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 0097-8078/05/3203- © 2005
MAIK “Nauka
  /Interperiodica”0305
 
 
Water Resources, Vol. 32, No. 3, 2005, pp. 305–313. Translated from Vodnye Resursy, Vol. 32, No. 3, 2005, pp. 337–346.Original Russian Text Copyright © 2005 by Ostroumov.
 INTRODUCTIONThe role of self-purification increases due to the dete-rioration of natural water quality [5, 13, 29] andincreased anthropogenic load on water bodies andstreams [4, 9, 13, 21, 22, 26, 29]. The self-purification of aquatic ecosystems and water quality formation is con-trolled by many [1–3, 6–13, 15–19, 21, 22, 24, 33, 35].The objective of this study is to systematize theknowledge about the polyfunctional role of aquaticbiota (aquatic animals) in the self-purification of waterbodies and streams and briefly present the qualitativetheory of the self-purification mechanism of aquaticecosystems. The synthesis and structurization of mate-rial was made at the conceptual level without detailedreviews of works.MAJOR PROCESSES CONTRIBUTINGTO WATER SELF-PURIFICATIONIN AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMSThe formation of water quality and its purification inaquatic ecosystems is governed by physical, chemical[24], and biotic [1–3, 6–13, 15–19, 21, 22, 24, 33, 35]processes (Table 1).The physical and chemical processes of water self-purification are often controlled by biological factors orstrongly dependent on them. Thus, the redox state of the aquatic environment, which forms with the participa-tion of
H
 
2
 O
 
2
 released by microalgae in the light [22, 24],is of importance for a decrease in the toxic effect of some pollutants. The amount of
H
 
2
 O
 
2
 released into theaquatic environment was estimated at 10
 
–5
 mol/(l day).The concentration of
H
 
2
 O
 
2
 in the Volga was found toequal up to
10
 
 –6
  –10
 
 –5
 mol/l, which was supported bymeasurements made by E.V. Shtamm and other authors[22, 24].An important process is gravitational sedimentationof suspended particles both of biotic and abiotic nature.The sedimentation of phytoplankton sedimentationdepends on water temperature
T.
 It is equal to 0.3–1.5,0.4–1.7, and 0.4–2.0 m/day at
T
= 15, 20, and 25
 °
 C,respectively. According to our data, the sedimentationvelocity of Lymnaea stagnalis pellets varies from 0.6 to1.4 cm/s with a mean value of 0.82 cm/s (at
T
=
22– 24°ë
 ) [22].Experiments with traps for suspended particlesshowed that suspended matter precipitates onto the bed of the Moskva River with a mean rate of 2.3 mg per 1 cm
 
2
 of the bed surface per day, that is, 23.1 g per 1 m
 
2
 of thebed surface per day; the proportion of C
 
org
 in these sed-iments is 64.5% [34].Organic matter oxidation and water filtration byaquatic animals are among the biotic processes contrib-uting to water purification.The overall oxidation of organic matter by the entirecommunity can be expressed either in absolute or in rel-ative units, for example, as the ratio of energy expendi-ture to the exchange (total respiration
 R
 ) by aquatic ani-mals to their total biomass
 B
 . This ratio
(
  R
  / 
  B
 )
 
e
 isreferred to as Schrodinger ratio. The subscript “e” isintroduced to show that the estimation is made for theecosystem as a whole. In the water bodies where pri-mary production exceeds the total respiration of thecommunity, this ratio averages 2.99–6.1 [2], but it canbe even greater in some water bodies. For example, theSchrodinger ratio is 17.0 in Lake Lyubevoe in Lenin-grad province and 33.8 in Lake Zun-Torei east of LakeBaikal [2]. It is believed that the primary production inthese lakes is much less than the total respiration and alarge amount of organic matter delivered from outsideis oxidized here.Many aquatic animals contribute to organic matteroxidation, but particular role in this oxidation belongsto bacteria [19]. The total population of heterotrophicbacterioplankton in the Mozhaisk Reservoir in June andJuly amounted to (1.36–5.9)
×
 10
 
9
 (samples were takenat a depth of 0.1–1 m), and the population of hydrocar-bon-oxidizing bacteria was (0.4–5)
×
 10
 
6
 cell/ml [7].The rate of water filtration by some aquatic animals(sea squirts, barnacles, pearlweeds, echinoderms,
 On Some Issues of Maintaining Water Quality and Self-Purification
 S. A. Ostroumov
  Moscow State University, Leninskie Gory, Moscow, 119992 Russia
 Received August, 4, 2003
 Abstract
 —Generalizations presented in this paper represent, in systematized form, the basic elements of thequalitative theory of water self-purification in freshwater and marine ecosystems. Recommendations are givenfor maintaining water quality and sustainable development of water resources. Results of experimental studiesof the effect exerted by Triton X-100 and OMO synthetic detergent on mollusks Unio tumidus.
 WATER QUALITY AND PROTECTION:ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS
 
 306
 WATER RESOURCES
 
Vol. 32
 
No. 3
 
2005
 OSTROUMOV
 Table 1.
Some factors and processes of water self-purification [13, 22]. (DOM is dissolved organic matter)Factors and processes of water self-purificationCommentsPhysical and physicochemical processesDissolution and dilutionMechanical transfer of water masses can depend on the abun-dance of macrophytes;Transfer to the shoreThe sameTransfer to neighboring water bodies and streamsThe sameSorption by suspended particles with subsequent sedimentationDepends on the concentration of suspended particles of biog-enous nature in waterSorption by bottom sedimentsDepends of the concentration of organic matter of biogenous nature in bottom sedimentsEvaporationMay depend on the surface film, the properties of whichdepend on the composition of DOMChemical processesHysrolysisMay depend on pH which changes during planktonicphotosynthesisPhotochemical transformationsDepends on the concentration of photosensitizers obiogenous nature and water transparency, which, in its turn,depends on planktonRedoxcatalytic transformationsConcentration of catalytically active form of metal ion depends on the pH of the environment, which, in its turn,depends on the photosynthetic activity of planktonTransformations involving free radicalsDepend on the concentration of H
 
2
 O
 
2
 that forms with the par-ticipation of aquatic animals (photosensitized transformation of DOM, release by microalgae)Decrease in the toxicity of pollutants as a result of binding with DOMDepends on DOM of biogenous nature; the role of humicacids is possibleChemical oxidation of pollutant with the participation of oxygenDepends on O
 
2
 release into water during photosynthesisBiological processesRelease of O
 
2
 taking part in many reactions of pollutantoxidationThe samePorption and accumulation of pollutants and nutrients byaquatic animalsDepends on the population and activity of aquatic animalsBiotransformation (redoxreactions, destruction, conjugation)The sameExtracellular enzymatic transformation of pollutantsDepends on the population and activity of aquatic animalsRemoval of suspended particles and pollutants from watercolumn as a result of water filtration by aquatic animalsIs inhibited under the effect of some pollutants (surfactants, synthetic detergents) [33]Removal of pollutants from water as a result of sorptionby pellets excreted by aquatic animalsPellet formation is reduced when feeding of aquatic animals is inhibitedRelease into water of organic matter, which can be usedby bacteria or exert a regulatory effect on themOrganic matter release by phytoplankton was recorded.Higher aquatic plants also release exometabolitesRelease into water of organic matter that serves as a photosensi-tizer of pollutant photolysis or predecessors of photosensitizersDepends on the population and functional activity of aquatic animalsRelease into water of organic matter (or predecessors of such matter), which will bind with pollutants with the formationof less toxic complexesThe sameRelease into water of organic matter (or predecessors of such matter), which participate in free-radical and redox–catalytic mechanisms of pollutant destructionMicroalgae release hydrogen peroxideRelease into water of vitamins, which are necessary for thevital activity of some aquatic animals, participating inself-purification of aquatic ecosystemsWater of lakes and pools contains,
µ
 g/l: vitamin B12 (0.001–0.85), thiamine (0.001–12), biotin (0.0001–0.1), niacin (up to 3.3), pantothenic acid (up to 0.26), and others vitamins [35]Release or inactivation of part of bacteria, including pathogenic strainsTakes place at filtration activity of aquatic animals; can take place under the effect of metabolites of aquatic animalsPrevention or hampering of the release of nutrients and pollut-ants from bottom sediments into water; accumulation and binding of nutrients and pollutants by benthic organismsDepends on the population and functional activity of benthosBiotransformation and sorption of pollutants in soil during soil watering by wastewatersDepends on the soil biocenosesRegulation of the population and activity of organisms partic-ipating in the processes of water purification as a result of organism-to-organism interactionDepends on the preservation of intact community
 
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 ON SOME ISSUES OF MAINTAINING WATER QUALITY AND SELF-PURIFICATION307
 bivalves, gastropods, polychaetes, and sponges) com-monly amount to 1–9 l/h per 1 g of de-ashed dry massof their body [21, 22]. The dependence of filtration rateFR, l/h, on the mass of the aquatic animal DW, g, canbe described by the power function [1, 22]
 FR =
a
 DW
 
b
 ,(1)
 were DW is the dry weight of soft tissues, g.The values of coefficient
a
 for some mollusk speciesvary from 6.8 to 11.6, and those of coefficient
b
liebetween 0.66 and 0.92 [22].The rate of water filtration by five mollusk species con-verted to the area of their gills is about 1.2–1.9 ml/min per1 cm
 
2
 [22].The total rate of water filtration by populations of macroinvertebrates (mollusks, sea squirts, polychaetes)was estimated at 1–10 m
 
3
 per 1 m
 
2
 of the bed of theaquatic ecosystem per 1 day [13, 22]. Additional dataon the filtration activity of aquatic animals is given inTables 2 and 3.THE MAJOR COMPONENTS OF THE SELF-PURIFICATION MECHANISMOF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMSThe hydrobiological self-purification mechanism of aquatic ecosystems incorporates three types of compo-nents [21, 22]: filtration activity of organisms (“filters”)[30]; the mechanisms of transfer of chemicals from oneecological compartment into another (from onemedium into another); splitting pollutant molecules.The processes and aquatic animals that serve as fil-ters [21, 22, 30]: invertebrate filter-feeders [1, 25];coastal macrophytes, which retain some nutrients andpollutants delivered into water from neighboring areas;benthos, which retains and absorbs part of nutrients andpollutants at the water–bottom sediment interface;microorganisms sorbed on particulates that movewithin water column due to sedimentation of particlesunder the effect of gravity; as a result, the water massand microorganisms moves relative to one another,which is equivalent to the situation when water movesthrough a porous substrate with microorganismsattached to walls [30]. Precipitation of a suspended par-ticle, that is, its movement with respect to water,enhances O
 
2
 exchange between the sorbed bacteria andthe aquatic medium [6].The processes and aquatic animals that serve aspumps [21, 22]: facilitating the transfer of part of pol-lutant from the water column into bottom sediments(e.g., sedimentation, sorption); transferring part of pol-lutant from the water column into the atmosphere(evaporation); transferring part of nutrients from waterinto the territory of neighboring terrestrial ecosystemsbecause of the emergence of imago of aquatic insects;transfer of part of nutrients from water onto the territoryof neighboring terrestrial ecosystems through fish-eat-ing birds, which withdraw fish biomass from water.The processes and aquatic animals that serve asmills and split pollutants [21, 22]: intracellular enzy-matic processes; processes catalyzed by extracellularenzymes; decomposition of pollutants by photolysis:photochemical processes, sensitized by nutrients;destruction of pollutants in the free-radical processeswith the participation of biogenous ligands [24].ENERGY SOURCES FOR BIOTIC SELF-PURIFICATION MECHANISMS OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMSThe processes of biotic self-purification of watertake energy from the following sources: photosynthe-sis, oxidation of autochthonous and allochthonousorganic matter; other redox reactions. Thus, practically
 Table 2.
Characteristics of filtration activity of some aquatic animals [22]. Here and in Tables 3, 6, dash means no data availableAnimal speciesWet weight (mean),
 
 , gWater filtration by oneanimal
 , ml/daySpecific filtration activity, ml/mg of wet weight per 1 day,
  /WKeratella quadrata0.001020*0.25246.0Filinia sp.0.000855*0.40468.0Epiphanes brachionus0.001800*0.29161.0Bosmina longirosris0.016000*6.55409.3Cladoceras, various species2040 (rarely to 130) Copepods, various species24 (sometimes to 27) Unio pictorum, length 91100 mm72.400(with the shell)1238** 17*** Dreissena polymorpha0.065 (dry weightwithout shell)500–700** –Plumatella fungosa2.2 ml per 1 mg dry weightof the colony per hourCyprinotus carolinensis~4
 * mg. ** ml/h.*** ml/g per 1 h.

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