscribers
are differentiated by scrambling and orthogonal codes. The capacity and coverage are
directly influenced by the network interference. The design personnel in design should
take into full consideration how to reduce the unnecessary noise. On the contrary, the
GSM system adopts TDMA technology, and different subscribers are differentiated by
frequency and time slot. Therefore, the factors that affect GSM system capacity are
mainly frequency resource and frequency multiplexing technology.
The WCDMA system is a noise restrained system, whose coverage depends not only
on the maximum transmission power, but also on system load. The greater the system
load is, the higher the noise base rises, and the smaller the system coverage is;and
vice versa. But the coverage of the GSM network, on the condition that the frequency
planning is good and there is no off-net interference, is only related to the maximum
transmission power, and the capacity is only related to the available service channels.
There is no relationship between coverage and capacity. Therefore, in the WCDMA
design, the relationship between coverage and capacity should be taken into full
consideration to ensure the necessary system performance indexes.
In the WCDMA system, the corresponding relationship between the transmission
power and the cell capacity is in a gradual mode. Network planning engineers must
reduce network full load rate, because it is easy for a cell to get fully loaded. The
detailed parameters depend on various kinds of services. Of course, it is also related
to the risks the carriers want to bear. Generally speaking, in the design, the full load
factor is preset to be 60%. Here the cell breathing effect is applied. The adjacent cells
can share the load mutually, which is called soft load. Due to cost consideration,
network capacity cannot be expanded on a large scale. The mathematic reasoning for
the 3Gservice which has high requirement for data transmission illustrates that the
probability for the serving cell to borrow load capacity from the adjacent cells
increases as the data transmission quantity increases. Because there exists a
dynamic balance relationship between coverage and capacity, there is a great
difference between their planning mode in the radio network estimation phase. For the
WCDMA system, there exists a mutual adjustment process between coverage
estimation and capacity estimation:
11-37
z In the coverage estimation, the traffic (interference threshold) a cell

supports should be assumed first. The coverage of the base station
should be worked out by making use of link estimation result and
appropriate transmission model in different typical environment. Based
on the result, the number of base stations necessary in the whole
coverage area and the base station configuration can be worked out.
z In the capacity estimation, the traffic (or interference threshold) a cell
supports should also be assumed. The capacity can be estimated
according to the traffic distribution condition (real-time service: Erl/Km2;
none real-time service: kbps/Km2) in the coverage area. The number of
base stations necessary to meet the network capacity requirement and
the base station configuration can be worked out.
z On the other hand, when a subscriber is far away from the base station,
he has to get a large part of the transmission power so that it may cause
power shortage for other subscribers. This means the cell capacity has
something to do with the actual distribution condition of subscribers.
When the subscriber density is very large, this problem can be solved
by conducting statistics on the mean value; whereas when there are few
subscribers, simulation method has to be adopted to conduct a dynamic
analysis on the network.
z What is worth explaining is that the WCDMA network needs to support
services with different QoS and rates, and the actual coverage of a cell
is restricted by the coverage probability of the services that need to be
supported. Therefore, in the radio network planning, different coverage
probability requirement for various kinds of services the network
supports should be determined. Generally, UMTS network planning
engineers start from the radius of the intermediate-level services. Thus
the actual effective range of a cell can only partially meet the
requirement of advanced services.
z The traffic of the UMTS network is asymmetric; that is to say, the data
transmission on the uplink and the downlink of the network is different.
Network planning engineers should at first work out the value in both
directions, and then combine them properly. In this way, the network
planning work will be very complicated. The uplink is a typical restraint
factor of the UMTS cell effective area, or it can be said that in a certain
load condition the uplink is coverage limited, while the downlink is
capacity limited. The transmission power in the uplink is provided by the
handset, while the transmission power in the downlink is provided by the
base station. The radius of the forward and backward cell is the same.
Compare the number of base stations generated by the two methods according to
coverage and capacity respectively. If they are not the same, that means there exist
coverage-limited or capacity-limited conditions. Because in the WCDMA system, there
exists a dynamic relationship between coverage and capacity, and the cell coverage is
worked out based on the cell load. Therefore, if the number of base stations generated
by the two methods is not the same, the cell load should be adjusted once again, and
the above coverage and capacity estimation process should be performed again. The
ultimate result should be that the estimated number of base stations based on the links
and the number of base stations based on the capacity analysis should be the same
so that minimum number of base stations will be used to fully meet the coverage and
capacity requirements.
For the GSM network, the focus of the network estimation is on the available
frequency points of carriers and the frequency planning method which can determine
the maximum number of carrier frequencies a cell can support. The cell coverage
11-38
change has nothing to do with the network load. Therefore, the coverage and capacity
estimation can be finished once. There is no repetition process necessary.
Due to the unique features and complexity of the WCDMA network, the planning
phase needs a simulation testing process. Normally, based on the coverage prediction,
the Monte Carlo system simulation will be further used to appraise the network
performance. At the same time, the statistic result of the system simulation will be
analyzed, and parameter will be adjusted based on the initial result of the system
simulation until the simulation result meets the design and system performance
requirement. Finally, the number of base stations, base station configuration and
location, the height of the antenna, the leaning angle of the antenna, and the system
capacity can be determined so as to generate a detailed radio network planning
solution.
In the WCDMA system, the power resource is very limited. Therefore, the purpose of
both the power control and the RRM algorithm is to save network resource and reduce
the transmission power of the service channels as many as possible on the premise
that the quality is guaranteed. Therefore, the configuration principle of cell parameters
should take all these factors into consideration.
In the WCDMA system, the pilot pollution is a significant factor, which affects the
network performance. In the GSM system, this kind of problem may not occur,
because the BCCH frequency points normally employ very loose multiplexing mode
(such as 5*3) and they are planned carefully. In the CDMA system, it is a common
problem. The main feature of pilot pollution is that there is no leading cell. To be more
specific, terminals receive pilot signals from multiple cells with the similar power, which
causes the activation set to renew frequently. The pilot pollution increases network
interference and causes handover algorithm not able to work efficiently.
The reasons for pilot pollution generally include:
1. Bad system design; for example, the transmission power of the pilot channel is too
big.
2. Inappropriate choice of the base station location and the antenna leaning angle;
3. Complicated geographic environment and lack of full consideration in design
From the above analysis, it can be known that the WCDMA network planning cost is
much higher than the current mobile communication network planning. 3G network
planning is very complicated, because many system parameters are closely related to
each other, and have to be calculated at the same time, whereas the current mobile
communication network planning calculate these parameters separately.
The complexity of the WCDMA network planning requires us to possess new
technologies and new knowledge at all levels. The first is the well-trained professional
network planning engineers, who are good at system technology. The second is
managers who are familiar with the business and have accurate foresight. At the
beginning phase, they can know exactly the UMTS network expansion condition and
cost. The last is the outstanding planning software tool, which is absolutely necessary
for the 3G network planning.
11-39
11.4.2 WCDMA Radio Capacity Calculation
The mobile communications system has three major factors: coverage, capacity, and
quality, which are influenced and controlled by each other.
Figure 11-13 The three Factors in Mobile Communications
I. The GSM System
z The capacity is basically determined by hardware resources. One

carrier contains eight time slots, and the number of the available carriers
and the multiplexing method determine the maximum simultaneous
connection number.
z The coverage is determined by uplink and downlink transmission power
(link balance problem)
z The conversation quality is determined by the interference condition.
Interference can be controlled by network design (multiplexing method,
multiplexing distance, frequency hopping, etc. ) to ensure high quality.
z In GSM system, there is no direct relationship between these three
factors. Each of them can be independently analyzed and designed.
The difficulty of network design lies in frequency planning.
II. The WCDMA System
z The WCDMA system is self-interference system. There is close

relationship between capacity, coverage, and quality.
11-40
z The relationship between capacity and coverage;If the designed load

increases, the capacity increases, interference increases, and coverage
decreases, such as the cell breathing.
z The relationship between capacity and quality is that the system
capacity can be improved by lowering part of the connection quality
requirement, such as by decreasing target BLER value via external loop
power control;
z The relationship between coverage and quality is that the system
coverage capability can be improved by lowering part of the connection
quality requirement, such as by decreasing data rate via AMRC for
connections with great path loss;
Figure 11-14 The WCDMA is a Self-interference System
III. WCDMA Uplink Capacity Analysis
(1) Uplink Interference Composition is:
I TOT = I own + I other + PN
Where,
z Iown: refers to the interference from subscribers of the local cell
ITOT - Pj refers to the interference each subscriber has to overcome, and Pj refers to
the reception power of the subscriber j.
-Assuming the power control is ideal, then
11-41
Pj W 1
(Eb / No ) j = ⋅ ⋅
I TOT − Pj R j v j
hence, Pj:
I TOT
Pj =
1 W 1
1+ ⋅ ⋅
(Eb / No ) j R j v j
The interference of the subscribers of the same cell is the sum of the power with which
all the subscribers reach the receiver:
N
I own = ∑ Pj
1
z Iother: refers to the interference from subscribers of adjacent cells.

Adjacent cell subscriber interference is hard to analyze theoretically, since it relates to
so many factors such as subscriber distribution, cell layout method, antenna direction,
etc. .
-The adjacent cell interference factor can be defined as:
I other
i=
I own
When the subscriber distribution is even, for an omnidirectional cell, the typical value
of the adjacent cell interference factor is 0. 55; for a directional cell with three sectors,
the typical value of the adjacent cell interference factor is 0. 65.
z PN: receiver noise base
PN = 10lg(KTW) NF
-K: Bridgman constant = 1. 38 10-23 J/K
-T: Kelvin temperature, the normal temperature is 290 K

-W: signal bandwidth, WCDMA signal bandwidth 3. 84MHz
-NF: receiver noise coefficient
We can get the result:
10lg(KTW) = -108dBm/3. 84MHz
NF = 3dB (typical value for macro cell base station)
PN = 10lg(KTW) + NF = -105dBm/3. 84MHz
Therefore, the uplink interference gets
11-42

N
I TOT
= (1 + i )∑ + PN
1 W 1
1
1+ ⋅ ⋅
(Eb / No ) j R j v j
and
N
I TOT = I TOT ⋅ (1 + i ) ⋅ ∑ L j + PN
1
We can get:
1
I TOT = PN ⋅ N
1 − (1 + i ) ⋅ ∑ L j
1
z Suppose
All the subscribers are 12. 2kbps voice subscribers, and the demodulation threshold is
EbvsNo = 5dB
Voice activation factor vj = 0. 67
Adjacent cell interference factor i = 0. 55
The uplink carrier factor is defined as:
N N
1
ηUL = (1 + i ) ⋅ ∑ L j = (1 + i ) ⋅ ∑
1 W 1
1 1
1+ ⋅ ⋅
(EbvsNo) j R j v j
11-43
Figure 11-15 The relationship between capacity and uplink interference
When the carrier factor equals one, ITOT reaches infinitely great, and the capacity in
this situation is called maximum capacity. In the above hypothesis, the maximum
capacity is 96 subscribers illustrated by Figure 11-15.
We can also get the relationship formula between carrier factor and interference.
Based on the above relationship, the noise increase formula is as follows, based on
which Figure 11-16 can be generated:
ITOT 1 1
Noise Rise = = =
PN 1 − (1 + i )
N
1 − ηUL
∑L j
1
Figure 11-16 The relationship between noise and carrier factor
It can be judged from the figure that when the load is 50%, the noise rises 3dB; when
the load is 60%, noise rises 4dB; when the load is 75%, the noise rises 6dB.
(2) Analysis
The above theoretical analysis has explicitly or implicitly employed the following
abbreviation:
z Soft handover has not been taken into consideration, because
subscribers in soft handover state generate less interference than
normal subscribers;
z AMRC and combined service effects have not been taken into
consideration, because AMRC reduces the voice service rate of part of
subscribers so as to decrease the interference they generate. This also
enables the system to support more subscribers at the cost that the
conversation quality of these subscribers may decrease.
11-44
z Different services have different data rates and demodulation threshold.

Although theoretically the above method can still be used for the
analysis, it will make the computing process much more complicated.
z Due to the time-varying feature of mobile environment, even if it is the
same service, the demodulation threshold varies in terms of time.
z Ideal power control hypothesis. The power control commands of the real
system have some error codes, which makes the power control not
ideal and decreases system capacity.
z Suppose the subscriber distribution is balanced, and the adjacent cell
interference is constant.
If all the above factors have been taken into consideration, the system simulation is a
more accurate method: static simulation method Monte_Carlo and dynamic
simulation.
(3) Capacity Design
In order to ensure the system stability, network design cannot be done based on the
maximum capacity, because the maximum capacity corresponds to the maximum
noise rise. In the real system, UE has no such powerful transmission power to
overcome the noise. Besides, the greater the carrier factor is, the greater noise rise
caused by the access of new subscribers will be, sometimes the noise can even break
the existing connection. Finally, due to the time-varying feature of mobile environment,
the network will be less stable if the load is too heavy. Therefore, the designed load for
macro cells normally does not exceed 75%. For example, if the load is designed to be
60%, then the corresponding noise rise will be 4dB.
IV. Downlink Capacity Analysis
(1) Downlink Interference Composition
z PN: receiver noise base

PN = 10lg(KTW) + NF
-K: Bridgman constant = 1. 38*10-23 J/K
-T: Kelvin temperature, the normal temperature 290 K
-W: signal bandwidth, WCDMA signal bandwidth 3. 84MHz
-NF: receiver noise coefficient
The result can be:
10lg(KTW) = -108dBm/3. 84MHz
NF = 7dB (UE typical value)
PN = 10lg(KTW) + NF = -101dBm/3. 84MHz
z Iown Interference within the local cell
Downlink subscribers can be differentiated by the mutually orthogonal OVSF codes. In
static condition without multipath transmission, there is no mutual interference;
11-45
In multipath transmission, part of energy cannot be received by the Rake receiver and
becomes interference signals. Orthogonalization factor can be defined to describe
this phenomenon:
(I own ) j = (1 − α j )⋅ PT
PL j
In this formula, PT is the total transmission power of the base station, including the
private channel transmission power and common channel transmission power.
N
PT = PCCH + ∑ Pj
1
z Adjacent Cell Interference Iother

The signals transmitted by the adjacent cell base stations will cause interference for
the subscribers in the local cell. Because different scrambling is used, these
interferences are non-orthogonal.
Suppose service distribution is even, and the transmission power of all the base
stations is equal. There are k adjacent cell base stations, and the path loss from the
No. k base station to subscriber j is PLk,j. We then can get:
K
1
(I other ) j = PT ⋅ ∑
1 PLk , j
Therefore,
= (1 − α j )⋅
K
PT 1
+ PT ⋅ ∑ + PN
PL j 1 PLk , j
Assume again that power control is ideal, we then can get:
Pj
PL j W 1
(EbvsNo ) j = ⋅ ⋅
(ITOT ) j R j v j
And
Rj
Pj = (EbvsNo ) j ⋅ ⋅ v j ⋅ (I TOT ) j ⋅ PL j
W
Since
N
PT = PCCH + ∑ Pj
1
Hence,
11-46
N
 Rj 
PT = PCCH + ∑ (EbvsNo ) j ⋅ ⋅ v j ⋅ (I TOT ) j ⋅ PL j 
1  W 
 Rj   
= PCCH + ∑ (EbvsNo ) j ⋅ ⋅ v j ⋅ PL j  ⋅ (1 − α j )⋅ T + PT ⋅ ∑
N K
P 1
+ PN 
1  W   PL j 1 PLk , j 
 Rj   K PL 
= PCCH + ∑ (EbvsNo ) j ⋅ ⋅ v j  ⋅ (1 − α j )⋅ PT + PT ⋅ ∑
N
j
+ PN ⋅ PL j 
1  W   1 PLk , j 
The value of PT can be worked out:
N
 R 
PCCH + PN ⋅ ∑ (EbvsNo ) j ⋅ j ⋅ v j ⋅ PL j 
1  W 
PT =
 R 
1 − ∑ (1 − α j + i j )⋅ (EbvsNo ) j ⋅ j ⋅ v j 
N
1  W 
Where ij is the adjacent cell interference factor of subscriber j, which can be defined
as:
K PL j
ij = ∑
1 PLk , j
Based on the above analysis, carrier factor can be defined.
 R 
η DL = ∑ (1 − α j + i j )⋅ (EbvsNo ) j ⋅ j ⋅ v j 
N
1  W 
When the downlink carrier factor reaches 100%, the transmission power of base
stations can reach infinitely great, and the corresponding capacity is maximum
capacity.
(2) Analysis
Different from the calculation of uplink capacity, the variables j and ij in the downlink
capacity calculation formula are both related to the subscriber’s location. That is to say,
the downlink capacity is related to subscriber’s space distribution, and can only be
determined by the system simulation. The following are the simulation parameter table
and simulation result graph 11-17.
11-47
Parameter DL value Parameter DL value

MCL macro (including antenna Power control range 25 dB
70 dB
again)
Antenna gain (including losses) 0 dBi HANDLING of DOWNLINK
11 dBi maximum TX power
Log Normal fade margin 10 dB Random and uniform
USER DISTRIBUTION
PC MODELLING across the network
#PC steps per snapshot > 150 non orthogonality factor macrocell 0,4
step size PC perfect PC COMMON CHANNEL
Orthogonal
PC error 0% ORTHOGONALITY
HANDOVER MODELING DEPLOYMENT SCENARIO
Handover threshold for candidate Hexagonal with BTS
set Macrocell in the middle of the
active set cell
Choice of cells in the active step BTS type omnidirectional
Maximum ratio Cell radius macro 577 macro
Combining
combining > 19 with wrap
# of macro cells
NOISE PARAMETERS around technique)
noise figure 9 dB bit-rate speech 8 kbps
noise power -99 dBm proposed Activity factor speech 100%
TX POWER Multipath environment macro Outdoor micro
Maximum BTS power 43 dBm Eb/N0 target 6,1 dB
Common channel power 30 dBm
Maximum TX power speech 30 dBm
Figure 11-17 Downlink Capacity Analysis
Simulation Result Analysis:

z When the base station transmission power is 43dBm (20W), it can
support 114 subscribers at the most.
11-48
z Usually, in order to ensure the stability of the system, the average

transmission power of the base station is not allowed to be greater than
75% of the maximal transmission power, that is 41. 7dBm, and in this
condition it can support 111 subscribers.
z Compared with the uplink capacity, this result is much greater.
Therefore, in this condition, the capacity of WCDMA is restricted in the
uplink, which is completely different from that of the IS95.
z It is generally accepted that the coverage uplink of the IS95 system is
restricted, while the system capacity is restricted in the downlink.
V. Summary
z The capacity analysis of the WCDMA system should take more factors
which are more complicated into consideration:
z The downlink capacity is related with subscriber space distribution,
which makes the analysis difficult;
z The system simulation is en effective tool for the capacity analysis of the
WCDMA system.
11.4.3 WCDMA Service Description and Calculation
I. Service Type
In the WCDMA system, services can be divided into four types based on different
QoS:
z Conversational Class
z Streaming Class
z Interactive Class
z Background
The features and typical examples of these four types of services are shown in the
following table:
Service QOS Type Basic Feature Typical Example
Information data time relationship should be
kept Voice
Conversational
Conversational mode with little time delay and Video telephone
strict requirement for time delay jitter.
Information data time relationship should be
Streaming Multimedia data stream
kept.
Request response mode Network browsing
Interactive
Data completeness should be preserved Network games
Target has high tolerance for data delay. Email downloading at the
Background
Data completeness should be preserved. background
II. The Calculation Method of the Blocking Rate for Different Types of Services
(1) Conversational Services

Conversational services have strict requirement for point-to-point time delay. For
example, it is usually required to be less than 150ms for voice services, and it cannot
exceed 400ms at the most. Otherwise, it will cause difficulty for listening. The
parameters for the typical conversational services are shown in the following table.
11-49
Conversational services are usually carried in the CS domain. The system can
process conversational services without conducting the calling queuing treatment. In
this situation, the traditional Erlang B formula or the extended Erlang B formula can be
adopted to do the calculation. The extended Erlang B formula is recommended here,
and it is assumed that 50% of the blocked subscribers will retry immediately.
(2) Streaming Services
Compared with conversational services, streaming services have lower requirement
for point-to-point time delay. The parameters for the typical streaming services are
shown in the following table.
Streaming services are also usually carried in the CS domain. Streaming services
have high tolerance for call waiting, and calling queuing mechanism can be provided.
In this situation, the Erlang C formula is adapted to do the blocking probability (defined
as the probability of call waiting exceeding a certain period of time) calculation for this
kind of subscribers.
(3) Interactive Services
Interactive services refer to the type of services that subscribers request data from
servers. It is described by the terminal subscriber request response mode. Therefore,
round-trip time is the most important index for this kind of services. The parameters for
the typical interactive services are shown in the following table
11-50
Interactive services are usually carried in the PS domain. Interactive services have
certain tolerance for call waiting, and the system can provide queuing mechanism. The
Erlang C formula is adopted to do the blocking rate calculation.
(4) The Calculation of the Background Services
Background services have the largest tolerance for time delay, which can reach up to
the hour level. Because of so large tolerance, the system can store such requests
when it is busy, and respond to it while it is idle. Meanwhile, this kind of service can
terminate any time when a request with higher QoS comes in.
Since background services can be initiated and terminated any time by the system,
both of the above-mentioned Erlang B formula and Erlang C formula do not work. The
usual calculation method is to work out the background services traffic that can be
supported according to the result of the maximal channel number of the system less
busy hour average occupied channel number.
With the consideration of the signaling overhead caused by the transmission startup
and temporary termination, the worked out traffic should be multiplied by an efficiency
factor such as 0. 8.
If the calculated traffic value cannot meet the design requirement, the corresponding
needed channels should be added to ensure enough busy hour traffic.
11-51
Radio Network Planning Conclusion
Conclusion
To date, mobile communications technology has developed to the extent that the
border of the many related technologies have blurred: the cross infiltration of base
station and base station controller, (radio) network planning, network optimization, and
the combination of radio side products, etc. The purpose is to improve the radio
products’ market adaptability, the radio network quality, and expansion of the radio
network services. So network planning today is not the one it used to be referred to
before. It’s not confined to a department, but in the context of a technology and service,
and one that denotes broader range. It involves participation and system-formation
from all the radio products departments. It also includes personnel-training mechanism
as well as shift mechanism.
The characteristics of radio system lie in the mobility of the subscribers and the cellular
networking as well. The mobility dictates that the designers have profound
understanding on the complexity and connectivity of the macro radio cellular
networking, that they perceive the demands from the switch office side and analyze
the potential uncertainty of the radio network. One obvious feature is that many radio
personnel in big companies must receive the training on the theory of radio
propagation and practical activities on network drive test and background analysis
before they are to be engaged in any concrete research or project engineering. The
purpose of doing so is to strengthen their understanding on the characteristics of
mobility and cellular networking.
In the following sections we will discuss the duties and responsibilities of network
planning from four perspectives: research on network planning technology, brief
design and participation involved in radio products, radio products marketing strategy,
and turnkey radio products marketing plan preparation.
1 Research on the Network Planning Technology

Research on the network planning technology includes: planning methods and
software implementation, optimization methods and software implementation, the
focus of which in on research, simulation, and experimentation of planning
optimization methods. As for the software implementation, secondary development of
cooperation-aided core algorithm module can be used to save the cost and enhance
the competitiveness. In addition, another important aspect is the good interface
between the planning optimization software and OMC database, as well as good
management on the project. Thus most of the practical project planning optimization
can be done by using the platform that is based on the software to free the front-line
project engineers from the repetitive handiwork to make them focus on how to improve
the network quality.
Broadly speaking, the ultimate purpose of network planning optimization is to establish
a radio network that has good coverage, good quality, good capacity, and good
dynamic adaptability to meet users’ demands on voice and data service. For the
reason hereof, research on planning optimization is the research on networking that is
market-oriented and market-driven. The result of the research can be on the one hand
a planning optimization method for the general mobile system, on the other hand, can
accelerate the development and perfection of the product to meet the networking
demands, or can even present new algorithm, standards, or protocols.
The research topics that can be derived now include: The propagation characteristics
of some mobile communications frequency bands, layered net structure (including the
i
structure inside the system and between the system), new technologies (air interface
coding, voice speed, transceiver diversity technology, multiple access, multiple users
detection, spread spectrum technology, multiple carrier propagation, soft handover,
fast power control, intelligent antenna, new radio frequency devices, etc.), evaluation
on the effect of, and contribution from radio network performance, frequency utilization
ratio and the evolution trend of capacity, traffic module, and data throughput module
and their effect on the network performance, algorithm module in the planning
optimization tools.
2 Participation in the Primary Design of Radio Products
The purpose of networking research is to serve the product development to improve

their market competitiveness. Both the result and the procedure of networking
research have significant guide in the product development.
The result of the networking research can directly be the algorithm of some base
station controllers (channel management, power control, handover management, and
traffic analysis, etc.); It can give advices and assessment on the project establishment,
new function development, and new version concerning the base station controller,
base station, and OMC products from the perspective of networking. A project team
can be set up to co-solve the problems from online that have common features.
Before the primary design of the products, it is very necessary to take the many
complex networking requirements into account. Though the implementation of detailed
functions can be carried out step by step, the overall frame must be far-sighted and
scalable. This can prevent the later non-marketability of the product and inability to
improve the network quality.
3 Radio Products Marketing and Marketing Plan Preparation
The marketing concerned here is the network marketing, what is sold is solution
strategy, including providing solution strategy according to the switch office’s
requirements or even providing solution strategy for market creation for the switch
office. The essence of it is to provide a competitive networking philosophy to meet
carrier and user’s demands in light of technology, cost, and user group. It is especially
competitive and practical if the decision-makers join the practical networking analysis
when deciding the whereabouts of the product according to the market analysis.
On the other hand, when preparing a concrete marketing plan, especially when
concerned with new carrier or new frequency band network, former network being
blank, the manufacturer needs to present whole set of networking plan. The planning
personnel need to construct the future network structure taking into account the radio
side equipment and mature networking. This demands not only the future network
quality and scalability, but also consideration of the radio cost to enhance the tender
competitiveness. For the sake of reaching the best balance between the network
indexes and quotation (investment), the number of base stations, the base
configurations, antenna-feeder selection, frequency spectrum requirement, and
networking are strictly related to the equipment and mature planning methods as well.
This is especially important when concerned with the key project expansion.
For overseas TURNKEY project, tender cost is especially eye-catching. Radio
networking directly demands a series of investment such as equipment house, tower,
power supply, and propagation. The planning personnel need to decide the
appropriate networking in light of the equipment performance, and mature planning
methods and to reduce the radio cost at the prerequisite of ensuring the later network
indexes. A simple example is, the higher the frequency utilization ratio, the greater the
ii
base station configuration, and the fewer the number of base stations, thus reducing
the total cost significantly.
4 Radio Project Implementation

Project implementation is that part of the cycle that finally turns over the network to the
users. At this phase, the planning personnel, as well as the project manager, perform
thorough coordination and communication in light of project progress, turnover method,
and quality control.
In the field where the project is being implemented, the planning personnel, as the
persons in charge of the network quality, must assist in setting up the pre-warning
mechanism for the network quality, report to the leader of the switch office, and take
part in the training, and planning optimization.
Meantime, the planning personnel must prepare the next-phase expansion new
construction plan according to the implementation progress and actively guide the
switch office.
It is very important for the project manager to familiarize himself with the planning
optimization service. It helps the project manager to consider the project
implementation in all directions of networking, and to allocate the resources effectively
according to the urgency in case urgent situations arise.
The characteristics of radio products fully explain the importance of networking
research for market survival. But it takes a lot of efforts to train successfully a
professional networking researcher or a team with such spirit in mind. Department
barriers must be broken, abundant opportunities must be available, and managerial
convenience must be given to such personnel for them to participate in the whole flow
and get experienced in all parts of the cycle. This is the steps that we take to nurture
our personnel in the field of radio network: practical installation and test of radio
equipmentÆoptimization/planning of the networkÆparticipation in technical support
and IPD requirement management and analysis, exercise, experience summarization,
theoretical improvementÆoutput to the departments or become a professional
network researcher. Personnel of other radio-related departments can also take part in
some of the practices to improve their understanding on networking.
Author
October 2001
iii
Radio Network Planning Reference Documents
Reference Documents
1. Related protocols of GSM and WCDMA

2. Related product technical Manuals of Huawei
3. Communication Principles by Fan Changxing
4. Key Technologies in Mobile Communications by Wu Weiling
5. Principle and Implementation of Intelligent Antenna by Li Shihe
6. Key Technologies of WCDMA by Zhang Ping
7. Data Configuration Specifications of GSM BSS&PCU Network Planning Huawei
Network Planning
8. Related special material and antenna manufacturer’s material
9. And so on

Huawei Radio NetWork Planning User GuideV1.0

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Huawei Radio NetWork Planning User GuideV1.0

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Radio Network Planning Table of contents

Radio Network Planning

Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd.

Radio Network Planning

Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd provides customers with omni-

Copyright © 2001 by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd.

All Rights Reserved

No part of this document may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any

TELLIN, InfoLink, Netkey, Quidway, SYNLOCK, Radium, , M900/M1800,

The information in this document is subject to change without notice. Although

All Rights Reserved.

, HUAWEI(R), 华为(R), C&C08(R), EAST8000(R), HONET(R), 视点(R), ViewPoint(R),

INtess , ETS(R), 万维通快车站(R), DMC(R), SBS(R), TELLIN(R), InfoLink(R), Netkey(R),

Quidway(R), SYNLOCK(R), Radium(R), 雷 霆 (R), (R)

y Installation and maintenance engineers

Chapter 1 Network Planning Overview ..................................................................................... 1-12

4.1.6 Three-sector base station antenna selection derivation ......................................... 4-8

5.6.3 Calculation of location areas ................................................................................. 4-25

Chapter 8 Traffic Statistics......................................................................................................... 8-40

9.4.6 Traffic Analysis ...................................................................................................... 8-20

11.1.9 Packet System Message..................................................................................... 11-9

Chapter 1 Network Planning Overview

1.1 Network Planning Flow

Figure 1-1 Network Planning Flow

frequency band, information of the increase of the system, population distribution,

1.2 Network Pre-planning

1.2.1 Outline of the Network Pre-planning

1.2.2 Pre-planning Foundation

I. Service Area Requirements and Traffic

II. Information of the Adjacent Network

III. Landform and Field Object Data

1.2.3 Pre-planning Process

(1) Type of the Coverage Area

II. Network Structure Analysis

III. Capacity Analysis

(1) Capacity Prediction

The traffic calculation formula is: A= n /3600

Figure 1-2 Cell Splitting (1 in 4) Schematic Diagram

IV. Station Address Planning

V. Parameter Design of the Base Station Engineering

VI. Coverage Prediction

The coverage prediction is to predict the coverage of the network to be constructed,

VII. Frequency Planning

VIII. LAC Planning

IX. Cell Data Making

1.2.4 Pre-planning Difficulties

Chapter 2 GSM Air Interface

2.1 GSM System Introduction

NMC DPPS PCS SEMC

OSS: Operation and Maintenance Subsystem

BTS: Base Transceiver Station

Figure 2-1 GSM System Structure

Figure 2-2 GSM Area Classification

2.2 Radio Channel Structure

2.2.1 Time Slot and Frame Structure

The Um interface integrates such technologies as Frequency Dividion Multiple Access

Figure 2-3 The concept of time slot

Figure 2-4 The TDMA frame structure of the channel

The explanation for the above figure is as follows:

Figure 2-5 Several kinds of Burst structure

2.2.2 Physical Channel

I. 1. Frequency domain description

(1) The working frequency band of the GSM system

Uplink (MS BTS): 890 915MHz 1710 1785MHz

Quidway(R), SYNLOCK(R), Radium(R), 雷霆 (R), (R)

v = −H 2/(1/d 1 + 1/d 2 ) (3-

The formula shows that n is a natural number, when is 2n 1 , it can