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Unit 1 Phonemes : The Phonological Units Of Language In the physical world the nave speaker and hearer actualize and are sensitive to sounds, but what they feel themselves to be pronouncing and hearing are phonemes.

For native speaker, phonological knowledge goes beyond the ability to produce all the phonetically different sounds of their language. It includes this, of course. A speaker of English can produce the sounds [ ] and knows that this sound occurs in English, in words like this [ or either [ [ ], is a sound of English, occurring in words like either [ d ], then [d n[, and bathe [be ] The author discuss the fact that knowing a language implies knowing the set of words which comprise the vocabulary, or lexicon, of that language. Consider the form and meanings of the following words in English : pill bill till dill kill gill ] ] or bath [b ]. An English speaker also knows that [ ], the voiced counterpart of

each word differs form all the other words in both form, and meaning. The difference in meaning between pill and bill is signaled by the fact that the initial sound of the first word is p and the initial sound of the second word is b. the forms of the two words --- that is, their soundsare identical except for the initial consonants. P and b are therefore able to distinguish of contrast words. They are thus said to be distinctive sounds in English. Such distinctive sounds are called phonemes.

For us to know what the English phonemes are. All the following words are identical except for the vowels :

Beat [bit] [i] Bit [b t] [] `

Bite [bayt] [ay] boot [but] [u] but [bAt] [A] bought [bt] [] bout [bawt] [aw]

Bait[bet] [e] Bet [bEt] [E] Bat [bt] []

Notice that a phonetic description of the sounds of a language is not enough to reveal the phonological system. The phonetic segments, or phones, pattern differently in different languages. phonetic features that are distinctive in one language may be redundant in other. Because of words like pin and bin, rapid and rabid, rip and rib we know that there in a phonemic contrast between /p/ and /b/. we also know that voicing is a distinctive feature of English, as shown by the following minimal pairs : Voiceless [f]fine [s]sink [ ]mesher [ ]chin [ ] gin voiced [v]vine [z]zine [ ]measure

/p/ and /b/ also differ in that /p/is [-voiced] and b/is [+voiced. But a third bilabial stop exists in English, the aspirated [p]. since we have already shown that aspiration is a non-distinctive feature of English and that [p] can be derivcd from /p/, we can conclude that the phonemic difference between /p/ and /b/ is the voicing distinction. /p/ and /b/ ( and all symbols of this kind)
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are cover symbols for matrices of distinctive features. The cover symbols by themselves do not reveal the phonetic distinctions which are shown by specifying the feature values. In phonemic or phonetic matrix each column reprensts a segment and each row a features.

Unit 2 Sequence of phonemes If you were to receive the following telegram, you would have no difficulty in correcting the obvious mistakes: best wishes for very happp birtfday, because sequences such as birtfday do not occur in the language. Ones knowledge of the phonological system includes more than knowing the phonetic inventory of sounds in the language. It even goes beyond knowing the phonemes of the language. The speakers have knowledge of such sequential rules is not too difficult to demonstrate. Suppose you were given four cards, each of which had a different phoneme of English printed on it : k b l i

If you were asked to arrange these cards to form all the posibble words which these foru phonemes could form, you might order them as : b k b k l l I I I I l l k b k b

these are the only arreangements of these phonemes permissible in english. /lbkI/, /Ilbk/, /bkIl/, /Ilkb, and so on are not possible words in the language. Although /blIk/ are not existing words (you will not find them in a dictionary), if you heard someone says.

 I just bought a beautiful new blick You might ask : Whats a blick? But if you heard someone say : I just bought a beautiful new bkli. You would probably just say What? Your knowledge of English tells you that certain strings of phonemes are permissible and other are not. After a consonant like /b/, /g/,/k/, or /p/ another simiar consonant is not permitted by the rules of the grammar. If a word begins with an /I/ or an /r/, every speaker knows thet the noext segment must be vowel. That is why /lbIk/ does not sound like an English word. Ti violates the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes. Phonological rules may do the following things ; 1. Add new fearues [e.g., aspiration in English] 2. Change feature values [e.g. homorganic nasal rule] 3. Delete segments [e.g. g-deletion rule in English] 4. Reoder segments [e.g metathesis rule in Hebrew] 5. Add segments [e.g. Greenlandic vowel insertion] These rules when applied to the phonemic representations of words and phrases result in phonetic forms which differ (or may differ) substantially from the phonemic forms. If such differences were unpredictable one would find it difficult to explain how we as speakers can understand what we hear or how we produce utterances that represent the meanings we wish to convey.