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Contents
CONTENTS .................................................................................................................................................... I GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................................................ VII ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................................................................ X CHAPTER 1: UMTS, THE DEFINITION OF A NEW ERA ........................................................................ 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................ 1 1.2 BACKGROUND AND STANDARDISATION .................................................................................................... 1 1.2.1 Background in Europe ..................................................................................................................... 1 1.2.2 Background in Japan ....................................................................................................................... 3 1.2.3 Background in China ....................................................................................................................... 4 1.2.4 Creation of 3GPP ............................................................................................................................ 4 1.2.5 Creation of 3GPP2 .......................................................................................................................... 5 1.3 IMT-2000 AND UMTS............................................................................................................................. 6 1.3.1 IMT-2000 Process in ITU ................................................................................................................ 6 1.3.2 UMTS ............................................................................................................................................. 8 1.4 UMTS AS THE 3RD GENERATION SYSTEM ................................................................................................ 11 1.4.1 Main Service Differences Between 2G and 3G ............................................................................... 11 1.4.2 New Roles and Relationships for UMTS ......................................................................................... 12 1.4.3 Work Regulations .......................................................................................................................... 13 1.4.4 UMTS Services and Applications ................................................................................................... 13 1.4.5 UMTS Advanced Concepts............................................................................................................. 14 1.4.6 Network Operators Functions ....................................................................................................... 14 1.4.7 Technological Progress Impact...................................................................................................... 15 CHAPTER 2: ARCHITECTURE OVERVIEW .......................................................................................... 16 2.1 GENERAL OVERVIEW OF THE SYSTEM .................................................................................................... 16 2.2 USER EQUIPMENT (UE).......................................................................................................................... 16 2.2.1 Schematic of the Receiver for UTRAN - Outdoor ............................................................................ 17 2.3 THE ACCESS NETWORK: UTRAN........................................................................................................... 19 2.3.1 RNS Architecture ........................................................................................................................... 19 2.3.2 UTRAN Architecture...................................................................................................................... 20 2.4 CORE NETWORK .................................................................................................................................... 21 2.4.1 Serving Network ............................................................................................................................ 21 I UMTS Overview July 2001
2.4.2 Home Network ...............................................................................................................................22 2.4.3 Transit Network .............................................................................................................................22 2.4.4 Interfaces and Their Function ........................................................................................................22 2.5 MOBILITY ..............................................................................................................................................22 CHAPTER 3: CDMA TECHNIQUE ............................................................................................................25 3.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................25 3.2 ACCESS METHODS FDMA, TDMA, CDMA, FDD VS. TDD ....................................................................25 3.2.1 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) .................................................................................25 3.2.2 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)..........................................................................................26 3.2.3 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) .........................................................................................27 3.2.4 FDD vs. TDD ................................................................................................................................28 3.3 INTRODUCTION TO SPREADING AND MODULATION ..................................................................................28 3.3.1 Orthogonal Codes..........................................................................................................................30 3.3.2 RAKE Receiver ..............................................................................................................................33 3.3.3 Spread Spectrum Goals ..................................................................................................................34 3.3.4 Code Properties .............................................................................................................................35 3.4 SOFT AND HARD HANDOVER ..................................................................................................................35 3.4.1 Handover.......................................................................................................................................35 3.4.2 Soft Handover ................................................................................................................................36 3.4.3 Softer Handover.............................................................................................................................36 3.5 POWER CONTROL ...................................................................................................................................36 3.5.1 Inner Loop Power Control - Uplink ................................................................................................39 3.5.2 Outer Loop Power Control (SIR target adjustment) -Uplink............................................................40 3.5.3 Open Loop Power Control - Uplink ................................................................................................40 3.5.4 Inner Loop Power Control - Downlink ...........................................................................................41 3.5.5 Outer Loop Power Control - Downlink ...........................................................................................41 3.5.6 Open Loop Power Control - Downlink ...........................................................................................41 CHAPTER 4: AIR INTERFACE..................................................................................................................42 4.1 RADIO TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION ..................................................................................................42 4.1.1 Frequency Band.............................................................................................................................42 4.1.2 Channel Arrangement ....................................................................................................................42 4.1.3 Tx-Rx Frequency Separation ..........................................................................................................42 4.1.4 Terminal Service Classes ...............................................................................................................42 4.1.5 Receiver Requirements ...................................................................................................................43 4.1.6 Diversity Characteristics................................................................................................................43 4.2 LOGICAL, PHYSICAL AND TRANSPORT CHANNELS ...................................................................................43 4.2.1 Transport Channels: ......................................................................................................................44 II UMTS Overview July 2001
4.2.2 Physical Channels: ........................................................................................................................ 45 4.2.3 Mapping of Transport Channels to Physical Channels ................................................................... 52 4.3 SPREADING, SCRAMBLING AND MODULATION ........................................................................................ 53 4.3.1 Uplink Spreading, Scrambling and Modulation .............................................................................. 53 4.3.2 Downlink Spreading, Scrambling and Modulation.......................................................................... 56 4.4 TRANSPORT CHANNEL CODING AND MULTIPLEXING CHAIN .................................................................... 57 4.4.1 Channel Coding ............................................................................................................................ 58 4.4.2 Inner Inter-Frame Interleaving ...................................................................................................... 60 4.4.3 Rate Matching ............................................................................................................................... 60 4.4.4 Transport-Channel Multiplexing .................................................................................................... 61 4.4.5 Inner Intra-Frame Interleaving ...................................................................................................... 61 4.5 SERVICE MULTIPLEXING ........................................................................................................................ 61 4.6 TRAFFIC CASES (EXAMPLES) .................................................................................................................. 63 4.6.1 Continuous Transmission in Uplink with Variable Rate .................................................................. 63 4.6.2 Discontinuous Transmission (DTx) in Downlink with Variable Rate (1) .......................................... 63 4.6.3 Discontinuous Transmission (DTx) in Downlink with Variable Rate (2).......................................... 64 4.7 INITIAL CELL SEARCH ............................................................................................................................ 64 4.7.1 Step 1: Slot Synchronisation .......................................................................................................... 65 4.7.2 Step 2: Frame Synchronisation and Code Group Identification ...................................................... 65 4.7.3 Step 3: Scrambling Code Identification .......................................................................................... 66 4.7.4 Idle Mode Cell Search ................................................................................................................... 66 4.7.5 Active Mode Cell Search................................................................................................................ 66 4.8 PACKET ACCESS .................................................................................................................................... 67 4.8.1 Common Channel Packet Access ................................................................................................... 67 4.8.2 Dedicated Channel Single Packet Transmission ............................................................................. 67 4.8.3 Dedicated Channel Multi-Packet Transmission .............................................................................. 68 CHAPTER 5: RADIO THEORY ................................................................................................................. 69 5.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................... 69 5.1.1 Radio Waves and Modulations ....................................................................................................... 69 5.1.2 Access Methods ............................................................................................................................. 71 5.2 RADIO TRANSMISSION PROPERTIES AND PROBLEMS ................................................................................ 72 5.2.1 Needed vs. Available Capacity ....................................................................................................... 72 5.2.2 Path Loss ...................................................................................................................................... 72 5.2.3 Shadowing..................................................................................................................................... 73 5.2.4 Multi-Path Propagation................................................................................................................. 74 5.2.5 Time Dispersion ............................................................................................................................ 75 5.3 RADIO TRANSMISSION OPTIMISATIOIN TECHNIQUES ............................................................................... 75 5.3.1 Access Methods: Capacity vs Interference ...................................................................................... 75 III UMTS Overview July 2001
5.3.2 Diversity ........................................................................................................................................77 5.3.3 Error Detection and Correction .....................................................................................................78 CHAPTER 6: USER EQUIPMENT (UE).....................................................................................................81 6.1 TERMINALS IN THE GENERAL UMTS SYSTEM .........................................................................................81 6.1.1 User Equipment Domain ................................................................................................................82 6.2 APPLICATIONS OF THE UE ......................................................................................................................83 6.3 MULTIMEDIA USER EQUIPMENT .............................................................................................................84 6.4 UMTS SUBSCRIBER IDENTITY MODULE (USIM) .....................................................................................86 6.5 TECHNOLOGY OF THE TERMINALS ..........................................................................................................88 CHAPTER 7: UMTS TERRESTRIAL RADIO ACCES NETWORK (UTRAN) .......................................90 7.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................90 7.2 UTRAN MAIN ASPECTS.........................................................................................................................90 7.2.1 General Principles .........................................................................................................................90 7.2.2 Capabilities ...................................................................................................................................90 7.2.3 UTRAN and GSM BSS (GSM Base Station Subsystem) ...................................................................91 7.3 UTRAN SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE ...........................................................................................................92 7.3.1 UMTS General System Architecture ...............................................................................................92 7.3.2 UTRAN Architecture ......................................................................................................................92 7.4 UTRAN NODES .....................................................................................................................................93 7.4.1 Node B ..........................................................................................................................................93 7.4.2 The Radio Network Controller (RNC).............................................................................................95 7.5 UTRAN INTERFACES .............................................................................................................................95 7.5.1 General Principles for UTRAN Interfaces ......................................................................................95 7.5.2 Iu Interface ....................................................................................................................................96 7.5.3 Iur Interface...................................................................................................................................98 7.5.4 Iub Interface ................................................................................................................................ 100 7.5.5 UTRAN Internal Bearers .............................................................................................................. 102 7.6 UTRAN FUNCTIONS ............................................................................................................................ 103 7.6.1 System Access Control ................................................................................................................. 103 7.6.2 Radio Channel Ciphering / Deciphering ....................................................................................... 104 7.6.3 Mobility ....................................................................................................................................... 104 7.6.4 Radio Resource Management and Control.................................................................................... 107 7.7 IDENTIFIERS ......................................................................................................................................... 110 7.7.1 UTRAN identifiers ....................................................................................................................... 110 7.7.2 UE Identifiers .............................................................................................................................. 111 7.8 UMTS QOS AND RAB ......................................................................................................................... 111 7.8.1 Quality of Service (QoS) .............................................................................................................. 111 IV UMTS Overview July 2001
7.8.2 Radio Access Bearers (RAB) ........................................................................................................ 113 CHAPTER 8: CORE NETWORK ............................................................................................................. 114 8.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................... 114 8.2 GPRS, AN IMPORTANT STEPPING STONE TOWARDS A UMTS CORE NETWORK ...................................... 114 8.3 UPGRADING THE GSM CORE FOR GPRS ............................................................................................... 116 8.3.1 New Nodes for Packet Data ......................................................................................................... 116 8.3.2 Upgrades to Existing GSM Nodes ................................................................................................ 117 8.4 MOVING TO UMTS IN THE GSM/GPRS CORE...................................................................................... 117 8.4.1 Cell-Based Transport Network ..................................................................................................... 119 8.5 UMTS CORE NETWORK PHASE 1 (RELEASE 99) REQUIREMENTS ........................................................... 120 CHAPTER 9: HANDOVER (DOWNLINK CASE EXAMPLE) ............................................................... 122 9.1 POSITION 1 .......................................................................................................................................... 122 9.2 POSITION 2 .......................................................................................................................................... 122 9.3 POSITION 3 .......................................................................................................................................... 122 9.4 POSITION 4 .......................................................................................................................................... 122 9.5 POSITION 5 .......................................................................................................................................... 123 9.6 POSITION 6 .......................................................................................................................................... 123 9.7 POSITION 7 .......................................................................................................................................... 123 9.8 POSITION 8 .......................................................................................................................................... 123 9.9 POSITION 9 .......................................................................................................................................... 123 9.10 POSITION 10 ...................................................................................................................................... 124 CHAPTER 10: CELL PLANING ............................................................................................................... 125 10.1 INTRODUCTION TO CELL PLANNING .................................................................................................... 125 10.2 DIFFERENT CELL TYPES ..................................................................................................................... 125 10.3 STEPS IN THE CELL PLANNING PROCESS ............................................................................................. 127 10.3.1 System Requirements: ................................................................................................................ 128 10.3.2 Define Radio Planning Guidelines: ............................................................................................ 128 10.3.3 Initial Cell Plan:........................................................................................................................ 128 10.3.4 Surveys: .................................................................................................................................... 128 10.3.5 Individual Site Design and Parameter Setting: ........................................................................... 129 10.3.6 Implementation: ........................................................................................................................ 129 10.3.7 Launch of Commercial Service: ................................................................................................. 129 10.3.8 On-going Testing, Analyses and Optimisation: ........................................................................... 129 10.3.9 System Growth .......................................................................................................................... 130 10.4 DIFFERENCES WITH 2G TDMA SYSTEMS - DEPLOYMENTS ................................................................. 130 10.4.1 Exploiting Existing Networks ..................................................................................................... 130 10.4.2 Multi Service ............................................................................................................................. 130 V UMTS Overview July 2001
10.4.3 New Air Interface ....................................................................................................................... 130 10.5 CALCULATION OF COVERAGE AND CAPACITY ..................................................................................... 130 10.5.1 Needed Input Parameters ........................................................................................................... 131 10.5.2 Uplink Design ............................................................................................................................ 131 10.5.3 Downlink Design ....................................................................................................................... 132 10.5.4 Co-Siting With GSM Case .......................................................................................................... 132 CHAPTER 11: WORLD-WIDE CONSENSUS ON ADDITIONAL SPECTRUM FOR 3RD GENERATION ........................................................................................................................................... 133
Glossary
Active Set:Set of radio links simultaneously involved in a specific communication service between an MS and a UTRAN. Air Interface: The radio interface between a mobile communications handset and the base station. Bandwidth: The information capacity of a communications resource, usually measured in bits per second. Also see Narrowband, Wideband and Broadband. Broadband: A classification of the information capacity or bandwidth of a communication channel. Broadband is generally taken to mean a bandwidth higher than 2 Mbit/s. CDMA: Code Division Multiple Access. A multiple access technique used for CdmaOne and WCDMA air interfaces. Cell: The basic geographical unit of a cellular communications system. Service coverage of a given area is based on an interlocking network of cells, each with a radio base station (transmitter/receiver) at its centre. The size of each cell is determined by the terrain and the number of users. Geographical area served from one UTRAN Access Point. A cell is defined by a cell identity broadcast from the UTRAN Access Point. Chiprate: Chiprate is the bit rate of the code/codes used for spreading. This is for helping us distinguish between user data or control data which is expressed in bit rate. Coded Composite Transport Channel (CCTrCH): A data stream resulting from encoding and multiplexing of one or several transport channels. Drift RNS: The role an RNS can take with respect to a specific connection between an UE and UTRAN. An RNS that supports the Serving RNS with radio resources when the connection between the UTRAN and the UE need to use cell (s) controlled by this RNS is referred to as Drift RNS. ETSI: European Telecommunications Standards Institute. A body formed by the European Commission in 1988 to take over most of the standardisation work previously undertaken by CEPT. ETSIs purpose is to define standards that will enable the European market for telecommunications to function as a single market. Fixed Wireless (or Fixed Cellular) Network: This apparent contradiction in terms signifies a cellular network that is set up to support fixed rather than mobile subscribers. Increasingly being used as a fast and economic way to roll out modern telephone services, since it avoids the need for major cable-laying. GPRS: GSM General Packet Radio Services. A data transmission technique that does not set up a continuous channel from a portable terminal for the transmission and reception of data, but transmits and receives data in packets. It makes very efficient use of available radio spectrum, and users may pay only for the volume of data sent and received. GSM: Global System for Mobile Communications. Originally defined as a pan-European standard for a digital cellular telephone network, to support cross-border roaming, GSM is now one of the worlds main digital wireless standards. Uses TDMA air interface. Can be implemented in 900 MHz, 1800 MHz or 1900 MHz frequency bands. IMT-2000: The term used by the International Telecommunications Union for the specification for the projected third-generation wireless services. Intelligent Network (IN): A capability in the public telecom network environment that allows new services such as Free-phone and tele-voting to be developed quickly and introduced on any scale, from a local trial to network-wide. Also implies a suitable network infrastructure. Internet: The name given to the world-wide collection of networks and gateways using the TCP/IP protocol, that functions as a single, virtual network. IP: Internet Protocol. (See also TCP/IP).
ISDN: Integrated Services Digital Network. A digital public telecommunications network in which multiple services (voice, data, images and video) can be provided via standard terminal interfaces. ITU: International Telecommunications Union. Iu: The interconnection point (interface) between the RNS and the Core Network. It is also considered as a reference point. Iub: Interface between the RNC and the Node B. Iur: Interface between two RNSs. Logical Channel: A logical channel is a radio bearer, or part of it, dedicated for exclusive use of a specific communication process. Different types of logical channel are defined according to the type of information transferred on the radio interface. MexE: Mobile station Execution Environment Narrowband: A classification of the information capacity or bandwidth of a communication channel. Narrowband is generally taken to mean a bandwidth of 64 Kbit/s or lower. Node B: A logical node responsible for radio transmission/reception in one or more cells to/from the UE. Terminates the Iub interface towards the RNC. PCS: Personal Communications Service. A generic term for a mass-market mobile personal communications service, independent of the technology used to provide it. Physical Channel: In FDD mode, a physical channel is defined by code, frequency and, in the uplink, relative phase (I/Q). In TDD mode, code, frequency, and time-slot define a physical channel. Physical Channel Data Stream: In the uplink, a data stream that is transmitted on one physical channel. In the downlink, a data stream that is transmitted on one physical channel in each cell of the active set. PSTN: Public Switched Telephone Network. The ordinary, wired, analogue telephone network. Radio Access Bearer: The service that the access stratum provides to the non-access stratum for transfer of user data between MS and CN. Radio Access Network Application Part: Radio Network Signalling over the Iu. Radio Cell: The area served by a radio base station in a cellular or cordless communications system. This is where the term "cellular" came from. Cell sizes range from a few tens of meters to several kilometres. Radio Frame: A radio frame is a numbered time interval of 10ms duration used for data transmission on the radio physical channel. A radio frame is divided into 16 slots of 0.625 ms duration. The unit of data that is mapped to a radio frame (10ms time interval) may also be referred to as radio frame. Radio Link: A set of (radio) physical channels that link an MS to a UTRAN access point. Radio Link Addition: A [soft handover] procedure whereby a branch through a new [sector of a cell] is added in case some of the already existing branches were using [sectors] of the same cell. Radio Link Removal: A [soft handover] procedure whereby a branch through a new [sector of a cell] is removed in case some of the remaining existing branches use [sectors of] that cell. Radio Network Controller: This equipment in the RNS is in charge of controlling the use and the integrity of the radio resources. Radio Network Subsystem: Either a full network or only the access part of a UMTS network offering the allocation and the release of specific radio resources to establish means of connection in between an UE and the UTRAN. A Radio Network Subsystem is responsible for the resources and transmission/reception in a set of cells. Radio Network Subsystem Application Part: Radio Network Signalling over the Iur. Roaming: Ability of a cordless or mobile phone user to travel from location to location, with complete communications continuity. Supported by a cellular network of radio base stations. RLL/WLL: Radio in the Local Loop/Wireless Local Loop. The use of a radio access technology to link subscribers into the fixed public telecom network. The radio link replaces the traditional wired local loop. RRC Connection: A point-to-point bi-directional connection between RRC peer entities on the UE and the UTRAN sides, respectively. An UE has either zero or one RRC connection. VIII UMTS Overview July 2001
Serving RNS: A role an RNS can take with respect to a specific connection between an UE and UTRAN. There is one Serving RNS for each UE that has a connection between a UE and the UTRAN. The serving RNS terminates the Iu for this UE. Signalling Connection: An assured-mode link between the user equipment and the core network to transfer higher layer information between peer entities in the non-access stratum. Signalling Link: Provides an assured-mode link layer to transfer the MS_UTRAN signalling messages as well as MS-Core Network signalling messages (using the signalling connection) TCP/IP: Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. The data protocol used in the Internet. TDMA: Time Division Multiple Access. A technique used for GSM, D-AMPS (IS-136) and PDC air interfaces. TIA: Telecommunications Industry Association. The US telecom standars body. Transport Channel:The channels that are offered by the physical layer to Layer 2 for data transport between peer L1 entities are denoted as Transport Channels. Different types of transport channels are defined by how and with which characteristics data is transferred on the physical layer, e.g. whether using dedicated or common physical channels are employed. Transport Format: A combination of encoding, interleaving, bit rate and mapping onto physical channels. Transport Format Indicator (TFI): A label for a specific Transport Format within a Transport Format Set. Transport Format Set: A set of Transports Formats. For example, a variable rate DCH has a Transport Format Set (one Transport Format for each rate), whereas a fixed rate DCH has a single Transport Format. UMTS: Universal Mobile Telecommunications System. The European third-generation system, under development, under the auspices of ETSI. UTRAN Access Point: The UTRAN-side end point of a radio link. A UTRAN access point is a cell. User Equipment: A mobile Equipment with one several UMTS Subscriber Identity Module(s). Wideband: A classification of the information capacity or bandwidth of a communication channel. Wideband is generally taken to mean a bandwidth between 64 Kbit/s and 2 Mbit/s. Wideband CDMA (WCDMA): The air interface technology selected by the major Japanese mobile communications operators, and in January 1998 by ETSI, for wideband wireless access to support thirdgeneration services. This technology is optimised to allow very high-speed multimedia services such as fullmotion video, Internet access and videoconferencing. World Wide Web (WWW): Name commonly applied to the global Internet for multimedia, graphics, sound, etc...
Abbreviations
ARQ AAL ATM BCCH BER BLER BS BSS BPSK CA CAA CBR C- Control-CC CCCH CCPCH CCTrCH CD CDA CDMA CN CTDMA CRC DCA DCH DCCH DC-SAP DL DPCH DPCCH DPDCH DRNS DRX DTX DS-CDMA FACH FDD FDMA FEC X UMTS Overview July 2001 Automatic Repeat Request Application Adaptation Layer Asynchronous Transfer Mode Broadcast Control Channel Bit Error Ratio Block Error Ratio Base Station Base Station System Binary Phase Shift Keying Capacity Allocation Capacity Allocation Acknowledgement Constant Bit Rate Call Control Common Control Channel Common Control Physical Channel Coded Composite Transport Channel Capacity De-allocation Capacity De-allocation Acknowledgement Code Division Multiple Access Core Network Code Time Division Multiple Access Cyclic Redundancy Check Dynamic Channel Allocation Dedicated Channel Dedicated Control Channel Dedicated Connection Service Access Point Downlink Dedicated Physical Channel Dedicated Physical Control Channel Dedicated Physical Data Channel Drift RNS Discontinuous Reception Discontinuous Transmission Direct-Sequence Code Division Multiple Access Forward Access Channel Frequency Division Duplex Frequency Division Multiple Access Forward Error Correction
FER HCS HO GMSK GSM ITU JD kbps L1 L2 L3 LAC LLC MA MAC MAHO Mcps ME MM MO MOHO MS MT NRT ODMA OVSF PC PCH PDU PHY PhyCH QoS QPSK PG PRACH PUF RACH RANAP RF RLC RLCP RNC RNS
Frame Error Ratio Hierarchical Cellular Structures Handover Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying Global System for Mobile Communication International Telecommunication Union Joint Detection kilo-bits per second Layer 1 (physical layer) Layer 2 (data link layer) Layer 3 (network layer) Link Access Control Logical Link Layer Multiple Access Medium Access Control Mobile Assisted Handover Mega Chip Per Second Mobile Equipment Mobility Management Mobile Originated Mobile Originated Handover Mobile Station Mobile Terminated Non-Real Time Opportunity Driven Multiple Access Orthogonal Variable Spreading Factor (codes) Power Control Paging Channel Protocol Data Unit Physical layer Physical Channel Quality of Service Quaternary Phase Shift Keying Processing Gain Physical Random Access Channel Power Up Function Random Access Channel Radio Access Network Application Part Radio Frequency Radio Link Control Radio Link Control Protocol Radio Network Controller Radio Network Subsystem XI
UMTS Overview
July 2001
RNSAP RR RRC RRM RT RU RX SAP SCH SDCCH SDU SF SIR SMS SP SRNS TCH TDD TDMA TFI TPC TX U- User-UE UL UMTS USIM UTRA UTRAN VA VBR
Radio Network Subsystem Application Part Radio Resource Radio Resource Control Radio Resource Management Real Time Resource Unit Receive Service Access Point Synchronisation Channel Stand-alone Dedicated Control Channel Service Data Unit Spreading Factor Signal-to-Interference Ratio Short message Service Switching Point Serving RNS Traffic Channel Time Division Duplex ime Division Multiple Access Transport Format Indicator Transmit Power Control Transmit User Equipment Uplink Universal Mobile Telecommunications System UMTS Subscriber Identity Module UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network Voice Activity Variable Bit Rate
Telecommunications Standardisation Sector (ITU-T) and the Radio-communications Sector (ITU-R), formerly known as the CCITT and the CCIR. These FPLMTS bands were identified as 1885-2025 MHz and 1980- 2010 MHz which included a special band identified for satellite communication of 2170-2200 MHz.
encompasses ETSI Projects (EPs), Technical Committees (TCs) and Special Committees. More than 3500 experts, in over 200 groups, are at present working for ETSI. The central Secretariat of ETSI is located in Sophia Antipolis, a high tech research park in the south of France. 1.2.1.2 ITU The ITU is an international organisation (United Nations) within which governments and the private sector co-ordinate global telecom networks and services. The ITU has its headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland. Samuel Morse did the first usher in the communications era on 24 May 1844, by sending the first public message over a telegraph line between Washington and Baltimore. Barely ten years later, telegraphy had become available to the general public. However, at this period telegraph lines did not cross national frontiers because each country used a different system and what is more, each had its own telegraph code to preserve the secrecy of its military and political telegraph messages. Therefore, before being retransmitted over the telegraph network of a neighbouring country, messages had to be transcribed, translated and handed over the frontiers. It is not surprising then, that agreements were made between countries to interconnect their national networks together. But for each link numerous agreements were required. As a conclusion, 20 European States decided to work together on a framework agreement, deciding on common rules to standardise equipment to guarantee generalised interconnection. They adopted a set of uniform operating instructions and came along to common international tariff and accounting rules, which by the past were different from one country to another. The first International Telegraph Convention was signed by the 20 participating countries on the 17 May of 1865 after two and a half months of negotiations, and the International Telegraph Union was born. Since that time, the telecommunications progression has continued and advances have been made. With the invention in 1896 of wireless it was decided to convene on a preliminary radio conference. In 1903 the conference would be held to study the question of international regulations for radiotelegraph communications.
2 UMTS Overview July 2001
In 1920 sound was broadcasted at the studios of the Marconi Company. In 1927, the Union allocated frequency bands to the various radio services existing at the time: fixed, maritime and aeronautical mobile, broadcasting, amateur and experimental. At the 1932 Madrid Conference the name was changed to the International Telecommunication Union to reaffirm the whole scope of its responsibilities: wire, radio, optical system or other electromagnetic system communications. In 1959, the ITU set up a Study Group for the study of space radio communication. In the changing world of telecommunications today new players constantly appear on the international scene. In the area of telecommunications, new trends are emerging: globalisation, deregulation, restructuring, value added network services, convergence (of services as well as technologies), intelligent networks and regional arrangements. Telecommunications have become a key ingredient in many non-telecommunication services such as banking, tourism, transportation and information services of various types. The traditional role of telecommunications is being transformed every day with new service dimensions.
T1, www.t1.org. TTA, www.tta.or.kr. TTC, www.ttc.or.jp. The tree market representations partners are: The GSM Association represents 347 members which is comprised of GSM Network Operators and Regulators with more than 165 million GSM subscribers in 133 countries. See www.gsmworld.com. The Global Mobile Suppliers Association, GSA, has a cross industry representation worldwide of GSM infrastructure, terminals, customer care and billing suppliers. See www.GSAssociation.org. UMTS Forum represents 182 members from over 30 countries and content representing operators, regulators, manufacturers, IT providers. See www.UMTS-Forum.org.
3GPP 2: Global specifications for ANSI/TIA/EIA-41 network evolution to 3G and global specifications for the RTTs supported by ANSI/TIA/EIA-41.
The satellite component of IMT-2000, together with earlier global satellite systems in other bands, will likely provide the first telephone in many rural villages. The terrestrial infrastructure will then follow as demand increases. There are two major areas of technological innovation that may impact on future wireless systems: the first is multimedia, the second is software radio technology. What this really means is that more and more is being done by software rather than by hardware. The impact of microprocessors and chip will allow greatly increased flexibility in radio equipment which is going to have a dramatic effect on what should, and what should not, be standardised. In the past, radio standards were developed to a certain level of detail based on channel, modulation and coding structures over the radio path because t was difficult to build flexible radios. One of the key benefits of IMT-2000, as a true third generation system, will be its ability to deal efficiently with audio-visual multimedia communications In the future the users application will control how the negotiated radio bearer is used, which will require a very different radio and control infrastructure. IMT-2000 covers a very wide range of radio operating environments, all the way from the satellite to indoor pico cells. An adaptive radio interface is envisaged for IMT-2000 to optimise performance in these widely differing propagation conditions. This adaptation will be controlled by software using digital signal processing technology. Multi-mode and multiband mobile terminals will be a common mechanism to link IMT-2000 to earlier systems. The ITU standardisation work on IMT-2000 encourages convergence of the many diverse satellite and terrestrial mobile systems towards the ITU vision for third generation global mobile communications, i.e. IMT-2000. However, with the rapid changes in technology, particularly in the digital processing area, new standards must not be restrictive, but should enable future telecommunication enhancements. In other words the standardisation must be in such away that it can be efficiently controlled by future applications that we do not even dream about today.
1.3.2 UMTS
1.3.2.1 ETSIs Projects on GSM and UMTS The task of SMG, Special Mobile Group, is to develop and maintain the specifications of the digital cellular telecommunications system operating in the 900 MHz band known as GSM 900 and of its variation in the 1800 MHz band, known as DCS 1800. Moreover it is responsible for maintaining the integrity of the GSM platform by close cooperation with ANSI T1P1, who are responsible for the 1900 MHz version, known as PCS 1900. SMG is also responsible for studying, and defining all aspects of third generation mobile systems based on the concept of Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS), in co-operation with studies by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) regarding a global system known as the International Mobile Telecommunications 2000 System (IMT2000). UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access (UTRA) is the ETSI candidate for IMT-2000 Radio Transmission Technology (RTT). SMG maintains close-working relations with the UMTS FORUM based on the co-operation agreement between ETSI and the FORUM. The scope of the work is focused to the GSM family. It includes the definition of the GSM services offered and the selection and specification of the most efficient radio techniques and speech coding algorithms. SMG is also responsible for the elaboration of the GSM network architecture, signallingprotocols and conditions of interworking with other networks. In addition SMG is charged with the application of the Telecommunications Management Network (TMN) concept to the GSM network entities regarding operation and maintenance. The goal for the future work in SMG2 is to provide the standard for the radio access network part of UMTS. In addition, to this goal SMG2 is to provide UTRA as a candidate for IMT2000 to ITU. For the work towards the UMTS standard it proposed that this work should consist of the following, events and phases:
8 UMTS Overview July 2001
Finalise the SMG2 proposal of the radio access part of IMT-2000 and present this (submission from SMG to ITU June 30, 1998). A first phase is to elaborate technical descriptions and evaluate performance of the final solutions of UTRA. This phase is concluded with a detailed description of UTRA including the mobile station. This includes all radio protocols terminated in UTRA, the UTRA internal protocols and the Iu interface as well as descriptions of the functionality's required of the network nodes and in terminal. A second phase that could be initiated during phase 1 would be to write the actual specifications/standards based on the material elaborated in the first phase. It should he the goal to freeze the specifications/standard in December 1999. The third phase is the iterative correction phase, where the specification/standard is corrected based on the experience gained with the standard during development and implementation of UMTS. This phase in principle never ends, but should considered done in 2001. The fourth part would further development of UMTS towards the UMTS phase 2 to be introduced 2005.
Sat. IMT2000 Sat. IMT2000
ITU
PHS
IMT-2000
IMT-2000
Japan
DECT
IMT-2000
T D D
IMT-2000
Europe
T D D
UMTS FDD
T D D
UMTS FDD
USA
PCS (UL)
PCS (DL)
1800
1850
1900
1950
2000
2050
2100
2150
2200 MHz
Figure .1. Spectrum Allocation UMTS/IMT-2000. 1 Spectrum consists of one paired band (1920-1980 MHz + 2110-2170 MHz) and one unpaired band (1910-1920 MHz + 2010-2025 MHz). Same spectrum allocation in Europe and Japan. ETSI decision on UTRA in January 1998: -WCDMA to be used in the paired band -TD/CDMA to be used in the unpaired band
It is also stated that it should fit into 2*5 MHz spectrum allocations and that the two modes FDD/TDD should have harmonised parameters. UTRA FDD Multiple-Access scheme Duplex scheme Chip Rate Carrier spacing (3.84 Mcps) Frame length Inter-BS synchronisation Max. Spreading factor Not required 256 Table .1. UTRA Basic Parameters 1 1.3.2.2 UMTS Harmonisation Phase UMTS Phase 1 - GSM GPRS Release 99 with UMTS UMTS Phase 2 - Higher bitrates (2 Mbit/s) UMTS Phase 3 -? 1.3.2.3 UMTS Releases December 1999: Standardisation freezes. First operator licences for UMTS. Release 99 completed by 31 December. 2000 2001: Vendors development of network elements. Iterative experimental process that might effect the standards. First launch of UMTS in Japan 2001 based on Release 99. January 2002: UMTS in Europe. Release 2000 including Internet Protocol based networks. 2005:
10 UMTS Overview July 2001
W-CDMA FDD
3.84 Mcps (7.68 Mcps, 15.36 Mcps) 4.2-5 MHz (200 kHz carrier raster) 10 ms Required 16
2008-2010:
To meet the need of higher bitrates and packet data for the user UMTS will include other enhancements in the network. In order to reach higher bitrates High Speed Circuit Switched Data, HSCSD will let the users use more than one timeslot in the TDMA air interface. GSM Packet Radio Switching will add the ability to send and receive packet data. It will also be the backbone in the UMTS/GSM network. EDGE will be a complement to UMTS that might give the operators without UMTS frequencies the possibility to present high bitrates for the customer.
User bit rate
2 Mbps
384 kbps
UMTS EDGE
Fixed/Low mobility
In contrast, the following main features characterise 3G systems: Under the conditions of a still growing mass market, 3G system shall meet the individual communication requirements of a customer with his personalised service profile and user interface. Instead of individual services the tools for service creation will be standardised. Access to and invocation of the users' own personalised services should be possible regardless of the operating environment and access system, thus supporting intersystem roaming. 3G system can offer spectrum efficient access to multimedia services of higher, flexible bandwidth to mobile users, in addition to services already offered within 2G system. The user of today expects a variety of services to be offered by various providers and for these services to be flexible enough to meet his individual demands. In pre-3G mobile systems like GSM but also in ISDN, the user has already a broad choice of services, in particular supplementary services. This variety of services has led to complex instructions on how to use these services. Ordinary users will not accept an increase in complexity of service handling. Instead they will prefer a simpler 'personal assistant type' man-machine interface.
However, a new business environment such as Value Added Service Provider, Content Providers, Service Brokers and others, may create new categories. Between the roles various relationships can appear. These will be used to identify interfaces that may require standardisation and make relations more clear.
While maintaining a single identity, a user may subscribe to services at different service providers. In addition, services offered by a provider may be offered to more than one network. In consequence, definitions of the home "network" or visited "network" used by second generations system are no longer valid. The term "home environment", is proposed as a replacement.
1.4.4.1.2 Streaming Class It is assumed that video communications will become a mass service after ordinary telephony. 1.4.4.1.3 Multimedia Class 3G systems will support multimedia services and provide the necessary service capabilities.
Service providers may request from the network operator that it enable roaming in other environments for all or some of his customers. Third generation systems must provide the necessary tools. It is proposed that in future the networks should only provide service capabilities, which may differ slightly or fundamentally between different networks (e.g. cordless, cellular, satellite networks). These service capabilities are used by other parties to compose services for the market.
Core Network, CN
MSC
GMSC
MSC
A Iu
RNS 2 Radio Network Subsystem
Iu Iur
RNS 2
BSS 2
Uu
Terminal Terminal MS
Um
MS
The terminal of the user develops the radio connection with different software capabilities. Furthermore, the ME can be divided into several parts. We have the MT (Mobile Termination), that performs the transmission and some related capabilities, and we also have the TE (Terminal Equipment), the part that contains the end-to-end applications. The references that can be found in the specifications are not clear in this point, leaving the design to the several providers. We have the identification properties inside of the USIM, based on several kinds of data and procedures that will identify the user with no error. The electronic technology of the VLSI gives us a very high power of integration so that the smart cards can have a lot of capabilities of identification. The smart card will identify a user in such a way that it does not matter which kind of ME he is using. Inside the UMTS terminals Rake reception in used to generate soft decisions that are fed into the channel decoder. The channel decoding also develops jobs of setting the target for the power control, as well as the obvious functions of decoding the channels. If the power control is bad implemented, the capacity of the network will decrease, as it will be seen in some following chapters.
Rake
Channel decoding
Searcher
2.2.1.1 Rake Receiver: When the data acquisition has been already made, the RAKE receiver will use the several reechoed signals that arrive to the antenna of the UE to improve the final signal quality. This can be made because of the properties of the codes used in the system, because they are orthogonal. We can de-spread the signal whether it is received delayed from a initial one or not. Once we have the several echoes de-spread, we can combine the signals obtained through different ways to increase the final SNR, the final quality at the end. We will add the signals coherently. We can find fast fading in some signals, but this fading is independent from one signal to the other, so combining correctly the signals, the final SNR will be increased. This process is known as micro-diversity. We can also find macro-diversity in the SOHO (soft handover), and the rake way to avoid the problems in this case is basically the same. Now we have just to consider that the signals come from different Node B, not from several reflections of the same antenna. 2.2.1.2 Searcher: Sometimes we want to know the offset and the magnitude of the echoes and the power of the signals coming from different base stations. This can be made with the scrambling codes and the primary and secondary synchronisation channels. Although this will be seen much deeper in following chapters, we can say the PSCH (Primary Synchronisation Channels) are used to identify the power of the signals coming from different near base stations, in the cell search process. We can identify the one that will be the server Node B with this channel. The SSCH (Secondary Synchronisation Channel) allows us to know the specific Node B and the downlink scrambling code group used by this station. Once we know the scrambling code, the UE, through the searcher, can identify different echoes from the scrambled pilot symbol. The echo profile is highly correlated from one power control period to the next. We can use this characteristic to decrease the complexity of the design of the UE. 2.2.1.3 Power Control: The interface in the downlink is reduced minimising the transmission power at the base station for a particular user, in such a way that the characteristics of the link performance
18 UMTS Overview July 2001
(throughput and error rate) are fulfilled. The UE will ask the base station to increase or to decrease the transmission power every power control period (0.625 ms), trying in every moment to keep the SIR as close as possible to a reference value. This SIR target is reevaluated every 10 ms depending on the status of the channel that is being decoded. 2.2.1.4 Channel Decoding: As well as supporting a more powerful version of the convolutional channel decoding used in GSM, UMTS terminals are likely to employ high performance turbo decoders.
2.3.1.1 Radio Network Controller, RNC This part is the responsible of the handover decisions that need signalling to the UE. The RNC comprises a combining/splitting function to support macro diversity between different Node B. This part of the UMTS system will need much more intelligence than its partner in the GSM system. These extra capabilities will increase the speed of the system, and therefore, the yield. 2.3.1.2 Node B The Node B will also be more intelligent than the Base Station in GSM. It will develop functions of combining/splitting to allow macro diversity. The communication among several Node B will allow the terminal to change from one cell to an adjacent one without losing connection in the process.
Figure .4. UTRAN Architecture 2 It is a hierarchical structure, so every RNS will have a certain group of cells to serve, as it can be seen in the picture. We can see two different RNS very easily. First, we have the Serving RNS, which is the one that gives the service at a certain moment. If it is needed, the Drift RNSs can help the Serving
20 UMTS Overview July 2001
RNS to give radio resources. The role of an RNS (Serving or Drift) is on a per connection basis between a UE and the UTRAN.
by this section. It is also responsible for the routing calls and transport user data/information from source to destination.
2.5 Mobility
Logically, we can see two domains in the Core. We can find a IP domain and a PSTN/ISDN domain. It shall be possible to connect the UTRAN either to both these CN or to one of the CN domains. It shall be possible to interconnect the GSM network and the UMTS one, from the point of view of roaming and handover. At the beginning of the deployment, the coverage of the UMTS network won't be absolute at all, and it will be necessary the compatibility between the two networks. This implies that International Mobile Subscriber Identity, IMSI, shall be used as the common user identity in the two CN. Common MAP signalling will be applied to both
GSM and UMTS. The GSM MAP mobile service operations shall be evolved and re-used as fast as possible. The UTRAN will store all the capabilities of the radio connection and all the radio network parameters. We have two service domains the Circuit Switched service domain (PSTN/ISDN) and the Packet Switched service domain (IP). We have one service state machine for each service domain. A terminal that is supporting both CS and PS services, has a CS service state machine and a PS service state machine. They work independently to each other, although associated to the same terminal (or UE). The UE-CN signalling aims to keep the peer entities synchronised. The UTRAN will try to offer a unified set of radio bearers, in such a way that they will bi able to be used for bursty packet traffic and for traditional telephony traffic. The radio resource handling is UTRAN internal functionality and the CN does not define the type of radio resource allocated. Once we decide to connect the UE, an initial connection is already set up, in such a way that the radio resource has two modes, Connected and Idle mode. The UE will be identified by the different modes. In Idle mode the UE is identified by a CN associated identity. In Connected mode the UE is assigned a Radio Network Temporary Identity to be used as UE identity on common transport channels. When we are transmitting via a dedicated channel, the UE uses an inherent addressing (code a frequency), provided by these transport channels. We can see four areas for different concepts, about the mobility functionality. Location Areas (related to CS services) and Routing Areas (related to PS services) are used in the Core Network. In the UTRAN the UTRAN Registration Areas and Cell Areas will be used. Location Area for CS services: The CN manages one Location Area. This means that the terminal (UE) is registered in the CN node responsible for handling this specific location area. The 3G_MSC/VLR for paging the terminal use LA. Routing Area for PS services: They are managed by the CN. In parallel, this means that the UE is registered in the CN node responsible for handling this specific routing area. The 3G_SGSN for paging the terminal use RA.
Registration Areas and Cell Areas in URAN are only visible in the Access Network and used when the UE is in connected mode. UTRAN internal areas are used when the terminal is in connected mode. These areas are used at e.g. UTRAN initiated paging. The UTRAN internal area structure should not be visible from outside the UTRAN, because the internal area updating is a radio network procedure. In connected mode, the UE position is known on cell level or on UTRAN Registration Area (URA) level. For the relation between LA and RA it shall be possible for the operator to have a LA and a RA equal (same cell) or a RA as part of a LA, or a LA as a part of RA, and LA and RA independently. A more clear specification shall be defined in this point if an area consists of both UMTS cells and GSM cells. An CS-IDLE terminal will initiate Location Update towards the CN when crossing LA border. In Idle mode it is the broadcasted system information, e. g. information about the present LA and RA, that determines when the UE initiates a location registration procedure towards the CN. A PS-IDLE terminal will initiate Routing Area update towards the CN when crossing RA border. When the UE is connected, the terminal receives the system information on the established connection. A UE in CS-IDLE will initiate Location Area update towards the CN when receiving information about a new LA, in connected mode. A UE in PS-IDLE will initiate Routing Area update towards the CN when receiving information about new RA in connected mode. The UE in CS-CONNECTED mode will not initiate Location Area update and a UE in PS-CONNECTED mode will not initiate Routing Area update towards CN. If we use separately PS and CS mobility mechanisms within the UE and within the CN we may not obtain non-optimal usage of the radio resource. The use of combined updated may be used to avoid this. It should be possible to use combined mechanisms for location management purposes as well as for attach/detach status purposes. UMTS Phase 1 R99 terminals should support the use of both combined and separate mechanisms. The radio access network will not co-ordinate mobility management procedures that are logically between the CN and the UE, as it is seen in the UMTS specifications R99. This includes several capabilities, as location management, authentication, temporary identity management and equipment identity check.
Time
Frequency
Figure .1. FDMA 3 Advantages: FDMA uses a symple technique that has been proved.
Disadvantages: Reconfiguration of the system in case of capacity variation is difficult, due to flexibility.
Frequency
Time
Figure .2.. TDMA 3 The most important disvantage of TDMA is the fixed time slot allocation, whether or not it has data to transmit. For applications with bursty transmission requirements a fixed time allocation could be a bad use of the resources. Advantages: High transmission throughput for a large number of stations. A single station occupies all of channel bandwidth at each instant. Digital processing leads to operational simplicity. Its no necessary to control the transmitting power of the users. The tuning is easier because all stations transmit and receive on the same frequency. Disadvantages: TDMA need synchronisation. A high throughput is needed to dimension the station transmits. A better channel and hence better throughput can compensate a big cost of the equipments.
Code
Time
Frequency
Figure .3. CDMA 3 Advantages: Since it does not require any transmission synchronisation between the mobile stations, it is simple to operate. Against other interference systems it offers protection. Disadvantages: The low throughput is the main disadvantage.
27 UMTS Overview July 2001
FDD
Frequency
TDD
Time
Time
Amplitude
n=1
n=2
Baseband
Figure .5. Power Spectrum for n = 1 and n =2 3 The total energy remains the same after spreading. The total area under the curve gives the total energy delivered and if the spreading bandwidth is high the amplitude of the signal will be reduced. This is called process gain, Gp. The definition of process gain is Gp = 10 log (transmission bandwidth/bit rate). For example if the transmission bandwidth is 2,5 MHz and the bit rate is 1 MHz the processing gain would be 3,98 dB. If we increase the bandwidth to 5 MHz the process gain would be 6,99 dB. This would provide as with an additional margin of 3 dB to help as suppress interference. When more and more users enter the system, the margin described above is reduced since there will be a processing loss for every new user (interferer) that enters the system. For k users this loss can be described as Process loss = 10 log (k). The overall system gain is described by CDMA gain = Process gain - Process loss due to k users. The formula would become: CDMA gain = 10 log (bandwidth/k * bit rate) where the bandwidth is as described a function of the chip rate. After spreading the amplitude of the signal will be reduced, so energy are independent of the frequency and that the amplitude of the signal will be reduced. If we consider the Gaussian "white noise" that we always have around us, the bandwidth is enough the amplitude will be close to the noise level. In CDMA each user will have its own code, therefore multiple users use the same frequency. The code is made by means of an m-bit pseudo random, PR, generator that provides 2^(m-1) different codes.
29 UMTS Overview July 2001
M1 M2 M3
PN3
M3
PN2
PN1 Spreading
M2
M1
Y=0110 _________
will be
1-1+1-1=0 (assigning +1 for xm = ym and -1 xm ym). In the transmitter, Direct Sequence is multiplication of more conventional communication waveform by a pseudo noise (PN) 1 binary sequence. Spreading is entirely done in the binary domain and the transmitted signals are carefully band limited. It takes prior to any modulation, In the receiver a second multiplication by a replica of the same 1 sequence recovers the original signal. When the signals reach the detector, the noise and interference, being uncorrelated with the PN sequence, become noise-like and increase in bandwidth. The most of the interference
power can be rejected with a narrow band filtering that can enhance the signal-to-noise ratio, SNR. The data signal (user information) is multiplied by a PN-code in DS-CDMA. The period of a PN-code is called the period, so the code is a sequence of chips. PN-codes, M-sequences, Gold-codes and Kasami-codes are different classes of PN-code. In the simplest case a complete PN-code is multiplied with a single data bit and the signal is now multiplied by a factor N, the processing gain.
1 bit period 1 chip period
Data signal
PN-code
Coded signal
Figure .7.. Chips and bits 3 In the receiver squeme, the signal is multiplied by the same PN-Code which removes the PNcode and recovers the desired data signal. At the modulator/demodulator the transmitted signal (data information) is spreaded and despreaded with a binary value sequence seudo random (PR) that a sequence generator produces. The basic system design parameters are transmitted power and channel bandwidth. We increase (spread) the bandwidth of the data signal to overcome the problem of interference, that will lead to a bandwidth expansion factor, process gain, g = W/R where W is the spread code bandwidth (chip-rate) and R is the data bandwidth (bit-rate).
User 1 Spread code 1 User 2 . . . User N Spread code N Spread code 2 Output 1
It is possible to use the same transmission bandwidth for more than one user by means of using different PR-sequences for each user.
M1
PN1
M2
PN2
M3
PN3
Figure .9. Different PN-Sequences for Each User 3 If the spreading is done by a different PN-sequence for many users then it is called direct sequence code division multiple access, DS-CDMA.
Data signal
PN-code
Figure .10. DS-CDMA Principle 3 DS-CDMA uses PN codes to detect each multipath signal and to pick up the signals from the desired base station. Orthogonal code is used for spreading and channelisation. We get a similar signal as thermal noise (white noise) if the random code pattern is nearly Gaussian distributed. Thus the interference of the other users is noise, and the problem can be simplified.
32 UMTS Overview July 2001
DS-CDMA spreads the original information over wide bandwidth by using much higher rate spreading codes, and makes use of frequency diversity to combat frequency selective deep fading. The filtering is essential in DS-CDMA to reduce the required bandwidth and FIR digital filters are usually used for sharp response.
Figure .11. RAKE Receiver 3 An optimum receiver contains several detection channels with different code delays, which are adjusted to match the major components of the impulse response. The timing accuracy to obtain full processing gain is approximately one chip time, i. e. the inverse of the channel bandwidth. The fingers in the rake collect together the contributions of the total signal energy from several multipath components. The impulse response is measured continuously in order
33 UMTS Overview July 2001
to set the delay and phase of the different rake fingers. Thus the output from the channels can be added coherently giving diversity combining. Both the right coding and the right timing must be done to be able to despread the wanted signal in the receiver. An optimum receiver contains several detection channels with different code delays, which are adjusted to match the major components of the impulse response. In the Rake receiver the contribution from several multipath components are combined. It is necessary to measure continuously the impulse response of the propagation channel in order to set the delay and phase on the different rake branches. The output from the channels can then be added giving diversity combining.
Figure .12. Interference Averaging 3 Spread spectrum systems are power rather than bandwidth limited.
34 UMTS Overview July 2001
With a wider band the interference will have an averaging effect in such a way that all user will share the problem.With a narrow bandwidth a user channel might receive severe fading dips.
SS1= SS2=
SS2
SS1
M2
M1 d2
Figure .13. Near-far Problem 3
d1
If the mobiles would transmit the same power the ratio of the received signal would be: RS1/RS2 = (d2/d1)^ where lambda is the path loss or propagation environment. If d1 is not equal to d2 then the received signal strength from mobile 1 might be much stronger than the mobile 2 and the receiver would not be able to detect and recover mobile 2. This means that the transmitting power of each mobile has to be controlled so that the received power is constant irrespective of the distance.
SS1=SS2=
SS2
SS1
M2
M1 d2 d1
A specific code is assigned to each connection in interference limited system. This will help us to discriminate between the wanted signal C and interference I from all other users. There will be a point when the C/I becomes to low when the total interference level is increased (more users). This is called anti-jamming margin, AJ, which is the maximum value for I/C. This gives us an interference limited system for CDMA compared to FDMA and TDMA who are channel limited system. The Gp determines how much the receiver can suppress the interference. To get an acceptable isolation between the connections a large bandwidth is needed to increase the AJ. The processing gain, G p, is a related parameter, also related to the bandwidth. It is then very important with power regulation so that all signals have the same level at the receiver input. Commercially available SS systems typically implement processing gains in the 10-100 range. Information can be transmitted at power levels below ambient noise for high values of G p (>1000),. This means low probability of "intercept/detect" and narrowband jamming or interference. To illustrate the problem and advantages with an interference limited system, the "International Cocktail Party" analogy can be used. Picture a large room with a number of people, in pairs, who would like to hold conversations. The people in each pair only want to talk and listen to each other, and have no interest in what is being said in other pairs. In order for these conversations to keep place, however, it is necessary to define the environment for each conversation. Gp is high and it is easier to distinguish individual speakers, if people speak in different languages. Now if a Band is playing a "random noise" is got and the G p will be lower, I/C increases, and it will be more difficult to extract the conversation from the background. Now imagine that the Band starts playing even louder! Speakers try to talk more loudly, increasing the noise and if more and more people enter the room each conversation will be louder and louder to cope with the interferers.
The solution is to minimise the interference level at the base station receiver is only effective for terminals assigned to this base station. Interference from terminals in other cells is still a problem. To minimise this interference the use of soft handover and careful selection of which base station shall be involved in macro diversity are needed.
Reverse Link
Figure .15. Forward and ReverseLink 3 Upon the reception of TPC command, the mobile station should adjust the transmit power of the uplink in the given direction with a step of TPC dB. The step size TPC is a parameter that may differ between different cells, in the region [0.25-1.5] dB. In case of receiver diversity (e.g., space diversity) or softer handover at the base station, the TPC command should be generated after diversity combining. In case of soft handover, the following procedure is considered: In the base station a quality measurement is performed on the received signals; in case the quality measurement indicated a value below a given threshold, an increase command is
sent to the mobile, otherwise a decrease command is transmitted; all the base stations in the active set send power commands to the mobile; The mobile compares the commands received from different base stations and increases its power only if all the commands indicate an increase value (this means that all the receivers are below the threshold); In case one command indicates a decrease step (that is, at least one receiver is operating in good conditions), the mobile reduces its power; in case more than one decrease commands are received by the mobile, the mobile station should adjust the power with the largest step in the "down" direction ordered by the TPC commands received from each base station in the active set; The quality threshold for the base stations in the active set should be adjusted by the outer loop power control (to be implemented in the network node were soft handover combining is performed).
Output power dynamics: Both the uplink and the downlink use the following power control mechanism: Fast closed-loop Carrier/Interference based power control. Slow quality-based power control. Uplink (UL) Power control steps Minimum transmit power Power control cycles per second Power control dynamic Variable 0.25-1.5 dB -50 dBm 1.5 kHz 80 dB Downlink (DL) Variable 0.25-1.5 dB [ ] dBm 1.6 kHz 30 dB
Antenna diversity
Physical Channel: A physical channel is defined by code, frequency and, in the uplink, relative phase (I/Q). In TDD mode, code, frequency, and time-slot define a physical channel. Physical Channel Data Stream: In the uplink, a data stream that is transmitted on one physical channel. In the downlink, a data stream that is transmitted on one physical channel in each cell of the active set. Active Set: Set of radio links simultaneously involved in a specific communication service between an MS and a UTRAN. Transport Channel: Transport Channels are those that are offered by the physical layer for data transport between peer L1 entities. Different types of transport channels are defined by how and with which characteristics data is transferred on the physical layer, e.g. whether using dedicated or common physical channels are employed. Transport Format: The Transport Format is a combination of encoding, interleaving, bit rate and mapping onto physical channels. Transport Format Combination Indicator (TFCI): The TFCI is a label for a specific Transport Format within a Transport Format Set. Transport Format Set: A set of Transport Formats. For example, a variable rate DCH (Dedicated Channel) has a Transport Format Set (one Transport Format for each rate), whereas a fixed rate DCH (Dedicated Channel) has a single Transport Format.
4.2.1.2 Common Transport Channels 4.2.1.2.1 BCH - Broadcast Channel A base station uses the Broadcast Channel (BCH) to broadcast system and cell-specific information. The BCH is a downlink transport channel that is always transmitted over the entire cell. 4.2.1.2.2 FACH - Forward Access Channel When the system knows the location cell of the mobile station, the Forward Access Channel (FACH) is used to carry control information to the mobile. The FACH is a downlink transport channel that is transmitted over the entire cell or over only a part of the cell using lobeforming antennas. The FACH may also carry short user packets. 4.2.1.2.3 PCH - Paging Channel When the system does not know the location cell of the mobile, the Paging Channel (PCH) is used to carry control information to a the mobile station. The PCH is a downlink transport channel that is always transmitted over the entire cell. 4.2.1.2.4 RACH - Random Access Channel Control information from a mobile station is transmitted into the Random Access Channel (RACH). The RACH is an uplink transport channel that is always received from the entire cell. It may also carry short user packets. 4.2.1.2.5 DSCH - Downlink Shared Channel The downlink shared channel (DSCH) is a downlink transport channel shared by several UEs carrying dedicated control or traffic data.
4.2.2.1 Dedicated Uplink Physical Channels There are two types of uplink dedicated physical channels, the uplink Dedicated Physical Data Channel (uplink DPDCH) and the uplink Dedicated Physical Control Channel (DPCCH). Dedicated data generated for the dedicated transport channel are transmitted into the uplink DPDCH. Each connection may support zero, one, or several uplink DPDCHs. Control information is transmitted into the DPCCH. The control information consists of: Pilot bits to allow channel estimation for coherent detection. Transmit power control (TPC) commands. Optional transport-format indicator (TFI).
The transport-format indicator informs the receiver about the instantaneous parameters of the different transport channels multiplexed on the uplink DPDCH. There is only one uplink DPCCH on each connection. 4.2.2.1.1 Frame Structure Each frame of length 10 ms is divided into 15 slots, each of length T slot = 0,666 ms, corresponding to one power-control period (see Figure .1). A super frame corresponds to 72 4 consecutive frames, i.e. the super-frame length is 720 ms.
DPDCH DPCCH Pilot N pilot bits 0.666 ms, 10*2 k bits (k=0..6) Data N data bits TPC N TPC bits TFI N TFI bits
Slot #1
Slot #2
Slot # i T f = 10 ms
Slot #15
Frame #1
Frame #2
Frame #72
The parameter k is related to SF, the spreading factor of the physical channel, as SF = 256/2 k. SF may thus range from 4 up to 256. The parameter k determines the number of bits per uplink DPDCH/DPCCH slot. But the same connection usually carry an uplink DPDCH and uplink DPCCH which have different rates, i.e. have different spreading factors and different values of k. The exact number of bits of the different uplink DPCCH is yet to be determined. 4.2.2.2 Common Uplink Physical Channel 4.2.2.2.1 Physical Random Access Channel The RACH is transmitted into the Physical Random Access Channel (PRACH). The access control is based on a Slotted Aloha approach, which means that a mobile station can start the transmission of the PRACH at a number of well-defined time offsets, relative to the frame boundary of the received BCCH of the current cell. The different time slots, the access slots, are spaced 1.5 ms (see Figure .2). The BCCH broadcasts information about available access 4 slots in the current cell.
1.5 ms
Random-access burst Random-access burst Random-access burst Offset of access slot #i Random-access burst
Figure .2. Access Slot 4 The random access burst consists of two parts: A preamble part (length 1 ms) A message part (length 10 ms)
Between the preamble and the message part there is an idle time period of length 1.5 ms (preliminary value), which allows for detection of the preamble part and subsequent on-line processing of the message part. Preamble Part: The preamble part of the random-access burst consists of a signature. There are a total of 16 different signatures. Message Part: The structure of the message part of the random-access burst is the same as the uplink DPH. It has a data part, corresponding to the uplink DPDCH, and a control part, corresponding to the uplink DPCCH. The data and control parts are transmitted in parallel. The data part carries the random access request or small user packets, using a channel bit rate of 16, 32, 64 or 128 kbps, which corresponds to a spreading factor (SF) of 256, 128, 64 and 32, respectively. The control part uses a spreading factor of 256, and carries pilot bits and rate information. The rate information indicates which channelisation code (or rather the spreading factor of the channelisation code) is used on the data part. The random-access burst consists of the fields shown in Figure .3 and listed below (the 4 values in brackets are preliminary values): Mobile station identification. The MS ID is chosen at random by the mobile station at the time of each random-access attempt. Required Service. This field informs the base station what type of service is required (short packet transmission, dedicated-channel setup, etc.) An optional user packet A CRC to detect errors in the data part of the random-access burst
MS ID Re Req . Serv Optional user packet CRC
Figure .3. Structure of Random - Access Burst Data Part 4 4.2.2.3 Downlink Physical Channels 4.2.2.3.1 Dedicated Physical Channels The Downlink Dedicated Physical Channel (dowlink DPCH) is the only type of downlink dedicated physical channel. It carries dedicated data for the dedicated transport channel (DPH) and control information (known pilot bits, TPC commands, and an optional TFCI).
48 UMTS Overview July 2001
4.2.2.3.2 Frame Structure Figure .4 shows the frame structure of the downlink DPCH. Each frame of length 10 ms is 4 split into 15 slots, each of length Tslot = 0,666 ms, corresponding to one power-control period. A super frame corresponds to 72 consecutive frames, i.e. the super-frame length is 720 ms.
DPCCH DPDCH
Pilot
TPC
Slot #1
Slot #2
Slot #i T f = 10 ms
Slot #15
Frame #1
Frame #2
Frame #72
Figure .4. Frame Structure for Downlink DPCH 4 The parameter k is related to SF, the spreading factor of the physical channel, as SF = 256/2 k. SF may thus range from 4 up to 256. The parameter k determines the number of bits per downlink DPCH slot. But the same connection usually carry an uplink DPDCH and uplink DPCCH which have different rates, i.e. have different spreading factors and different values of k. The exact number of bits of the different downlink DPCH fields is yet to be determined. In order to support the use of downlink adaptive antennas, connection-dedicated pilot bits are transmitted also for the downlink. Multi-code transmission is employed when the total bit rate to be transmitted on one downlink connection exceeds the maximum bit rate for a downlink physical channel: several parallel downlink DPCHs are transmitted for one connection using the same spreading factor. In this case, the control information is put on only the first downlink DPCH, while the additional downlink DPCHs belonging to the connection do not transmit any data during the corresponding time period.
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4.2.2.4 Common Physical Channels 4.2.2.4.1 Primary Common Control Physical Channel The Primary CCPCH is a fixed rate (32 kbps, SF=256) downlink physical channel used to carry the BCCH. The Figure .5 shows the frame structure of the Primary CCPCH. It differs from the downlink 4 DPCH in that no TPC commands or TFCI is transmitted. The only control information is the common pilot bits, needed for coherent detection.
Data
Slot #1
Slot #2
Slot #i T f = 10 ms
Slot #15
Frame #1
Frame #2 T
super
Frame #i = 720 ms
Frame #72
Figure .5. Frame Structure for Primary Common Control Physical Channel 4 4.2.2.4.2 Secondary Common Control Physical Channel The secondary CCPCH is used to carry the FACH and PCH. As the Primary CCPCH, it is of constant rate, but the difference between them is that in the Secondary CCPCH the rate may be different for different secondary CCPCHs within one cell and between cells. This is done in order to be able to allocate different amount of FACH and PCH capacity to a cell (see Figure .6). The BCCH broadcasts the rate and spreading factor of each secondary CCPCH. 4 The set of possible rates is the same as for the downlink DPCH. The FACH and PCH are mapped to separate Secondary CCPCHs. A CCPCH is not power controlled, and this is the main difference between a CCPCH and a downlink dedicated physical channel. The main difference between the Primary and Secondary CCPCH is that the Primary CCPCH has a fixed predefined rate while the Secondary CCPCH has a constant rate
50 UMTS Overview July 2001
that may be different for different cells, depending on the capacity needed for FACH and PCH.
Data
Slot #1
Slot #2
Slot #i T f = 10 ms
Slot #15
Frame #1
Frame #2
Frame #72
Figure .6. Frame Structure for Secondary Common Control Physical Channel 4 Furthermore, a Primary CCPCH is continuously transmitted over the entire cell while a Secondary CCPCH is only transmitted when there is data available and may be transmitted in a narrow lobe in the same way as a DPH (only valid for a Secondary CCPCH carrying the FACH). 4.2.2.4.3 Synchronisation Channel The Synchronisation Channel (SCH) is a downlink signal used for cell search. It consists of two sub channels, the Primary and Secondary SCH, as shown in Figure .7. 4 The Primary SCH transmits the Primary Synchronisation Code, which is an unmodulated orthogonal code of length 256, the same for every base station in the system. The Secondary SCH repeatedly transmits the Secondary Synchronisation Codes, a sequence of 16 unmodulated orthogonal codes of length 256 chips. These are transmitted in parallel with the Primary Synchronisation channel. The sequence on the Secondary SCH identifies a group of scrambling codes among 32 possibilities. The base station downlink scrambling code belongs to the indicated group. 32 sequences are used to encode the 32 different code groups each containing 16 scrambling codes. It is used to uniquely determine both the long code group and the frame timing.
51 UMTS Overview July 2001
Cp
Cp
Secondary SCH
Csi,1
Csi,2
Csi,15
Tframe=15*Tslot Cp: Primary Synchronisation Code Csi,k: One of 16 possible Secondary Synchronisation Codes (Csi,1, Csi,2,...,Csi,15) encode cell specific long scrambling code group i
Transport Channels
Physical Channels Primary Common Control Physical Channel (Primary CCPCH) Secondary Common Control Physical Channel (Secondary CCPCH)
Physical Random Access Channel (PRACH) Physical Common Packet Channel (PCPCH) Dedicated Physical Data Channel (DPDCH) Synchronisation Channel (SCH)
DSCH
4.3.1.3 Spreading: Channelisation Codes The uplink uses the same type of channelisation codes as the downlink. In the case of the uplink, the limitations on the allocation of these codes are only valid within one mobile station. Each connection is allocated at least one uplink channelisation code, to be used for the uplink DPCCH. Usually at least one additional uplink channelisation code is allocated for an additional uplink DPDCH. If more than one uplink DPDCH is necessary, further uplink channelisation codes may be allocated. As different mobile stations use different uplink scrambling codes, the uplink channelisation codes may be allocated without any co-ordination between different connections. So the uplink channelisation codes are always allocated in a pre-established order. Once the mobile station and network reach an agreement on the number and length (spreading factor) of the uplink channelisation codes, the exact codes to be used are implicitly given. 4.3.1.4 Scrambling: Scrambling Codes Either short or long scrambling codes should be used on uplink. 4.3.1.4.1 Short Scrambling Code The short scrambling code is a complex code c different codes of length 256. Its the network who decides the uplink short scrambling code. After an uplink Random Access Request, the base-station emits a downlink Access Grant message, which tells the mobile station the short scrambling to use. The short scrambling code may, only in rare cases, be changed during the duration of a connection. 4.3.1.4.2 Long Scrambling Codes The long uplink scrambling code is typically used in cells without multi-user detection in the base station. The mobile station is informed if a long scrambling code should be used in the Access Grant Message following a random-access request and in the handover message.
54 UMTS Overview July 2001
scramb
4.3.1.5 Random Access Codes (Spreading & Scrambling) 4.3.1.5.1 Preamble Spreading Code The base station broadcasts the spreading code for the preamble part, which is specific of the cell. If the traffic load is high, the base station can use more than preamble code. Since two neighbouring cells must not use the same preamble code, these codes have to be planned. The code used is a 256 chip code, and the system uses all 256 codes. 4.3.1.5.2 Preamble Signature The preamble part carries one of 16 different signatures of length 16, <P 0, P1,..., P15>. The base station broadcasts which signatures are allowed to be used in a cell. 4.3.1.5.3 Channelisation Codes for the Data Part The signature in the preamble specifies one of the 16 possibilities for the channelisation code. The control part is always spread with a known channelisation code of length 256, so it can be detected by the base station. The base station obtains the spreading factor used on the message part from the rate information field of control part. The base station gets the channelisation code used in the data part either with the help of the preamble signature and the rate information. In this way, simultaneous detection of multiple random access messages arriving in the same access slot is allowed by the use of different signatures. 4.3.1.5.4 Scrambling Code for the Data Part In addition to spreading, the message part is also subject to scrambling with a 10 ms complex code. The scrambling code is cell-specific and has a one-to-one correspondence to the spreading code used for the preamble part. Note that although the scrambling code is the same for every access slot, there is no scrambling-code collision problems between different access slots due to the 1.25 ms time shift between the access slots.
The scrambling codes are repeated for every 20 ms radio frame. 4.3.2.4 Synchronisation Codes The Primary and Secondary code words, cp and {c1 ,... , c17} respectively, consist of pair wise mutually orthogonal codes of length 256.
Figure .9. Coding and Multiplexing of Transport Channels 4 Channel coding, including optional transport-channel multiplexing Static rate matching Inter-frame interleaving
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The different steps are described in detail below. The output of the inner interleaving block is usually mapped to one DPDCH. In the case of multi-code transmission, with very high bit rates, the output is split onto several DPDCHs. Transport channels are coded and multiplexed as described above, i.e. into one data stream mapped on one or several physical channels.
Figure .10. Channel Coding in UTRA/FDD 4 4.4.1.1 Convolutional Coding If the service requires a BER in the order of 10 -3 then is typical to apply convolutional coding. If the service requires a BER in the order of 10 -6 then convolutional coding is applied in concatenation with RS coding and outer interleaving.
Dedicated transport channels (DCHs) in normal (non-slotted) mode typically use a 1/3-rate convolutional coding, while DCHs in slotted mode are usually coded with a -rate convolutional coding. 4.4.1.2 Turbo Coding ETSI is currently investigating the use of Turbo coding for high quality services, which require data rates above 32 kbps (see Figure .11). Turbo codes of rate 1/3 and (for the 4 highest data rates), have been proposed to replace the concatenation of convolutional and Reed-Solomon codes. ETSI is awaiting further results of simulations illustrating the performance of Turbo Codes.
Figure .11. Block Diagram of a Turbo code encoder 4 Figure .12 shows the basic FEC coding structure for the UTRA, which will be employed in 4 case Turbo codes give an improved FEC for high quality services, compared to the existing proposals.
Figure .12. FEC Coding for UTRA/FDD When Turbo Codes are Used 4
4.4.1.3 Service Specific Coding The service-specific-coding option allows supplementary coding schemes, in addition to the standard coding schemes listed above, increasing in this way the flexibility of the UTRA Layer 1. One example is the use of unequal-error-protection coding schemes for certain speech-codecs.
4.4.3.1 Static Rate Matching Two different reasons lead to the use of static rate matching: To adjust the coded transport channel bit rate to a level where minimum transmission quality requirements of each transport channel is fulfilled with the smallest differences in channel bit energy To adjust the coded transport channel bit rate so that the maximum total bit rate after transport channel multiplexing is matched to the channel bit rate of the uplink and downlink dedicated physical channel. The static rate matching is based on code puncturing and unequal repetition. It is important to note that the rate matching must be co-ordinated between different transport channels, although it is carried out prior to transport-channel multiplexing.
4.4.3.2 Dynamic Rate Matching After the multiplexing of the parallel coded transport channels, it is necessary to match the total instantaneous rate of the multiplexed transport channels to the channel bit rate of the uplink DPDCH, which is done by the dynamic rate matching. It uses unequal repetition and is only applied to the uplink. On the downlink, discontinuous transmission (DTX) is used when the total instantaneous rate of the multiplexed transport channels does not match the channel bit rate.
Figure .13. Transport Channel Multiplexing 4 Another option is transport-channel multiplexing within the channel-coding unit, usually after outer RS coding but before outer interleaving.
Coding / interleaving
Service 1
Parallel services
Coding / interleaving
Service 2
Coding / interleaving
Service N
Figure .14. Service Multiplexing (a) 4 Another option is time multiplexing at different points of the channel coding scheme (see Figure .15). 4
Time Mux Outer Coding/interf. Time Mux Parallel services Time Mux Outer Coding/interf. Time Mux Inner Coding/interf. Inner Coding/interf. Time Mux Service 1 Service 2 ... Service n
Figure .15. Service Multiplexing (b) 4 After service multiplexing and channel coding, the multi-service data stream is mapped to one or, if the total rate exceeds the upper limit for single-code transmission, several resource units.
rate rate
0- rate
-rate -rate
0-rate : DPCCH-part (Pilot+TPC+RI) : DPDCH-part (Data)
-rate
0-rate Variable rate R=1 R=0 R = 1/2 R=1 R=0
Cp
Cp
Secondary SCH
Csi,1
Csi,2
Csi,15
Tframe=15*Tslot Cp: Primary Synchronisation Code Csi,k: One of 16 possible Secondary Synchronisation Codes (Csi,1, Csi,2,...,Csi,15) encode cell specific long scrambling code group i
Figure .19. Structure of Synchronisation Channel (SCH) 4 This initial cell search is carried out in three steps:
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In order to satisfy these requirements, the connection set-up should be fast and closed loop power control for large packets, and a small overhead for small packets. Moreover, the possibility of packet scheduling should be included. Small frequently sent packets are sent on the common channels, while frequently or large packets should use the dedicated channels.
Arbitrary Time
Access Request
User Packet
maintenance (see Figure .21). Open loop power control would be used. 4 Figure .21. Common Channel Packet Access 4
Arbitrary Time
Access Request
User Packet
User Packet
Access Request
User Packet
User Packet
Access Reques t
User Packet
Time
1 cycle
Figure .1. Wave Form 5 There are many different types of electromagnetic waves including radio waves, light, infrared rays and x-rays. Radio waves are one example of what we refer to as electromagnetic radiation. They are generally generated by oscillating charges on a transmitting antenna. To be able to use the radio waves for transfer of information such as speech or data a modulation technique is used. Modulation is the process where the amplitude, frequency or phase of a radio wave (or light wave) is changed.
69 UMTS Overview July 2001
M = magnitude
q = phase
Figure .2. Digital Modulation Techniques 5 There are different ways to modulate a radio signal. We could change the amplitude, the frequency, the phase or use pulse modulation (see Figure .2). 5 In Amplitude Modulation the carriers amplitude changes in accordance with the modulated user signal, while the carriers frequency is fixed (shown in Figure .3). 5
Amplitude
Time
Figure .3. Amplitude Modulation 5 Frequency modulation occurs when the carriers frequency is changed according to the input signal, while the amplitude is unchanged (see Figure .4). FM modulation is more immune to 5 noise than AM and improves the overall signal-to-noise ratio. The signal-to-noise ratio is the ratio between the signal maximum peak-to-peak signal and what remains when the signal is removed, that is, the ratio of the wanted signal to that of the noise. Phase Modulation is similar to FM but instead of changing the frequency of the carrier wave, the phase of the carrier changes (see Figure .5 and Figure .6). 5 5 Pulse Modulation is a sample of the waveform taken at regular intervals. There exit a variety of Pulse Modulation schemes not covered here.
Amplitude
Time
Q
01 state
0 state
I 1 state
Phase of carrier: /4, 3/4, 5/4, 7/4
To be able to use analogue signals for digital information they have to be processed by an intermediate stage before transmission. This is done by a modem (modulator/demodulator) in a process known as a modulation/demodulation.
FDMA is used for standard analogue mobile telephony. Each user is assigned a discrete part of the RF spectrum. FDMA permits only one user per channel since it allows the user to use the channel 100% of the time. In TDMA the users are still assigned a discrete part of the RF spectrum, but multiple users now share that RF carrier on a time slot basis. Each of the users alternates their use of the RF channel. Frequency division is still used, but these carriers are now further sub-divided into some number of time slots per carrier (3 for TDMA-AMPS, 8 for full rate GSM, 16 for half rate GSM). In CDMA there is no time division, and all users use the entire carrier, all of the time. CDMA is a spread-spectrum communication system in which multiple users have access to the same frequency band. The allocated frequency segment for that one carrier is considerably larger than that used in FDMA or TDMA. To distinguish the different users occupying the same frequency band simultaneously, each user is assigned a binary code.
If there would be no path loss the interference from all transmitters around us would be very high.
d
Figure .7. Path Loss 5 For a given frequency, path loss depends on the distance between the receiver and the transmitter. One way to estimate this is to use the free space formula. According to this formula, the path loss varies proximally in the following way: Pathloss distance 2 x frequency 2 This formula assumes a line of sight condition between the transmitting and receiving antennas. It also assumes that there are no reflections interacting with the direct radio wave. Also, as indicated buy the formula, the higher the frequency used, the higher the path loss. Since the pathloss will increase with an increasing frequency it is beneficial if the weakest part, according to transmitting power, is using the lowest frequency. By this it will gain some dB.
5.2.3 Shadowing
If the radio path does not have free line of sight between transmitter and receiver, the obstacles will cause shadowing. Shadowing is also called log normal fading or long term fading. Since the mobile phone normally is located in a low position, transmission will most likely be affected by shadowing objects, e.g. buildings, hills, the user or virtually anything in the radio path. When the mobile phone moves around, variations in signal strength, due to the character of the objects, can be measured in tens of meters.
Figure .8. Multi- Path Propagation 5 Different reflections would then mean slightly different time delays for the rays and the reflections also will have different effects on the phase of the radio wave. Normally we would receive not one, but several reflected radio waves and the resulting wave could be stronger, or weaker, than the individual waves. If there is no phase difference between the waves, the resulting wave may have considerably better signal strength, but if the phase difference between the two signals is close to 180 degrees they may null each other out. This cancelling out effect may cause very deep fading dips. The phenomenon is called multi-path or Rayleigh fading. On the other hand a receiver could with the help of some addative procedures capture a number of different reflected rays and the take the best out of this information. In a GSM system multipath propagation can cause problems in the receiver, multipath fading, while in another system like UMTS with a RAKE receiver structure this leads to the possibility of diversity gain turning the multipath channel to its advantage.
74 UMTS Overview July 2001
t1
t2
t3
time
Carrier, f1
Interferer, f1
C I
Figure .10. Interference 5 Another approach to this is used in CDMA. Instead of partitioning either spectrum or time into disjoint slots each user is assigned a different instance of the noise carrier. While those waveforms are nor rigorously orthogonal (they do not interfere with each other), they are nearly so.
C D F B D A C A B D B A C E B A
Figure .11. Reusing Frequencies in GSM 5
A A
A A
A A A A
A A A A A
The major benefit of noise-like carriers is that the system sensitivity to interference is fundamentally altered. Traditional time or frequency slotted systems must be designed with a reuse ratio that satisfies the worst-case interference scenario. Use of noise-like carriers, with all users occupying the same spectrum, makes the effective noise the sum of all other-user signals. The receiver correlates its input with the desired noise carrier, enhancing the signal to noise ratio at the detector. The enhancement overcomes the summed noise enough to provide an adequate Signal to Noise Ratio, SNR at the detector. Because the interference is summed, the system is no longer sensitive to worst-case interference, but rather to average interference. The reuse pattern is now the same for each (see ).
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5.3.2 Diversity
One of the objectives in system optimisation is to reduce or benefit from the multipath and shadowing effects. Some are applicable to TDMA and FDMA as well as CDMA system. There are different combinations to diversity. 5.3.2.1 Space Diversity By using two receiving antennas, chances are that they do not experience the same multipath propagation at the same time. A certain distance between the antennas could be used (space diversity) or the antennas element could be polarised (polarisation diversity). The use of antenna diversity will improve the carrier to interference (C/I) properties of the systems as the problem with the fading dips is reduced. 5.3.2.2 Frequency Diversity Another effective way to fight negative effects of multi-path propagation is to change the frequency, thus changing the positions of the dips. When frequency hopping is applied as in GSM/DCS, each consecutive burst will be transmitted (and of course received) at a different frequency. 5.3.2.3 Multi-Path Diversity Here versions of the signal arrive via separate paths and at different times and are combined in the receiver. 5.3.2.4 Macro Diversity Simultaneous use of links between the mobile and two or more fixed transmitters. Can for example be used to provide a smooth transition as the mobile moves from transmitter to another (soft handover). 5.3.2.5 Time Diversity Obtained by using symbol interleaving and error correction coding to introduce time correlation into the signal (described later in this chapter).
Block coding is mainly used for detecting errors. In the computer world block coding is often used together with a retransmission command, demanding the transmitting part to resend. This is not so useful when dealing with a real time application such as speech.
Figure .13. The Principle of Block Coding 5 5.3.3.1.2 Convolutional Coding The convolutional code consists of a shift register into which one shifts on the information bits. Doing logical operations on the positions of the bits in the register produces the coded information bits. This will make several coded bits dependent on one of the information symbols shifted into the coder. When all the information are shifted through the register we have produced the coded bits that will be sent (see Figure .14). 5 Convolutional coding is not good for detecting errors, but also for correcting them. The condition for being able to correct errors is that only few errors appear at a time, with a certain number of correct bits in between the incorrect ones.
XOR Output A
info
Bit 3
Bit 2
Bit 1
XOR
Output B
Figure .14. The Principle of Convolutional Coding 5 5.3.3.2 Interleaving The error detection and correction methods mentioned, work best when the bits lost are spread out at a certain distance.
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Interleaving is a method of spreading the potential losses, so that they can be taken care of by Channel Coding thus minimising the harm longer sequences lost. An analogy of this is, if the last 20 pages are torn out of an Agatha Christie novel, it will be more difficult to reconstruct the plot than if every 10th page, totalling 20 pages is lost. As an example, let us assume that each message block contains four symbols.
THMT HEUH IASE SRTY T H E Y T H ? Y MU S T MU ? T H E A R H E ? R T H I S T H ? S THEY MUST HEAR THIS TH?Y MU?T HE?R TH?S Figure 5.15. If Several Blocks Regroup the Information.
Assume also that it is likely that we loose not only one, but four consecutive symbols in a block. If we re-arrange them so that all number one symbols are put together in one block, all the number two symbols in another, etc., we will loose symbols from several blocks, BUT not one complete block. If only parts of a block are lost, the chance of reconstructing the information improves dramatically (see Figure .15). 5
USIM Domain
RAN Domain
Infrastructure Domain
Reference point between Access and Serving Network domains Reference point between User Equipment and Infrastructure domains, UMTS radio
interface Yu = Zu = Reference point between Serving and Transit Network domains Reference point between Serving and Home Network domain
Figure .1. UMTS Domains and Reference Points 6 We can divide basically between the User Equipment or Terminal (UE), and the infrastructure. This is represented by the interface Uu. So we can have these two big domains: the User Equipment Domain and the Infrastructure domain.
User equipment is the terminal that the user employs to access to the UMTS service. This equipment has a radio interface to the infrastructure. The infrastructure is made up of the several physical nodes that develop the various functions required to terminate the radio interface and to support the telecommunication services requirements to the users. The infrastructure is a shared resource by all the users and it will provide services to all these users (authorised) within its coverage area. The reference point between the user equipment domain and the infrastructure domain is called the Uu reference point (UMTS radio interface). As it has been said, it is a very important interface, because it separates two different worlds.
contains the end-to-end application or (e.g. laptop connected to a mobile phone), Terminal Equipment, TE.
We already know that no terminal types are standardised, so user equipment must indicate to the network a set of terminal capabilities in order to be handled properly by the UTRAN and the Core Network. The set of terminal capabilities includes radio capabilities, multimedia capabilities and speech coders/decoders that are supported by the user equipment.
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The radio parts of a user equipment can support any combination of GSM circuit switched radio, GSM packet switched radio, UMTS FDD-mode and UMTS TDD-mode, and additionally other radio access modes, due to the compatibility we have already talked before. Multimedia capabilities may include which type of display and which coders/decoders that are supported for video and audio. Finally, GSM and UMTS networks and terminals include a number of different speech coders: GSM Full Rate GSM Half Rate GSM Enhanced Full Rate GSM Full Rate Adaptive Multi-Rate GSM Half Rate Adaptive Multi-Rate UMTS Adaptive Multi-Rate
The UMTS user equipment has a default speech code, the UMTS Adaptive Multi-Rate (AMR) code. It generates a variable rate bit-stream of bit-rates between 4.75 12.20 kbit/s depending on the characteristics of input speech signal.
Application SW
Video Codec
Audio Codec
Data
End-to-End Control
Multiplex
To Mobile Termination
Figure .2. UE Multimedia General Architecture. 6 The Application SW is not part of the standard. It contains the application software, e.g. the user interface, in the terminal for multimedia application and controls the usage of the other blocks in the Figure .2 which implement the H.324 standard components. 6 The H.324 components are: A video coder/decoder that transfers analogue video into a digital bit-stream (H.263) The audio coder/decoder that transfers analogue audio into a digital bit-stream (G.723.1) Data protocols for end-to-end retransmissions and flow control for transfer of user data end-to-end (e.g. LAP-D) Control procedures for multimedia session set up and release end-to-end (H.245) All the streams generated by the four entities above are finally multiplexed into one single bit-stream according to the H.324 multiplex standard H.223. In order to have terminals that work properly the single bit-stream from the multiplexer requires a bit-rate of at least 32 kbit/s. The five entities in the H.324 terminal part reside in the Terminal Equipment part of the UMTS User Equipment. The single bit-stream from the multiplexer is sent to the Mobile Termination part of the User Equipment for transparent transport over the radio interface an onwards. (The core network will be aware of the fact that the call is a H324 call in order to activate specific rate adaptation functions in the so-called Interworking Function in the MSC).
3GPP has added the ETSI AMR speech coder/decoder to the list of possible audio codecs for the purpose of mobile-to-mobile multimedia calls. The G.723.1 speech codec has to be supported by UMTS multimedia terminals for interworking with terminals in the fixed network. We also have the standard MPEG-4, for video applications, introduced by the International Standardisation Organisation. It is introduced for every kind of video applications, i.e. not only videotelephony.
Security mechanisms to prevent USIM application specific information from unauthorised access or alteration. Verification of the access privilege shall be performed on the card itself and not delegated to another entity (for example the terminal).
The support for more than one simultaneous application (Multiple USIM, Ecash and/or some other applications).
An interface allowing highly secure downloading and configuration of new functionality, new algorithms and new applications into the IC card as well as updating the existing applications, algorithms and data.
Possibility for some applications/files to be restricted to one or some of the subscriptions, under user/SP control, with all applications that are shared, being done so in a secure manner.
Possibility to have shared applications/files between multiple subscriptions including other user and Service Provider controlled files and data, as well as for as yet undefined applications (including downloadable applications) required by the future services. Related security issues have to be analysed.
Inclusion of a payment method (electronic money and/or prepaid and/or subscription details)
Support for storing and possibly executing encryption related information, such as keys and algorithms.
The ability to accept popular value-adding IC card applications, such as digital signature applications, EMV credit/debit card, electronic purses such as Mondex and Visacash, etc. Dynamic addition and deletion of these applications during the lifetime of the card is envisaged.
Possibility for one UMTS SP to block multiple subscription on the card the SP has issued. In multi application cards a functionality to prevent the unauthorised access and alteration of USIM specific information by other applications residing on the card.
With all of these shared applications we can include database (e.g. telephone books), service profiles (e.g. controlling divert information), users preferences (e.g. short dialling codes) and SP-specific parameters inside a USIM application (e.g. call barring tables).
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These trends are more than likely to continue in the future. The users would prefer multi-band and multi-mode terminals with high integration levels. Technological development of these terminals relies on new packaging and interconnection technologies, as well as technological steps like SW-radio. The concept trends of mobile handheld terminals is likely to diverge from simple speech terminals towards a variety of different types, e.g., communicators, were able phones, data terminals, etc. These new data- and multimedia-oriented terminals will challenge the dominant role of speech terminals in the future.
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New radio-interface and system capabilities will enable higher quality multimedia services to be provided and therefore new terminal concepts to evolve, the variety of terminals in the UMTS environment will evidently be large. Terminal implementation technologies, such as digitalisation providing programmability and terminal configurability, VLSI, and display technologies, have developed a lot recently and will undergo further development in the future. Processing power, implementation architectures, IC and passive integration, and memory technologies are developing rapidly and will facilitate an increase in terminal functionality that will enable higher integration of terminals, as well as the integration of more functionality into smaller terminals. It can be clearly seen that the technical development of IC cards in the UMTS context. Compared to current IC cards (e.g. GSM Phase 2 SIM cards), the amount of memory and processing power will increase significantly. These development trends will meet the requirements of UMTS and should be taken into account while defining the features and functions of UMTS card. The trend for IC cards (used form the USIM) is similar to those form terminals. The next generation of IC cards will be multi-application cards capable of supporting several applications simultaneously. Furthermore, applications could be downloaded to and removed from these cards, both at the time of issuing and during the cards lifetime. The advent of these virtual machine cards, e.g. Java cards and Multi cards, will change the roles of the card issuers and application providers, and will enable IC cards to be much more flexible in the future.
Chapter 7: UMTS
Terrestrial
Radio
Acces
Network (UTRAN)
7.1 Introduction
UTRAN (UMTS Radio Access Network) is the radio access network for UMTS, and it provides the connection between the core network and the user equipment. In UMTS Release 99 UTRAN is considered the only access network. UTRAN will support high bit rate bearer services with the notion of negotiated QoS characteristics. It will also support asymmetric and bursty traffic for single- and multi-media IP as well as N-ISDN applications. UMTS R-99 puts interoperability requirements on both UTRAN and GSM BSS access networks, in such a way that the evolved GSM network is compatible with UTRAN regarding roaming and handover. It might however be the case that the advanced bearer capabilities of UTRAN not are fully supported by the core network.
7.2.2 Capabilities
The radio access bearer (RAB) capabilities for UTRAN are specified in 22.105.
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UTRAN in R-99 shall have the following capabilities: One UTRAN is contained in one UMTS network. The set-up, re-negotiation and clearing, of connections. Negotiation and re-negotiation of QoS. Supported bit rates: At least 144 kbit/s rural outdoor. At least 384 kbit/s urban outdoor. At least 2048 kbit/s indoor/low range outdoor.
Support for broadcast and multicast applications. Support for multiple simultaneous RABs. Seamless handover within UTRAN. Support for dual mode terminals FDD-TDD. Support for handover TDD-FDD-GSM. Support for positioning within 50 meters. Support for Localised Service Area (LSA) Optimisation of UTRAN radio interface is based on high bit rates, bursty, asymmetric, both real time and non-real time capabilities.
Standardised operation, administration and maintenance protocols co-operating with ETSI TMN.
Paging and cell selection procedures shall be designed to handle the combination of GSM and UTRAN cells.
Note that some traffic flows might be re-negotiated or even released because of the different radio access bearer capabilities of the different access networks.
Node B is connected to the RNC through the Iub interface. A Node B can support FDD mode, TDD mode or dual-mode operation. The RNC is responsible for the Handover decisions that require signalling to the UE. The RNC comprises a combining/splitting function to support macro diversity between different Node B. A RNC supporting the FDD mode may include a combining/splitting function to support macro diversity between different Node B. Inside the UTRAN, the RNCs of the Radio Network Subsystems can be interconnected together through the Iur. Iu(s) and Iur are logical interfaces. Iur can be conveyed over physical direct connection between RNCs or via any suitable transport network.
Core Network Iu RNS Iur RNC Iub Node B Iub Node B Iub Node B RNC Iub Node B RNS Iu
7.4.1.1 Control The control function is responsible for the signalling towards the RNC and the O&M functions. It also monitors the radio quality in the cells, and insert data in the system information. 7.4.1.2 Signal Processing The processing of the signal has different requirements in UL and DL: Uplink: SC/CC generation Despreading Rake receiver Deinterleaving Channel decoding Combining (in softer handover)
Downlink: Splitting (in softer handover) Channel coding Interleaving CC/SC generation Spreading
7.4.1.3 Transmitter / Receiver The transmission/reception part handles the carrier generation and is responsible for the output power. Here is the modulation/demodulation performed. The modulation is QPSK.
7.4.2.3 Signal Processing The signal processing functions handles flow control and retransmissions, as well as the SOHO procedures combining (UL) and splitting (DL). It also handles the
ciphering/deciphering.
Interfaces should be based on a logical model of the entity controlled through this interface.
Transport Network Control Plane is a functional plane in the interface protocol structure that is used for the transport bearer management. The actual signalling protocol that is in use within the Transport Network Control Plane depends on the underlying transport layer technology. The intention is not to specify a new UTRAN specific Application Part for the Transport Network Control Plane but to use signalling protocols standardised in other groups (if needed) for the applied transport layer technology.
7.5.2 Iu Interface
7.5.2.1 Access Network Triggered Streamlining One Access Network triggered function needed over the Iu interface is the function for SRNS Relocation. SRNS Relocation needs support from the Core Network to be executed.
Core Network
Core Network
Iu RNS
Cells
7.5.2.2 Iu Interface Protocol The Radio Network signalling over Iu consists of the Radio Access Network Application Part (RANAP). The RANAP consists of mechanisms to handle all procedures between the CN and UTRAN. It is also capable of conveying messages transparently between the CN and the UE without interpretation or processing by the UTRAN. Over the Iu interface the RANAP protocol is, e.g. used for: Facilitate a set of general UTRAN procedures from the Core Network such as paging notification as defined by the general SAP. Separate each User Equipment (UE) on the protocol level for mobile specific signalling management as defined by the dedicated SAP. Transfer of transparent non-access signalling as defined in the dedicated SAP. Request of various types of UTRAN Radio Access Bearers through the dedicated SAP. Perform the streamlining function.
The Access Stratum provides the Radio Access Bearers. Various transmission possibilities exist to convey the bearers over the Iu to the Core Network. It is therefore proposed to separate the Data Transport Resource and traffic handling from the RANAP (Figure .4). This resource and traffic handling is controlled by the Transport 7 Signalling. A Signalling Bearer carries the Transport Signalling over the Iu interface.
Signalling: Addition of Cells in the DRNS which may lead or not to the addition of an new Iur Data stream Removal of Cells in the DRNS Modify Radio bearer characteristics
From a logical stand point, the Iur interface is a point to point interface between the SRNS and all the DRNS, i.e. there is no deeper hierarchy of RNSs than the SRNS and DRNS. However, this point to point logical interface should be feasible even in the absence of a physical direct connection between the two RNSs. 7.5.3.1 Functional Split over Iur Interface 7.5.3.1.1 Macro Diversity Combining/Splitting DRNS may perform macro-diversity combining/splitting of data streams communicated via its cells. SRNS performs macro-diversity combining/splitting of Iur data streams received from/sent to DRNS(s), and data streams communicated via its own cells. The internal DRNS handling of the macro-diversity combining/splitting of radio frames is controlled by the DRNS.
7.5.3.1.2 Control of Macro Diversity Combining/Splitting Topology When requesting the addition of a new cell for a UE-UTRAN connection, the SRNS can explicitly request to the DRNS a new Iur data stream, in which case the macro-diversity combining and splitting function within the DRNS is not used for that cell. Otherwise, the DRNS takes the decision whether macro-diversity combining and splitting function is used inside the DRNS for that cell i.e. whether a new Iur data stream shall be added or not. 7.5.3.1.3 Handling of DRNS Hardware Resources Allocation and control of DRNS hardware resources, used for Iur data streams and radio interface transmission/reception in DRNS, is performed by DRNS. 7.5.3.1.4 Allocation of Downlink Channelisation Codes Allocation of downlink channelisation codes of cells belonging to DRNS is performed in DRNS. Note that this does not imply that the signalling of the code allocation to the UE must be done from the DRNS. 7.5.3.2 Iur Interface Protocol The signalling information across Iur interface as identified in previous section is called Radio Network Subsystem Application Part (RNSAP).
The RNSAP is terminated in the SRNS and in the DRNS. As already stated in previous section a clear separation shall exist between the Radio Network Layer and the Transport Layer. It is therefore proposed to separate the Data Transport resource and traffic handling from the RNSAP (Figure .5). This resource and traffic handling 7 is controlled by the Transport Signalling. A Signalling Bearer carries the Transport Signalling over the Iur interface.
7.5.4.1 Functional Split Over Iub 7.5.4.1.1 Macro-diversity Combining of Radio Frame Data Blocks Node B may perform macro-diversity combining/splitting of data streams communicated via its cells. RNC performs macro-diversity combining/splitting of Iub data streams received from/sent to several Node B(s). 7.5.4.1.2 Control of Macro Diversity Combining/Splitting Topology When requesting the addition of a new cell for a UE to UTRAN connection, the RNC can explicitly request to the Node B a new Iub data stream, in which case the macro-diversity combining and splitting function within the Node B is not used for that cell. Otherwise, the Node B takes the decision whether macro-diversity combining and splitting function is used inside the Node B for that cell i.e. whether a new Iub data stream shall be added or not. The Node B controls the internal Node B handling of the macro-diversity combining/splitting. 7.5.4.1.3 Soft Handover Decision To support mobility of the UE to UTRAN connection between cells, UTRAN uses measurement reports from the MS (Mobile Station) and detectors at the cells. The RNC takes the decision to add or delete cells from the connection. 7.5.4.1.4 Handling of Node B Hardware Resources Mapping of Node B logical resources onto Node B hardware resources, used for Iub data streams and radio interface transmission/reception, is performed by Node B. 7.5.4.1.5 Allocation of Downlink Channelisation Codes Allocation of downlink channelisation codes of cells belonging to Node B is performed in Node B. Note that this does not imply that the signalling of the code allocation to the UE must be done from Node B.
7.5.5.2.2 Signalling Bearer Requirements for Iur Interface There exist at least two major types of soft handover over the Iur interface: 1. The case when a new physical transmission (Iur data stream) is set up over the Iur interface to provide an additional cell. 2. The case when existing transmission (Iur data stream) is used over the Iur interface when an additional cell is added in the DRNS. In this case the DRNS must be able to identify the UE in order to perform the adding of the cell. Consequently a UE context must exist in the DRNS. Over the Iur interface the RNSAP protocol requires:
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A connection oriented transport of RNSAP messages, i.e. one signalling bearer connection for each DRNS for a particular UE.
A reliable connection to make the RNSAP simpler. Support of signalling inactivity testing of a specific UE connection.
Because of its close relation to the basic radio transmission and the radio channel structure, the basic control and synchronisation of this function should be located in UTRAN.
7.6.3 Mobility
7.6.3.1 Radio Environment Survey This function performs measurements on radio channels (current and surrounding cells) and translates these measurements into radio channel quality estimates. Measurements may include:
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Received signal strengths (current and surrounding cells), Estimated bit error ratios, (current and surrounding cells), Estimation of propagation environments (e.g. high-speed, low-speed, satellite, etc.), Transmission range (e.g. through timing information), Doppler shift, Synchronisation status,
In order for these measurements and the subsequent analysis to be meaningful, some association between the measurements and the channels to which they relate should be made in the analysis. Such association may include the use of identifiers for the network, the base station, the cell (base station sector) and/or the radio channel. This function is located in the UE and in the UTRAN. 7.6.3.2 Handover Decision This function consists of gathering estimates of the quality of the radio channels (including estimates from surrounding cells) from the measuring entities and to assess the overall quality of service of the call. The overall quality of service is compared with requested limits and with estimates from surrounding cells. Depending on the outcome of this comparison, the macro-diversity control function or the handover control function may be activated. This function may also include functionality to assess traffic loading distribution among radio cells and to decide on handing over traffic between cells for traffic reasons. The location of this function is depending on the handover principle chosen: If network only initiated handover, this function is located in the UTRAN; If mobile only initiated handover, this function is located in the UE; If both the mobile and the network can initiate handover, this function will be located in both the UTRAN and the UE. 7.6.3.3 Macro Diversity Control Upon request of the handover decision function, this function control the duplication/ replication of information streams to receive/ transmit the same information through multiple physical channels (possibly in different cells) from/ towards a single mobile terminal. This function also controls the combining of information streams generated by a single source (diversity link), but conveyed via several parallel physical channels (diversity sub-links). Macro diversity control should interact with channel coding control in order to reduce the bit error ratio when combining the different information streams. This function controls macrodiversity execution which is located at the two endpoints of the connection element on which
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macro-diversity is applied (diversity link), that is at the access point and also at the mobile termination. In some cases, depending on physical network configuration, there may be several entities which combine the different information streams, e.g. one entity combines information streams on radio signal basis, another combines information streams on wire-line signal basis. This function is typically located in the UTRAN. However, depending on the physical network architecture, some bit stream combining function within the CN may have to be included in the control. 7.6.3.4 Handover Control In the case of switched handover, this function is responsible for the overall control of the handover execution process. It initiates the handover execution process in the entities required and receives indications regarding the results. Due to the close relationship with the radio access and the Handover Decision function, this function should be located in the UTRAN. 7.6.3.5 Handover Execution This function is in control of the actual handing over of the communication path. It comprises two sub-processes: handover resource reservation and handover path new radio and wire-line resources that are required for the handover. When the new resources are successfully reserved and activated, the handover path switching process will perform the final switching from the old to the new resources, including any intermediate path combination required, e.g. handover branch addition and handover branch deletion in the soft handover case. This function is located in the UTRAN for UTRAN internal path switching and in the CN for CN path switching. 7.6.3.6 Handover Completion This function will free up any resources that are no longer needed. A re-routing of the call may also be triggered in order to optimise the new connection. This function is located both in the UTRAN and in the CN.
7.6.3.7 SRNS Relocation The SRNS Relocation function co-ordinates the activities when the SRNS role is to be taken over by another RNS. SRNS relocation implies that the Iu interface connection point is moved to the new RNS. This function is located in the UTRAN and the CN. 7.6.3.8 Inter-System Handover The Inter-system handover function enables handover to and from e.g. GSM BSS. This function is located in the UTRAN, the UE and the CN.
channels and acknowledging this reservation/release to the requesting entity. This function may also perform physical channel reservation and release in the case of a handover. Moreover, the amount of radio resource required may change during a call, due to service requests from the user or macro-diversity requests. Therefore, this function must also be capable of dynamically assigning physical channels during a call. This function may or may not be identical to the function reservation and release of physical radio channels. The distinction between the two functions is required e.g. to take into account sharing a physical radio channel by multiple users in a packet data transfer mode. This function is located in the UTRAN. 7.6.4.3 Allocation and De-Allocation of Physical Radio Channels This function is responsible, once physical radio channels have been reserved, for actual physical radio channel usage, allocating or de-allocating the corresponding physical radio channels for data transfer. This function may or may not be identical to the function reservation and release of physical radio channels. The distinction between the two functions is required e.g. to take into account sharing a physical radio channel by multiple users in a packet data transfer mode. This function is located in the UTRAN. 7.6.4.4 Packet Data Transfer Over Radio Function This function provides packet data transfer capability across the UMTS radio interface. This function includes procedures which: Provide packet access control over radio channels. Provide packet multiplexing over common physical radio channels. Provide packet discrimination within the mobile terminal. Provide error detection and correction. Provide flow control procedures.
7.6.4.5 RF Power Control In order to minimise the level of interference (and thereby maximise the re-use of radio spectrum), it is important that the radio transmission power is not higher than what is required for the requested service quality. Based on assessments of radio channel quality, this function controls the level of the transmitted power from the mobile station as well as the base station. This function is located in both the UE and in the UTRAN. 7.6.4.6 RF Power Setting This function adjusts the output power of a radio transmitter according to control information from the RF power control function. The function forms an inherent part of any power control scheme, whether closed or open loop. This function is located in both the UE and in the UTRAN. 7.6.4.7 Radio Channel Coding This function introduces redundancy into the source data flow, increasing its rate by adding information calculated from the source data, in order to allow the detection or correction of signal errors introduced by the transmission medium. The channel coding algorithm(s) used and the amount of redundancy introduced may be different for the different types of transport channels and different types of data. This function is located in both the UE and in the UTRAN. 7.6.4.8 Radio Channel Decoding This function tries to reconstruct the source information using the redundancy added by the channel coding function to detect or correct possible errors in the received data flow. The channel decoding function may also employ a priori error likelihood information generated by the demodulation function to increase the efficiency of the decoding operation. The channel decoding function is the complement function to the channel coding function. This function is located in both the UE and in the UTRAN.
7.6.4.9 Channel Coding Control This function generates control information required by the channel coding/ decoding execution functions. This may include channel coding scheme, code rate, etc. This function is located in both the UE and in the UTRAN. 7.6.4.10 Initial (Random) Access Detection and Handling This function will have the ability to detect an initial access attempt from a mobile station and will respond appropriately. The handling of the initial access may include procedures for a possible resolution of colliding attempts, etc. The successful result will be the request for allocation of appropriate resources for the requesting mobile station. This function is located in the UTRAN. 7.6.4.11 Other Funtions: Radio resource configuration and operation [TDD - Dynamic Channel Allocation (DCA)] Radio protocols function [TDD - Timing Advance] CN Distribution function for Non Access Stratum messages.
7.7 Identifiers
The following identifiers are used within UTRAN
7.7.2 UE Identifiers
When the UE is known to UTRAN is given an identity, called the Radio Network Temporary Identity. There are four different RNTIs: 1. s-RNTI: Serving RNC RNTI 2. d-RNTI: Drift RNC RNTI 3. c-RNTI: Cell RNTI 4. u-RNTI: UTRAN RNTI
Traffic class
Preserve time relation (variation) between Fundamental information characteristics entities of stream Conversational pattern (stringent and low delay) Example of application Voice
Traffic class Maximum bitrate (kbps) Delivery order Maximum SDU size (octets) Delivery of erroneous SDUs Residual VER SDU error ratio Transfer delay (ms) Guaranteed bit rate (kbps) Traffic handling priority Allocation/Retention Priority
Interactive class <2000 overhead Yes/No <1500 Yes/No/410-3, 10-5, 610-8 10-3, 10-4, 10-6
Background class <2000 overhead Yes/No <1500 Yes/No/410-3, 10-5, 610-8 10-3, 10-4, 10-6
510-2, 10-2, 10- 510-2, 10-2, 103 3 , 10-4 , 10-4 10-5, 10-6 10-2, 10-3, 10-4, 10-5 10-2, 10-3, 10-4, 10-5
Traffic characteristics Point-point, uni-directional or bi-directional (symmetric or asymmetric) Point-to-multipoint, uni-directional (multicast and broadcast)
The problem is that the current wireless networks are not best equipped to deal with these new forms of data use, and do not meet the UMTS requirements. As circuit switched networks, they are inefficient at handling small, frequent data calls and bursty IP traffic. General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), the packet-based data bearer service for GSM, offers current GSM operators an opportunity to kickstart the predicted mass market for wireless data services. And important to note, it is relatively small step from building a core network capable of delivering GPRS services to enhancing it to meet the requirements of UMTS. In other words, implementing GPRS will provide a core network platform for current GSM operators not only to expand the wireless data market in preparation for the introduction of third-generation services, but also to build upon for IMT-2000. GPRS will provide end-to-end packet switching capability from the mobile terminal upwards, enhancing GSM data services significantly, especially for bursty Internet/intranet traffic. Call set-up will be almost instantaneous and users will be charged on the basis of actual data transmitted, rather than connection time. GPRS does not require any end-to-end connection and only uses network resources and bandwidth when data is actually being transmitted. This make extremely efficient use of available radio bandwidth to be shared between many users. All the widely-used data communication protocols, including IP will be supported by GPRS, so it will be possible to connect to any data source from anywhere in the world using a GPRS mobile terminal. By providing seamless interconnection with existing data services, via for example TCP/IP and X.25 interfaces, GPRS will support applications ranging from low-speed short messages to high-speed corporate LAN communications. The introduction of GPRS is one of the key staging posts in the evolution of GSM networks to third-generation capabilities. GPRS can therefore help remove the network barriers to large-scale take-up of wireless data services by allowing familiar, user-friendly interfaces like the Internet to be used, permitting volume-based charging and providing high-speed user data rates. So what needs to happen in the core network to support the move to GPRS and, ultimately, UMTS?
The SGSN will provide packet routing, including mobility management, authentication and ciphering to and from all GPRS subscribers located in the SGSN service area. A GPRS subscriber may be served by any SGSN in the network, depending on location. The traffic is routed from the SGSN to the Base Station Controller (BSC) and to the mobile terminal via the Base Transceiver Station (BTS). The GGSN will provide the gateway to external ISP networks, handling security and accounting functions as web as dynamic allocation of IP addresses to serve mobile terminal. From the external IP networks point of view, the GGSN is a host that owns all IP addresses of all subscribers served by the GPRS network. The nodes will be interconnected by an IP backbone network. The SGSN and GGSN functions may be combined in the same physical node, or separated, even residing in different mobile networks.
A key requirement for these new nodes is that they are scalable, so that GSM operators can start to offer high-speed packet data services using small nodes in selected areas costeffectively, and add extra capacity as it is needed. The SGSN and GGSN should also support several radio networks (those with compliant open interfaces) at the same time.
will be handled within the radio access network, and clearly separated from the service and subscription functions in the core network. The GSM-UMTS network will consist of three main parts: GSM-UMTS core network UMTS Radio Access Network (URAN) GSM Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
Like the GSM-GPRS core network, the GSM-UMTS core network will have two different parts: a circuit switched part (MSC) and a packet-switched part (GSN). The core network access point for GSM circuit switched connections is the GSM MSC, and for packet switched connections is the SGSN. GSM-defined services (up to and including GSM Phase 2+) will be supported in the dual GSM way. The GSM-UMTS core network will implement supplementary services according to GSM principles (HLR-MSC/VLR). Modifications to support UMTS will be requires in all core network nodes. MSC and SGSN must be upgraded to handle the new signalling and traffic protocols towards UTRAN. Furthermore, HLR and VLR must be modified to store UMTS service profiles and subscription data. Last but not least, all nodes must be upgraded to handle the new range of data rates and the concept of quality of service negotiation and re-negotiation. Apart from the new range of higher data rate bearer services and more advanced QoS procedures, the UMTS core network introduces a third major novelty as compared to preUMTS networks - in how services will be handled. Pre-UMTS systems have largely standardised the complete sets of teleservices, applications and supplementary services which they provide. As a consequence, substantial re-engineering is often required to enable new services to be provided and the market for services is largely determined by operators to differentiate their services. UMTS shall therefore standardise service capabilities and not the services themselves. Service capabilities consist of bearers defined by QoS parameters and the mechanisms needed to realise services. These mechanisms include the functionality provided by various network elements., the communication between them and the storage of associated data. It is intended that these standardised capabilities should provide a defined platform which will enable the support of speech, video, multi-media, messaging data, other teleservices, user applications and
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supplementary services and enable the market for services to be determined by users and home environments. New services, beyond GSM Phase 2+, will thus no longer be standardised. Instead they will be created using new the service capabilities (which are standardised) mentioned above. These service capabilities may be seen as building blocks that provide service mechanisms in the UMTS network and UMTS mobile terminal that can be used for service creation. They include for instance: Bearers defined by quality of service (QoS) parameters Intelligent network functionality Mobile Equipment Execution Environment (MEXE) WAP and Telephony value-added Services SIM Application Toolkit Location servers Open interfaces to mobile network functions Downloadable application software
So, in addition to new services provided by the GSM-UMTS network itself, many new services and applications will be realised using a client/server approach, with servers residing on service LANs outside the GSM-UMTS core network. For such services, the core network will simply act as a transparent bearer. The core network will ultimately be used for the transfer of data between the end-points, the client and the server.
ATM, with the newly-standardised AAL2 adaptation layer, provides an efficient transport protocol, optimised for delay-sensitive speech services and packet-data services. Introducing ATM as a transport protocol does not, however, imply a completely new transport infrastructure: the ATM could well be run over existing STM lines.
8.5 UMTS
Core
Network
Phase
(Release
99)
Requirements
In the first phase of UMTS, the UMTS core network capabilities are a superset of the phase 2+ release 99 GSM core network capabilities. The additional requirements for the phase 1 UMTS core network are the following: The phase 1 UMTS core network shall support circuit switched data service capability of at least 64 kbit/s per user. This shall not limit the user from choosing lower data rates. The phase 1 UMTS core network shall support packet switched data service capability of at least 2 Mbit/s peak bit rate per user. This shall not limit the user from choosing lower data rates. The phase 1 UMTS core network shall enable set-up, re-negotiation and clearing of connections (i.e. CS calls or PS sessions) with a range of traffic and performance characteristics. The re-negotiation of QoS attributes for a bearer service may be caused by an application or the user via an application. It shall be possible to apply traffic policing (e.g. connection admission control, flow control, usage parameter control) on a connection during its set-up and lifetime. The phase 1 UMTS core network shall support a range of traffic and performance characteristics for connectionless (e.g. unicast, broadcast, and multicast) traffic. The range of traffic and performance characteristics that shall be supported by the phase 1 UMTS core network shall be at least those of GPRS phase 2+ release 99. This means that the support of the full set of bearer services defined in the UMTS specifications is not required for the phase 1 UMTS core network. Established bearers shall not prevent the set-up of a new bearer. These bearers can be of any type (e.g. PS, CS). It is nevertheless expected that the terminal and network
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capabilities will put some limitations on the number of bearer services that can be handled simultaneously. It shall be possible for each bearer to have independent traffic and performance characteristics. In order to facilitate the development of new applications, it shall be possible to address applications to/from a phase 1 UMTS mobile termination (e.g. the notion of Internet port). Operator specific services based shall be supported by the phase 1 UMTS core network. This functionality could be provided through available toolkits (such as IN, MEXE, WAP and SIM Toolkit). The phase 1 UMTS core network shall support interworking with PSTN, N-ISDN, GSM, X.25 and IP networks with their respective numbering schemes. It shall be possible for the standardised classes of phase 1 UMTS mobile terminals supporting the GSM BSS and UTRAN radio interfaces to roam in GSM networks and receive GSM services. Standardised protocols shall be defined for the operation, administration and maintenance of the UMTS phase 1 core network in co-operation with relevant groups within ETSI.
9.1 Position 1
The UE receives information from the Node B that controls the cell with Scrambling Code 1, SC1. All the information of the first Node B is received from the Radio Network Controller 1, RNC1.
9.2 Position 2
The UE enters in a new cell using the same frequency. This cell has a different Scrambling Code (SC2) and is controlled by a new Node B that depends on the same RNC1. The RNC1 is transmitting to two different Node Bs. This operation is known like combining and splitting and is performed by the RNC Signal Processing. In this short period a soft handover, SOHO, is performed. The handover decisions are taken in the RAB Management of the RNC1.
9.3 Position 3
The UE is completely inside the cell number two (SC2) and is receiving from the second Node B.
9.4 Position 4
The UE is crossing the cell border to enter in the cell number three (SC3) that is controlled by the same Node B. Now the combining operation is realised by Node B with the RNC supervision. In this case a softer handover is performed. This is the simplest case that can be found.
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9.5 Position 5
The UE is completely inside the cell number three (SC3) and is receiving from the second Node B.
9.6 Position 6
The UE is crossing the cell border to enter in the cell number four (SC4) that is controlled by the third Node B. This Node B is controlled by a second RNC, RNC2. In this case an Iur interface is present between the two RNCs. The RNC1, that controls the Serving Radio Network Subsystem, SRNS, is called Serving RNC and the RNC2, that controls the Drift Radio Network Subsystem, DRNS, is called Drift RNC. The combining and splitting operations are performed by the Serving RNC, RNC1, where the handover decision are taken. Even SRNS relocation is realised. In this case a soft handover is performed. The SOHO condition has the drawback that is necessary to transmit more power.
9.7 Position 7
The UE is completely inside the cell number four (SC4) and is receiving from the third Node B.
9.8 Position 8
The UE is crossing the cell border to enter in the GSM cell controlled by the BTS. All the information regarding the UE in position 7 is transmitted to the BSC through the Core Network. In this case only a hard handover (UMTS-GSM) can be performed.
9.9 Position 9
The UE is crossing the cell border to enter in a UMTS cell controlled by RNC3. The downlink is realised to frequency f1. Even in this case only a hard handover (GSM-UMTS) can be performed. All the information regarding the UE in position 8 is transmitted to the RNC3 through the Core Network.
9.10 Position 10
The UE is crossing the cell border to enter in a new cell controlled by RNC4. The downlink is realised to frequency f2. In this case only a hard handover can be performed because of the different frequencies within the two cells. Even in this case to transmit all the information regarding the UE in position 9 to the RNC4 the Core Network is used. For the Uplink case the analogue considerations can be done
Figure 0.1. The Choice of Cell Types Affecting Several Posts on The Scale 1 Important when designing a network is to find a balance regarding which combination of the types of cells to use. The most common ones today are macro, micro and pico cells, but
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sometimes also mini cells are mentioned. As co-siting is one key design objective for UMTS networks, it is very likely that UMTS will have the same type of cells as todays second generation systems. However, it should be noted that high bit rates have lower coverage than low bit rates. Thus, if the UMTS network is designed to handle high bit rates, i.e. 384 kbps and above, the majority of the cells will be micro and pico cells. Macro cells, have a typical coverage range from 1 to 35 km (several vendors offers special high coverage solutions that will extend the coverage beyond 35 km). Normally the site location is on a hilltop or a rooftop, guarantying good coverage. The main rays are propagated over the rooftops. Micro cells have a typical coverage range from o.1 to 1 km, where the major part of the radio waves is propagated along the streets. The base station antenna placement is below the rooftops of the surrounding buildings. A micro cell can maintain indoor coverage in the lower levels of a building. Pico cells supplies coverage in indoor environment (or possibly outdoors in environments physically distinctly limited a backyard e.g.). The base station is transmitting at low output power and the antennas could be mounted on walls or in the ceiling. Pico cells are used when the capacity needed is extremely high in certain hot spots. Mini cells are between macro and micro cells, as the antenna is typically placed at the same level as the rooftops. HCS (Hierarchical Cell Structures) is an example of how different cell types can be deployed in the same area. Traditionally, the different cell types, i.e. macro and micro cells use different frequency bands. HCS offers a high capacity solution, as the micro band is capable of handle a high load. HCS also allows for the possibility to conduct load sharing between the different cell layers. In order to limit the amount of handovers in the system, one may also consider the users velocity when deciding which cell layer to use. In the theoretical part of cell planing, base station coverage areas or cells are shown as hexagons. This is so because the system is designed to let the mobile always operate on the nearest or best base station. Thus, boundaries between the base station cells will theoretically form straight lines, perpendicular to the connection lines between the sites, and these will form a hexagonal cellular pattern (see ).
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Figure 0.2. Cell Coverage Shown as a Hexagon 1 The use of different types of cells on the same area introduces the concept of a hierarchical structure, leading to increasingly complex handover relations and planning.
System Growth
On-going Testing
Launch of Service
Implementation
Figure 0.3. Different Steps in The Cell Planning Process 1 This process should not be considered just as it is depicted, in a single flow of events. For instance, the radio planning and surveying actions are interlinked in an ongoing iterative process that should ultimately lead to the individual site design.
10.3.4 Surveys:
Radio environment survey: Investigate path loss, interference and time dispersion. Investigate other systems antenna and interfering transmitters. Sit Survey: Pinpoint exact location with GPS. The ideal planned locations have to be searched for any suitable building, tower or vacant lot that could be leased for a reasonable cost. Check space for antenna mounting, isolation, diversity, roof clearance (first Fresnel zone empty). Investigate physical necessities such as space for equipment, power and PCM links.
128 UMTS Overview July 2001
10.3.6 Implementation:
Install: node B, power, termination equipment for PCM link, air-conditioning equipment, earth bar, lightning equipment and antennas. Adjust output power, set parameters. Commissioning tests of node B. Drive testing to detect blank spots and interference and to confirm correct call set-up, handover, location updating and to detect missing neighbour relationships.
This means that at low load, i.e. low interference, the users can be further away from the base station, and still supported, compared to when there is a high load, i.e. high interference in the system.
Based on that information, the amount of traffic per carrier in a given area can be calculated. Further, the C/I for the different services can be calculated by taking the Eb/No values from the WCDMA RTT. The C/I = Eb/No 10log(chip rate/bit rate)
site can handle. If the system is not capacity limited, one assumes a new load and repeats the process.
CONSENSUS
ON
All of these three bands meet the UMTS Forums call for 160 MHz of global additional spectrum that is required to support the forecast growth of traffic and services that will outstrip the capacity of the present IMT-2000 core band in many markets before the end of this decade. This 160 MHz of additional spectrum in every ITU Region was calculated on the basis of traffic forecasts and the existing available mobile bands for 2nd and 3rd generation services. This groundbreaking news comes at a time when the UMTS licensing process is rapidly progressing in many countries throughout Asia and Europe in order to commence commercial services by 2001/2002. More than 100 licenses are to be awarded to operators of highcapacity UMTS mobile multimedia services within the next 12-18 months. Each government will make their own decision on the choice and timescale for making these additional bands available for IMT-2000 use. Factors influencing the availability of these additional frequencies include the local market demand for 3rd generation services and economic factors such as the stage of development of present 2nd generation networks. Some existing operators may also wish to consider migrating their networks to IMT-2000 in order to offer the benefits of lower costs and high-speed packet data services up to 2Mbit/s and beyond. The decision on extension band spectrum follows an earlier milestone of equal importance reached last month when the ITU Radiocommunication Assembly unanimously approved the formal adoption of the first release of IMT-2000 radio interface specifications. UMTS Forum Chairman Dr Bernd Eylert said today of the decision: "The UMTS Forum wishes to congratulate the ITU and to thank all its members for this successful result. Its an incredible milestone in the development of tomorrows mobile networks, and a fantastic result for the entire global mobile industry which is represented by the membership of the UMTS Forum - the worlds largest pan-industry group dedicated to 3G mobile matters."
Dr Eylert continued: "This decision is particularly welcome as it provides a solid basis for the regional introduction of 3G services, even in territories that were effectively blocked from the benefits of 3G in the past because of limited spectrum. The stage is now set for UMTS/IMT2000 to deliver on its exciting promise of immense socio-economic benefits for all the worlds mobile users. The UMTS Forum will continue its work in this very important field to assist the regions in their IMT-2000/UMTS deployments."