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Junction Diode
Characteristic s 65 At very low temperatures say 0 K, the ideal structure is achieved and the
roomtemperature , some
of
the thermal energy supplied tothe crystal, and conduction is made possible. An
timeforms part
of
a covalent bond, is
shown as being dislodged and so free to wander in a randomfashion throughout the crystal.
1,2,3,
0@
2.4).
;
:)'01'
I. The electron
of Ge
Ifr
.
Electron
position, because
of
'.
..:.....
0
(J.:....:.
0'. : ..
__
0
it collides with
o
@:
:Q)
some other atom. The absence
0
of
..
: bond is
.
So at a time at room temperature all
\:..)0
2.4
bond is incomplete so that hole exists, it is relatively easy for a valence electron
in a neighbouring atom to leave its covalent bond to fill this hole. An electron moving from a bond tofill
a hole leaves a hole in its initial position. Hence the hole effectively moves
its new position may now be filled by an electronfrom another covalent bond and the hole will correspondingly
Only the electrons are exchanging their position and thereby current is flowing. In
10 (a)
0000000000
0000000000
(b) 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10.
Fig. 2.5
one
of
theempty place denotes a hole. Now imagine that an electron from ion 7 moves into the hole at ion
-broken covalent bond. But ion 7 has a vacancy now, since it has lost one
of
66
Electronic Devices and Circuits Effectively the hole has moved from ion 6 to ion
electrons. The hole behaves like a positive charge equal in magnitude to the electron charge.
g passenger are free electron. When a sitting passenger gets down, a hole is created. Thishole is filled by a free electron that
is a standing passenger. This process goes on as the bus ismoving from stage to stage.
If
there are many standing passengers, without any vacant seat, it is analogous to ntype
semiconductor. Ifthere are many seats vacant without any standing passengerit is like a p-type semiconductor.S
>
p.Hole concentration
'p'
Instrinsic Semiconductor
D
=
p.
2.4 CONDUCTIVI TY
OF
posItions, we say holes are moving. Current is contributed by these holes current is
flow
of
current. Because
of
conventional current. Suppose to startwith, there are many free electrons, and these wiIl be moving in
random directions. A current isconstituted by these electrons. So at any instant, the total current density
is summation
of
of
The hole is
The charge
of
'e'.
A hole can move from one ion to the nearest where as an electron is
free to moveanywhere till it collides with another ion or free electron. Electrons and holes move in
(JE J
=
(n
J..ln
+ pJ..lp)
x ex E
=
(J
x En
=
Magnitude
of
=
Magnitude
of
Hole Concentration
(J
=
Conductivity
n/
cm or Seimens
(J
=
(n
J..ln
P
J..lp)
neJ..ln + peJ..lp
A pure
or
p
=
nj
where n
l
is intrinsic concentration. In
10
9
increases, covalent bonds are broken and so morefree electrons and holes are created. So n
l
n.'=
AxT2
e-EGo/2kT
I
EG
an Electron
or
10
21
;for
Ge
EG
= 0.785 eV at 0 oK
forSi
EcJ= 1.21 eV at 0 oK
EG
=
Temperature
in 0 oK k = Boltzman s Constant.
67
..........
(2.12)
As n
l
increases with T, the conductivity also increases, with temperature for semiconductor.
In other words,
semiconductor.
On the otherhand
metals.
This
is
because,
an increase
of
the mobility
of
2.5 DONOR
TYPE OR
n-
TYPE
SEMICONDU CTORS
If
'Ge'
becomes n-type
if
atoms. Because
of
the energysupplied while doping, the impurity atom dislodges one from its normal position in
valence electrons).
Now
4
of
atoms, surrounding the impurity atom and they form covalent bonds. Soone electron
of
The energy required to dislodge this fifth electronfrom its parent impurity atom is very little
of
he order
of
0.01 eV to 0.05 eY. This free electron is in excess to the free electrons that
breaking
of
denotean electron it is
\
.
68 Electronic
Devices
and Circuits
2.6
ACCEPTORTYP E OR
PTYPE
SEMICONDU CTORS
An
intrinsic semiconductor when doped with trivalent (3) impurity atoms like Boron, Gallium Indium,Aluminiu
Ge atom fromthe crystal lattice. The doping level is low, i.e., there is
one impurity atom for one million Ge atoms,the impurity atom is surrounded by Ge atom.
Now
share with the impurity atom. Sothe covalent bond is not filled or a hole exists. The impurity atom
to
it. So hole moves.There will be a natural tendency in the crystal to form 4 covalent bonds. The
3) since all the other Ge atoms have 4 covalent bonds and the structure
ofGe
semiconductor is crystalline and symmetrical. The energy required for the impurity atom to steal one Ge electron
Phosphorus
in the outer orbit is a free electron. But in order that this electron is
Ionization Energy.
The value
of
Silicon and Gennanium. As this energy is small, at room temperature,we assume that all the impurity
AND
ELECTRONS
In intrinsic semiconductors, n
=
p
= ni.
Or
the product n x p
ny. In
electron concentration, 0
OJ.
e l ~ ~ t m n s , . a J l ( i t h - i s p r o b a b i l i t
Sowhen a hole encounter a freeelectrc)\:;, both electrons and holes recombine and the place
of
holeis occupied by the free electrons and this probability is much lager since 0
p.
The result is
thatboth free electron and hole are lost. So the hole density
'p'
electron
density'
n'
but still 0
OJ.
of
p-type semiconductor p
OJ,
ndecreases in
recombination,
'p'
n7.
decreases
and because
of
breaking
of
'0' increases.In the case of p-type semiconductor the concentration of acceptor atoms
Na
n
l.
Assumingthat all the acceptor atoms are ionized, each acceptor atom contribute at
Holes are the majority carriers and the electrons minority carriers. As p
OJ,
thecurrent is contributed almost all, by holes only and the current due to electrons is negligibly small.
If
impurities
of
intrinsicsemicond uctor, the net result will be, it can be either,prype or n-rype
nl"
Then
No
=
0.1 N
I.
The number
of
holes contributed by Na. So the net free electrons will be equal to 0.9
No
=
ND
INTERSTITIAL ATOMS
Intrinsic
or
pure semiconductor
is
These impuritiesthemsel ves will contain some impurities. Commonly found such undesirable impurities are Lithium,Zinc, Copper, Nickel
ac:::eptor atoms.
interstitial atoms,
except
Copper
and Nickle
other
EFFECTIVE MASS
electrons
or
holes within a crystal,holes and electrons are treated as imaginary particles with effective masses
mp
and
mn
respectively.This
is
fields produced bythe lattice structure.Most metals and semiconductors are crystalline
in
of
spacearray
of
atoms
in
a regular tetrahedral
or
the case
of
metals,
in
each crystal, the atoms are very close toeach other. So the valency electron
of
other
words, the valance electrons are loosely bound to the parent atomand the electrons
of
atom. So every such valenceelectron has almost zero affinity with any individual atom.
of
increased, the covalentbonds binding the valance electrons are broken and electrons madefree to move, resulting
in electrical conduction.
Valence Electrons
are the
outer
aroundthe nucleus.
.
\J
f\
.
.+4
..
ree electrons
are those valence electrons which are separatedfrom the parent atom.
of
electrons
is
equal to number of
Fig
2.6
Covalent bonds
protons. The atom is neutral
applied.
In
having a charge
AND
EXCESS ELECTRONS
Sections
show all prev | next
1.1 ELECTRON DYNAMICS 1.3 SIMPLE PROBLEMS INVOLVING ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS ONLY 1.4 PRINCIPLES OF CRT 1.5 DEFLECTION SENSITIVITY 1.6 APPLICATION OF CRO 2.1 REVIEW OF SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS 2.2 ENERGY BAND STRUCTURES 2.3 CONDUCTION IN SEMICONDUCTORS 2.4 CONDUCTIVITY OF AN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
523 p.
1 p.
4 p.
2.
2 p.
50 p.
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