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Fiber Optics
Fiber optics uses light to send information
(data). More formally, fiber optics is the branch of optical technology concerned with the transmission of radiant power (light energy) through fibers. Light frequencies used in fiber optic systems are 100,000 to 400,000 GHz.
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In 1930, John Logie Baird, an English scientist and Clarence W. Hansell, an American scientist, was granted patents for scanning and transmitting television images through uncoated cables.
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In 1951, Abraham C.S. van Heel of Holland and Harold H. Hopkins and Narinder S. Kapany of England experimented with light transmission through bundles of fibers. Their studies led to the development of the flexible fiberscope, which used extensively in the medical field.
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In 1958, Charles H. Townes, an American, and Arthur L. Schawlow, a Canadian, wrote a paper describing how it was possible to use stimulated emission for amplifying light waves (laser) as well as microwaves (maser).
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In 1967, Charles K. Kao and George A. Bockham proposed using cladded fiber cables.
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Input
A/D Interface
Voltage-tocurrent Converter
Light
Source
Source-tofiber interface
Optical Fiber
Light
Detector
Current-tocurrent converter
A/D Interface
Output
Optical Receiver
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Modes of Propagation
Single mode there is only one path for
light to take down the cable
Cladding
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Index Profiles
A graphical representation of the value of the refractive index across the fiber
StepStep-index fiber it has a central core with a uniform refractive index. The core is surrounded by an outside cladding with a uniform refractive index less than that of the central core GradeGrade-index fiber has no cladding, and the refractive index of the core is nonuniform; it is highest at the center and decreases gradually toward the outer edge
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SingleSingle-Mode Step-Index Fiber StepAdvantages: There is minimum dispersion. Because all rays propagating down the fiber take approximately the same path, they take approximately the same amount of time to travel down the cable. Because of the high accuracy in reproducing transmitted pulses at the receive end, larger bandwidths and higher information transmission rates are possible with single- mode step-index fibers singlestepthan with other types of fiber. Disadvantages: Because the central core is very small, it is difficult to couple light into and out of this type of fiber. The source-to-fiber aperture is the source-tosmallest of all the fiber types. A highly directive light source such as laser is required. It is expensive and difficult to manufacture.
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Multimode Step-Index Fiber StepAdvantages: Inexpensive and easy to manufacture. It is easy to couple light into and out; they have a relatively high large source-to-fiber aperture. source-toDisadvantages: Light rays take many different paths down the fiber, which results in large differences in their propagation times. Because of this, rays traveling down this type of fiber have a tendency to spread out. The bandwidth and rate of information transfer possible with this type of cable are less than the other types.
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Index Profile
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Numerical Aperture
For a step-index fiber: And NA = Sin (Acceptance Angle) NA =
For a Graded-Index: NA = sin (Critical Angle) The acceptance angle of a fiber is expressed in terms of numerical aperture. The numerical aperture (NA) is defined as the sine of one half of the acceptance angle of the fiber. It is a figure of merit that is used to describe the light-gathering or light-collecting ability of the optical fiber. The larger the magnitude of NA, the greater the amount of light accepted by the fiber from the external light source. Typical NA values are 0.1 to 0.4 which correspond to acceptance angles of 11 degrees to 46 degrees. Optical fibers will only transmit light that enters at an angle that is equal to or less than the 26 acceptance angle for the particular fiber.
L = the length of fiber in kilometers Therefore the unit of attenuation is expressed as dB/km
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Absorption Losses
to power dissipation in copper cables; impurities in the fiber absorb the light and convert it to heat. Absorption in optical fibers is explained by three factors:
Imperfections in the atomic structure of the fiber material The intrinsic or basic fiber-material properties The extrinsic (presence of impurities) fiber-material properties
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Absorption
Essentially, there are three factors that
contribute to the absorption losses in optical fibers:
ultraviolet absorption, infrared absorption, ion resonance absorption.
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Ultraviolet Absorption
Is caused by valence electrons in the silica
material from which fibers are manufactured. Light ionizes the valence electrons into conduction. The ionization is equivalent to a loss in the total light field and, consequently contributes to the transmission losses of the fiber.
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Infrared Absorption
Is a result of photons of light that are
absorbed by the atoms of the glass core molecules. The absorbed photons are converted to random mechanical vibrations typical of heating.
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Radiation Losses
Radiation losses are caused by small bends and
kinks in the fiber. Essentially, there are two types of bends:
Microbends and constant-radius bends. constant Microbending occurs as a result of differences in the thermal
contraction rates between the core and cladding material. A microbend represents a discontinuity in the fiber where Rayleigh scattering can occur.
Constant-radius bends occur where fibers are bent Constantduring handling or installation.
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Modal Dispersion
caused by the difference in the propagation times of light rays that take different paths down a fiber. Obviously, modal dispersion can occur only in multimode fibers. It can be reduced considerably by using graded-index fibers gradedand almost entirely eliminated by singlesinglemode step-index fibers. step37
Coupling Losses
Coupling losses can occur in any of the
following three types of optical junctions: light source-to-fiber connections, fiber-tosource-tofiber-tofiber connections, and fiber-tofiber-tophotodetector connections. Junction losses are most often caused by one of the following alignment problems: lateral misalignment, gap misalignment, angular misalignment, and imperfect surface finishes.
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Coupling Losses
Loss Loss
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Light Sources
There are two devices commonly used to
generate light for fiber optic communications systems: light-emitting lightdiodes (LEDs) and injection laser diodes (ILDs). Both devices have advantages and disadvantages and the selection of one device over the other is determined by system economic and performance requirements.
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n-t e s str te
-e it xi l l er
n-e it xi l l er
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The Burrus etched-well LED etched For the more practical application
such as telecommunications, data rates in excess of 100 Mbps are required. The Burrus etched-well etchedLED emits light in many directions. The etched well helps concentrate the emitted light to a very small area. These devices are more efficient than the standard surface emitters and they allow more power to be coupled into the optical fiber, but they are also more difficult to manufacture and more expensive.
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EdgeEdge-Emitting Diode
These LEDs emit a more directional light
pattern than do the surface-emitting LEDs. surfaceThe light is emitted from an active stripe and forms an elliptical beam. SurfaceSurfaceemitting LEDs are more commonly used than edge emitters because they emit more light. However, the coupling losses with surface emitters are greater and they have narrower bandwidths.
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Light Detectors
There are two devices that are commonly
used to detect light energy in fiber optic communications receivers: PIN (p-type(p-typeintrinsicintrinsic-n-type) diodes and APD (avalanche photodiodes).
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PIN Diode
Assignment
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Avalanche Photodiode
Assignment
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LooseLoose-Tube Cable
and protect optical fibers. A gel filling compound impedes water penetration. Excess fiber length (relative to buffer tube length) insulates fibers from stresses of installation and environmental loading. Buffer tubes are stranded around a dielectric or steel central member, which serves as an anti-buckling element. anti The cable core, typically surrounded by aramid yarn, is the primary tensile strength member. The outer polyethylene jacket is extruded over the core. If armoring is required, a corrugated steel tape is formed around a single jacketed cable with an additional jacket extruded over the armor. Coated FiberOuter JacketSteel Tape Armor Inner Jacket Aramid Strength MemberBinderInterstitial FillingCentral Member (Steel Wire or Dielectric) Interstitial FillingLoose Tube Cable Loose-tube cables typically are used for outside-plant installation in Looseoutsideaerial, duct and direct-buried applications. direct57
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TightTight-Buffered Cable
With tight-buffered cable designs, the buffering material tightis in direct contact with the fiber. This design is suited for "jumper cables" which connect outside plant cables to terminal equipment, and also for linking various devices in a premises network. Multi-fiber, tight-buffered cables often are used for intraMultitightintrabuilding, risers, general building and plenum applications. The tight-buffered design provides a rugged cable tightstructure to protect individual fibers during handling, routing and cable connection. Yarn strength members keep the tensile load away from the fiber. As with loose-tube cables, optical specifications for tightloosetightbuffered cables also should include the maximum performance of all fibers over the operating temperature range and life of the cable. Averages should not be 59 acceptable.
TightTight-Buffered Cable
PVC Jacket (Non-Plenum) or Fluoride Co-Polymer Jacket (Plenum)
Tight-buffered Cable
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Fiber Connectors
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Optical Splices
together, there are other methods that result in much lower loss splices. Two of the most common and popular are the mechanical splice and the fusion splice. Both are capable of splice losses in the range of 0.15 dB (3%) to 0.1 dB (2%). In a mechanical splice, the ends of two pieces of fiber are cleaned and stripped, then carefully butted together and aligned using a mechanical assembly. A gel is used at the point of contact to reduce light reflection and keep the splice loss at a minimum. The ends of the fiber are held together by friction or compression, and the splice assembly features a locking mechanism so that the fibers remained aligned. A fusion splice, by contrast, involves actually melting (fusing) together the ends of two pieces of fiber. The result is a continuous fiber without a break. Fusion splices require special expensive splicing equipment but can be performed very quickly, so the cost becomes reasonable if done in quantity. As fusion splices are fragile, mechanical devices are usually employed to protect them.
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based upon the signal to be transmitted (Analog, Digital, Audio, Video, RS-232, RS-422, RS-485, etc.). RSRSRSDetermine the operating power available (AC, DC, etc.). Determine the special modifications (if any) necessary (Impedances, Bandwidths, Special Connectors, Special Fiber Size, etc.). Calculate the total optical loss (in dB) in the system by adding the cable loss, splice loss, and connector loss. These parameters should be available from the manufacturer of the electronics and fiber. Compare the loss figure obtained with the allowable optical loss budget of the receiver. Be certain to add a safety margin factor of at least 3 dB to the entire system. Check that the fiber bandwidth is adequate to pass the signal desired. 64
Breakout Cable
construction to insure EMI immunity. These cables are obtainable in a wide range of fiber counts and can be used for routing within buildings, in riser shafts, and under computer room floors. The Breakout design enables the individual routing, or "fanning", of individual fibers for termination and maintenance. In addition to the standard duty 2.4 mm subunit design, a 2.9 mm heavy duty and a 2.0 mm light duty design are also available.
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Interconnect Cable
Cable for interconnecting equipment is available in
singlesingle-mode and multimode fiber sizes and its all dielectric construction provides EMI immunity . Available in one- and two-fiber designs, these cables onetwoare optimized for ease of connectorization and use as "jumpers" for intra-building distribution. intraIts small diameter and bend radius provide easy installation in constrained areas. This cable can be ordered for plenum or riser environments. Products include single fiber cable, two-fiber Zipcord, and two-fiber DIB Cable. Uncabled fiber, coated only with a thermoplastic buffer, is also available for pigtail applications with inside equipment.
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Features
Different fiber types available within a cable
(hybrid construction). Lowest losses at long distances, for use in duct aerial, and direct buried applications. Wide range of fiber counts (up to 216). Available with single--mode and multimode fiber singletypes. All dielectric or steel central member. Loose Tube Cable is also available with armored construction for added protection.
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Features
Strength members in cable sheath (not in
cable core). Non-metallic cable core.
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Tactical/Military Cable
Tactical cable utilizes a tight buffer configuration
in an all dielectric construction. The tight buffer design offers increased ruggedness, ease of handling and connectorization. The absence of metallic components decreases the possibility of detection and minimizes system problems associated with electromagnetic interference.
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Features
ruggedized connectors. Lightweight and flexible: no anti--buckling antielements required. Available in connectorized cable assemblies. Available with 50, 62.5 and 100 micron multimode fibers, as well as single--mode single-and radiation--hardened fibers. radiation77
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Cont.
For a system to be TEMPEST qualified, it must
be tested in accordance with MIL-STD-285, and MILit must also meet the requirements stated in NSA 65-6. All elements of the system, individually and combined, must meet the TEMPEST standard. In the case of fiber optics, the "system" consists of the cable (which is dielectric and non-conductive), and the tube through which the cable passes.
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