CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.0 Introduction It is not unusual for a child to repeat a standard.

Classes normally are held M-F and on Saturday mornings. The school year schedule is Jan-March, holiday in April, May to July, holiday in August, and Sept-Nov. with holiday in December. In November of the 8th year all students take a national exam (500 points) that will determine their eligibility for secondary schools. Those who score between 250-300 will enter a district Primary School. Between 300-400, a student is eligible to attend a more prestigious provincial Primary School. With a score of 350-500 and sufficient money, students may attend a top national secondary school. The cost of these top schools ranges from 60,000KSH per year ($1000) and up. If a child obtains a score lower than 250 on the exam, the child either repeats standard eight or can go to a private Primary School, where the parents must pay. Alternately, someone who can never pass the exam will go on to a polytechnic school to learn a trade. Comprehensive school counseling programs initiation is an essential aspect of primary school discipline management. This chapter discussed the background of the study, statement of the problem, significance of the study, limitation of the study, objectives of the study, the research questions, the scope of the study and the conceptual framework. 1.1 Background to the Study The issue of education is taking a completely new dimension in Kenya. The demand is rising, new universities are opening up, day by day and job scarcity makes failing in academic a sure way to limit chances of success, schools are competing for mean grades, while the curriculum is over loaded. Students are made to go for tuition, weak students are given remedial teaching, teachers find themselves under pressure, as parents spend less and less time with their children, the young are left on the hands of their peers for advice, those with access to internet get exposed to e-information, others go for electronic and print media. The unlucky ones depend on rumors.

These not withstanding, HIV/AIDS have left a large chunk of youth population orphaned, depending on grandparents or relatives. This increases dependency ratio heightening the already high levels of poverty. Dropouts, skipping classes due to school fees problems causes more stress to the traumatized young students. The issues presently have been compounded with the recent spate of violence among a number of schools. The call for in-school counseling has taken a intensified dimension. In their wake, students have burnt buildings, destroyed properties and even left other maimed or dead. Parents, leaders, teachers, religious leaders all are asking questions of what has really gone wrong. The common area of agreement is that there is a need for counseling in schools with some quarters calling of counseling of parents and teachers as well. With current socio-technological changes and educational demands, counseling is becoming a major area of concern for in-school youths. The large number of students in schools, limited number of trained teacher counselling programmes, heavy work load, socio-economic and technological changes all put pressure on the teachers, students, parents and society. No wonder, there is frequent demand for counseling to help address some of these problems. Guidance and Counseling (GC) in Secondary schools should help the students: plan and prepare for their work roles after Primary School, with personal growth and development, plan and prepare for postsecondary schooling, and with their academic achievement in Primary School. Most Kenyan students need much more than these four major areas. They require direction, understanding, appreciation and modeling for them to get focused in their work The ministry of gender and children affairs states that in the last two months Kenyan schools have experienced unprecedented spate of students' unrest. This occurrence has elicited a barrage of attacks directed towards students. Most criticism has been precipitated on the premise that the children are indiscipline as a result of absence of corporal punishment. The stakeholders say that History tells us that this assumption does not hold much water.

The discipline of children both in school and at home is determined by many factors. Among these factors parental upbringing lays the most important basis for the discipline of the child. Beyond the home, the social environment plays another fundamental role in shaping the child's character. Corporal punishment has been used for long in our society both at home and outside the precincts of home to instill discipline. Compliance through caning is often mistaken for discipline. However, research has shown that this form of violent approach to discipline is counter- productive in the long run. Corporal punishment dehumanizes the child, is brutal and instills fear in the child which inhibits the child's normal growth and productivity. Discipline in the Kenyan schools is far different than in the United States. Teachers in the US are not allowed to use corporal punishment. Most proponents of corporal punishment are losing sight of the very basic fact that approaches of instilling discipline abound in our midst. Guidance and counseling is yet to be fully embraced in our schools yet it is one of the best methods of reforming children. In several international treaties that Kenya has ratified, corporal punishment has been regarded as a form of physical violence against children. The World Health Organization defines physical abuse as the intentional use of physical force against a child that results in or has likelihood of resulting into harm of the child's health, survival, development or dignity, examples include hitting, beating, kicking, shaking, biting, strangling, scalding, burning, poisoning and suffocating. The Children Act 2001 categorizes corporal punishment as a form of violence against children. It is against this understanding that the Act outlaws it. Caning is a common discipline in Kenyan schools, a student to be caned would be brought into the teacher's room, be told to lay face down on the floor, and receive three canes to the buttocks with the other teachers watching. A couple of boys wanted to fight each other. The deputy headmaster got wind of it and had each boy take their shirts off and sit outside in the sun until lunch time. Most schools in Kenya, including those run by the Government still use corporal punishment as a form of discipline. From what we have heard this mainly consists of hitting the hand with a ruler or flexible implement. These

have been administered for reasons such as; writing with a biro or pencil instead of fountain pen, not covering exercise books as well as for more serious offences. We believe that when this method is used by schools, it instills the attitude that this is an effective form of discipline and therefore the children threaten to use it on each other. Strangely, this is contrary to another arm of the Government, the Childrens Department, which states that no childrens home use this method to discipline. The attitudes and actions will certainly be different in different parts of the country and in the wide range of homes in a single community. It must be noted that the children cared for come from similar backgrounds, backgrounds where their welfare has not been of the highest priority. Therefore they have learnt behaviours and ways of dealing with situations based on their upbringing. Everyday children are assisted to resolve problems arising from the way they speak to each other. At present the children can speak to each other very harshly and without love. One example of this is of older children threatening to beat younger children and boys threatening to beat girls. The room captains, children in positions of responsibility and leadership threatening to beat children who do not do what theyve been told. There may as well be a physical fight and it seems the children threaten without intention. The question arises, whether primary school is really "free" of charge in Kenya. Yes, free primary education began approximately 2003. But no, it's not entirely free when you consider that parents must cover the cost of uniforms, books and supplies. Additionally, parents who are subsistence farmers must sacrifice to send their child to school in lieu of having him or her provide much needed labor on the family shamba (farm). For this reason, not all Kenyan children attend school. Discipline is frequently stricter than in the US. Although "caning" or corporal punishment is legally forbidden, it occurs. Regulation uniforms and shoes are required of each student through Secondary School. Children are taught to respect and obey their elders without argument, and their emotional needs or preferences are not a focus in the way that we tend to focus on these in the US. This is why, when we communicate with a sponsored child, there may be a problem getting

answers to questions such as what do you like or want. It's not unusual for a child to defer to an older student or adult for the answer to those questions. Textbooks are government approved as they are written at an advanced level, when compared with US texts of the same level. The Kenyan school syllabus is very ambitious. Instruction is generally by lecture, there is no participatory, exploratory or small group activities employed. Music, dancing, and sports after class hours are tremendously important here, much more emphasized for all than in the US. One may be shocked to see a child's report card, because Kenyan teachers mark very strictly and don't hand out good grades for effort. Averages such as 70% or lower are common, even with good students. The child also has a class ranking, based on GPA, such as "13 of 27", to which the school attaches much importance. On 13th September 2002, pupils from the City Seconddary School were sent home because they burnt a dormitory and students from the University of Nairobi broke into police station to release a colleague charged with a sexual offence. On 16th September the University of Nairobi students rioted in violent confrontation with police. The cause of such episodes seems to be more than just declining discipline standards but reflect violence in the wider society served by these schools (Onyango, 2003 in Kindiki, 2004). In October 2005, more than 400 Kabuyefwe Secondary schoolboys in Kitale went on the rampage and burnt down the administration block. They also set the store on fire and shattered windows of other buildings. The students were angered by poor Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE) results over the years and what they termed as their teachers irregular class attendance. Other grievances included poor diet and being denied the chance to talk to female colleagues whose school is next to theirs (Sunday Nation, October 9, 2005). Students of Nairobi Ridgeways Academy were forced to sit in the cold after a fire razed their dormitory. The fire started at 3 am, after two groups of students engaged in an argument and could not settle their differences amicably (Mathenge, 2006). Students of

Kithangaini Secondary School in Machakos locked the head teacher in the office and walked 25 Km to report their grievances to the Machakos District Commissioners (DCs. The students complained of an alleged invasion of ghosts in their school and high handedness of the school principal who refused to listen to their grievances (Nzia, 2006). A form four student from Upper Hill School in Nairobi went to court to contest his expulsion over alleged use of drugs and the court ruled that the student be re-admitted to the school unconditionally. The student had filed an application in court stating that both the board and the head teacher had failed to give him an opportunity to defend himself against the accusations. This was all despite the students own sworn affidavit of having misbehaved after taking a soft drink laced with alcohol (Siele, 2007). Such incidences may lead to the school administrations reluctance to deal with indiscipline cases in schools. Teachers are now reluctant to take disciplinary action against students for fear of being sued by parents (Ngare, 2007). The chairman of the Kenya Secondary Schools Heads Association (KSSHA) described this trend as a sad affair because school administrators were faced with the uphill task of cracking down on drug and alcohol abuse, plus other forms of indiscipline among students. According to the chairman, this trend would jeopardize efforts being put in place to tackle indiscipline and would encourage indiscipline in schools because students would break rules in the belief that they can seek redress in court if punished (Daily Nation, October 10, 2007). Several extreme cases of student indiscipline have been attributed to gaps in formal counselling programme or to an ineffective counselling programme system within the school. At prima facie, it is believed that school administration is responsible for all that goes on in the school, be it positive or negative; and is, therefore, by extension responsible for the level of student discipline. In essence, the school administration is expected to promote good behaviour in the school. School administrators control students by imposing some form of punishment, thinking that punishment is the most effective means of deterring students from repeatedly failing

to behave properly. Schools use policy documents such as school code of conduct which spell out clearly school regulations or ground rules that help the students know what is expected of them in order to maintain a well run and organized school. School code of conduct is important but it is a good idea to explain the rules and why they are written because its rigid implementation may create anti-establishment. There should be love and respect within a discipline system, before making a decision to punish, the circumstances leading to the incidence in question must be explained in detail. Punishment should be consistent and immediate, delaying the decision is ineffective and in many cases the recipient may forget the reason for the punishment (Bakhda, 2004). 1.2 Statement of the Problem School primary counsellors played a key role in primary development interventions to provide information and guidance to students regarding personal, academic and primary options. Primary development intervention defined as any activity that empowers people to cope effectively with primary development tasks. However, in Malaysia less research are aimed to examine the primary development interventions that had been implemented by secondary school counsellors. The Guidance Programme, like any other educational programme, requires careful and consistent development. This ensures that the programme responds to the unique needs of its clients. It provides benefits to students by addressing their intellectual, emotional, social and psychological needs. For any guidance programme to meet successfully the needs of all students, it must be developmental, preventive and remedial rather than crisis-oriented. Further, a comprehensive and developmental guidance and counselling programme is not only preventive but also pro-active in preventive orientation. Consequently it must be well planned, goal-oriented and accountable. It is an integral part of the school programme, and complements other school activities. It is important for todays guidance and counselling programme to be developmental, so that it assists students who are growing up in a complex world. It should help them to develop into full human beings, capable of maximizing their potential in all personal, educational, social or primary-related respects.

Despite of the existence of the school code of conduct, guidance and counselling programmes, most schools world wide continues to experience student discipline problems because punishment produces anger and rebellion in the students, and frustration and a feeling of inadequacy in the school administration. Punishment is often repeated without ever producing the desired result; that of correction and a change of heart in the students (Sushila, 2004). In Kenya, corporal punishment was legally abolished in schools in Kenya in 2001. Inspite of efforts made by the Government of Kenya (GoK) in abolishing corporal punishment school discipline is deteriorating to such a level that the school system may soon become unmanageable. For example, research studies conducted in developed countries such as the United States (USA) and Europe in the United Kingdom (UK), France and Spain consistently highlight similar issues of the deteriorating scale and nature of violence and indiscipline within schools. The Scottish secondary school teachers indicated that students persistently infringe on school rules. Although newspapers sometimes are biased and unauthentic, they contain important and contemporary data which is useful in a study like this one. Therefore, Kindiki (2004) elaboratively quoted Onyango (2003) arguing that violence in schools in Kenya is common. There are many examples to qualify this statement. On the 13th July 1991 Saint Kizito Mixed Secondary School in Meru, Kenya boys went on rampage in the night raping and maiming female colleagues in a 1.00 am violent ordeal. 19 female students died and 71 received injuries (Kenya Times, 16 July, 1991 page1 Col. 7 p2 Col. 2-6). In May 1997, 57 students at Bombolulu Girls Secondary School perished in dormitory as a result of fire started by other students. In 1999 four prefects were burnt in a dormitory in Nyeri Primary School (Onyango, 2003 in Kindiki, 2004). In November 1999, a drugged and drunk student at Sagalo Institute of Science and Technology murdered, the school principal (East African Standard, 13 November, 1999 p2 Col. 1). In June 2000, about 3,000 pupils of Wangu, Ronald Ngala, Tom Mboya, Ushirika and Dadora primary schools in Dadora estate in Nairobi City went on a rampage

protesting the death of a colleague in a 6.30 a.m road accident. Pupils destroyed property, pelted motorists with stones, looted, drank beer and set a vehicle involved in the accident on fire (East African Standard, 6 June, 2000 pg 32 Col. 1 - 3). In July 2001 Kyanguli Boys Secondary School in Machakos doused a dorm with 20 litres petrol and set it ablaze in wee hours of the morning as boys slept. 67 students were roasted alive because they wanted to force school administration to close school earlier than was scheduled (East African Standard, Monday, April 2, 2001 in (Onyango, 2003 in Kindiki, 2004). The issue of student discipline in secondary schools in Kenya is not just a fleeting Concern of the last few months. The subject has long been debated and has featured repeatedly on school as well as national agendas both in Kenya and in other countries across the world. The Government of Kenya (GoK) is currently implementing several measures aimed at curbing the various cases of indiscipline in learning institutions particularly the use of guidance and counselling units in all secondary schools (MOEST, 2005). In spite of these efforts there have been several cases of student indiscipline reported in our daily newspapers while majority of the cases go unreported. The indiscipline perception of the general public in Kenya indicates that there is much to be done to save our primary, secondary schools and other tertiary institutions where the problems persist. Indeed there are cases of indiscipline on our learning institutions. The pupils at primary levels are not spared as well. The challenge is that the approach to tackle the device is multidimensional hence require comprehensiveness and inclusiveness of all stakeholders. An approach that will involve parents, teachers, pupils and everyone affected. The steps have been taken to forestall the problem but the effectiveness is yet to be realized. There are efforts in place to help end the problem for example the Capacity Building Programme for Key Stakeholders towards the Elimination of Corporal Punishment and Adoption of Positive Discipline Methods programme was launched to increase awareness on positive discipline in homes and schools and build the capacity of teachers on alternative positive and non-violent methods of instilling discipline.

The programme was initiated in the light of the abolition of the use of corporal punishment in Kenyan schools and due to the increase in the cases of child corporal punishment in schools and homes. Corporal punishment was banned in Kenyan schools in the year 2001 through Legal Notice No. 56 of 2001. This notice effectively repealed Legal Notice No 40 of 1972, which had introduced corporal punishment into the Education Act. The Ministry of Education decided to ban corporal punishment with the realization that corporal punishment was being indiscriminately applied in schools and children were continuously suffering injuries and even death in some instances at the hands of teachers. Apart from physical injury, the Ministry recognizes that this kind of punishment had overall negative effects on children and adversely affected not only their academic performance, but also their psychological well being. Furthermore, Kenya is a signatory to the UNCRC, the ACWRC and passed the Children Act, all of which require that the child be protected, treated with humanity and respect for their inherent dignity. Based on the above issues therefore the purpose of this proposal will be to explore school teachers and pupils perceptions of counselling programmes in schools in Kenya. It focuses on their needs, the problems they meet and what they think should be done to improve the counselling situation. The study will further explore student perceptions of their school counselling programmes. The major research questions of this study will be Do students understand the role and function of the school counselling programmes? What is the nature of contact between Kenyan students and school counselling programmes? (c)What is the nature of school counselling programme support as experienced by Kenyan students? And (d) how do Kenyan students perceive how they are treated by their school counselling programmes. In addition perceptions of the administration's attitudes, support from other members of staff and the school counsellors' workload as well as their overall assessment of the programme are discussed. 1.3 Objectives of the Study Thus the general objective of this study was to understand white collar crime against economic development. The specific objectives were:

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(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

To determine the role of individual confidence on the Teacher/Pupil perceptions of school disciplines To find out the role of group confidence on the teacher/pupil perception on discipline in schools To determine the role of self help group on teacher/pupil perception of school discipline To examine the overall relationships between counselling progamme and the teacher-pupil perception of school discipline

1.4 Research Questions To help tackle the above objectives, research questions will be used which will cover the areas as follows: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) What are the effects of individual confidence on the Teacher/Pupil perceptions of school disciplines? How does the group confidence affect teacher/pupil perception on discipline in schools? What is the effect of self help group on teacher/pupil perception of school discipline? What is the overall relationship between counselling progamme and the teacher-pupil perception of school discipline? 1.5 Significance of the Study The findings of this study will be useful to the government and the non-governmental agencies including all the stakeholders in the education sector especially those bodies concerned with the control and management of the discipline and career guidance and counselling, curriculum development and quality assurance and related challenges. The results are useful as it identify the forms of indiscipline causing factors and their effects on the students academic performance and the general conduct as a responsible citizen of this country. Therefore these entire stakeholders will benefit from the findings of this study.

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Apart from that, results of the study will enable information technologists to develop the tools effective and efficient for use in the department of basic and higher education. This will ensure the success in their implementations. The corporate community will also benefit from the findings of this proposed study where their policy formulations that will suit the reduction of career development and guidance and counselling would result when implemented. School counseling is an integral part of each schools educational program supporting a base of academic success for each student. By design, it is developmental and focuses on milestones that follow sequentially as preschool children become young adults. Counseling programs contain sequential activities that are organized and implemented by certified school counselling programmes, teachers, and administrators, in collaboration with students, parents/guardians, and members of the local community. 1.6 Rationale of the Study School counseling is an integral part of each schools educational program supporting a base of academic success for each student. By design, it is developmental and focuses on milestones that follow sequentially as preschool children become young adults. Counseling programs contain sequential activities that are organized and implemented by certified school counselling programmes, teachers, and administrators, in collaboration with students, parents/ guardians, and members of the local community. The delivery methods of a school counseling program include: A guidance curriculum that identifies competencies to be attained by all students at various stages of their development, and provides activities to help them achieve these competencies, Individualized planning with students and their parents/guardians in the areas of personal/social, academic/technical, and career development, Responsive services of counseling, consultation, and referral and System support functions that promote effective delivery of the school counseling program. The intention of this study will be essentially to generate discussions in the area of primary/secondary school teachers' and pupils personal characteristics as they affect

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their beliefs about the guidance and counseling programs existing in their schools. As it is common knowledge in the counseling world that even though much is known about the general perception of teachers and pupils regarding school guidance and counseling programs, little or nothing has ever been said about the personal characteristics of these teachers and pupils in relation to their perception about the school guidance and counseling programs in their schools. Thus, it seemed appropriate therefore to assess the beliefs of classroom teachers regarding guidance and counselling programs in the secondary schools. Thus, this study predicts that teachers' sex, age, and teaching major, and nature in terms of ownership of schools would affect secondary school teachers' beliefs about their schools' guidance and counselling programs. 1.7 Scope and Limitations of the Study 1.7.1 Scope of the Study The scope of study is a general outline of what the study covered. It defines the parameters within which the study is relevant and valid. Scope of study is a general outline of what the study, which can be an object, or a theory process, activity describing either future, current or past knowledge or statements of descriptive activity, experience. The study will be carried out in Schools within Eldoret West district in Uasin Gishu County. Therefore in this proposed thesis, the scope will be within the area of case study, which will be the selected schools in Eldoret West district and that all the information collected within this area provided the basis of data presentation, analysis and interpretation. To provide for result and findings clearly the thesis was based on the understanding that the structured counselling programmes and the perception of primary stakeholders. 1.7.2 Limitations of the Study A comprehensive guidance programme should be balanced, and encompass all the four fundamental areas of guidance, that is , personal, educational, social and vocational. It should provide students with the assistance necessary for their maximum development. The programme should also decide what services to offer, such as information,

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consultation, referral, counselling, placement, career follow-up and evaluation services. The programme should use all staff members and determine their roles in it. It, therefore, demands consultation, co-operation and co-ordination. A programme should define the role of the guidance personnel, who should be fully informed about the programme. It should create a teamwork approach, in which every member of staff is considered responsible for contributing to the success of the programme. However, the limitations of this study point out that the comprehensive framework is missing in the offing and the steep and rugged Eldoret west district will limit effective and accessibility of preschools in both highlands and midlands and lowlands, thus the researcher will not be able to make tangible various visits. Hence a small number of preschools will be selected, 10 out of 300. Also time schedule is a factor that has made the researcher to select only a small sample population that limits an extensive survey on the same matter. 1.8 Conceptual Framework The study will be guided by the Comprehensive School Counseling Programs Model developed by Idaho as a Guide for basic Education Program Development. The A school counseling program is an integral part of the total educational system. It is pro-active, clearly defined, accountable, and developmental by design. It includes sequential activities organized and implemented by certified school counselling programmes, teachers, administrators, students, parents/guardians, and community members. A school counseling program shall include the following delivery methods: Guidance Curriculum, Individual Student Planning, Responsive Services and System Support. The program addresses the needs of all students within the: Academic/Technical Development Domain, Career Development Domain, and Personal/Social Development Domain. This model is aimed at assisting local districts in developing their own counseling program as they help all students develop parent-approved student learning plans. This model is one from which school districts may extract those components that best meet

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their individualized needs. The intent of the program standards is to address the education of the whole person. It has become apparent that more emphasis and attention to the development of the whole person is necessary to help students become responsible, productive, and contributing members of society. Students need to gain skills that will benefit them throughout their lives in the various roles they choose as family members, workers, friends, and community members. Skills such as decision-making, written and verbal counselling programme, problem-solving, information gathering and analysis, critical thinking, assuming personal responsibility, acquiring self-knowledge and interpersonal skills, and analysis of ones behavior and its impact on others are some of the life skills that productive people need in order to continue their own development toward a strong self identity.

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Figure 1.1: Idaho Comprehensive School Counseling Programs Model

Source: Idaho State Board Of Education Report The purpose of a comprehensive counseling program in a school setting is to promote and enhance the learning process. To that end, the school counseling program facilitates student development in three broad domains: Academic/Technical Development, Career Development, and Personal/Social Development. These standards are based on nationally recognized standards developed by the School Counselor Association in 1997. The Academic/Technical Development Domain covers areas such as students will acquire the attitudes, knowledge and skills that contribute to effective life-long learning; Students will learn strategies to achieve academic/technical success and satisfaction.

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Students will understand the relationship among education and training, personal qualities, and the world of work; Students will understand the relationship of academics to life in the community and at home. The model also helps Students to acquire the skills to investigate the world of work in relation to knowledge of self and to make informed career decisions. At the same time Students will employ strategies to achieve career success and satisfaction, demonstrate skills for locating, maintaining, and advancing in a job and the understanding diversity and transition issues in todays workforce. Other important aspects of the model include acquisition of attitudes, knowledge, and interpersonal skills to help them understand and respect self and others, decision making, goal setting, and take necessary action to achieve goals. Finally the students will understand safety and survival skills. Each programme must be specifically designed for the clients it serves. There is, therefore, a possibility for both similarities and differences in programmes. Effective programmes are flexible, since this allows for adaptation to future growth and effectiveness. Programme development not only calls for needs assessment but reflects other characteristics of the clients, such as age, location or environment, cultural background, sex and economic status. Any service as comprehensive as guidance must be carefully planned if it is to meet the desired goal. When the programme is well organized, there is no doubt that all involved will participate to the fullest extent. The teachers should see it as their own, rather than the headmasters or the guidance teachers programme. Their involvement is crucial right from the start. 1.8.1 Benefits of the Guidance and Counselling Programme Programme development is a systematic process that requires following a series of steps. A developmental and comprehensive school guidance and counselling programme not only benefits the students, but also the parents, teachers, administrators and the business community. The benefits to the various groups are as follows: Students increases self-

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knowledge and how to relate effectively to others; broadens knowledge about the changing environment; helps them reach their fullest academic potential; provides opportunities for career exploration, planning and decision-making; provides an opportunity for networking with services and thus establishes an effective support system and teaches responsible behaviour. Couselling programme will as well provide parents with support for their childs educational and personal development; increases opportunities for parental involvement in the education of the child and equips parents with skills necessary to support their child. This programme will enable students to master effectively their subjects with an understanding of the importance of each one and provides an opportunity to work in collaboration with other teachers and parents. It is not without the assistance of the administrators that such programme will be successful thus the cpunselling programmes will enhances the image of the school in the community, reduces strikes, and improves the general appearance of the school; allows for systematic evaluation and provides a structure which can be monitored easily.

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Introduction This chapter involves systematic identification, location and analysis of the previous studies related to the matter of investigation. It is useful chapter that entails analysis of casual observations and opinions related t this proposed study. Chapter two, through the literature review, will help the researcher to get a thorough understanding and insight into past works and trends records concerning the proposed study. The literature review will enable the researcher to identify key areas that have thoroughly been researched on the strength of weaknesses of past researchers, and identify the gaps to be filled from these studies.

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Our students need to be more competitive with students from other countries, is a statement that has become a genuine concern among critics. This requires students to attend school on a much more regular basis, attend school for longer hours and take more academic classes. Surprisingly, very little attention, if any, was given to school guidance and counselling programmes and services in all these efforts to revamp education. It is as though school guidance and counseling service is a fringe benefit instead of being directly linked with students' learning (Myrick, 1993). Myrick (1993) remarks that learning is a consequence of the environment for better or for worse. Teachers and students working together create a learning climate, which plays a critical role in educational excellence. If students are to learn effectively and efficiently, to achieve more academically and to be productive and responsible citizens, then functional school guidance and counselling program must be part of the total school experience. Myrick (1993) further noted that approximately 70 percent of the 21389 teachers surveyed in 1990 by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching rated counselling services for students as either "fair or poor". This Myrick (1993) reports may be attributed to the ineffective traditional guidance and counselling methods, which too often rely on individual counselling at critical moments. Hence counsellors were seen as administrative assistants and having too little time to counsel. Even when counselling took place, it seemed to have little impact on students' attitude or behaviour. This chapter will therefore discuss the literature on the following areas of the proposed study; guidance curriculum, individual student planning, responsive services, and system support of the counselling program in our educational sector. 2.1 The Understanding of Counselling Programmes School counselling programmes help to make learning a positive experience for every student. They are sensitive to individual differences. They know that a classroom environment that is good for one child is not necessarily good for another. Counselling

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programmes facilitate counselling programme among teachers, parents, administrators, and students to adapt the school's environment in the best interests of each individual student. They help individual students make the most of their school experiences and prepare them for the future. The history of school counseling around the world varies greatly based on how different countries and local communities have chosen to provide academic, career, college readiness, and personal/social skills and competencies to pupils of basic education and their families based on economic and social capital resources and public versus private educational settings in what is now called a school counseling program. In the United States, the school counseling profession began as a vocational guidance movement at the beginning of the 20th century. Jesse B. Davis is considered the first to provide a systematic school guidance program. In 1907, he became the principal of a Primary School and encouraged the school English teachers to use compositions and lessons to relate career interests, develop character, and avoid behavioral problems. Many others during this time did the same. For example, in 1908, Frank Parsons, "Father of Vocational Guidance" established the Bureau of Vocational Guidance to assist young people in making the transition from school to work. From the 1920s to the 1930s, school counseling and guidance grew because of the rise of progressive education in schools. This movement emphasized personal, social, moral development. Many schools reacted to this movement as anti-educational, saying that schools should teach only the fundamentals of education. This, combined with the economic hardship of the Great Depression, led to a decline in school counseling and guidance. In the 1940s, the U.S. used psychologists and counselling programmes to select, recruit, and train military personnel. This propelled the counseling movement in schools by providing ways to test students and meet their needs. Schools accepted these military tests openly. Also, Carl Rogers' emphasis on helping relationships during this time influenced the profession of school counseling.

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In the 1950s the government established the Guidance and Personnel Services Section in the Division of State and Local School Systems. In 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik I. Out of concern that the Russians were beating the U.S. in the space race, which had military implications, and that there were not enough scientists and mathematicians, the American government passed the National Defense Education Act, which spurred a huge growth in vocational guidance through large amounts of funding. Since the 1960s, the profession of school counseling has continued to grow as new legislation and new professional developments were established to refine and further the profession and improve education (Lapan, et. al., 1997). On January 1, 2006, congress officially declared February 610 as National School Counseling Week. The 1960s was also a time of great federal funding in the United States for land grant colleges and universities interested in establishing and growing what are now known as Counselor Education programs. School counseling began to shift from a focus exclusively on career development to a focus on student personal and social issues paralleling the rise of social justice and civil rights movements in the United States. It was also in the late 60s and early 1970s that Norm Gysbers began the work to shift from seeing school counselling programmes as solitary professionals into a more strategic and systemic goal of having a comprehensive developmental school counseling program for all students. His and his colleagues' work and research evidence showing strong correlations between fully implemented school counseling programs and student academic success was critical to beginning to show an evidence base for the profession especially at the Primary School level based on their work in the state of Missouri. Therefore owing to the need of specialization in the area of counselling, many institutions of higher learning, in the 1992, the Department of Educational Psychology began to offer a School Counselling education Program. This program was intended to be responsive to the needs of teachers who wished to pursue graduate level training in counselling. Since there continues to be a chronic shortage of counsellors with appropriate post-graduate training to meet the demands of schools, the Counselling Psychology Faculty within the Department developed this program so that it would be available to professionals through

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alternate delivery means. The history of school counseling formally started at the turn of the twentieth century, although a case can be made for tracing the foundations of counseling and guidance principles to ancient Greece and Rome with the philosophical teachings of Plato and Aristotle. There is also evidence to argue that some of the techniques and skills of modern-day guidance counselling programmes were practiced by Catholic priests in the middle Ages, as can be seen by the dedication to the concept of confidentiality within the confessional. The factors leading to the development of guidance and counseling in the United States began in the 1890s with the social reform movement. The difficulties of people living in urban slums and the widespread use of child labour outraged many. One of the consequences was the compulsory education movement and shortly thereafter the vocational guidance movement, which, in its early days, was concerned with guiding people into the workforce to become productive members of society. The social and political reformer Frank Parsons is often credited with being the father of the vocational guidance movement. His work with the Civic Service House led to the development of the Boston Vocation Bureau. In 1909 the Boston Vocation Bureau helped outline a system of vocational guidance in the Boston public schools. The work of the bureau influenced the need for and the use of vocational guidance both in the United States and other countries. By 1918 there were documented accounts of the bureau's influence as far away as Uruguay and China. Guidance and counseling in these early years were considered to be mostly vocational in nature, but as the profession advanced other personal concerns became part of the school counselor's agenda. The United States' entry into World War I brought the need for assessment of large groups of draftees, in large part to select appropriate people for leadership positions. These early psychological assessments performed on large groups of people were quickly identified as being valuable tools to be used in the educational system, thus beginning the standardized testing movement that in the early twenty-first century is still a strong aspect of U.S. public education. At the same time, vocational guidance was spreading throughout the country, so that by 1918 more than 900 Primary Schools had some type of

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vocational guidance system. In 1913 the National Vocational Guidance Association was formed and helped legitimize and increase the number of guidance counselling programmes. Early vocational guidance counselling programmes were often teachers appointed to assume the extra duties of the position in addition to their regular teaching responsibilities. The 1920s and 1930s saw an expansion of counseling roles beyond working only with vocational concerns. Social, personal, and educational aspects of a student's life also needed attention. The Great Depression of the 1930s led to the restriction of funds for counseling programs. Not until 1938, after a recommendation from a presidential committee and the passage of the George Dean Act, which provided funds directly for the purposes of vocational guidance counseling, did guidance counselling programmes start to see an increase in support for their work. After World War II a strong trend away from testing appeared. One of the main persons indirectly responsible for this shift was the American psychologist Carl Rogers. Many in the counseling field adopted his emphasis on "nondirective" (later called "clientcentered") counseling. Rogers published Counseling and Psychotherapy in 1942 and Client-Centered Therapy in 1951. These two works defined a new counseling theory in complete contrast to previous theories in psychology and counseling. This new theory minimized counselor advice-giving and stressed the creation of conditions that left the client more in control of the counseling content. In 1958 the National Defense Education Act (NDEA) was enacted, providing aid to education in the United States at all levels, public and private. Instituted primarily to stimulate the advancement of education in science, mathematics, and modern foreign languages, NDEA also provided aid in other areas, including technical education, area studies, geography, English as a second language, counseling and guidance, school libraries, and educational media centers. Further support for school counseling was spurred by the Soviet Union's launching of Sputnik and fears that other countries were outperforming the United States in the fields of mathematics and science. Hence, by providing appropriate funding for education, including guidance and counseling, it was

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thought that more students would find their way into the sciences. Additionally, in the 1950s the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) was formed, furthering the professional identity of the school counselor. The work of C. Gilbert Wrenn, including his 1962 book The Counselor in a Changing World, brought to light the need for more cultural sensitivity on the part of school counselling programmes. The 1960s also brought many more counseling theories to the field, including Frederick Perl's gestalt therapy, William Glasser's reality therapy, Abraham Maslow and Rollo May's existential approach, and John Krumboltz's behavioral counseling approach. It was during this time that legislative support and an amendment to the NDEA provided funds for training and hiring school counselling programmes with an basic emphasis. In the 1970s the school counselor was beginning to be defined as part of a larger program, as opposed to being the entire program. There was an emphasis on accountability of services provided by school counselling programmes and the benefits that could be obtained with structured evaluations. This decade also gave rise to the special education movement. The educational and counseling needs of students with disabilities were addressed with the passage of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act in 1975. The 1980s saw the development of training standards and criteria for school counseling. This was also a time of more intense evaluation of education as whole and counseling programs in particular. In order for schools to provide adequate educational opportunities for individuals with disabilities, school counselling programmes were trained to adapt the educational environment to student needs. The duties and roles of many counselling programmes began to change considerably. Counselling programmes started finding themselves as gatekeepers to Individualized Education Programs (IEP) and Student Study Teams (SST) as well as consultants to special education teachers, especially after passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act in 1990.

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The development of national educational standards and the school reform movement of the 1990s ignored school counseling as an integral part of a student's educational development. The ASCA compensated partially with the development of national standards for school counseling programs. These standards clearly defined the roles and responsibilities of school counseling programs and showed the necessity of school counseling for the overall educational development of every student. The roles of a school counselor are somewhat different at various grade levels. In basic schools, counselling programmes spend their time with children individually, in small groups, or in classroomsthus having some connection with every student in the school. With the advent of systems thinking, the basic school counselor now has a working relationship with students' families and with community social agencies. Although the roles of school counselling programmes vary among settings, common tasks include individual counseling, small-group counseling, large-group or classroom presentations, involvement in school wide behavior plans for promoting positive and extinguishing negative behaviors, and consulting with teachers, parents, and the community. Like basic school counselling programmes, the roles of middle and Primary School counselling programmes vary depending on the district and the school administrators. Counselling programmes deal with a vast array of student problems personal, academic, social, and career issues. Typically, these areas get blended together when working with a student on any one topic; hence, it is impossible to separate the duties of a counselor on the basis of a particular problem. Counselling programmes in middle and Primary School have experience with all these areas and work with others in the school and community to find resources when a need arises. It is common for a school counselor to be the first person a student with a difficulty approaches. The school counselor then assesses the severity of the problem in order to provide appropriate support. School administrators sometimes assign counselling programmes such responsibilities as class scheduling, discipline, and administration. These tasks can be integrated with the goals of school counseling but can also dilute the time available for helping individuals.

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2.2 Concept of Teacher/Pupil Perception Education has been undergoing rapid change in the last several years. New modes of learning have been espoused and new counselling programme techniques/strategies are being encouraged as alternative methods to the traditional classroom model. However, "the traditional view of education, a view that still prevails, holds that learners must submit themselves to teachers" (Menges, 1977). As Menges further suggests, this view means that the teachers' authority is not to be questioned. The underlying assumption is that without the counselling programme of power by the teacher over the student, the student cannot learn. Hurt, Scott, and McCroskey (1978) suggest that in a classroom setting "a certain degree of teacher power is always present. They continue. by suggesting that the more power is employed by the teacher as a means of control, the more likely it will be required as a means of control. In other words "the more it is used, the more it will need to be used. The primary focus of this study is to determine the degree to which teachers and students have shared perceptions of the use of power in the classroom. If there is a high degree of shared perceptions this might illustrate that both teacher and student are aware of power and its outcome. A low degree of shared perceptions may contribute to ineffective counselling programme between the teacher and student. Shared perceptions, of course, do not guarantee effective counselling programme. However, if the student doesn't like the type of power employed by the teacher but can recognize it when it is used he/she may be able to respond appropriately. If the student cannot recognize the type of power communicated by the teacher, he/she is more likely to respond inappropriately. The key is to determine if students and teachers have shared perceptions about the kinds of power employed in a classroom. If this is determined then both teachers and students can be taught what types of power produce certain outcomes. Using the concepts of "identity" and "situational identity" as developed in symbolic interactions; this article focuses on student-perceived consequences of pets victims phenomena in the Primary School setting. The consequences for self-defined pets include experiencing the ridicule of one's peers, and greater pressure from teachers than normal

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concerning academic performance and classroom demeanor. The consequences for class victims are seen in marking and disciplining processes, in the development of a dislike for teachers, in antipathy among students, and in students' empathizing with those apparently victimized by teachers' actions. A large-scale survey of pupils' perceptions of a good teacher in the Caribbean republic of Trinidad and Tobago is reported. An essaybased, interpretative mode of research was used to elicit and identify constructs used by boys and girls. The study explores similarities and differences between boys and girls in their perceptions of a good teacher, in a society where girls achieve superior academic performance (than boys). 2.3 Conceptual Model Researchers have argued that the student teaching experience plays a significant role in the formation of attitudes and perceptions of preserves teachers regarding their roles and responsibilities as future practitioners. This postulate also includes those individuals who aspire to be agriculture teachers (Briers and Byler, 1979; Byler and Byler, 1984; Schumacher and Johnson, 1990; Schumann, 1969). Further, other investigators (Deeds, 1993; Deeds, Arrington, and Flowers, 1988; Garton and Cano, 1994; Martin and Yoder, 1985; Norris, Larke, and Briers, 1990) have opined that for prospective agriculture teachers the cooperating teacher and the cooperating center are two of the most significant components of the student teaching experience. DeMoulin (1993) stated that a cooperating teacher should foster unique teaching concepts and give support and encouragement to preservice teachers. To this end, Garton and Cano (1994) contended that cooperating teachers should demonstrate the desired teaching behaviors expected of student teachers (p. 213). In support, Martin and Yoder (1985) opined that an agriculture student teachers success during his or her field experience hinged on the general supervisory climate in the department and on the educational leadership abilities of the cooperating teacher. Deeds and Barrick (1986) and Byler and Byler (1984) found that the behaviors of agriculture cooperating teachers and programmatic qualities of cooperating

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2.3.1 Factors Affecting Implementation Programme implementation refers to the execution of programme strategies. The tasks required to follow the strategy are detailed and carried out. In addition, programme development considers the skills and knowledge needed by the implementers. Staff development opportunities are looked at to ensure that the implementers are well equipped to play their roles. It is when the programme strategies are implemented, and monitored. Formative evaluation techniques are important here. Staff competence is taken into account, and enables the leadership to decide whether team teaching will be used or not. It is important to consider the human, financial and political resources at the implementation stage. Human resources include the counsellor/student ratio, and the number of committee members and teachers who actually offer their services. Financial resources include the school budget for Guidance and Counselling, other sources of finance, and the adequacy of Guidance facilities. Finally, political resources are related to policies and procedures, resistant staff members, implementation guidelines and administrative support. It is important to consider all these aspects at the implementation stage as they determine the direction of the programme. Although good programmes may exist on paper they may not yield the desired results. The implementation stage determines the effectiveness of a programme. It is important to have a good counsellor/student ratio. This will depend on the organization of guidance services in a given school. It will depend on whether there is a part-time or full-time guidance teacher/school counsellor. Despite the large numbers that guidance teachers/school counsellors work with, they are expected to implement the programme, and ensure that its goals are achieved. It is important that thought be given to the provision of a suitable ratio, as too many students can prevent the counsellor/guidance teacher from giving good service. For someone to carry out duties efficiently, he needs to have a clear job description. The roles and functions of guidance personnel must be clearly outlined as this allows them to use their education and talents to good purpose.

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(N.B: Policy Guidelines for the Implementation of Guidance and Counselling in Botswanas Education System). All implementers should have clearly defined roles, as this enables administrators to understand the skills required when recruiting staff. Professionals, para-professionals and support staff should have the competence to run well-balanced and comprehensive guidance programmes. For any programme to achieve success its implementers should be helped to reach their full professional potential. The programme leader should be personally suitable, and educationally prepared, to assume the leadership role, and should have a professional and productive relationship with students. For a programme to be sustainable, financial resources are needed. It is, therefore important to determine the cost so that a feasible budget can be drawn up. This avoids unnecessary over-expenditure and disappointment. A budget enables the programme leader to operate within defined funding limits. It is important to explore other possible funding opportunities or sources. Non-governmental organizations and donor agencies such as SIDA, USAID and UNESCO, may be willing to fund certain activities. Such organizations may want to fund activities such as career resource centres, video production, life skills programmes, research, and many others. There is a need to explore such opportunities. Although such organizations may not fund an entire programme, they often provide the necessary support, which goes a long way towards supplementing state funds. The provision of such funds requires a detailed project proposal and a plan of action. When writing the proposal and plan, the programme leader must only emphasize the areas of interest to the sponsor. There is a risk of including other areas since there might be a fear that the funds may be diverted. A report is required on the use of donated funds. Programme activities determine the materials and equipment required. It is important for the programme leader to ensure that all these are readily available. The materials chosen will help the students/pupils to attain the outcomes identified at the planning stage. Apart from materials, it is also necessary to ensure that there are adequate facilities and equipment. Such facilities include counselling rooms, and resource rooms. For example,

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students will use the counselling service when an adequate, comfortable and private room is available for counselling. The availability of the necessary facilities also has a positive impact on teachers and parents. They attach value to the programme when financial support and recognition are given. The four components of guidance demand proper facilities for effective implementation. Functional physical facilities are necessary, and they should provide adequate space, privacy and accessibility, which are the corner stones of a good quality guidance programme. A guidance centre would be an appropriate location for services. Such a centre can be used for individual activities which enable students to work on their own, or with teachers and/or parents. The identification of the resources helps determine the financial implications of programme implementation. Adequate financial support is crucial, since the services provided are related to the costs available. Programme outcomes should match costs. The policies and procedures governing the implementation of a programme should be well known to the implementors. An understanding policy will enable the programme leader to deal with resistance and matters of shared responsibility. For instance, in the case of Botswana, the Guidance teacher works with the Teaching Service Management Department, the Secondary Education Department, and the Department of Curriculum Development and Evaluation. It is, therefore, necessary for these departments to work together when redeploying Guidance Teachers. The understanding of policy ensures shared responsibility when the need arises. It also gives implementers the ability to distinguish between issues. When guidance teachers involve other beneficiaries, it is important that they know and understand their responsibilities, to avoid any clash of interest. Guidance teachers should know the appropriate links and channels of counselling programme on various issues affecting their clients. Inability to connect, and to refer issues to relevant beneficiaries, may retard progress. Guidance teachers must understand their role, as a lack of understanding may adversely affect the programme. Open counselling programme in programme implementation is

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essential, and goes a long way towards ensuring that their concerns and fears about the implementation of the programme are addressed. Implementation calls for the programme leader to commend those who make a conscious effort to give support, and ensure that the programme moves in the right direction. This is an effective strategy, as it motivates them to work toward the achievement of positive results. 2.4 Review of Past Studies Myrick (1993) remarks that learning is a consequence of the environment for better or for worse. Teachers and students working together create a learning climate, which plays a critical role in educational excellence. If students are to learn effectively and efficiently, to achieve more academically and to be productive and responsible citizens, then functional school guidance and counselling program must be part of the total school experience. Myrick (1993) further noted that approximately 70 percent of the 21389 teachers surveyed in 1990 by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching rated counselling services for students as either "fair or poor". This Myrick (1993) reports may be attributed to the ineffective traditional guidance and counselling methods, which too often rely on individual counselling at critical moments. Hence counsellors were seen as administrative assistants and having too little time to counsel. Even when counselling took place, it seemed to have little impact on students' attitude or behaviour. Teachers' perception of school counsellors have been neglected and virtually ignored. However, a few authors who have studied this, report that most teachers perceive counsellors as a positive contribution to the school instructional programs (Aluede and Imonikhe, 2002; Quarto, 1999). In Ireland for example, O'Brien, Tuite, McDonogh and Deffely (1982, as cited in O'Leary, 1990) reported areas of mutual interests to both guidance counsellors and their teaching colleagues. Ninety-five percent of the respondents held the opinion that the counsellor should participate in the teachers' discussions of classroom experiences; eighty-five percent of their research participants believed that counsellors should use teachers as a career information resource. Overall,

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the study points to the possibility of integrating career information with the role of the subject teacher. The study further advocated that new methods and techniques could be devised whereby the counsellor coordinates the subject teaching staff, as a team of people who can effectively fulfill many of the career information needs of the students. Schmidt (1993) revealed that counsellors and teachers use classroom guidance activities to encourage positive self-concept development and alter behaviours for improving school success. These classroom activities are integrated with daily lessons or designated as specially planned presentations. It is worthy of mention that no school counselling program is successful without the support and assistance of the teachers in the school (Schmidt, 1993). The teacher is the most important professional in the school setting (Gibson and Mitchell, 2003). Teachers are a vital link in the integration of affective education into the curriculum. They are the first line helpers in the school counselling program and are the referral sources for students in need of additional assistance. Thus, teachers' support and participation are very vital to any program that involves students. Hence, teachers feel that they have responsibilities in the school counselling programs beyond those performed in the classrooms (Gibson and Mitchell, 2003). Thus, counsellors' roles and functions continue to be an ongoing discussion in the literature even though they have been in existence for more than a decade and specifically designated by American School Counseling Association (ASCA) (Stower, 2003). The role of the school counsellor has been studied, examined, defined and redefined by abundance of literature (Brott and Myers, 1999; Stower, 2003). However, the actual, ideal and perceived roles of school counsellors differ in meaning among researchers. Few people can make or break the school counselling programs like the teachers. Teachers serve as excellent referral sources for children in need of counseling services. In addition, teachers are valuable sources of information for need assessment and program evaluation. Their input is vital to understanding the needs of a school community as well as the effectiveness of the school counselling program interventions (Ripley, Erford,

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Dahir and Eschbach, 2003). For school guidance program to flourish, cooperation between school counselling programmes and teachers is paramount. According to Nugget (1990), next to counselling programmes, school teachers are the most important component in implementing a successful school guidance program. By and large, teachers are the key adult figure in the average pupil's school day. They are the most influential figures, be it positive or negative to the average student. This is particularly true at the elementary level, where children spend the majority of their day in one classroom. Thus, without teachers' support and involvement, developmental guidance won't work. As teachers represent the first line of defence in identifying special needs, they are the key advisors to the children and represent the best hope of personalization of learning. Therefore, teamwork between teachers and counselling programmes is a necessity for any guidance program to thrive (Stelzer, 2003). Furthermore, Nugget (1990) reported that teachers were the most crucial allies in a counselor attempt to deliver a successful guidance program. As teachers spend more time with the students than any other school staff member. Therefore, they are most apt to influence kids both individually and collectively. Adams (2000) reports the need for teachers and counsellors to work as a team for coordination of intervention efforts. Activities that received high ranks included the areas of individual and small group planning, as well as, specific areas in personal, educational and career decisions (Hughey, Gysbers and Starr, 1993). Specific strengths cited by numerous teachers were caring attitude of counsellors and the fact that they were readily accessible, as well as, the college planning time spent with the students (Hughey, et al., 1993). On the type of school in relation to guidance and counselling programs, teachers perceived private (sectarian) schools to have the best implementation of guidance services, followed by public (state) schools and private (non-sectarian) schools respectively. In addition, teachers' perception of counselling services showed differences between public (state) schools and private (sectarian) schools. Furthermore, teachers perceived significant difference in testing services between public (state) schools and private (non-sectarian) schools. Overall implementation of the services was perceived by

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teachers to have differed between private (national) schools and private (sectarian) schools (Mabalot, 1995). Researchers have neglected minority students likes, dislikes, and preferred characteristics of school counselling programmes. Furthermore, research concerning the relationship between school counselling programmes and Kenya students is scarce. In addition, the research that has been conducted concerning Kenya perceptions of their school counselor, which are mostly negative, needs to be carefully examined since some of these studies have focused upon Kenya students who (a) have dropped out of school (Ortiz and Guss, 1995), (b) are involved in dropout prevention programs (Ochoa, 1994), or (c) have been in community violence prevention programs (Jose-Kampfner, 1994). Each of these Kenya samples represents students who would not be considered to be mainstreaming, positively functioning students. With the growing Kenya Primary School student population and the lack of research aimed at understanding the perceptions of and needs of Kenya students, it is also important to understand students perceptions of their school counselor in relation to (a) factors that facilitate students help seeking behaviors, (b) academic support, (c) personal problems, and (d) students needs. West, Kayser, Overton, and Saltmarsh (1991) conducted a study that examined student perceptions that inhibit the initiation of counseling and found that students most frequently reported that they (a) do not like to tell a stranger about personal things, (b) are afraid counselling programmes will break confidentiality, (c) believed that school counselling programmes did not have time, (d) would be embarrassed to reveal real issues, and (e) perceived the school counselor to be busy or unavailable. West et al., (1991) suggested that client preparation and orientation are vital indicators of understanding what services are available, what counseling actually is, and the benefits of counseling. West et al., (1991) also found two major qualities of the school counselor, trustworthiness and competence, which facilitated help seeking behaviors among students. It seems that students perceptions of their school counselor do impact their ability or willingness to seek help. Although that study was important in terms of understanding student perceptions, it neglected the examination of student race and

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ethnicity, and how students race and ethnicity may impact their perceptions of their school counselling programmes and how this may inhibit the initiation of counseling. Examining Kenya students perceptions of their school counselor will aid the school counseling profession in developing a better understanding of Kenya student inhibitions of seeking school counseling services. In order to provide equitable services to the Kenya Primary School student population, it is important to understand similarities and differences between them and students of other racial backgrounds so that outreach and services can be provided within an appropriate cultural context. School counselling programmes play a vital role in providing academic support and checking graduation requirements. In a study conducted at an alternative school, Saunders and Saunders (2001) surveyed alternative school students perceptions of their experiences and interactions with their former school counselor. Saunders and Saunders (2001) found that students rated their former school counselling programmes highest on the item My counselor provided academic guidance when I had questions about my classes. In contrast, Davila (2003) found that Puerto Rican students had negative experiences with their Primary School counselor concerning academic support issues. Kenya college bound students in this qualitative study expressed (a) negative experiences with their school counselor, and (b) lacked academic planning and guidance from their school counselor. Students also expressed frustration and disappointment concerning their lack of career exploration and planning, as well as college preparation Students seek guidance from school counselling programmes for a variety of reasons, including help with personal problems. Saunders and Saunders (2001) found that alternative school students ranked their former school counselling programmes lowest on items My counselor helped me to deal with personal problems (family or other problems) and I felt comfortable going to talk to my counselor last year. Students did not perceive their former school counselling programmes as being very approachable or helpful in helping students deal with their personal and family problems (Saunders and Saunders, 2001). Similarly, Kampfner-Jose (1994) found that Kenya students were aware that they needed someone to talk to about

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their personal problems and disappointed by the lack of support services. Students in this study understood the role of the school counselor and wanted someone to talk to about their personal problems. However, students believed that school counselling programmes did not have time to listen to them. More research is needed to understand Kenya student perceptions of their school counselor. School counselling programmes may play an important role in dropout prevention. Ochoa (1994) interviewed Kenya students concerning drop-out prevention services. Forty-two percent of students interviewed indicated that they were not getting the help they needed from school counselling programmes or that the school counselor was unavailable (Ochoa, 1994). One participant in that study stated that there was a need for more counselling programmes. Similarly, Ortiz and Guss (1995) found that none of the participants in their study of Primary School drop outs were referred to counseling. When asked why they thought they were not referred, participants explained that school counselling programmes fix schedules and that they believed that the school counselor would not know how to help them (Ortiz and Guss, 1995). It seems some Kenya students are not aware of the services that school counselling programmes can provide (i.e., academic, social, career, or dropout prevention) (Ortiz and Guss, 1995), and some Kenya students are acutely aware of their needs (i.e., academic, social, and career), even when their needs go unmet (Ochoa, 1994). Although the American School Counselor Association has clear standards of school counseling services for all students (ASCA, 2006), previous researchers (Ochoa, 1994; Ortiz and Guss, 1995) indicated that Kenya students are being neglected in terms of adequate school counseling services. The lack of positive interactions with the school counselor, perceptions that the school counselor was not concerned, and lack of understanding concerning the role of the school counselor is disheartening. These findings demonstrate (a) the critical role school counselling programmes can play in dropout prevention, and (b) the need for school counselling programmes to not only address student needs, but to make more time for

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students. Previous findings concerning student perceptions, and more specifically, negative Kenya students perception of their school counselor, led to the current study. 2.4 Summary of Literature The Kenya population is growing so rapidly Census Bureau (2009) predicted that the Kenyas population will double from 12.5% to 24.4% by the year 2050. With a trendsetting increase in the student population, and with many students experiencing difficult circumstances such as poverty (Census Bureau, 2000; Barth, 2010), high teenage pregnancy rates, high incidence of dropping out (National Center for Educational Statistics [NCES], 2003; Barth, 2001), and low post-secondary educational attainment (Pew Hispanic Center, 2004; NCES, 2003), school counselling programmes need to be well prepared to guide and care for students. School counselling programmes play a critical role in the lives of Primary School students.

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CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 3.0 Introduction The review of literature has produced reoccurring themes emphasizing the importance of Counselling Programmes on Teacher/Pupils Perception in our schools. Teacher/Pupils Perception is a critical component in preparing counselling curriculum. This chapter highlights the procedures that will be followed in conducting the study. That is the techniques proposed for obtaining data, the steps involved in conducting the study. It is sub-divided into Research design, target population, sample size and sampling methods, data collection instruments, data analysis and the validity and reliability of the instruments. The main purpose of this section is to identify the indicators that will represent the characteristics hypothesized upon in Counselling Programmes as a whole. In order to test the outlined hypotheses, the data collection and the selection criteria to be used are described in detail, explaining the time period, the population and the sample. This is further done to increase the external validity of the study and to guide the reader when going into the statistical part of the thesis. 3.1 Research Design The researcher will employ the case study design. Case study is an intensive, descriptive and holistic analysis of a single entity or a bounded case. Case study will enable the researcher to study the area selected entity in depth in order to gain insight into the larger cases and secondly, to describe and explain rather than predict a phenomenon. This type of design uses smaller samples for depth analysis. A descriptive case study design will employ both quantitative and qualitative research methods. A descriptive method collects information by interview and administering a questionnaire to a sample population, (Orodno, 2003). An extensive research, rapid data collection, and ability to understand the population. The researcher will collect information in a standard form from a group of respondents in the sampled population. The rationale for choosing qualitative research methodology is directly connected to the nature of the populations being studied and the underlying goals of the research (to gain

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an understanding of how students perceive their school counselor). Because this study will focus upon school students and teachers perceptions, beliefs, and values, the authors felt it will be important to employ qualitative research methods, including using a standardized open-ended interview (Fraenkel and Wallen, 1996). This study will be an exploratory and inductive in nature. The researcher will acknowledge the importance of culture informing qualitative research (Constantine and Sue, 2005) and the primary researcher used the following interviewing behaviours: respected the culture of the group being studied, respected the individual being interviewed, and asked the same question in different ways (including translating questions into Swahili) (Fraenkel and Wallen, 1996). The researchers will fulfill numerous roles preparing and implementing this study. The role of the primary researcher was to build rapport with the interviewees. The researcher provided a comfortable, non threatening atmosphere. Prior to the interview, the researcher spent three days at the Primary School preparing for the study and obtained permission from the principle to conduct this study. The researcher also met with participants and explained the study. Parental/guardian and student informed consent forms were disseminated at this time. The researchers experience as a school counselor played a vital role during the interviews. As a result of working in the state in which the interviews took place, the researcher was familiar with the Primary School diploma requirements. This understanding reflected that the interviewer understood the students experiences. In addition, the interviewer was able to ask more in depth questions as a result of her knowledge and experience as a former school counselor. The primary investigator is conversational in Swahili. This assisted in interpreting the interview questions, interpreting student responses, and assisting the students when they were stuck.

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3.2 Study Area This study will be conducted at a traditional public primary school located in Eldoret West district. Of the 1169 students enrolled and targeted, 45.3 % of students will be identified as are in need of counseling services, and qualified for guidance and counseling programmes. In addition, 7.8% of students will be identified as limited in English proficiency. The most recent drop-out rate data available indicated that there were 75 dropout events in 20032004. 3.3 Target Population The study targets all the primary schools in Eldoret West District focusing mainly on teachers and pupils. There are over 300 primary schools in the district. The researcher will select 10 primary schools with a population of over 120 teachers and 8000 pupils in total. The composition of the population will include head teachers, and teachers and pupils of upper classes. This population will be involved in the study because it is directly involved in the development of counseling and discipline cases in the primary schools and any other programs that curriculum stipulates. Apart from that this population directly influencing the success of guidance and counseling programmes and so is an essential population for this study. The study will target all students of primary schools of standards 5, 6, 7 and 8 being the key victims of counseling. 3.4 Sample Size and Sampling Procedure A total of 300 pupils and 100 teachers will be selected to participate in this study, representing standards 5, 6, 7 and 8. This is the area mostly affected by indiscipline in schools and normally plan strikes and destruction of property. Eight male and eight female will be selected for each grade level. The demographic characteristics of the participants will include 50 male teachers and 50 female teachers. The teachers' majors will be spread in the sample as follows: Social Sciences, Arts, Sciences, and general Education. Ages of participants will range from 10 to 18-years-old. All students reported speaking both English and Swahili with varying degrees of proficiency. Four students reported that their parent or guardian could speak both English and Swahili, while four students reported that their parent or guardian spoke Swahili only.

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3.5 Data Collection Procedure Because of the sensitive nature of the data being collected and the obvious potential for providing socially desirable responses, it was deemed that anonymity of responses must be absolutely assured. Consequently, no personal information was requested from either the teachers or the students. However, it was necessary to be able to pair student responses with those of their teacher. Thus, each teacher was asked to select a five-digit number at random and to record it on her/his response form. They were asked to request that each of their students place the same number on each of their forms. Teachers will be selected and asked to participate. Those that will agree will be sent the appropriate forms with instructions for their completion and return. No follow-up correspondence to increase return rate was employed because the anonymous responses did not permit knowledge of who had returned materials and who had not. Copies of the questionnaire were administered to classroom teachers in schools where there are school counsellors. The questionnaire was personally administered by current investigators with the assistance of school counsellors in the last week before the midterm break of the third term in the 2009/10. At the end of mid-break, the current investigators personally went round the schools with the assistance of the school counsellors retrieved the duly filled copies. At the time of collection, 216 copies were duly filled and are used for the analyses. Participants will be interviewed by the primary investigator using a 29-item semi structured interview protocol. Questions will be created by the primary researcher based on a review of the literature concerning the role of the school counseling programmes (ASCA, 2006), teachers/students perceptions of their school counseling programmes (Baruth, and Manning, 1992; Davila, 2003: Jose Kampfner, 1994; Ortiz and Guss, 1995), alternative school students perceptions of their school counselor (Saunders and Saunders, 2001), and the general population of student perceptions of their school counseling programmes (West, et al, 1991). The primary researcher and the supervisor will meet as many times as possible to gain consensus on the interview questions. All interviews will be audio taped and the duration of interviews will be 30-70 minutes. The

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data will be collected by the primary investigator will not contain any identifying information or any link to participants. Parental and guardian informed consent and student assent will be obtained from all students prior to interviews. Informed consent forms will be two sided, with one side written in English and the other side written in Swahili. Examining attendance will be critical due to end-of-course testing that will occur at the end of every term as well as mid term exam addition, the teachers will be met to ensure that: students would not miss any important classroom time, and teachers will be adequately prepared and understood the reasons students will be selected. Students will not be invited to participate in this study during a class that requires state testing, which enabled identification and selection of participants. Students will be selected based on their class levels, and gender. Students that met the criteria based on their availability of an elective course, grade level, and gender will then be reviewed by the staff member responsible for attendance. Reputation-based selection (deMarrais and Lapan, 2004) will be used as the staff member recommended students based on the number of absences for the semester. Students with the least number of absences were invited to participate. 3.6 Research Instruments The data collection instruments are tools used to collect information from the intended target population (sample size). The most commonly used tools include questionnaires, interview schedules, observational forms, and documents analysis. A questionnaire, entitled Teachers Beliefs about School Guidance and Counselling Programs Inventory (TBSGCPI), was employed in the collection of data for this study. This version will be a modification of Gibson's (1990) Teachers' opinions about School Counseling and Guidance Programs Survey. The modification of the scale became necessary because of the peculiarities of counselling practices, especially the differences in the US and Nigeria's cultural idiosyncrasies. The current instrument was made up of two sections: Section A sought personal information of the teachers, such as, Age, Sex, Relationship status, Teaching major, and

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ownership of schools where they are presently teaching. Sections B of the instrument will be made of items raised on a four-point Likert type scale with responses ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree. This section was specially designed to tap information from the teachers on their beliefs about school guidance and counselling programs existing in their schools. The instrument will be content validated by four persons, two professors of guidance and counseling with specialization in school counselling, and two practicing school counsellors. Based on their corrections / modifications on the instrument, especially to suite the Nigerian situation, the final version of the instrument was drawn The study will use the following research instruments in data collection. They include questionnaire, participatory observation, interview schedule, and document analysis. These are discussed below. 3.6.1 Questionnaire This is a collection of items to which a respondent is expected to react in writing; designed questions in form format will be distributed to the respondents. This method collects a lot of information over a short period of time. The method is suitable when the information needed can be easily described in writing and if time is limited. In this study, the respondents will be given enough time to complete the questionnaires before returning them back for analysis of the collected data. The questionnaires will include both structured and semi structured questions. This will allow the respondents to give their opinions where necessary. The questionnaires will be in three parts, the first part will be seeking information on the preschools teaching methods, the next part will obtain the information on specific preschool teacher attributes that influence the choice of teaching methods. The third part will seek to answer the role of administration and ownership of the preschools on the choice of teaching methods. The Likert scale will be useful in analyzing data in questions that directly involve the feelings and attitudes of the respondents. Another method that will be used is cross tabulation, an essential technique in tabulating frequencies and

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occurrences of some variables. When analyzing qualitative data, especially from observation and interviews, the quasi-judicial method will be crucial because it offers a systematic procedure, which uses rational argument to interpret empirical evidence, (Mugenda and Mugenda 1999). Respondents will be assured confidentiality that their identities will be secured and collection of information will be from the point of view of the respondents. Secondary data collection methods (early childhood reports in the educational offices, lesson plans, reports in the head teachers offices): The researcher will use this method so as to critically examine recorded information related to the issue under investigation .This method is will enable the researcher to obtain unobtrusive information at the pleasure of the researcher and without interruption. This method will enable the researcher to obtain the language and words of the informants and access data at his convenient time. It also enables the researcher to obtain data that are thoughtful in that the informants have given attention to compiling them; and save time /expense in transcribing. 3.6.2 Interview Schedule This study will also employ the use of interviews as part of the data collection process. This method will be specifically used on collecting information from the head teachers. Structured and semi-structured interview questions will be designed for this exercise. Structured interviews will be used on the selected respondents where respondents failed to have satisfactory interviews. Like questionnaires, after selecting a problem, a measuring instrument will be constructed. A valiant will be constructed to an interview schedule, that is, a series of questions to ask the respondents. The reason for use of interviews is that they are easy to administer in that questions are already prepared. They also allowed a great deal of information to be gathered in a short period of time. Interviews also eliminate many sources of bias common to other instrument like observations. This is because questions

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that will be asked will be confidential between the researcher and the respondent. Above all the data collected through interviews will be highly amenable to statistical manipulation. Te arrangement of events on questions asked and answers obtained will allow easy tabulation and correlation statistically. 3.7 Pilot Study The researcher will carry out a preliminary survey of a similar population to the target population of this study. This will be done before the main study is carried out. The researcher will visits to the sampled preschools that will not actually participate in the actual survey and make preliminary observations of the target groups. Observations during the survey will be useful in making provisional impressions about the situations prevailing in this setting. The questionnaires will administered to two members in each group. Along with questionnaires there will be interview schedules that will be conducted to one teacher and one a head teacher. 3.7.1 Validity and Reliability of instruments Kerlinger (1953) argue that validity of an instrument is demonstrated when that instrument performs its designed purpose. Validity answers the question; are the findings true? In this study instruments will be availed to selected experienced researchers and lecturers. The study also used randomization of sampling techniques to create equivalent representative samples that are essentially similar in all the relevant variables that could influence dependent variable. 3.8 Data Analysis Audio tapes of all the interviews will be transcribed by the primary investigator. Transcripts will be copied and given to the supervisor. Transcripts will be reviewed and examined independently and the authors will then code conceptual categories, which later will be emerged into specific themes (Fraenkel and Wallen, 1996). The researcher meets the supervisor twice to compare conceptual categories and themes and five specific themes will be selected by consensus based upon discussion. The academic, school counseling experiences, and gender diversity between the authors will allow for varying

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perspectives concerning the analysis of data. Differential interpretations and perceptions from the researcher of the participants comments will allow for triangulation for specific themes. In addition, the primary investigator will keep a reflective journal of field notes that she will initiate at the inception of the research idea. The reflective journal contained will be both descriptive and reflective notes of the research process as suggested by Bogdan and Biklen, (1992). All data analyses will be performed with the assistance of the SAS statistical package. Data for individual subjects will be punched separately and teacher and student data paired by means of the MERGE procedure available in this statistical package. The data analysis included several procedures: Alpha reliability estimates were computed for the PPM responses for both teachers and students; Means for PPM and RPM responses for both teachers and students were computed; These means were tested (t-test for related samples) to determine significance of differences between teacher and student samples; Canonical correlational analyses were separately computed for the PPM and RPM data as tests of overall association between teacher and student responses and Simple correlation analyses for each power base were performed on the PPM and RPM data as tests of specific association between teacher and student responses

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References Adams, J.R. (2000). An examination of reasons for teacher-initiated contact with the school counselor by family structure, gender and race. Abstract retrieved March 27, 2001 from Dissertation Abstract on-line 61-05A (No AA 19972042). Aluede, O. O. (2000). The realities of guidance and counseling services in Nigerian secondary schools: Issues and strategies. Guidance and Counselling, 15(2), 22-26. Aluede, O. O. and Imonikhe, J. S. (2002). Secondary schools students' and teachers' perception of the roles of the school counselor. Guidance and Counselling, 17, 46-50. Aluede, O., Afen-Akpaida, J. E., and Adomeh, I. O. C (2004). Some thoughts about the future of guidance and counseling in Nigeria. Education, 125, 296-305. Brott, P.E., and Myers, J.E. (1999). Development of professional school counselor identity: A grounded theory. Professional School Counseling, 2, 339-351. Egbochuku, E.O. and Iyamu, E. O.S (2000). Teachers' and students' perception of guidance and counseling services in Nigerian secondary schools. Journal of Nigerian Educational Research Association, 14, 50-56. Federal Government of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education (4 Edition). Abuja, Nigeria: Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council. Gibson, R.L. (1990). Teachers' opinions of Primary School counseling and guidance program: Then and now. The School Counselor, 37, 248-255. Gibson, R.L., and Mitchell, M.H. (2003). Introduction to counseling and guidance (sixth edition). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education Inc. Hughey, K.F., Gysbers, N.C., and Starr, M.(1993). Evaluating comprehensive school guidance program: Assessing the perception of students, parents and teachers. The School Counsellor, 41, 31-35. Luk-Fong, Y.Y., and Lung, C.L.(n.d.) Guidance and counselling services in Hong Kong secondary schools: Profiles and possibilities. Retrieved on September 21, 2004

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Appendix I: Work Schedule and Budgeted Expenditure PERIOD 2011-2012 M Proposal Development Literature Review Proposal Presentation and Defense Reconnaissance Survey Actual Data Collection Data Classification, Organization, and Keying in Computer Data Presentation and Analysis (Chapter Four) Writing Chapter Five Editing the Whole Document Printing of Thesis Thesis Correction, binding final submission Presentation and Defense of Thesis Activity Budget ITEM Stationery Non-Consumables Transportation Accommodation Meals Miscellaneous Expenses Total TOTAL AMOUNT(Kshs) 30,000 137,000 4000 6000 3000 10000 190,000 A M J J A S O N D J F

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Appendix A: Interview Schedule Questions 1. What is your school counselling programmes type? 2. Describe what your school counselling programme does? 3. What qualities do you feel are important for school counselling programmes to have? 4. Does your school counselling programme possess these qualities? 5. What do you like about your school counselling programme? 6. What do you dislike about your school counselling programme? 7. What characteristics would make your school counselling programme more approachable? 8. Have you met or talked with your school counselling programme this year? 9. How has your school counselling programme made it a pint to see you this year? 10. How has your school counselling programme helped you this year? 11. How has your school counselling programme helped you throughout the school year? 12. Is there anything that keeps you from meeting with your school counselling programme? 13. How are you supported by your school counselling programme? 14. What expectations does your school counselling programme have of you? 15. How does your school counselling programme treat you? 16. Do you feel that your school counselling programme genuinely cares about you or cares about what is going on in your life? 17. How does your school counselling programme communicate to you that he/she wants you to be successful? 18. Has your school counselling programme discussed college or future plans with you this year? 19. What has helped you to stay in school? 20. Do you get information sent home in the language your parents can read? 21. What is your country of origin? 22. How long have you been in the KENYA? 23. How long have you been attending this Primary School? 24. What language(s) do you speak?

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25. What language(s) do your parent(s)/guardian speak? 26. Are language differences an issue? 27. Would you prefer that your school counselling programme speak English or Swahili to you? 28. Would you prefer that your school counselling programme speak English or Swahili to your parents? 29. Is there anything else that you feel is important for me to know about your experiences with your school counselling programme?

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