Extra High Voltage Ac Transmission 3rd Edition (Rakosh Das Re

This page
intentionally left
blank
New Delhi Bangalore Chennai Cochin Guwahati Hyderabad
Jalandhar Kolkata Lucknow Mumbai Ranchi
Visit us at www.newagepublishers.com PUBLISHING FOR ONE WORLD
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS
Copyright 2006, 1990, 1986, New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers
Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers
All rights reserved.
No part of this ebook may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microfilm,
xerography, or any other means, or incorporated into any information retrieval
system, electronic or mechanical, without the written permission of the publisher.
All inquiries should be emailed to rights@newagepublishers.com
PUBLISHING FOR ONE WORLD
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS
4835/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi - 110002
Visit us at www.newagepublishers.com
ISBN (13) : 978-81-224-2481-2
To
My Mot h e r a n d Si st e r
bot h brave women who fought and won over t heir common enemy
cancer in t heir sevent ies and sixt ies t o give hope t o younger
generat ion of t heir sex, t his book is lovingly dedicat ed.
This page
intentionally left
blank
It gives me pleasur e t o wr it e t he for ewor d t o t he book 'Ext r a High Volt age A.C. Tr ansmission
Engineer ing' aut hor ed by Rakosh Das Begamudr e, Visit ing Pr ofessor in Elect r ical Engineer ing
at t he Indian Inst it ut e of Technology, Kanpur . The field of e.h.v. is a ver y gr owing and dynamic
one on which depends t o a lar ge measur e t he indust r ial gr owt h of a developing count r y like
our s. A cour se in t his subject is offer ed for advanced under -gr aduat e and post gr aduat e st udent s,
and t he Inst it ut e also or ganized a shor t -t er m cour se for t eacher s in ot her lear ned inst it ut ions
and pr act ising engineer s in India under t he Qualit y Impr ovement Pr ogr amme.
Wit h a backgr ound of near ly 35 year s in t his ar ea in India, J apan, U.S.A. and Canada in
t eaching, design, r esear ch, and development , I consider Dr . Begamudr e one of t he ablest per sons
t o under t ake t he t ask of wr it ing a book, placing his wide exper ience at t he disposal of younger
engineer s. He has wor ked at not able inst it ut ions such as t he Nat ional Resear ch Council of
Canada and t he Cent r al Power Resear ch Inst it ut e, Bangalor e, and sever al ot her places. His
publicat ions in t he field of e.h.v. t r ansmission ar e numer ous and var ied in ext ent . The I.I.T.
Kanpur offer ed him Visit ing Pr ofessor ship and I am delight ed t o int r oduce t he book by him t o
lear ned r eader s in t his impor t ant field. It is not only a wor t hy addit ion t o t he t echnical lit er at ur e
in t his t opic but also t o t he list of t ext books published in India.
S. SAMP ATH
Dir ect or
Indian Inst it ut e of Technology
Kanpur
Foreword
This page
intentionally left
blank
Pref a ce t o t h e Th i rd Ed i t i on
It is near ly a decade since t he publicat ion of t he Second Edit ion of t his t ext -r efer ence book
aut hor ed by me and needs a r evision. No significant development s have t aken place in t he
ba sic t h eor y a n d pr in ciples of e.h .v. t r a n smission en gin eer in g, except for in cr ea se in
t r ansmission-volt age levels, cables, magnit udes of power -handling capabilit ies, as well as of
cour se t he cost of equipment and lines.
But t wo pr oblems t hat need ment ioning ar e: (1) har monics inject ed int o t he syst em by
moder n ext ensive use and development s in St at ic VAR syst ems which have an effect on cont r ol
and communicat ion syst ems; and (2) effect on human healt h due t o magnet ic fields in t he
vicinit y of t he e.h.v. t r ansmission line cor r idor . The fir st one of t hese is a ver y advanced t opic
and cannot be included in a fir st t ext on e.h.v. t r ansmission engineer ing, as well as sever al
ot her t opics of a r esear ch nat ur e fit for gr aduat e-level t heses and disser t at ions. The second
t opic is consider ed impor t a nt enough fr om epidemiologica l point of view t o necessit a t e
elabor at ion. Thus a new addit ion has been made t o Chapt er 7 under t he t it le: Magnet ic Field
Effect s of E.H.V. Lines.
Since t he dat e of publicat ion of t he fir st edit ion, t he I.E.E.E. in New Yor k has t hought it
fit t o int r oduce an addit ional t r ansact ions called I.E.E.E. Tr ansact ions on Power Deliver y. The
aut hor has expanded t he list of r efer ences at t he end of t he t ext t o include t it les of significant
t echnical paper s per t aining t o t r ansmission pr act ice.
The aut hor wishes t o acknowledge t he encour agement r eceived fr om Sr i. V.R. Damodar an,
Pr oduct ion Edit or , New Age Int er nat ional (P) Lt d., for r evising t his t ext -r efer ence book and
pr epar at ion of t he Thir d Edit ion.
Vancouver ,
Br it ish Columbia, Canada.
R.D. BEGAMUDRE
This page
intentionally left
blank
Pref a ce t o t h e Fi rs t Ed i t i on
Ext r a High Volt age (EHV) A.C. t r ansmission may be consider ed t o have come of age in 1952
when t he fir st 380400 kV line was put int o ser vice in Sweden. Since t hen, indust r ialized
count r ies all over t he wor ld have adopt ed t his and higher volt age levels. Ver y soon it was found
t hat t he impact of such volt age levels on t he envir onment needed car eful at t ent ion because of
high sur face volt age gr adient s on conduct or s which br ought int er fer ence pr oblems fr om power
fr equency t o TV fr equencies. Thus elect r ost at ic fields in t he line vicinit y, cor ona effect s, losses,
audible noise, car r ier int er fer ence, r adio int er fer ence and TVI became r ecognized as st eady-
st at e pr oblems gover ning t he line conduct or design, line height , and phase-spacing t o keep t he
int er fer ing fields wit hin specified limit s. The line-char ging cur r ent is so high t hat pr oviding
synchr onous condenser s at load end only was impr act ical t o cont r ol volt ages at t he sending-end
and r eceiving-end buses. Shunt compensat ing r eact or s for volt age cont r ol at no load and swit ched
capacit or s at load condit ions became necessar y. The use of ser ies capacit or s t o incr ease power -
handling capacit y has br ought it s own pr oblems such as incr eased cur r ent densit y, t emper at ur e
r ise of conduct or s, incr eased shor t -cir cuit cur r ent and subsynchr onous r esonance. All t hese
ar e st ill st eady-st at e pr oblems.
However , t he single ser ious pr oblem encount er ed wit h e.h.v. volt a ge levels is t he
over volt ages dur ing swit ching oper at ions, commonly called swit ching-sur ge over volt ages. Ver y
soon it was found t hat a long air gap was weakest for posit ive polar it y swit ching-sur ges. The
coor dinat ion of insulat ion must now be based on swit ching impulse levels (SIL) and not on
light ning impulse levels only.
Fr om t ime t o t ime, out door r esear ch pr oject s have been est ablished t o invest igat e high-
volt age effect s fr om e.h.v. and u.h.v. lines t o place line designs on a mor e scient ific basis,
alt hough all var iables in t he pr oblem ar e st at ist ical in nat ur e and r equir e long-t er m obser vat ions
t o be car r ied out . Along wit h field dat a, analysis of var ious pr oblems and calculat ions using t he
Digit al Comput er have advanced t he st at e of t he ar t of e.h.v. line designs t o a high level of
scient ific at t ainment . Most basic mechanisms ar e now placed on a fir m foot ing, alt hough t her e
is st ill an endless list of pr oblems t hat r equir es sat isfact or y solut ion.
Dur ing his lect ur ing car eer for under gr aduat e and post gr aduat e classes in High Volt age
A.C. Tr ansmission t he aut hor was unable t o find a t ext book suit able for t he cour ses. The
exist ing t ext books ar e for fir st cour ses in High Volt age Engineer ing concent r at ing on br eakdown
phenomena of solid, liquid, gaseous and vacuum insulat ion, t oget her wit h high volt age labor at or y
and measur ement t echniques. On t he ot her hand, r efer ence books ar e ver y highly specialized
which deal wit h r esult s obt ained fr om one of t he out door pr oject s ment ioned ear lier . To br idge
t he gap, t his t ext -r efer ence book for a cour se in EHV A.C. Tr ansmission is pr esent ed. The
mat er ial has been t r ied out on advanced under gr aduat e and post -gr aduat e cour ses at t he I.I.T.
Kanpur , in special shor t -t er m cour ses offer ed t o t eacher s in Univer sit ies and pr act ising engineer s
t hr ough t he Qualit y Impr ovement Pr ogr amme, and dur ing t he cour se of his lect ur es offer ed at
ot her Univer sit ies and Inst it ut es. Some of t he mat er ial is based on t he aut hor 's own wor k at
r eput ed r esear ch and development or ganizat ions such as t he Nat ional Resear ch Council of
Canada, and similar or ganizat ions in India and at Univer sit ies and Inst it ut es, over t he past 25
year s. But no one single per son or or ganizat ion can hope t o deal wit h all pr oblems so t hat over
t he year s, t he aut hor 's not es have gr own t hr ough r efer ence wor k of t echnical and scient ific
jour nals which have cr yst allized int o t he cont ent s of t he book. It is hoped t hat it will be useful
also for engineer s as well as scient ist s engaged in r esear ch, development , design, and decision-
making about e.h.v. a.c. t r ansmission lines.
Acknowledgements
The pr epar at ion of such a wor k has depended on t he influence, cooper at ion and cour t esy
of many or ganizat ions and individuals. To st ar t wit h, I acknowledge t he deep influence which
t hr ee of my vener able t eacher s had on my car eer Pr incipal Manor anjan Sengupt a at t he
Banar as Hindu Univer sit y, Pr ofessor Dr . Shigenor i Hayashi at t he Kyot o Univer sit y, J apan,
and finally t o Dean Loyal Vivian Bewley who exer cised t he gr eat est impact on me in t he High
Volt age field at t he Lehigh Univer sit y, Bet hlehem, Pennsylvania, USA. To t he Council and
Dir ect or of t he I.I.T. Kanpur , I am indebt ed for giving me a Visit ing Pr ofessor ship, t o Dr . S.S.
Pr abhu, t he Head of EE Depar t ment , for const ant help and encour agement at all t imes. To t he
coor dinat or , Q.I.P. Pr ogr amme at I.I.T., Dr . A. Ghosh, I owe t he cour t esy for defr aying t he
expense for pr epar at ion of t he manuscr ipt . To t he individuals who have done t he t yping and
dr aft ing, I owe my t hanks. My special t hanks ar e due t o Mr . H.S. Poplai, Publishing Manager ,
Wiley East er n Publishing Company, for his cooper at ion and t oler ence of delays in pr epar ing
t he manuscr ipt . Thanks finally ar e due t o my colleagues, bot h post gr aduat e st udent s and
pr ofessor s, who have helped me at many st ages of t he wor k involved in pr epar ing t his book
while t he aut hor was at t he I.I.T. Kanpur .
(for mer ly)
Elect r ical Engineer ing Depar t ment RAKOSH DAS BEGAMUDRE
Indian Inst it ut e of Technology
Kanpur , U.P., 208 016, India.
xii Preface
Con t en t s
Foreword ................................................................................................. vii
Preface t o t he Third Edit ion .................................................................... ix
Preface t o t he First Edit ion ...................................................................... xi
Ch a p t er 1 I n t r od u ct i on t o EHV AC Tr a n s m i s s i on .......................................... 18
1.1 Role of EHV AC Tr ansmission .................................................................. 1
1.2 Br ief Descr ipt ion of Ener gy Sour ces and t heir Development ..................... 1
1.3 Descr ipt ion of Subject Mat t er of t his Book ............................................... 4
Ch a p t er 2 Tr a n s mi s s i on Li n e Tr e n d s a n d P r e l i mi n a r i e s ............................. 921
2.1 St andar d Tr ansmission Volt ages ............................................................... 9
2.2 Aver age Values of Line Par amet er s ........................................................ 11
2.3 Power -Handling Capacit y and Line Loss ................................................. 11
2.4 Examples of Giant Power Pools and Number of Lines ............................ 14
2.5 Cost s of Tr ansmission Lines and Equipment .......................................... 15
2.6 Mechanical Consider at ions in Line Per for mance .................................... 17
Ch a p t er 3 Ca l cu l a t i on of Li n e a n d Gr ou n d P a r a me t e r s ............................. 2260
3.1 Resist ance of Conduct or s ........................................................................ 22
3.2 Temper at ur e Rise of Conduct or s and Cur r ent -Car r ying Capacit y ............ 26
3.3 Pr oper t ies of Bundled Conduct or s ........................................................... 28
3.4 Induct ance of EHV Line Configur at ions .................................................. 30
3.5 Line Capacit ance Calculat ion .................................................................. 38
3.6 Sequence Induct ances and Capacit ances ................................................. 41
3.7 Line Par amet er s for Modes of Pr opagat ion ............................................. 44
3.8 Resist ance and Induct ance of Gr ound Ret ur n ......................................... 50
Ch a p t er 4 Vol t a ge Gr a d i e n t s of Con d u ct or s ............................................... 61112
4.1 Elect r ost at ics .......................................................................................... 61
4.2 Field of Spher e Gap ................................................................................ 63
xiv Contents
4.3 Field of Line Char ges and Their Pr oper t ies ............................................ 68
4.4 Char ge-Pot ent ial Relat ions for Mult i-Conduct or lines ............................. 72
4.5 Sur face Volt age Gr adient on Conduct or s ................................................. 76
4.6 Examples of Conduct or s and Maximum Gr adient s on Act ual Lines ......... 87
4.7 Gr adient Fact or s and Their Use ............................................................. 87
4.8 Dist r ibut ion of Volt age Gr adient on Sub-conduct or s of Bundle ................ 89
4.9 Design of Cylindr ical Cages for Cor ona Exper iment s .............................. 92
Ap p e n d i x: Volt age Gr adient s on Conduct or s in t he Pr esence of Gr ound
Wir es on Tower s .................................................................................. 107
Ch a p t er 5 Cor on a Effe ct s I : P owe r Los s a n d Au d i b l e Noi s e ................ 113137
5.1 I
2
R Loss and Cor ona Loss ..................................................................... 113
5.2 Cor ona-Loss For mulae ......................................................................... 114
5.3 Char ge-Volt age (qV) Diagr am and Cor ona Loss ................................... 118
5.4 At t enuat ion of Tr avelling Waves Due t o Cor ona Loss ........................... 122
5.5 Audible Noise: Gener at ion and Char act er ist ics ..................................... 125
5.6 Limit s for Audible Noise ....................................................................... 126
5.7 AN Measur ement and Met er s ............................................................... 127
5.8 For mulae for Audible Noise and Use in Design .................................... 131
5.9 Relat ion Bet ween Single-Phase and 3-Phase AN Levels ........................ 134
5.10 Day-Night Equivalent Noise Level ........................................................ 135
5.11 Some Examples of AN Levels fr om EHV Lines ..................................... 136
Ch a p t er 6 Cor on a Effe ct s I I : Ra d i o I n t e r fe r e n ce .................................. 138171
6.1 Cor ona Pulses: Their Gener at ion and Pr oper t ies .................................. 138
6.2 Pr oper t ies of Pulse Tr ains and Filt er Response .................................... 142
6.3 Limit s for Radio Int er fer ence Fields ..................................................... 144
6.4 Fr equency Spect r um of t he RI Field of Line ......................................... 147
6.5 Lat er al Pr ofile of RI and Modes of Pr opagat ion ..................................... 147
6.6 The CIGRE For mula ............................................................................. 151
6.7 The RI Excit at ion Funct ion .................................................................. 156
6.8 Measur ement of RI, RIV, and Excit at ion Funct ion ................................ 162
6.9 Measur ement of Excit at ion Funct ion .................................................... 164
6.10 Design of Filt er .................................................................................... 166
6.11 Television Int er fer ence ......................................................................... 167
Ch a p t er 7 El e ct r os t a t i c a n d Ma gn e t i c F i e l d s of EHV Li n e s .................... 172205
7.1 Elect r ic Shock and Thr eshold Cur r ent s ................................................ 172
7.2 Capacit ance of Long Object ................................................................... 173
7.3 Calculat ion of Elect r ost at ic Field of AC Lines ....................................... 174
7.4 Effect of High E.S. Field on Humans, Animals, and Plant s ................... 183
Contents xv
7.5 Met er s and Measur ement of Elect r ost at ic Fields .................................. 185
7.6 Elect r ost at ic Induct ion in Unener gized Cir cuit of a D/C Line ................ 186
7.7 Induced Volt age in Insulat ed Gr ound Wir es .......................................... 189
7.8 Magnet ic Field Effect s .......................................................................... 190
7.9 Magnet ic Field of 3-Phase Lines ........................................................... 191
7.10 Magnet ic Field of a 6-Phase Line .......................................................... 199
7.11 Effect of Power -Fr equency Magnet ic Fields on Human Healt h ............. 200
Ch a p t er 8 Th e or y of Tr a ve l l i n g Wa ve s a n d St a n d i n g Wa ve s .................. 206235
8.1 Tr avelling Waves and St anding Waves at Power Fr equency ................. 206
8.2 Differ ent ial Equat ions and Solut ions for Gener al Case .......................... 209
8.3 St anding Waves and Nat ur al Fr equencies ............................................ 215
8.4 Open-Ended Line: Double-Exponent ial Response .................................. 219
8.5 Open-Ended Line: Response t o Sinusoidal Excit at ion ............................ 220
8.6 Line Ener gizat ion wit h Tr apped-Char ge Volt age ................................... 221
8.7 Cor ona Loss and Effect ive Shunt Conduct ance ..................................... 223
8.8 The Met hod of Four ier Tr ansfor ms ...................................................... 224
8.9 Reflect ion and Refr act ion of Tr avelling Waves ...................................... 227
8.10 Tr ansient Response of Syst ems wit h Ser ies and Shunt Lumped
Par amet er s and Dist r ibut ed Lines ........................................................ 230
8.11 Pr inciples of Tr avelling-Wave Pr ot ect ion of E.H.V. Lines ..................... 232
Ch a p t er 9 Li gh t n i n g a n d Li gh t n i n g P r ot e ct i on ....................................... 236258
9.1 Light ning St r okes t o Lines ................................................................... 236
9.2 Light ning-St r oke Mechanism ............................................................... 237
9.3 Gener al Pr inciples of t he Light ning-Pr ot ect ion Pr oblem ....................... 240
9.4 Tower -Foot ing Resist ance ..................................................................... 243
9.5 Insulat or Flashover and Wit hst and Volt age .......................................... 245
9.6 Pr obabilit y of Occur r ence of Light ning-St r oke Cur r ent s ....................... 245
9.7 Light ning Ar r est er s and Pr ot ect ive Char act er ist ics .............................. 246
9.8 Dynamic Volt age Rise and Ar r est er Rat ing ........................................... 250
9.9 Oper at ing Char act er ist ics of Light ning Ar r est er s ................................. 251
9.10 Insulat ion Coor dinat ion Based on Light ning ......................................... 254
Ch a p t er 10 Ove r vol t a ge s i n EHV Sys t e ms Ca u s e d b y Swi t ch i n g
Op e r a t i on s .................................................................................. 259294
10.1 Or igin of Over volt ages and Their Types ................................................ 259
10.2 Shor t -Cir cuit Cur r ent and t he Cir cuit Br eaker ..................................... 260
10.3 Recover y Volt age and t he Cir cuit Br eaker ............................................ 262
10.4 Over volt ages Caused by Int er r upt ion of Low Induct ive Cur r ent ........... 264
10.5 Int er r upt ion of Capacit ive Cur r ent s ...................................................... 265
xvi Contents
10.6 Fer r o-Resonance Over volt ages ............................................................. 266
10.7 Calculat ion of Swit ching Sur gesSingle Phase Equivalent s ................. 267
10.8 Dist r ibut ed-Par amet er Line Ener gized by Sour ce ................................. 273
10.9 Gener alized Equat ions for Single-Phase Repr esent at ion ....................... 276
10.10 Gener alized Equat ions for Thr ee-Phase Syst ems .................................. 280
10.11 Inver se Four ier Tr ansfor m for t he Gener al Case .................................. 285
10.12 Reduct ion of Swit ching Sur ges on EHV Syst ems ................................... 287
10.13 Exper iment al and Calculat ed Result s of Swit ching-Sur ge St udies ......... 289
Ch a p t er 11 I n s u l a t i on Ch a r a ct e r i s t i cs of Lon g Ai r Ga p s ......................... 295317
11.1 Types of Elect r ode Geomet r ies Used in EHV Syst ems .......................... 295
11.2 Br eakdown Char act er ist ics of Long Air Gaps ........................................ 296
11.3 Br eakdown Mechanisms of Shor t and Long Air Gaps ............................ 299
11.4 Br eakdown Models of Long Gaps wit h Non-unifor m Fields ................... 302
11.5 Posit ive Swit ching-Sur ge Flashover Sat ur at ion Pr oblem .................... 305
11.6 CFO and Wit hst and Volt ages of Long Air GapsSt at ist ical Pr ocedur e . 308
11.7 CFO Volt age of Long Air GapsPar is's Theor y .................................... 314
Ch a p t er 12 P owe r -F r e q u e n cy Volt a ge Con t r ol a n d Ove r volt a ge s ............ 318358
12.1 Pr oblems at Power Fr equency .............................................................. 318
12.2 Gener alized Const ant s .......................................................................... 318
12.3 No-Load Volt age Condit ions and Char ging Cur r ent .............................. 321
12.4 The Power Cir cle Diagr am and It s Use ................................................. 323
12.5 Volt age Cont r ol Using Synchr onous Condenser s .................................. 328
12.6 Cascade Connect ion of Component sShunt and Ser ies Compensat ion . 330
12.7 Sub-Synchr onous Resonance in Ser ies-Capacit or Compensat ed Lines ... 337
12.8 St at ic React ive Compensat ing Syst ems (St at ic VAR) ............................. 345
12.9 High Phase Or der Tr ansmission ........................................................... 355
Ch a p t er 13 EHV Te s t i n g a n d La b or a t or y Eq u i p me n t ................................ 359408
13.1 St andar d Specificat ions ......................................................................... 359
13.2 St andar d Waveshapes for Test ing ......................................................... 361
13.3 Pr oper t ies of Double-Exponent ial Waveshapes ..................................... 363
13.4 Pr ocedur es for Calculat ing E , , ........................................................ 366
13.5 Waveshaping Cir cuit s: Pr inciples and Theor y ....................................... 368
13.6 Impulse Gener at or s wit h Induct ance .................................................... 373
13.7 Gener at ion of Swit ching Sur ges for Tr ansfor mer Test ing ..................... 376
13.8 Impulse Volt age Gener at or s: Pr act ical Cir cuit s .................................... 378
13.9 Ener gy of Impulse Gener at or s .............................................................. 381
13.10 Gener at ion of Impulse Cur r ent s ........................................................... 385
Contents xvii
13.11 Gener at ion of High Alt er nat ing Test Volt age ........................................ 389
13.12 Gener at ion of High Dir ect Volt ages ...................................................... 393
13.13 Measur ement of High Volt ages ............................................................. 394
13.14 Gener al Layout of EHV Labor at or ies .................................................... 405
Ch a p t er 14 De s i gn of EHV Li n e s Ba s e d u p on St e a d y-St a t e Li mi t s a n d
Tr a n s i e n t Ove r volt a ge s ............................................................. 409428
14.1 Int r oduct ion ......................................................................................... 409
14.2 Design Fact or s Under St eady St at e ...................................................... 410
14.3 Design Examples: St eady-St at e Limit s .................................................. 413
14.4 Design ExampleI ............................................................................... 414
14.5 Design ExampleII .............................................................................. 419
14.6 Design ExampleIII ............................................................................. 420
14.7 Design ExampleIV ............................................................................. 421
14.8 Line Insulat ion Design Based Upon Tr ansient Over volt ages ................ 423
Ch a p t er 15 Ext r a Hi gh Vol t a ge Ca b l e Tr a n s mi s s i on ................................. 429481
15.1 Int r oduct ion ......................................................................................... 429
15.2 Elect r ical Char act er ist ics of EHV Cables .............................................. 435
15.3 Pr oper t ies of Cable-Insulat ion Mat er ials ............................................... 445
15.4 Br eakdown and Wit hst and Elect r ical St r esses in Solid
Insulat ionSt at ist ical Pr ocedur e ......................................................... 453
15.5 Design Basis of Cable Insulat ion ........................................................... 461
15.6 Fur t her Examples of Cable Designs ...................................................... 466
15.7 Test s on Cable Char act er ist ics .............................................................. 470
15.8 Sur ge Per for mance of Cable Syst ems ................................................... 473
15.9 Gas Insulat ed EHV Lines ...................................................................... 478
Bi b l i ogr a p h y ...................................................................................... 482
An s we r s t o P r ob l e m s ........................................................................ 499
In d ex ................................................................................................... 505
This page
intentionally left
blank
1.1 ROLE OF EHV AC TRANSMISSION
Indust r ial-minded count r ies of t he wor ld r equir e a vast amount of ener gy of which elect r ical
ener gy for ms a major fr act ion. Ther e ar e ot her t ypes of ener gy such as oil for t r anspor t at ion
and indust r y, nat ur al gas for domest ic and indust r ial consumpt ion, which for m a consider able
pr opor t ion of t he t ot al ener gy consumpt ion. Thus, elect r ical ener gy does not r epr esent t he
only for m in which ener gy is consumed but an impor t ant par t never t heless. It is only 150 year s
since t he invent ion of t he dynamo by Far aday and 120 year s since t he inst allat ion of t he fir st
cent r al st at ion by Edison using dc. But t he wor ld has alr eady consumed major por t ion of it s
nat ur al r esour ces in t his shor t per iod and is looking for sour ces of ener gy ot her t han hydr o and
t her mal t o cat er for t he r apid r at e of consumpt ion which is out pacing t he discover y of new
r esour ces. This will not slow down wit h t ime and t her efor e t her e exist s a need t o r educe t he
r at e of annual incr ease in ener gy consumpt ion by any int elligent societ y if r esour ces have t o be
pr eser ved for post er it y. Aft er t he end of t he Second Wor ld War , count r ies all over t he wor ld
have become independent and ar e showing a t r emendous r at e of indust r ial development , most ly
on t he lines of Nor t h-Amer ican and Eur opean count r ies, t he U.S.S.R. and J apan. Ther efor e,
t he need for ener gy is ver y ur gent in t hese developing count r ies, and nat ional policies and
t heir r elat ion t o ot her count r ies ar e somet imes based on ener gy r equir ement s, chiefly nuclear .
Hydr o-elect r ic and coal or oil-fir ed st at ions ar e locat ed ver y far fr om load cent r es for var ious
r easons which r equir es t he t r ansmission of t he gener at ed elect r ic power over ver y long dist ances.
This r equir es ver y high volt ages for t r ansmission. The ver y r apid st r ides t aken by development
of dc t r ansmission since 1950 is playing a major r ole in ext r a-long-dist ance t r ansmission,
complement ing or supplement ing e.h.v. ac t r ansmission. They have t heir r oles t o play and a
count r y must make int elligent assessment of bot h in or der t o decide which is best suit ed for
t he count r y's economy. This book concer ns it self wit h pr oblems of e.h.v. ac t r ansmission only.
1.2 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF ENERGY SOURCES AND THEIR
DEVELOPMENT
Any engineer int er est ed in elect r ical power t r ansmission must concer n himself or her self wit h
ener gy pr oblems. Elect r ical ener gy sour ces for indust r ial and domest ic use can be divided int o
t wo br oad cat egor ies: (1) Tr anspor t able; and (2) Locally Usable.
1
In t rod u ct i on t o EHV AC Tra n s m i s s i on
2 Extra High Voltage AC Transmission Engineering
Tr anspor t able t ype is obviously hydr o-elect r ic and convent ional t her mal power . But locally
gener at ed and usable power is by far mor e numer ous and exot ic. Sever al count r ies, including
India, have adopt ed nat ional policies t o invest igat e and develop t hem, ear mar king vast sums of
money in t heir mult i-year plans t o acceler at e t he r at e of development . These ar e also called
'Alt er nat ive Sour ces of Power '. Twelve such sour ces of elect r ic power ar e list ed her e, but t her e
ar e ot her s also which t he r eader will do well t o r esear ch.
Locally Usable Power
(1) Convent ional t her mal power in ur ban load cent r es;
(2) Micr o-hydel power st at ions;
(3) Nuclear Ther mal: Fission and Fusion;
(4) Wind Ener gy;
(5) Ocea n Ener gy: (a) Tida l Power , (b) Wa ve Power , a nd (c) Ocean t her mal gr adient
power ;
(6) Solar t her mal;
(7) Solar cells, or phot o-volt aic power ;
(8) Geo-t her mal;
(9) Magnet o hydr o-dynamic or fluid dynamic;
(10) Coal gasificat ion and liquefact ion;
(11) Hydr ogen power ; and last but not least ,
(12) Biomass Ener gy: (a) For est s; (b) Veget at ion; and (c) Animal r efuse.
To t hese can also be added bact er ial ener gy sour ces wher e bact er ia ar e cult ur ed t o
decompose for est s and veget at ion t o evolve met hane gas. The wat er hyacint h is a ver y r ich
sour ce of t his gas and gr ows wildly in wat er logged ponds and lakes in India. A br ief descr ipt ion
of t hese ener gy sour ces and t heir limit at ion as far as India is concer ned is given below, wit h
some geogr aphical point s.
1. Hydro-Elect ric Power: The known pot ent ial in India is 50,000 MW (50 GW) wit h 10 GW in
Nepal and Bhut an and t he r est wit hin t he bor der s of India. Of t his pot ent ial, almost 30% or 12
GW lies in t he nor t h-east er n par t in t he Br ahmaput r a Valley which has not been t apped. When
t his power is developed it will necessit at e t r ansmission lines of 1000 t o 1500 kilomet r es in
lengt h so t hat t he obvious choice is ext r a high volt age, ac or dc. The hydel power in India can
be cat egor ized as (a) high-head (26% of t ot al pot ent ial), (b) medium-head (47%), (c) low-head
(7%, less t hen 30 met r es head), and (d) r un-of-t he-r iver (20%). Thus, micr o-hydel plant s and
r un-of-t he-r iver plant s (using may be bulb t ur bines) have a gr eat fut ur e for r emot e loads in
hilly t r act s.
2. Coal: The five br oad cat egor ies of coal available in India ar e Peat (4500 BTU/ LB*), Lignit e
(6500), Sub-Bit uminous (7000-12000), Bit uminous (14,000), and Ant hr acit e (15,500 BTU/ LB).
Only non-coking coal of t he sub-bit uminous t ype is available for elect r ic power pr oduct ion
whose deposit is est imat ed at 50 giga t onnes in t he Cent r al Indian coal fields, Wit h 50% of t his
allocat ed for t her mal st at ions, it is est imat ed t hat t he life of coal deposit s will be 140 year s if
*1000 BTU/LB555.5 k-cal/kg.
Introduction to EHV AC Transmission 3
t he r at e of annual incr ease in inst alled capacit y is 5%. Thus, t he count r y cannot r ely on t his
sour ce of power t o be per ennial. Nuclear t her mal power must be developed r apidly t o r eplace
convent ional t her mal power .
3. Oil and Natural Gas: At pr esent , all oil is used for t r anspor t at ion and none is available for
elect r ic power gener at ion. Nat ur al gas deposit s ar e ver y meager at t he oil fields in t he Nor t h-
East er n r egion and only a few gas-t ur bine st at ions ar e inst alled t o pr ovide t he elect r ic power
for t he oil oper at ions.
4. Coal Liquefaction and Gasification: Indian coal cont ains 45% ash and t he efficiency of a
convent ional t her mal st at ion r ar ely exceeds 25% t o 30%. Also t r anspor t at ion of coal fr om mines
t o ur ban load cent r es is impossible because of t he 45% ash, pilfer age of coal at st at ions wher e
coal-hauling t r ains st op, and mor e impor t ant ly t he lack of availabilit y of r ailway wagons for
coal t r anspor t at ion. These ar e needed for food t r anspor t at ion only. Ther efor e, t he nat ional
policy is t o gener at e elect r ic power in super t her mal st at ions of 2100 MW capacit y locat ed at
t he mine mout hs and t r ansmit t he power by e.h.v. t r ansmission lines. If coal is liquified and
pumped t o load cent r es, power up t o 7 t imes it s weight in coal can be gener at ed in high efficiency
int er nal cumbust ion engines.
5. Nuclear Energy: The r ecent advances made in Liquid Met al Fast Br eeder React or s (LMFBR)
ar e helping many developing count r ies, including India, t o inst all lar ge nuclear t her mal plant s.
Alt hough India has ver y limit ed Ur anium deposit s, it does possess near ly 50% of t he wor ld's
Thor ium deposit s. The use of t his mat er ial for LMFBR is st ill in infant st ages and is being
developed r apidly.
6. Wind Energy: It is est imat ed t hat 20% of India's power r equir ement can be met wit h
development of wind ener gy. Ther e ar e ar eas in t he Deccan Plat eau in Sout h-Cent r al India
wher e winds of 30 km/hour blow near ly const ant ly. Wind power is int er mit t ent and st or age
facilit ies ar e r equir ed which can t ake t he for m of st or age bat t er ies or compr essed air . For an
elect r ical engineer , t he challenge lies in devising cont r ol cir cuit r y t o gener at e a const ant
magnit ude const ant -fr equency volt age fr om t he var iable-speed gener at or and t o make t he
gener at or oper at e in synchr onism wit h an exist ing gr id syst em.
7. S olar-Cell Energy: Phot o-volt aic power is ver y expensive, being near ly t he same as nuclear
power cost ing U.S.$ 1000/kW of peak power . (At t he t ime of wr it ing, 1 U.S$ = Rs. 35). Solar
cells ar e being manufact ur ed t o some ext ent in India, but t he U.S.A. is t he lar gest supplier
st ill. Indian insolat ion level is 600 calor ies/ sq. cm/day on t he aver age which will gener at e 1.5
kW, and solar ener gy is r enewable as compar ed t o some ot her sour ces of ener gy.
8. Magnet o Hydro-Dynamic: The lar gest MHD gener at or successfully complet ed in t he wor ld
is a 500 kW unit of AVCO in t he U.S.A. Thus, t his t ype of gener at ion of elect r ic ener gy has ver y
local applicat ions.
9. Fuel-Cell Energy: The fuel-cell uses H-O int er act ion t hr ough a Phosphor ic Acid cat alyzer t o
yield a flow of elect r ons in a load connect ed ext er nally. The most r ecent inst allat ion is by t he
Consolidat ed Edison Co. of New Yor k which uses a module oper at ing at 190C. Each cell develops
0.7 V and t her e ar e sufficient modules in ser ies t o yield an out put volt age of 13.8 kV, t he same
as a convent ional cent r al-st at ion gener at or . The power out put is expect ed t o r each 1 MW.
10. Ocean Energy: Ener gy fr om t he vast oceans of t he ear t h can be developed in 3 differ ent
ways: (i) Tidal; (ii) Wave; and (iii) Ther mal Gr adient .
(i) Tidal Power : The highest t ides in t he wor ld occur at 40 t o 50 lat it udes wit h t ides up
t o 12 m exist ing t wice daily. Ther efor e, Indian t ides ar e low being about 3.5 m in t he
West er n Coast and East er n r iver s in est uar ies. Fr ance has successfully oper at ed a
240 MW st at ion at t he Rance-River est uar y using bulb t ur bines. Sever al inst allat ions
in t he wor ld have followed suit . The development of Indian t idal power at t he Gujar at
Coast in t he West is ver y ambit ious and is t aking shape ver y well. Like wind power ,
t idal power is int er mit t ent in nat ur e.
The seawat er dur ing high t ides is allowed t o r un in t he same or differ ent passage
t hr ough t he t ur bine-gener at or s t o fill a r eser voir whose r et aining walls may be up t o
30 km long. At low-t ide per iods, t he st or ed wat er flows back t o t he sea t hr ough t he
t ur bines and power is gener at ed.
(ii) Wave Ener gy: An aver age power of 25 t o 75 kW can be developed per met r e of wave
lengt h depending on t he wave height . The scheme uses air t ur bines coupled t o
gener at or s locat ed in chamber s open t o t he sea at t he bot t om and closed at t he t op.
Ther e may be as many as 200-300 such chamber s connect ed t oget her at t he t op
t hr ough pipes. A wave cr est under neat h some chamber s will compr ess t he air which
will flow int o ot her chamber s under neat h which t he wave-t r ough is passing r esult ing
in lower pr essur e. This r uns t he air t ur bines and gener at es power . Ot her s ar e Salt er 's
Ducks and Cocker r el's 3-par t ship.
(iii) Ocean Ther mal Power : This scheme ut ilizes t he nat ur al t emper at ur e differ ence
bet ween t he war m sur face wat er (20-25C) and t he cooler oceanbed wat er at 5C.
The t ur bine uses NH
3
as t he wor king fluid in one t ype of inst allat ion which is vapor ized
in a heat -exchanger by t he war m wat er . The condenser uses t he cooler ocean-bed
wat er and t he cycle is complet e as in a convent ional power st at ion. The cost of such
an inst allat ion is near ly t he same as a nuclear power st at ion.
This br ief descr ipt ion of 'alt er nat ive' sour ces of elect r ic power should pr ovide t he r eader
wit h an int er est t o delve deeper int o moder n ener gy sour ces and t heir development .
1.3 DESCRIPTION OF SUBJECT MATTER OF THIS BOOK
Ext r a High Volt age (EHV) ac t r ansmission can be assumed t o have seen it s development since
t he end of t he Second Wor ld War , wit h t he inst allat ion of 345 kV in Nor t h Amer ica and 400 kV
in Eur ope. The dist ance bet ween gener at ing st at ions and load cent r es as well as t he amount of
power t o be handled incr eased t o such an ext ent t hat 220 kV was inadequat e t o handle t he
pr oblem. In t hese near ly 50 year s, t he highest commer cial volt age has incr eased t o 1150 kV
(1200 kV maximum) and r esear ch is under way at 1500 kV by t he AEP-ASEA gr oup. In India,
t he highest volt age used is 400 kV ac, but will be incr eased aft er 1990 t o higher levels. The
pr oblems posed in using such high volt ages ar e differ ent fr om t hose encount er ed at lower
volt ages. These ar e:
(a) Incr eased Cur r ent Densit y because of incr ease in line loading by using ser ies capacit or s.
(b) Use of bundled conduct or s.
(c) High sur face volt age gr adient on conduct or s.
(d) Cor ona pr oblems: Audible Noise, Radio Int er fer ence, Cor ona Ener gy Loss, Car r ier
Int er fer ence, and TV Int er fer ence.
(e) High elect r ost at ic field under t he line.
(f) Swit ching Sur ge Over volt ages which cause mor e havoc t o air -gap insulat ion t han
light ning or power fr equency volt ages.
(g) Incr eased Shor t -Cir cuit cur r ent s and possibilit y of fer r o r esonance condit ions.
(h) Use of gapless met al-oxide ar r est er s r eplacing t he convent ional gap-t ype Silicon Car bide
ar r est er s, for bot h light ning and swit ching-sur ge dut y.
(i) Shunt r eact or compensat ion and use of ser ies capcit or s, r esult ing in possible sub-
synchr onous r esonance condit ions and high shor t cir cuit cur r ent s.
(j) Insulat ion coor dinat ion based upon swit ching impulse levels.
(k) Single-pole r eclosing t o impr ove st abilit y, but causing pr oblems wit h ar cing.
The subject is so vast t hat no one single book can hope t o handle wit h a descr ipt ion,
analysis, and discussion of all t opics. The book has been limit ed t o t he t r ansmission line only
and has not dealt wit h t r ansient and dynamic st abilit y, load flow, and cir cuit br eaking.
Over volt ages and char act er ist ics of long air gaps t o wit hst and t hem have been discussed at
lengt h which can be classified as t r ansient pr oblems. It ems (a) t o (e) ar e st eady-st at e pr oblems
and a line must be designed t o st ay wit hin specified limit s for int er fer ence pr oblems, cor ona
loss, elect r ost at ic field, and volt ages at t he sending end and r eceiving end buses t hr ough pr oper
r eact ive-power compensat ion.
Chapt er 2 is devot ed t o an int r oduct ion t o t he e.h.v. pr oblem, such as choice of volt age for
t r ansmission, line losses and power -handling capacit y for a given line lengt h bet ween sour ce
and load and bulk power r equir ed t o be t r ansmit t ed. The pr oblem of vibr at ion of bundled
conduct or s is t ouched upon since t his is t he main mechanical pr oblem in e.h.v lines. Chapt er s
3 and 4 ar e basic t o t he r emaining par t s of t he book and deal wit h calculat ion of line r esist ance,
induct ance, capacit ance, and gr ound-r et ur n par amet er s, modes of pr opagat ion, elect r ost at ics
t o under st and char ge dist r ibut ion and t he r esult ing sur face volt age gr adient s. All t hese ar e
dir ect ed t owar ds an N-conduct or bundle. Cor ona loss and Audible Noise fr om e.h.v. lines ar e
consequences of high sur face volt age gr adient on conduct or s. This is dealt fully in Chapt er 5. In
sever al cases of line design, t he audible noise has become a cont r olling fact or wit h it s at t endant
pollut ion of t he envir onment of t he line causing psycho-acoust ics pr oblems. The mat er ial on
int er fer ence is cont inued in Chapt er 6 wher e Radio Int er fer ence is discussed. Since t his pr oblem
has occupied r esear cher s for longer t han AN, t he available lit er at ur e on RI invest igat ion is
mor e det ailed t han AN and a separ at e chapt er is devot ed t o it . Commencing wit h cor ona pulses,
t heir fr equency spect r um, and t he lat er al pr ofile of RI fr om lines, t he r eader is led int o t he
moder n concept of 'Excit at ion Funct ion' and it s ut ilit y in pr e-det er mining t he RI level of a line
yet t o be designed. For lines up t o 750 kV, t he C.I.G.R.E. for mula applies. It s use in design is
also discussed, and a r elat ion bet ween t he excit at ion funct ion and RI level calculat ed by t he
C.I.G.R.E. for mula is given.
Chapt er 7 r elat es t o power fr equency elect r ost at ic field near an e.h.v. line which causes
har mful effect s t o human beings, animals, vehicles, plant life, et c. The limit s which a designer
has t o bear in mind in evolving a line design ar e discussed. Also a new addit ion has been made
in t his chapt er under t he t it le Magnet ic Field Effect s of E.H.V. Lines. Chapt er s 8-11 ar e devot ed
t o t he discussion of high t r ansient over volt ages exper ienced by an e.h.v. line due t o light ning
and swit ching oper at ions. Chapt er 8 int r oduces t he r eader t o t he t heor et ical aspect s of t r avelling
waves caused by light ning and swit ching oper at ions, and t he met hod of st anding waves which
yields t he same r esult s as t r avelling waves but in many cases gives mor e convenient for mulas.
Wit h t he advent of t he Digit al Comput er , t he st anding-wave met hod poses no pr oblems for
handling t he calculat ion. The Laplace-Tr ansfor m and Four ier -Tr ansfor m Met hods for handling
t r ansient s on e.h.v. lines ar e descr ibed.
Chapt er 9 deals wit h impor t ant aspect s of light ning over -volt ages and pr ot ect ion. The
lat est t ype of Met al Oxide Var ist or known as gapless Zinc Oxide ar r est er is discussed as well as
t he convent ional gap-t ype SiC ar r est er s of bot h t he non cur r ent -limit ing and cur r ent -limit ing
t ypes. The chapt er commences wit h out age level aimed by a designer , and leads st ep by st ep in
descr ibing t he fact or s affect ing it , namely t he isoker aunik level, pr obabilit y of number of st r okes
t o a t ower or midspan, t he t ower -foot ing r esist ance, pr obabilit y of light ning-st r oke cur r ent s,
and finally t he insulat or flash-over . Pr e-dischar ge cur r ent s on t ower s and har dwar e ar e t aken
int o account . Chapt er 10 discusses all t he possible condit ions of int er nal over volt ages on e.h.v.
lines commencing wit h cir cuit -br ea ker r ecover y volt a ge, t er mina l a nd shor t -line fa ult s,
int er r upt ion of low induct ive cur r ent and over volt ages r esult ing fr om 'cur r ent chopping', line
dr opping and r est r ike in cir cuit br eaker s and fer r or esonance condit ions. The bulk of t he chapt er ,
however , is devot ed t o calculat ion of swit ching-sur ge over volt ages. Measur es used for r educt ion
of over volt ages ar e t hor oughly discussed. Equat ions in mat r ix for m dealing wit h t he r esult ing
t r ansient s ar e developed and examples using t he Four ier Tr ansfor m met hod for obt aining t he
swit ching over volt ages ar e wor ked out .
Having known t he magnit ude of over volt ages t hat can be expect ed on a syst em, t he next
aspect is t o design air -gap clear ances on t ower . This r equir es a t hor ough knowledge of t he
flashover and wit hst and char act er ist ics of long air gaps. Chapt er 11 is devot ed t o a descr ipt ion
of t hese char act er ist ics. Commencing wit h t he basic mechanisms post ulat ed by engineer s and
physicist s for t he br eakdown of a long air gap, t he r eader is exposed t o t he st at ist ical nat ur e of
insulat ion design. The wor k of t he eminent It alian engineer , Dr . Luigi Par is, ([51], IEEE) is
descr ibed and examples of using his equat ions for insulat ion design ar e given.
Alt hough t r ansient s caused by light ning and swit ching sur ges have been st udied ext ensively
by e.h.v. engineer s, over volt ages caused under power -fr equency ar e impor t ant for t he design
of line compensa t ion. This is cover ed in Cha pt er 12. The power -cir cle dia gr a m a nd t he
geomet r ical r elat ions r esult ing fr om it ar e used t hr oughout for evaluat ing synchr onous-
condenser design, swit ched capacit or s under load, shunt -r eact or compensat ion including an
int er mediat e st at ion for a ver y long line, and finally a line wit h ser ies-capacit or compensat ion
is discussed. This pr oblem leads logically t o t he pr oblems of high shor t -cir cuit cur r ent and
possible sub-synchr onous r esonance condit ions. These ar e descr ibed fr om t he point of view of
t he line. Count er measur es for SSR ar e descr ibed fully as used on t he Navajo Pr oject ([67],
IEEE) and elsewher e. The chapt er t hen descr ibes St at ic Var compensat ing syst ems (SVS) of
sever al t ypes which ar e now finding mor e and mor e use inst ead of unr egulat ed or fixed r eact or s.
The pr oblem of inject ion of har monics int o e.h.v. line is discussed and t he per for mance of a
ser ies L-C filt er in suppr essing t hem is analyzed. The chapt er ends wit h a shor t descr ipt ion of
high phase or der t r ansmission (6 phase) even t hough it does not yet belong t o t he e.h.v. class.
Chapt er 13 deals wit h e.h.v. labor at or ies, equipment and t est ing. The design of impulse
gener at or s for light ning and swit ching impulses is fully wor ked out and waveshaping cir cuit s
ar e discussed. The effect of induct ance in gener at or , h.v. lead, and t he volt age divider ar e
analyzed. Cascade-connect ed power -fr equency t r ansfor mer s and t he Gr einacher chain for
gener at ion of high dc volt age ar e descr ibed. Measur ing equipment such as t he volt age divider ,
oscilloscope, peak volt -met er , and digit al r ecor ding devices ar e cover ed and t he use of fibr e
opt ics in lar ge e.h.v. swit chyar ds and labor at or y measur ement s is discussed.
Chapt er 14 uses t he mat er ial of pr evious chapt er s t o evolve met hods for design of e.h.v.
lines. Sever al examples ar e given fr om which t he r eader will be able t o effect his or her own
design of e.h.v. t r ansmission lines in so far as st eadyst at e and t r ansient over volt ages ar e
concer ned.
The last chapt er , Chapt er 15, deals wit h t he impor t ant t opic of e.h.v cable t r ansmission.
Cables ar e being manufact ur ed and developed for volt ages upt o 1200 kV t o mat ch t he equipment
and over head-line volt ages in or der t o int er connect swit chyar d equipment such as over head
lines t o t r ansfor mer s and cir cuit br eaker s. They ar e also used for leading bulk power fr om
r eceiving st at ions int o t he hear t of met r opolit an indust r ial and domest ic dist r ibut ion st at ions.
In under gr ound power st at ions, lar ge st at ions locat ed at dam sit es, for under -r iver and under -
sea applicat ions, along r ailways, over long-span br idges, and at many sit uat ions, e.h.v. cables
ar e ext ensively used. The four t ypes of e.h.v. cables, namely, high-pr essur e oil-filled (HPOF)
wit h Kr aft paper insulat ion, t he same wit h composit e laminat ed plast ic film and paper insulat ion
(PPLP), cr oss-linked polyet hylene (XLPE), and gas-insulat ed (SF
6
) lines (GIL's) or bus duct s
ar e descr ibed and discussed. Design pr act ices based on a Weibull Pr obabilit y Dist r ibut ion for
init ial br eakdown volt age and st r ess and t he Kr euger Volt -Time char act er ist ics ar e also dealt
wit h. Ext ensive exa mples of 132 kV t o 1200 KV ca bles a lr ea dy ma nufa ct ur ed or under
development ar e given.
Each chapt er is pr ovided wit h a lar ge number of wor ked examples t o illust r at e all ideas in
a st ep by st ep manner . The aut hor feels t hat t his will help t o emphasize ever y for mula or idea
when t he going is hot , and not give all t heor y in one place and pr ovide examples at t he end of
each chapt er . It is expect ed t hat t he r eader will wor k t hr ough t hese t o be bet t er able t o apply
t he equat ions.
No r efer ences ar e pr ovided at t he end of each chapt er since t her e ar e cases wher e one
wor k can cover many aspect s discussed in sever al chapt er s. Ther efor e, a consolidat ed bibliogr aphy
is appended at t he end aft er Chapt er 15 which will help t he r eader who has access t o a fine
libr ar y or can get copies made fr om pr oper sour ces.
Re vi e w Qu e s t i on s a n d Pr oble ms
1. Give t en levels of t r ansmission volt ages t hat ar e used in t he wor ld.
2. Wr it e an essay giving your ideas whet her indust r ial pr ogr ess is r eally a measur e of
human pr ogr ess.
3. What is a micr o-hydel st at ion?
4. How can elect r ic power be gener at ed fr om r un-of-t he-r iver plant s? Is t his possible or
impossible?
5. What is t he fuel used in (a) Ther ma l r ea ct or s, a nd (b) LMFBR? Why is it called
LMFBR? What is t he liquid met al used? Is t her e a moder at or in LMFBR? Why is it
called a Br eeder React or ? Why is it t er med Fast ?
6. Dr aw sket ches of a wind t ur bine wit h (a) hor izont al axis, and (b) ver t ical axis. How
can t he efficiency of a convent ional wind t ur bine be incr eased?
7. Give a schemat ic sket ch of a t idal power development . Why is it called a 'bulb t ur bine'?
8. Give a schemat ic sket ch of an ocean t her mal gr adient pr oject showing a heat exchanger ,
t ur bine-gener at or , and condenser .
9. List at least t en impor t ant pr oblems encount er ed in e.h.v. t r ansmission which may
or may not be impor t ant at volt ages of 220 kV and lower .
2.1 STANDARD TRANSMISSION VOLTAGES
Volt ages adopt ed for t r ansmission of bulk power have t o confor m t o st andar d specificat ions
for mulat ed in all count r ies and int er nat ionally. They ar e necessar y in view of impor t , expor t ,
and domest ic manufact ur e and use. The following volt age levels ar e r ecognized in India as per
IS-2026 for line-t o-line volt ages of 132 kV and higher .
Nominal S yst em
Volt age kV 132 220 275 345 400 500 750
Maximum Operating
Volt age, kV 145 245 300 362 420 525 765
Ther e exist t wo fur t her volt age classes which have found use in t he wor ld but have not
been accept ed as st andar d. They ar e: 1000 kV (1050 kV maximum) and 1150 kV (1200 kV
maximum). The maximum oper at ing volt ages specified above should in no case be exceeded in
any par t of t he syst em, since insulat ion levels of all equipment ar e based upon t hem. It is
t her efor e t he pr imar y r esponsibilit y of a design engineer t o pr ovide sufficient and pr oper t ype
of r eact ive power at suit able places in t he syst em. For volt age r ises, induct ive compensat ion
and for volt age dr ops, capacit ive compensat ion must usually be pr ovided. As example, consider
t he following cases.
Exa mp le 2.1. A single-cir cuit 3-phase 50 Hz 400 kV line has a ser ies r eact ance per phase
of 0.327 ohm/km. Neglect line r esist ance. The line is 400 km long and t he r eceiving-end load is
600 MW at 0.9 p.f. lag. The posit ive-sequence line capacit ance is 7.27 nF/km. In t he absence of
any compensat ing equipment connect ed t o ends of line, calculat e t he sending-end volt age.
Wor k wit h and wit hout consider ing line capacit ance. The base quant it ies for calculat ion ar e
400 kV, 1000 MVA.
Sol u t i on . Load volt age V = 1.0 per unit . Load cur r ent I = 0.6 (1 j0.483) = 0.6 j0.29 p.u.
Base impedance Z
b
= 400
2
/1000 = 160 ohms. Base admit t ance Y
b
= 1/160 mho.
Tot al ser ies r eact ance of line
X = j0.327 400 = j130.8 ohms = j 0.8175 p.u.
Tot al shunt admit t ance of line
Y = j 314 7.27 10
9
400
= j 0.9136 10
3
mho = j 0.146 p.u.
2
Tra n s m i s s i on Li n e Tren d s a n d Prel i m i n a ri es
Fi g. 2.1 (a)
When consider ing t he line capacit ance, one half will be concent r at ed at load end acr oss
t he load and t he ot her half at t he ent r ance t o t he line at t he sending end, as shown in
Figur e 2.1. Then, t he r eceiving-end cur r ent is
I
r
= 0.6 j0.29 + j0.073 = 0.6 j0.217 p.u.
The sending-end volt age will be
E
s
= 1 + j (0.6 j0.217) 0.8175 = 1.1774 + j0.49
= 1.2753
22.6 = 510
22.6, kV.
When line capacit ance is omit t ed, t he sending-end volt age is
E
s
= 1 + j (0.6 j0.29) 0.8175 = 1.33
21.6 = 532
21.6, kV.
Not e t hat in bot h cases, t he sending-end volt age, t hat is, t he gener at ing st at ion h.v. bus
volt age exceeds t he IS limit of 420 kV.
Exa mp le 2.2. In t he pr evious example, suggest suit able r eact ive compensat ion equipment
t o be pr ovided at t he load end t o maint ain 400 kV (1 p.u. volt age) at bot h ends of line.
Sol u t i on . Since t he load is dr awing lagging (induct ive) cur r ent , obviously we have t o
pr ovide capacit ive compensat ing equipment acr oss t he load in or der t o r educe t he line cur r ent .
Figur e 2.1 (b) shows t he over all ar r angement . If I
c
is t he cur r ent dr awn by t his compensat ing
equipment , consider ing line capacit ance, t he t ot al r eceiving-end line cur r ent will be I
r
= 0.6
j0.217 + j I
c
, p.u., and t he r esult ing sending-end volt age will be
E
s
= 1 + j (0.6 j0.217 + j I
c
) 0.8175 = (1.1774 0.8175 I
c
) + j0.49.
F i g. 2.1 (b)
Now, since | E
s
| = 1 p.u. also, t her e r esult s I
c
= 0.374 p.u. The r esult ing r at ing of t he
compensat ing capacit or is 374 MVAR.
When t he pr esence of line capacit ance is neglect ed, I
c
= 0.447 p.u. and t he r equir ed
compensat ion is 447 MVAR, which is of cour se higher t han 374 MVAR by 73 MVAR.
Det ailed discussion of line compensat ion for volt age cont r ol at t he sending- and r eceiving-
end busses will be consider ed in Chapt er 12. We not e in passing t hat volt age cont r ol in e.h.v.
syst ems is a ver y expensive pr oposit ion. In addit ion t o swit ched capacit or s which pr ovide var iable
~
j 0.073
p.u.
j 0.8175 p.u.
400 km Ir
E
s
0-6j 0.29 p.u.
V = 1 0p.u
~
I
r
0.6 0.29 j
1 p.u.
V = 1 0p.u
jI
c
Transmission Line Trends and Preliminaries 11
capacit ive r eact ive power t o suit var iat ion of load fr om no load t o full load, var iable induct ive
compensat ion will be r equir ed which t akes t he for m of t hyr ist or -cont r olled r eact or s (TCR)
which ar e also known as St at ic VAR Syst ems. Unfor t unat ely, t hese give r ise t o undesir able
har monics which ar e inject ed int o t he line and may cause maloper at ion of signalling and some
communicat ion equipment . These pr oblems and use of pr oper filt er s t o limit t he har monic
inject ion will also be discussed in Chapt er 12.
2.2 AVERAGE VALUES OF LINE PARAMETERS
Det ailed calculat ion of line par amet er s will be descr ibed in Chapt er 3. In or der t o be able t o
est imat e how much power a single-cir cuit at a given volt age can handle, we need t o know t he
value of posit ive-sequence line induct ance and it s r eact ance at power fr equency. Fur t her mor e,
in moder n pr act ice, line losses caused by I
2
R heat ing of t he conduct or s is gaining in impor t ance
because of t he need t o conser ve ener gy. Ther efor e, t he use of higher volt ages t han may be
dict at ed by pur ely economic consider at ion might be found in or der not only t o lower t he cur r ent
I t o be t r ansmit t ed but also t he conduct or r esist ance R by using bundled conduct or s compr ising
of sever al sub-conduct or s in par allel. We will ut ilize aver age values of par amet er s for lines
wit h hor izont al configur at ion as shown in Table 2.1 for pr eliminar y est imat es.
When line r esist ance is neglect ed, t he power t hat can be t r ansmit t ed depends upon (a) t he
magnit udes of volt ages at t he ends (E
s
, E
r
), (b) t heir phase differ ence , and (c) t he t ot al posit ive-
sequence r eact ance X per phase, when t he shunt caspacit ive admit t ance is neglect ed.
Thus, P = E
s
E
r
sin /(L.x) ...(2.1)
wher e P = power in MW, 3-phase, E
s
, E
r
= volt ages at t he sending-end and r eceiving end,
r espect ively, in kV line-line, = phase differ ence bet ween E
s
and E
r
, x = posit ive-sequence
r eact ance per phase, ohm/km, and L = line lengt h, km.
Ta ble 2.1. Aver a ge Va lu es of Li n e P a r a met er s
S ystem kV 400 750 1000 1200
Average Height, m 15 18 21 21
Phase S pacing, m 12 15 18 21
Conductor 2 32 mm 4 30 mm 6 46 mm 8 46 mm
Bundle S pacing, m 0.4572 0.4572
Bundle Dia., m 1.2 1.2
r, ohm/ km* 0.031 0.0136 0.0036 0.0027
x, ohm/ km (50 Hz) 0.327 0.272 0.231 0.231
x/r 10.55 20 64.2 85.6
*At 20C. Incr ease by 12.5% for 50C.
Fr om consider at ion of st abilit y, is limit ed t o about 30, and for a pr eliminar y est imat e
of P, we will t ake E
s
= E
r
= E.
2.3 POWER-HANDLING CAPACITY AND LINE LOSS
Accor di n g t o t h e a bove cr i t er i a , t h e power -h a n dl i n g ca pa ci t y of a s i n gl e ci r cu i t i s
P = E
2
sin / Lx. At unit y power fact or , at t he load P, t he cur r ent flowing is
I = E sin
3 /
Lx ...(2.2)
and t he t ot al power loss in t he 3-phases will amount t o
p = 3I
2
rL = E
2
. sin
2
.r/Lx
2
...(2.3)
Ther efor e, t he per cent age power loss is
%p = 100 p/P = 100. sin .(r/x) ...(2.4)
Table 2.2. shows t he per cent age power loss and power -handling capacit y of lines at var ious
volt age levels shown in Table 2.1, for = 30 and wit hout ser ies-capacit or compensat ion.
Ta ble 2.2. P er cen t P ower Loss a n d P ower -Ha n d li n g Ca p a ci t y
S ystem kV 400 750 1000 1200
76 . 4
55 . 10
50
= 5 . 2
20
50
= 78 . 0
2 . 64
50
= 584 . 0
6 . 85
50
=
Lx,MW E . P / 5 0
2
=
400 670 2860 6000 8625
600 450 1900 4000 5750
800 335 1430 3000 4310
1000 270 1140 2400 3450
1200 225 950 2000 2875
The following impor t ant and useful conclusions can be dr awn for pr eliminar y under st anding
of t r ends r elat ing t o power -handling capacit y of a.c. t r ansmission lines and line losses.
(1) One 750-kV line can nor mally car r y as much power as four 400-kV cir cuit s for equal
dist ance of t r ansmission.
(2) One 1200-kV cir cuit can car r y t he power of t hr ee 750-kV cir cuit s and t welve 400-kV
cir cuit s for t he same t r ansmission dist ance.
(3) Similar such r elat ions can be found fr om t he t able.
(4) The power -handling capacit y of line at a given volt age level decr eases wit h line lengt h,
being inver sely pr opor t ional t o line lengt h L.
Fr om equat ion (2.2) t he same holds for cur r ent t o be car r ied.
(5) Fr om t he above pr oper t y, we obser ve t hat if t he conduct or size is based on cur r ent
r at ing, as line lengt h incr eases, smaller sizes of conduct or will be necessar y. This
will incr ease t he danger of high volt age effect s caused by smaller diamet er of conduct or
giving r ise t o cor ona on t he conduct or s and int ensifying r adio int er fer ence levels and
audible noise as well as cor ona loss.
(6) However , t he percent age power loss in t r ansmission r emains independent of line
lengt h since it depends on t he ratio of conduct or r esist ance t o t he posit ive-sequence
r eact ance per unit lengt h, and t he phase differ ence bet ween E
s
and E
r
.
(7) Fr om t he values of % p given in Table 2.2, it is evident t hat it decr eases as t he syst em
volt age is incr eased. This is ver y st r ongly in favour of using higher volt ages if ener gy
is t o be conser ved. Wit h t he enor mous incr ease in wor ld oil pr ices and t he need for
Percentage, Power Loss
Line Length, km
conser ving nat ur al r esour ces, t his could somet imes become t he gover ning cr it er ion
for select ion of volt age for t r ansmission. The Bonneville Power Administ r at ion (B.P.A.)
in t he U.S.A. has based t he choice of 1150 kV for t r ansmission over only 280 km
lengt h of line since t he power is enor mous (10,000 MW over one cir cuit ).
(8) In compar ison t o t he % power loss at 400 kV, we obser ve t hat if t he same power is
t r ansmit t ed at 750 kV, t he line loss is r educed t o (2.5/4.76) = 0.525, at 1000 kV it is
0.78/4.76 = 0.165, and at 1200 kV it is r educed fur t her t o 0.124.
Some examples will ser ve t o illust r at e t he benefit s accr ued by using ver y high t r ansmission
volt ages.
Exa mp le 2.3. A power of 12,000 MW is r equir ed t o be t r ansmit t ed over a dist ance of 1000
km. At volt age levels of 400 kV, 750 kV, 1000 kV, and 1200 kV, det er mine:
(1) Possible number of cir cuit s r equir ed wit h equal magnit udes for sending and r eceiving-
end volt ages wit h 30 phase differ ence;
(2) The cur r ent s t r ansmit t ed; and
(3) The t ot al line losses.
Assume t he values of x given in Table 2.1. Omit ser ies-capacit or compensat ion.
Sol u t i on . This is car r ied out in t abular for m.
S yst em, kv 400 750 1000 1200
x, ohm/km 0.327 0.272 0.231 0.231
P = 0.5 E
2
/Lx, MW 268 1150 2400 3450
(a) No. of cir cuit s
(=12000/P) 45 1011 5 34
(b) Cur r ent , kA 17.31 9.232 6.924 5.77
(c) % power loss, p 4.76 2.5 0.78 0.584
Tot al power loss, MW 571 300 93.6 70
The above sit uat ion might occur when t he power pot ent ial of t he Br ahmaput r a River in
Nor t h-East India will be har nessed and t he power t r ansmit t ed t o West Bengal and Bihar . Not e
t hat t he t ot al power loss incur r ed by using 1200 kV ac t r ansmission is almost one-eight h t hat
for 400 kV. The widt h of land r equir ed is far less while using higher volt ages, as will be det ailed
la t er on.
Exa mp le 2.4. A power of 2000 MW is t o be t r ansmit t ed fr om a super t her mal power
st at ion in Cent r al India over 800 km t o Delhi. Use 400 kV and 750 kV alt er nat ives. Suggest t he
number of cir cuit s r equir ed wit h 50% ser ies capacit or compensat ion, and calculat e t he t ot al
power loss and loss per km.
Sol u t i on . Wit h 50% of line r eact ance compensat ed, t he t ot al r eact ance will be half of t he
posit ive-sequence r eact ance of t he 800-km line.
Ther efor e P = 0.5 400
2
/400 0.327 = 670 MW/Cir cuit at 400 kV
and P = 0.5 750
2
/400 0.272 = 2860 MW/Cir cuit at 750 kV
400 k V 750 k V
No. of circuits required 3 1
Current per circuit, kA 667/
3
400 = 0.963 1.54
Resistance for 800 km, ohms 0.031 800 = 24.8 0.0136 800 = 10.88
Loss per circuit, MW 3 24.8 0.963
2
= 69 MW 3 10.88 1.54
2
= 77.4 MW
Total power loss, MW 3 69 = 207 77.4
Loss/ km, kW 86.25 kW/km 97 kW/km
2.4 EXAMPLES OF GIANT POWER POOLS AND NUMBER OF LINES
Fr om t he discussion of t he pr evious sect ion it becomes appar ent t hat t he choice of t r ansmission
volt age depends upon (a) t he t ot al power t r ansmit t ed, (b) t he dist ance of t r ansmission, (c) t he %
power loss allowed, and (d) t he number of cir cuit s per missible fr om t he point of view of land
acquisit ion for t he line cor r idor . For example, a single cir cuit 1200 kV line r equir es a widt h of
56 m, 3 765 kV r equir e 300 m, while 6 single-cir cuit 500 kV lines for t r ansmit t ing t he same
power r equir e 220 m-of-r ight -of-way (R-O-W). An addit ional fact or is t he t echnological know-
how in t he count r y. Two examples of similar sit uat ions wit h r egar d t o available hydr o-elect r ic
power will be descr ibed in or der t o dr aw a par allel for deciding upon t he t r ansmission volt age
select ion. The fir st is fr om Canada and t he second fr om India. These ideas will t hen be ext ended
t o t her mal gener at ion st at ions sit uat ed at mine mout hs r equir ing long t r ansmission lines for
evacuat ing t he bulk power t o load cent r es.
2.4.1 Canadian Experience
The power sit uat ion in t he pr ovince of Quebec comes closest t o t he power sit uat ion in India, in
t hat near ly equal amount s of power will be developed event ually and t r ansmit t ed over near ly
t he same dist ances. Hence t he Canadian exper ience might pr ove of some use in making decisions
in India also. The power t o be developed fr om t he La Gr ande River locat ed in t he J ames Bay
ar ea of Nor t her n Quebec is as follows : Tot al 11,340 MW split int o 4 st at ions [LG1: 1140, LG
2 : 5300, LG3 : 2300, and LG4: 2600 MW]. The dist ance t o load cent r es at Mont r eal and
Quebec cit ies is 1100 km. The Hydr o-Quebec company has vast ecper ience wit h t heir exist ing
735 kV syst em fr om t he ear lier hydr oelect r ic development at Manicouagan-Out ar des River s so
t hat t he choice of t r ansmission volt age fell bet ween t he exist ing 735 kV or a fut ur e 1200 kV.
However , on account of t he vast exper ience accumulat ed at t he 735 kV level, t his volt age was
finally chosen. The number of cir cuit s r equir ed fr om Table 2.2 can be seen t o be 1011 for 735
kV and 34 for 1200 kV. The lines r un pr act ically in wilder ness and land acquisit ion is not as
difficult a pr oblem as in mor e t hickly populat ed ar eas. Plans might however change as t he
development pr oceeds. The 1200 kV level is new t o t he indust r y and equipment manufact ur e is
in t he infant st ages for t his level. As an alt er nat ive, t he company could have invest igat ed t he
possibilit y of using e.h.v. dc t r ansmission. But t he final decision was t o use 735 kV, ac. In 1987,
a
450 kV h.v. d.c. link has been decided for J ames Bay-New England Hydr o line (U.S.A.) for
a power of 6000 MW.
2.4.2 Indian Requirement
The giant hydr o-elect r ic power pools ar e locat ed in t he nor t her n bor der of t he count r y on t he
Himalayan Mount ain valleys. These ar e in Kashmir , Upper Ganga on t he Alakhananda and
Bhagir at hi River s, Nepal, Bhut an, and t he Br ahmaput r a River . Power sur veys indicat e t he
following power gener at ion and dist ances of t r ansmission:
(1) 2500 MW, 250 km, (2) 3000 MW, 300 km, (3) 4000 MW, 400 km, (4) 5000 MW, 300 km,
(5) 12000 MW over dist ances of (a) 250 km, (b) 450 km, and (c) 1000-1200 km.
Using t he power -handling capacit ies given in Table 2.2 we can const r uct a t able showing
t he possible number of cir cuit s r equir ed at differ enct volt age levels (Table 2.3).
Ta ble 2.3: Volt a ge Levels a n d Nu mber of Ci r cu i t s for Eva cu a t i n g fr om
Hyd r o-Elect r i c P ower P ools i n I n d i a
Power, MW 2500 3000 4000 5000 12000
Distance, km 250 300 400 300 250 450 1000
No. of Circuits/ 3/400 4/400 6/400 6/400 12/400 20/400 48/400
Voltage Level 1/750 2/750 2/750 3/750 6/750 12/750
Voltage Level (70% (75%) 1/1200 2/1200 6/1000
(Ac only) loaded) 4/1200
One can dr aw cer t ain conclusions fr om t he above t able. For example, for power s up t o
5000 MW, 400 kV t r ansmission might be adequat e. For 12000 MW, we obser ve t hat 750 kV
level for dist ances up t o 450 km and 1200 kV for 1000 km might be used, alt hough even for t his
dist ance 750 kV might ser ve t he pur pose. It is t he dut y of a design engineer t o wor k out such
alt er nat ives in or der t hat final decisions might be t aken. For t he sake of r eliabilit y, it is usual
t o have at least 2 cir cuit s.
While t he pr evious discussion is limit ed t o ac lines, t he dc alt er nat ives must also be
wor ked out based upon 2000 Amper es per pole. The usual volt ages used ar e 400 kV (1600
MW/bipole),
500 kV (2000 MW) and
600 kV (2400 MW). These power -handling capacit ies

do not depend on dist ances of t r ansmission. It is left as an exer cise at t he end of t he chapt er for
t he r eader t o wor k out t he dc alt er nat ives for power s and dist ances given in Table 2.3.
2.5 COSTS OF TRANSMISSION LINES AND EQUIPMENT
It is univer sally accept ed t hat cost of equipment all over t he wor ld is escalat ing ever y
year . Ther efor e, a designer must ascer t ain cur r ent pr ices fr om manufact ur er of equipment
and line mat er ials. These include conduct or s, har dwar e, t ower s, t r ansfor mer s, shunt r eact or s,
capacit or s, synchr onous condenser s, land for swit chyar ds and line cor r idor , and so on. Gener at ing
st at ion cost s ar e not consider ed her e, since we ar e only dealing wit h t r ansmission in t his book.
In t his sect ion, some idea of cost s of impor t ant equipment is given (which may be cur r ent in
2005) for compar ison pur poses only. These ar e not t o be used for decision-making pur poses.
(1US$ = Rs.50; 1 Lakh = 100, 000; 1 Cr or e = 100 Lakhs = 10 Million = 10
7
).
(a) High Volt age DC
400 kV Bipole
Back-t o-back t er minals : Rs. 50 Lakhs/MVA for 150 MVA
Rs. 40 Lakhs/MVA for 300 MVA
Cost of 2 t er minals : Rs. 40 Lakhs/MVA
Tr ansmission line: Rs. 26.5 Lakhs/Cir cuit (cct ) km
Swit chyar ds : Rs. 3000 Lakhs/bay
(b) 400 kV AC
Tr ansfor mer s : 400/220 kV Aut ot r ansfor mer s
Rs. 3.7 Lakhs/MVA for 200 MVA 3-phase unit
t o Rs. 3 Lakhs/MVA for 500 MVA 3-phase unit
400 kV/13.8 kV Gener at or Tr ansfor mer s
Rs. 2 Lakhs/MVA for 250 MVA 3-phase unit
t o Rs. 1.5 Lakh/MVA for 550 MVA 3-phase unit .
(c) Shunt React or s
Non-swit chable Rs. 2.6 Lakhs/MVA for 50 MVA unit t o
Rs. 2 Lakhs/MVA for 80 MVA unit
Swit chable Rs. 9 t o 6.5 Lakhs/MVA for 50 t o 80 MVA unit s.
Shunt Capacit or s Rs. 1 Lakh/MVA
Synchr onous Condenser s (Including t r ansfor mer s) :
Rs. 13 Lakhs/MVA for 70 MVA t o
Rs. 7 Lakhs/MVA for 300 MVA
Tr ansmission Line Cost :
400 kV Single Cir cuit : Rs. 25 Lakhs/cct km
220 kV: S/C: Rs. 13 Lakhs/cct km; D/C: Rs. 22 Lakhs/cct km.
Exa mp le 2.5. A power of 900 MW is t o be t r ansmit t ed over a lengt h of 875 km. Est imat e
the cost difference when using
400 kV dc line and 400 kV ac lines.

Sol u t i on . Power car r ied by a single cir cuit dc line = 1600 MW. Ther efor e,
1 Cir cuit is sufficient and it allows for fut ur e expansion.
Power carried by ac line = 0.5 E
2
/xL = 0.5 400
2
/ (0.32 875) = 285 MW/cct .
3 cir cuit s will be necessar y t o car r y 900 MW.
DC Al t e r n a t i ve : cost of
(a) Ter minal St at ions Rs. 33.5 10
3
Lakhs
(b) Tr ansmission Line Rs. 23 10
3
Lakhs
(c) 2 Swit chyar d Bays Rs. 5.8 10
3
Lakhs
Tot al Rs. 62.3 10
3
Lakhs = Rs. 623 Cr or es
AC Al t e r n a t i ve: Cost of
(a) 6 Swit chyar d Bays Rs. 17.5 10
3
Lakhs
(b) Shunt r eact or s 500 MVA Rs. 1 10
3
Lakhs
(c) Shunt capacit or s 500 MVA Rs. 0.5 10
3
Lakhs
(d) Line cost : (3 875 25 Lakhs) Rs. 65 10
3
Lakhs
Tot a l Rs. 84 10
3
Lakhs = Rs. 840 Cr or es
Differ ence in cost = Rs. 217 Cr or es, dc being lower t han ac.
(Cer t ain it ems common t o bot h dc and ac t r ansmission have been omit t ed. Also, ser ies
capacit or compensat ion has not been consider ed).
Exa mp le 2.6. Repeat t he above pr oblem if t he t r ansmission dist ance is 600 km.
Sol u t i on . The r eader can calculat e t hat t he dc alt er nat ive cost s about 55 x 10
3
La khs or
Rs. 550 Cr or es.
For t he ac alt er nat ive, t he power -handling capacit y per cir cuit is incr eased t o 285 875/600
= 420 MW. This r equir es 2 cir cuit s for handling 900 MW.
The r eact ive power s will also be r educed t o 120 MVA for each line in shunt r eact or s and
swit ched capacit or s. The cost est imat e will t hen include:
(a) 4 Swit chyar d Bays Rs. 11 10
3
Lakhs
(b) Shunt r eact or s 240 MVA Rs. 0.6 10
3
Lakhs
(c) Shunt capacit or s Rs. 0.27 10
3
Lakhs
(d) Line cost : 2 600 25 Lakhs Rs. 30 10
3
Lakhs
Tot al Rs. 41. 87 10
3
Lakhs = 418.7 Cr or es.
The dc alt er nat ive has become mor e expensive t han t he ac alt er nat ive by about Rs.130
Cr or es. In bet ween line lengt hs of 600 km and 875 km for t r ansmit t ing t he same power , t he
t wo alt er nat ives will cost near ly equal. This is called t he "Br eak Even Dist ance".
2.6 MECHANICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN LINE PERFORMANCE
2.6.1 Types of Vibrations and Oscillations
In t his sect ion a br ief descr ipt ion will be given of t he enor mous impor t ance which designer s
place on t he pr oblems cr eat ed by vibr at ions and oscillat ions of t he ver y heavy conduct or
ar r angement r equir ed for e.h.v. t r ansmission lines. As t he number of sub-conduct or s used in a
bundle incr eases, t hese vibr at ions and count er measur es and spacings of sub-conduct or s will
also affect t he elect r ical design, par t icular ly t he sur face volt age gr adient . The mechanical
designer will r ecommend t he t ower dimensions, phase spacings, conduct or height , sub-conduct or
spacings, et c. fr om which t he elect r ical designer has t o commence his calculat ions of r esist ance,
in du ct a n ce, ca pa cit a n ce, elect r os t a t ic field, cor on a effect s , a n d a ll ot h er per for ma n ce
char act er ist ics. Thus, t he t wo go hand in hand.
The sub-conduct or s in a bundle ar e separ at ed by spacer s of suit able t ype, which br ing
t heir own pr oblems such as fat igue t o t hemselves and t o t he out er st r ands of t he conduct or
dur ing vibr at ions. The design of spacer s will not be descr ibed her e but manufact ur er s' cat alogues
should be consult ed for a var iet y of spacer s available. These spacer s ar e pr ovided at int er vals
r anging fr om 60 t o 75 met r es bet ween each span which is in t he neighbour hood of 300 met r es
for e.h.v. lines. Thus, t her e may be t wo end spans and t wo or t hr ee subspans in t he middle. The
spacer s pr event conduct or s fr om r ubbing or colliding wit h each ot her in wind and ice st or ms, if
any. However , under less sever e wind condit ions t he bundle spacer can damage it self or cause
damage t o t he conduct or under cer t ain cr it ical vibr at ion condit ions. Elect r ically speaking, since
t he char ges on t he sub-conduct or s ar e of t he same polar it y, t her e exist s elect r ost at ic r epulsion
among t hem. On t he ot her hand, since t hey car r y cur r ent s in t he same dir ect ion, t her e is
elect r omagnet ic at t r act ion. This for ce is especially sever e dur ing shor t -cir cuit cur r ent s so t hat
t he spacer has a for ce exer t ed on it dur ing nor mal or abnor mal elect r ical oper at ion.
Thr ee t ypes of vibr at ion ar e r ecognized as being impor t ant for e.h.v. conduct or s, t heir
degr ee of sever it y depending on many fact or s, chief among which ar e: (a) conduct or t ension, (b)
span lengt h, (c) conduct or size, (d) t ype of conduct or , (e) t er r ain of line, (f) dir ect ion of pr evailing
winds, (g) t ype of suppor t ing clamp of conduct or -insulat or assemblies fr om t he t ower , (h) t ower
t ype, (i) height of t ower , (j) t ype of spacer s and damper s, and (k) t he veget at ion in t he vicinit y of
line. In gener al, t he most sever e vibr at ion condit ions ar e cr eat ed by winds wit hout t ur bulence
so t hat hills, buildings, and t r ees help in r educing t he sever it y. The t ypes of vibr at ion ar e: (1)
Aeolian Vibr at ion, (2) Galloping, and (3) Wake-Induced Oscillat ions. The fir st t wo ar e pr esent
for bot h single-and mult i-conduct or bundles, while t he wake-induced oscillat ion is confined t o a
bundle only. St andar d for ms of bundle conduct or s have sub-conduct or s r anging fr om 2.54 t o 5
cm diamet er s wit h bundle spacing of 40 t o 50 cm bet ween adjacent conduct or s. For e.h.v.
t r ansmission, t he number r anges fr om 2 t o 8 sub-conduct or s for t r ansmission volt ages fr om
400 kV t o 1200 kV, and up t o 12 or even 18 for higher volt ages which ar e not yet commer cially
in oper at ion. We will br iefly descr ibe t he mechanism causing t hese t ypes of vibr at ions and t he
pr oblems cr eat ed by t hem.
2.6.2 Aeolian Vibration
When a conduct or is under t ension and a compar at ively st eady wind blows acr oss it , small
vor t ices ar e for med on t he leewar d side called Kar man Vor t ices (which wer e fir st obser ved on
air cr aft wings). These vor t ices det ach t hemselves and when t hey do alt er nat ely fr om t he t op
and bot t om t hey cause a minut e ver t ical for ce on t he conduct or . The fr equency of t he for ces is
given by t he accept ed for mula
F = 2.065 v/d, Hz ...(2.5)
wher e v = component of wind velocit y nor mal t o t he conduct or in km/ hour , and d = diamet er
of conduct or in cent imet r es. [The const ant fact or of equat ion (2.5) becomes 3.26 when v is in
mph and d in inches.]
The r esult ing oscillat ion or vibr at ional for ces cause fat igue of conduct or and suppor t ing
st r uct ur e and ar e known as aeolian vibr at ions. The fr equency of det achment of t he Kar man
vor t ices might cor r espond t o one of t he nat ur al mechanical fr equencies of t he span, which if
not damped pr oper ly, can build up and dest r oy individual st r ands of t he conduct or at point s of
r est r aint such as at suppor t s or at bundle spacer s. They also give r ise t o wave effect s in which
t he vibr at ion t r avels along t he conduct or suffer ing r eflect ion at discont inuit ies at point s of
differ ent mechanical char act er ist ics. Thus, t her e is associat ed wit h t hem a mechanical impedance.
Damper s ar e designed on t his pr oper t y and pr ovide suit able point s of negat ive r eflect ion t o
r educe t he wave amplit udes. Aeolian vibr at ions ar e not obser ved at wind velocit ies in excess of
25 km/hour . They occur pr incipally in t er r ains which do not dist ur b t he wind so t hat t ur bulence
helps t o r educe aeolian vibr at ions.
In a bundle of 2 conduct or s, t he amplit ude of vibr at ion is less t han for a single conduct or
due t o some cancellat ion effect t hr ough t he bundle spacer . This occur s when t he conduct or s
ar e not locat ed in a ver t ical plane which is nor mally t he case in pr act ice. The conduct or s ar e
locat ed in near ly a hor izont al plane. But wit h mor e t han 2 conduct or s in a bundle, conduct or s
ar e locat ed in bot h planes. Damper s such as t he St ockbr idge t ype or ot her t ypes help t o damp
t he vibr at ions in t he subspans connect ed t o t hem, namely t he end sub-spans, but t her e ar e
usually t wo or t hr ee sub-spans in t he middle of t he span which ar e not pr ot ect ed by t hese
damper s pr ovided only at t he t ower s. Flexible spacer s ar e gener ally pr ovided which may or
may not be designed t o offer damping. In cases wher e t hey ar e pur posely designed t o damp t he
sub-span oscillat ions, t hey ar e known as spacer -damper s.
Since t he aeolian vibr at ion depends upon t he power impar t ed by t he wind t o t he conduct or ,
measur ement s under cont r olled condit ions in t he labor at or y ar e car r ied out in wind t unnels.
The fr equency of vibr at ion is usually limit ed t o 20 Hz and t he amplit udes less t han 2.5 cm.
2.6.3 Galloping
Galloping of a conduct or is a ver y high amplit ude, low-fr equency t ype of conduct or mot ion and
occur s mainly in ar eas of r elat ively flat t er r ain under fr eezing r ain and icing of conduct or s. The
flat t er r ain pr ovides winds t hat ar e unifor m and of a low t ur bulence. When a conduct or is iced,
it pr esent s an unsymmet r ical cor ss-sect ion wit h t he windwar d side having less ice accumulat ion
t han t he leewar d side of t he conduct or . When t he wind blows acr oss such a sur face, t her e is an
aer odynamic lift as well as a dr ag for ce due t o t he dir ect pr essur e of t he wind. t he t wo for ces
give r ise t o t or sional modes of oscillat ion and t hey combine t o oscillat e t he conduct or wit h ver y
lar ge amplit udes sufficient t o cause cont act of t wo adjacent phases, which may be 10 t o 15
met r es apar t in t he r est posit ion. Galloping is induced by winds r anging fr om 15 t o 50 km/hour ,
which may nor mally be higher t han t hat r equir ed for aeolian vibr at ions but t her e could be an
over lap. The conduct or oscillat es at fr equencies bet ween 0.1 and 1 Hz. Galloping is cont r olled
by using "det uning pendulums" which t ake t he for m of weight s applied at differ ent locat ions on
t he span.
Galloping may not be a pr oblem in a hot count r y like India wher e t emper at ur es ar e
nor mally above fr eezing in wint er . But in hilly t r act s in t he Nor t h, t he t emper at ur es may dip
t o below t he fr eezing point . When t he ice loosens fr om t he conduct or , it br ings anot her oscillat or y
mot ion called Whipping but is not pr esent like galloping dur ing only winds.
2.6.4 Wake-Induced Oscillation
The wake-induced oscillat ion is peculiar t o a bundle conduct or , and similar t o aeolian vibr at ion
and galloping occur r ing pr incipally in flat t er r ain wit h winds of st eady velocit y and low t ur bulence.
The fr equency of t he oscillat ion does not exceed 3 Hz but may be of sufficient amplit ude t o cause
clashing of adjacent sub-conduct or s, which ar e separ at ed by about 50 cm. Wind speeds for causing
wake-induced oscillat ion must be nor mally in t he r ange 25 t o 65 km/hour . As compar ed t o t his,
aeolian vibr at ion occur s at wind speeds less t han 25 km/hour , has fr equencies less t han 20 Hz
and amplit udes less t han 2.5 cm. Galloping occur s at wind speeds bet ween 15 and 50 km/hour ,
has a low fr equency of less t han 1 Hz, but amplit udes exceeding 10 met r es. Fat igue failur e t o
spacer s is one of t he chief causes for damage t o insulat or s and conduct or s.
Wake-induced oscillat ion, also called "flut t er inst abilit y", is caused when one conduct or
on t he windwar d side aer odynamically shields t he leewar d conduct or . To cause t his t ype of
oscillat ion, t he leewar d conduct or must be posit ioned at r est t owar ds t he limit s of t he wake or
windshadow of t he windwar d conduct or . The oscillat ion occur s when t he bundle t ilt s 5 t o 15
wit h r espect t o a flat gr ound sur face. Ther efor e, a gent ly sloping gr ound wit h t his angle can
cr eat e condit ions favour able t o wake-induced oscillat ions. The conduct or spacing t o diamet er
r at io in t he bundle is also cr it ical. If t he spacing B is less t han 15d, d being t he conduct or
diamet er , a t endency t o oscillat e is cr eat ed while for B/d > 15 t he bundle is found t o be mor e
st able. As ment ioned ear lier , t he elect r ical design, such as calculat ing t he sur face volt age
gr adient on t he conduct or s, will depend upon t hese mechanical consider at ions.
2.6.5 Dampers and Spacers
When t he wind ener gy impar t ed t o t he conduct or achieves a balance wit h t he ener gy dissipat ed
by t he vibr at ing conduct or , st eady amplit udes for t he oscillat ions occur . A damping device
helps t o achieve t his balance at smaller amplit udes of aeolian vibr at ions t han an undamped
conduct or . The damper cont r ols t he int ensit y of t he wave-like pr oper t ies of t r avel of t he
oscillat ion and pr ovides an equivalent heavy mass which absor bs t he ener gy in t he wave. A
sket ch of a St ockbr idge damper is shown in Fig. 2.2.
A simpler for m of damper is called t he Ar mour Rod, which is a set of wir es t wist ed ar ound
t he line conduct or at t he insulat or suppor t ing conduct or and har dwar e, and ext ending for
about 5 met r es on eit her side. This is used for small conduct or s t o pr ovide a change in mechanical
impedance. But for heavier conduct or s, weight s must be used, such as t he St ockbr idge, which
r ange fr om 5 kg for conduct or s of 2.5 cm diamet er t o 14 kg for 4.5 cm. Because of t he st eel
st r ands inside t hem ACSR conduct or s have bet t er built -in pr oper t y against oscillat ions t han
ACAR conduct or s.
Fi g. 2.2 (a) St ockbr idge Da mper ; (b) Suspension Clamp (Cour t esy: Elect r ical
Manufact ur ing Co., Calcut t a).
Fi g. 2.3 Spacer for t wo-conduct or bundle (Cour t esy: EMC, Calcut t a).
Damper
Mass
Steel
Massenger
Cable
Centre of
Gravity
Conductor
Damper Clamp
Cushion Insert
Conductor
Cushion
Aluminium Alloy
Retaining Rods
Frame
(a)
(b)
Ther e ar e a lar ge number of t ypes of spacer s which keep t he conduct or s apar t . Most
moder n spacer s have some flexibilit y built int o t hem t o allow r ot at ion of t he conduct or inside
t hem such as lining t he clamps wit h high-st r engt h plast ic or r ubber washer s. Some spacer s ar e
specially designed t o act as damper s and may also t ake t he for m of heavy spr ings. The select ion
of t he spacer s is also det er mined by t he wind speed in t he localit y. Fig. 2.3 shows a spacer used
for a bundle conduct or .
1. Of t he following t r ansmission volt ages (given in kV) used in t he wor ld, which ones
ar e used in India at pr esent : 66, 132, 169, 220, 275, 345, 400, 500525, 735765, 1000,
1150.
2. The geogr aphy and civilizat ion of any count r y can best be under st ood by a knowledge
of locat ion of it s r iver s. In moder n days, power development also depends on t he
r iver s. On an at las, locat e t he following r iver s in t he count r ies list ed. Not e: Due t o
int er nat ional disput es and war s bet ween nat ions some of t he r iver s may not be in t he
count r ies given, but only in t he gener al geogr aphic ar ea in an at las.
(a) Indian subcontinent (including Tibet , Pakist an, Bangladesh and Bur ma)Sind,
J helum, Ganga; Yamuna, Bhagir at hi, Alakhnanda, Gandak, Gomt i, Tsang-Po,
Dehang, Br ahmaput r a, Padma, Hoogly, Nar mada, Damodar , Mahanadi, Godavar i,
Kr ishna, Kali, Shar avat hi, Kaver i, Vaigai, Tamr apar ni, Ir r awaddy, Salween.
(b) Canada and U.S.Fr a ser , Colu mbia , Sla ve, Ma cken zie, At h a ba sca , Th e
Saskat chewans, Winnipeg, Nelson, Peace (Finlay and Par snip), Red, St . Lawr ence,
St . J ohn, Chur chill, Ot t awa, La Gr ande, Color ado, Mississippi-Missour i, Ohio,
Rio Gr ande, Delawar e, Hudson, Mohawk, Niagar a.
(c) Europe, including t he U.S .S .R. and S iberiaSever n, Clyde, Thames, Danube,
Rhone, Rhine, Elb, Po, Seine, Ob, Volga, Dneiper , Lena, Yenesei.
(d) Ot her part s of t he worldYangt ze, Yellow, Senju, Mar ude, Yalu, Nile, Zambezi,
Congo (Zaire), Amazon, It aipu, Or inaco, Makong, La Plat a, Sikiang, Volt a.
3. Using equat ions (2.1) and (2.2), dr aw on a gr aph t he var iat ion of P and I as t he dist ance
of t r ansmission is var ied fr om 200 t o 800 km for (a) 400 kV line, and (b) 750 kV line.
U se average values for r and x given in Table 2.1. Take P = 0.5 E
2
/Lx. Repeat for =
45.
4. In t he U.S.A., for t r ansmit t ing a power of 10,000 MW over 285 km, a volt age of 1150
kV was select ed. In t he U.S.S.R., for t r ansmit t ing a power of 5000 MW over 800 km,
t he same volt age level was select ed. Give your comment s on t he r easons t his level is
most suit able and what t he possible r easons ar e for such a choice. Discuss t hr ough%
line loses by compar ing wit h ot her suit able volt age classes t hat could have been
found suit able.
5. Using t he figur es for power t o be t r ansmit t ed and dist ance given in Table 2.3, wor k
out dc alt er nat ive for India t o evacuat e t hese power s t o load cent r es.
6. Wr it e br ief descr ipt ions of (a) aeolian vibr at ion, and (b) wake-induced oscillat ions.
Descr ibe t he measur es t aken t o minimize t he damage due t o t hem.
3.1 RESISTANCE OF CONDUCTORS
Conduct or s used for e.h.v. t r ansmission lines ar e always st r anded. Most common conduct or s
use a st eel cor e for r einfor cement of t he st r engt h of aluminium, but r ecent ly high t ensile
st r engt h aluminium is being incr easingly used, r eplacing t he st eel. The for mer is known as
ACSR (Aluminium Conduct or St eel Reinfor ced) and t he lat t er ACAR (Aluminium Conduct or
Alloy Reinfor ced). A r ecent development is t he AAAC (All Aluminium Alloy Conduct or ) which
consist s of alloys of Al, Mg, Si. This has 10 t o 15% less loss t han ACSR. When a st eel cor e is
used, because of it s high per meabilit y and induct ance, power -fr equency cur r ent flows only in
t he aluminium st r ands. In ACAR and AAAC conduct or s, t he cr oss-sect ion is bet t er ut ilized.
Fig. 3.1 shows an example of a st r anded conduct or .
Fi g 3.1 Cr oss-sect ion of t ypical ACSR conduct or .
If n
s
= number of st r ands of aluminium, d
s
= diamet er of each st r and in met r e and a
=
specific r esist ance of Al, ohm-m, at t emper at ur e t , t he r esist ance of t he st r anded conduct or per
km is
R = a
1.05 10
3
/( 4 /
2
s s
n d ) = 1337
s s a
n d
2
/ , ohms ...(3.1)
The fact or 1.05 account s for t he t wist or lay wher eby t he st r and lengt h is incr eased by 5%.
Exa mp l e 3.1. A Dr ake conduct or of Nor t h-Amer ican manufact ur e has an out er diamet er
of 1.108 inches having an Al cr oss-sect ional ar ea of 795,000 cir cular mils. The st r anding is 26
Al/7 Fe. It s r esist ance is given as 0.0215 ohm/1000' at 20C under dc, and 0.1284 ohm/mile at
50C and 50/60 Hz. Calculat e.
(a) diamet er of each st r and of Al and Fe in mils, inch, and met r e unit s;
3
Ca lcu la t ion of Lin e a n d Grou n d Pa ra m et ers
Calculation of Line and Ground Parameters 23
(b) check t he values of r esist ances given above t aking a
= 2.7 10
8
ohm-met r e at 20C
and t emper at ur e-r esist ance coefficient = 4.46 10
3
/C at 20C.
(c) find incr ease in r esist ance due t o skin effect .
Not e. 1 inch = 1000 mils; 1 in
2
= ( / 4 ) 10
6
cir -mils;
10
6
cir -mils = ( 4 / ) 2.54
2
sq. cm. = 5.067 sq. cm.
Sol u t i on : Ar ea of each st r and of Al = 795,000/26 = 30,577 cm.
(a) Diamet er of each st r and, d
s
= 577 , 30 = 175 mils = 0.175 inch
= 0.4444 cm = 0.00444 m
Refer r ing t o Fig. 3.1, t her e ar e 4 st r ands of Al along any diamet er occupying 700 mils. The
3 diamet er s of Fe occupy 1108 700 = 408 mils since t he over all dia. of t he conduct or is 1.108"
= 1108 mils.
Ther efor e, diamet er of each st eel st r and = 408/3 = 136 mils = 0.136" = 0.3454 cm
(b) Because of t he high per meabilit y of st eel, t he st eel st r ands do not car r y cur r ent .
Then, for 1000 feet ,
R
a
= 2.7/10
8
(1000 1.05/3.28)/ ]
]
]
26 ) 10 444 . 4 (
4
2 3
= 0.02144 ohm.
This is close t o 0.0215 ohm/1000'
At 50C,
50
=
20 10 46 . 4 1
50 10 46 . 4 1
3
3
+
+

20
= 1.123
20
R
50
= 1.123 0.0215 5.28 = 0.1275 ohm/mile.
(c) Incr ease in r esist ance due t o skin effect at 50/60 Hz is
0.1284 0.1275 = 0.0009 ohm = 0.706%.
3.1.1 Effect of Resistance of Conductor
The effect of conduct or r esist ance of e.h.v. lines is manifest ed in t he following for ms:
(1) Power loss in t r ansmission caused by I
2
R heat ing;
(2) Reduced cur r ent -car r ying capacit y of conduct or in high ambient t emper at ur e r egions.
This pr oblem is par t icular ly sever e in Nor t her n India wher e summer t emper at ur es
in t he plains r each 50C. The combinat ion of int ense solar ir r adiat ion of conduct or
combined wit h t he I
2
R heat ing r aises t he t emper at ur e of Aluminium beyond t he
maximum allowable t emper at ur e which st ands at 65C as per Indian St andar ds. At
an ambient of 48C, even t he solar ir r adiat ion is sufficient t o r aise t he t emper at ur e
t o 65C for 400 kV line, so t hat no cur r ent can be car r ied. If t her e is impr ovement in
mat er ial and t he maximum t emper at ur e r aised t o 75C, it is est imat ed t hat a cur r ent
of 600 amper es can be t r ansmit t ed for t he same ambient t emper at ur e of 48C.
(3) The conduct or r esist ance affect s t he at t enuat ion of t r avelling waves due t o light ning
and swit ching oper at ions, as well as r adio-fr equency ener gy gener at ed by cor ona. In
t hese ca ses, t he r esist a nce is comput ed a t t he following r a nge of fr equencies:
Light ning100 t o 200 kHz; Swit ching1000-5000 Hz; Radio fr equency0.5 t o 2 MHz.
We shall consider t he high-fr equency r esist ance lat er on.
3.1.2 Power Loss in Transmission
In Chapt er 2, aver age r esist ance values wer e given in Table 2.1. For var ious amount s of power
t r ansmit t ed at e.h.v. volt age levels, t he I
2
R heat ing loss in MW ar e shown in Table 3.1 below.
The power fact or is t aken as unit y. In ever y case t he phase angle differ ence = 30 bet ween E
s
and E
r
.
Ta ble 3.1. I
2
R Loss i n MW of E.H.V. Li n e s
S yst em kV 400 750 1000 1200
Resistance, ohm/ km 0.031 0.0136 0.0036 0.0027
Power Transmitted I
2
R Loss, MW
1,000 MW 48 25 7.8 5.84
2,000 96 50 15.6 11.68
5,000 240 125 39 29.2
10,000 480 250 78 58.4
20,000 960 500 156 116.8
We not ice t he vast r educt ion in MW loss occur r ing wit h incr ease in t r ansmission volt age
for t r ansmit t ing t he same power . The above calculat ions ar e based on t he following equat ions:
(1) Cur r ent : I = V P 3 / ...(3.2)
(2) Loss: p = 3I
2
R = P
2
R/V
2
...(3.3)
(3) Tot al r esist ance: R = L.r, ...(3.4)
wher e L = line lengt h in km,
and r = r esist ance per phase in ohm/km.
(4) Tot al above holds for = 30. For any ot her power -angle t he loss is
p = 3I
2
rL = E
2
r sin
2
/(L.x
2
) ...(3.5)
wher e x = posit ive-sequence r eact ance of line per phase.
3.1.3 Skin Effect Resistance in Round Conductors
It was ment ioned ear lier t hat t he r esist ance of over head line conduct or s must be evaluat ed at
fr equencies r anging fr om power fr equency (50/60 Hz) t o r adio fr equencies up t o 2 MHz or mor e.
Wit h incr ease in fr equency, t he cur r ent t ends t o flow near er t he sur face r esult ing in a decr ease
in ar ea for cur r ent conduct ion. This gives r ise t o incr ease in effect ive r esist ance due t o t he
'Skin Effect '. The physical mechanism for t his effect is based on t he fact t hat t he inner filament s
of t he conduct or s link lar ger amount s of flux as t he cent r e is appr oached which causes an
incr ease in r eact ance. The r eact ance is pr opor t ional t o fr equency so t hat t he impedance t o
cur r ent flow is lar ger in t he inside, t hus pr event ing flow of cur r ent easily. The r esult is a
cr owding of cur r ent at t he out er filament s of t he conduct or . The incr ease in r esist ance of a
st r anded conduct or is mor e difficult t o calculat e t han t hat of a single r ound solid conduct or
because of t he close pr oximit y of t he st r ands which dist or t t he magnet ic field st ill fur t her . It is
easier t o det er mine t he r esist ance of a st r anded conduct or by exper iment at t he manufact ur er 's
pr emises for all conduct or sizes manufact ur ed and at var ious fr equencies.
Fi g. 3.2 Var iat ion wit h fr equency par amet er (mr) of (a) skin effect r esist ance r at io R
ac
(f )/R
dc
a nd (b) skin effect induct a nce L(f )/L
0
, wit h L
0
=
0
/ 8, t he induct a nce wit h unifor m cur r ent
dist r ibut ion in r ound conduct or .
In t his sect ion, a met hod of est imat ing t he r at io R
ac
(f)/R
dc
will be descr ibed. The r igor ous
for mulas involve t he use of Bessel Funct ions and t he r esist ance r at io has been t abulat ed or
given in t he for m of cur ves by t he Nat ional Bur eau of St andar ds, Washingt on, sever al decades
ago. Figur e 3.2(a) shows some r esult s wher e t he or dinat e is R
ac
/R
dc
at any fr equency f and t he
abscissa is X = mr = 0.0636
0
/R f , wher e R
0
is t he dc r esist ance of conduct or in ohms/mile.
W hen using S I unit s, X = 1.59 10
3

m
R f / , wher e R
m
= dc r esist ance in ohm/met r e.
Exa mp le 3.2. A Moose conduct or has a r esist ance of 62 milli-ohm/km. Using Fig. 3.2(a),
det er mine t he highest fr equency for which t he gr aph is applicable for a r ound conduct or .
Sol u t i on . Maximum value of X = 4 = 0.0636 . /
0
R f
Now, R
0
= 62 10
3
1.609 = 0.1
Ther efor e f = (X/0.0636)
2
R
0
400 Hz.
For ot her fr equencies t he funct ional r elat ionship bet ween R
ac
(f)/R
dc
is as follows:
Let Ber (X) =
L
2 2 2 2
8
2 2
4
8 . 6 . 4 . 2 4 . 2
1
X X
+
Bei (X) =
L
2 2 2 2 2
10
2 2 2
6
2
2
10 . 8 . 6 . 4 . 2 6 . 4 . 2
2
X X X
+
...(3.6)
B' er (X) = d Ber (X)/dX, B' ei(X) = d Bei (X)/dX
Then,
dc
ac
) (
R
f R
=
2 2
)] ( ei B [ )] ( er B [
) ( er B ). ( Bei ) ( ei B ). ( Ber
2
X X
X X X X X
+

,
`
.
|
...(3.7)
The Bessel Funct ions ar e t abulat ed and values fr om t her e must be used [see H.B. Dwight :
Mat hemat ical Tables (Dover Publicat ions) pages 194 onwar ds]. The following example will
illust r at e t he incr ease in r esist ance of a r ound copper conduct or up t o a fr equency of 100 kHz.
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
0 1 2 3 4
1.0
0.9
0.8
0 1 2 3 4
R
R
(
)
f
d
c
/
L
L
L
(
)
0
0
0
f
/
,

=

/
8
mr f R = 0.0636
0
mr
(a) (b)
(b) (a)
Exa mp l e 3.3. A r ound 7/0 copper conduct or 0.5" (12.7 mm) in dia. has = 1. 7 10
-8
ohm-m at 20C. Calculat e t he var iat ion of R
ac
/R
dc
as a funct ion of fr equency up t o 10
5
Hz.
Sol u t i on . R
0
= 1.7 10
8
1609/( 12.7
2
10
6
/4) = 0.216 ohm/mile
0.0636/
0
R = 0.0137.
We will use a logar it hmic incr ease for fr equency;
f 100 300 600 1000 3000 6000 10
4
3 10
4
6 10
4
10
5
X = 0.0137 f .137 .237 .335 .4326 .749 1.06 1.37 2.37 3.35 4.326
R
ac
/R
dc
3 4 4 5
10
8 .
1
10
8 .
1
10
4 . 0
1
10
37 . 0
1

+
1.0000037, 1.00004, 1.00008, 1.0008
[These values ar e t aken fr om N.B.S. Tables and T. and D. Refer ence Book (West inghouse)].
3.2 TEMPERATURE RISE OF CONDUCTORS AND CURRENT-CARRYING
CAPACITY
When a conduct or is car r ying cur r ent and it s t emper at ur e has r eached a st eady value, heat
balance r equir es
,
`
.
|
+
,
`
.
|
n Irradiat io Solar by
Supplied Heat Ext er nal
by Developed
Heat Int er nal
2
R I
=

,
`
.
|
+
,
`
.
|
Radiat ion
by Lost Heat
Air t o Convect ion
by Lost Heat
...(3.8)
Let W
i
= I
2
R heat ing in wat t s/met r e lengt h of conduct or
W
s
= solar ir r adiat ion ,, ,, ,, ,,
W
c
= convect ion loss ,, ,, ,, ,,
and W
r
= r adiat ion loss ,, ,, ,, ,,
Then t he heat balance equat ion becomes
W
i
+ W
s
= W
c
+ W
r
...(3.9)
Each of t hese four t er ms depends upon sever al fact or s which must be wr it t en out in t er ms
of t emper at ur e, conduct or dimensions, wind velocit y, at mospher ic pr essur e, cur r ent , r esist ance,
conduct or sur face condit ion, et c. It will t hen be possible t o find a r elat ion bet ween t he t emper at ur e
r ise and cur r ent . The maximum allowable t emper at ur e of an Al conduct or is 65C at pr esent ,
but will be incr eased t o 75C . Many count r ies in t he wor ld have alr eady specified t he limit as
75C above which t he met al loses it s t ensile st r engt h. The four quant it ies given above ar e as
follows:
(1) I
2
R heating. W
i
= I
2
R
m
wat t s/met r e wher e, R
m
= r esist ance of conduct or per met r e
lengt h at t he maximum t emper at ur e.
1.0017 1.0066 1.0182 1.148 1.35 1.8
R
m
=
.
20 1
1
20
R
t
+
+
wit h = t emper at ur e r esist ance coefficient in ohm/C and R
20
= conduct or r esist ance at
20C.
(2) S olar irradiation.
W
s
= s
a
.I
s
.d
m
wat t s/met r e
wher e d
m
= diamet r e of conduct or in met r e, s
a
= solar absor pt ion coefficient = 1 for black
body or well-weat her ed conduct or and 0.6 for new conduct or , and I
s
= solar ir r adiat ion int ensit y
in wat t s/m
2
.
At New Delhi in a summer 's day at noon, I
s
has a value of appr oximat ely 1000-1500 W/m
2
.
[Not e: 10
4
calor ies/sq. cm/day = 4860 wat t s/m
2
]
(3) Convect ion loss.
w
c
= 5.73 , . / t d v p
m m
wat t s/m
2
wher e p = pr essur e of air in at mospher es, v
m
= wind velocit y in met r es/sec.,
and t = t emper at ur e r ise in C above ambient = t t
a
.
Since 1 met r e lengt h of conduct or has an ar ea of d
m
sq. m., t he convect ion loss is
W
c
=
m m
d v p t . . . . 18 , wat t s/met r e
(4) Radiat ion loss. This is given by St efan-Bolt zmann Law
W
r
= 5.702 10
8
e(
4 4
a
T T ), wat t s/m
2
wher e e = r elat ive emissivit y of conduct or -sur face = 1 for black body and 0.5 for oxidized Al
or Cu, T = conduct or t emper at ur e in K = 273 + t and T
a
= ambient t emper at ur e in K = 273 + t
a
.
The r adiat ion loss per met r e lengt h of conduct or is
W
r
= 17.9 10
8
e(
4 4
a
T T ) d
m
, wat t /m.
Equat ion (3.9) for t he heat balance t hen becomes
I
2
R
m
+ s
a
I
s
d
m
= 18
]
]
]
]
,
`
.
|

,
`
.
|
+
4 4
100 100
. . 9 . 17 . .
a
m m m
T T
d e d v p t ...(3.10)
Exa mp l e 3.4. A 400-kV line in India uses a 2-conduct or bundle wit h d
m
= 0.0318 m for
each conduct or . The phase cur r ent is 1000 Amps (500 Amps per conduct or ). The ar ea of each
conduct or is 515.7 mm
2
,
a
= 2.7 10
8
ohm-m at 20C, = 0.0045 ohm/C at 20. Take t he
ambient t emper at ur e t
a
= 40C, at mospher ic pr essur e p = 1, wind velocit y v
m
= 1 m/s, e = 0.5
and neglect solar ir r adiat ion. Calculat e t he final t emper at ur e of conduct or due only t o I
2
R
heat ing.
Sol u t i on . Let t he final t emper at ur e = t C.
Then, R
m
= 2.7 10
8

20 0045 . 0 1
0045 . 0 1
+
+ t
6
10 7 . 515
05 . 1
= 0.5 10
4
(1 + 0.0045t ), ohm/m
Ther efor e, W
t
= I
2
R
m
= 12.5 (1 + 0.0045t ), wat t s/m
W
c
= wat t s/m ), 40 ( 21 . 3 ) 40 .( 0318 . 0 1 18 t t
W
r
= 17.9 0.5 0.0318
]
]
]
]
,
`
.
| +

,
`
.
| +
4 4
100
40 273
100
273 t
= 0.2845 {[(273 + t )/100]
4
95.95}.
Using equat ion (3.9), t he equat ion for t comes out as
12.5 (1 + 0.0045t ) = 3.21t + 0.2845 10
8
(273 + t )
4
155.7
or , (273 + t )
4
= (590 11.28t ) 10
8
.
A t r ial and er r or solut ion yields t 44C. (At t his final t emper at ur e, we can calculat e t he
values of t he t hr ee heat s which ar e I
2
R
m
= 14.38, W
c
= 12.84, and W
r
= 1.54, wat t s/m.).
Exa mp l e . 3.5 In t he pr evious example, calculat e t he final t emper at ur e (or t emper at ur e
r ise) if t he solar ir r adiat ion adds (a) 10 wat t s/m, and (b) 1160 W/m
2
giving a cont r ibut ion of 37
wat t s/m t o t he conduct or .
Sol u t i on . By going t hr ough similar pr ocedur e, t he answer s t ur n out t o be
(a) t = 45.5C, t = 5.5C;
(b) t = 54.1C, t = 14.1C.
We obser ve t hat had t he ambient t emper at ur e been 50C, t he t emper at ur e r ise would
r each near ly t he maximum. This is left as an exer cise at t he end of t he chapt er .
3.3 PROPERTIES OF BUNDLED CONDUCTORS
Bundled conduct or s ar e exclusively used for e.h.v. t r ansmission lines. Only one line in t he
wor ld, t hat of t he Bonneville Power Administ r at ion in t he U.S.A., has used a special expanded
ACSR conduct or of 2.5 inch diamet er for t heir 525 kV line. Fig. 3.3 shows examples of conduct or
configur at ions used for each phase of ac lines or each pole of a dc line.
Fi g. 3.3 Conduct or configur at ions used for bundles in e.h.v. lines.
As of now a maximum of 18 sub-conduct or s have been t r ied on exper iment al lines but for
commer cial lines t he lar gest number is 8 for 1150-1200 kV lines.
3.3.1 Bundle Spacing and Bundle Radius (or Diameter)
In almost all cases, t he sub-conduct or s of a bundle ar e unifor mly dist r ibut ed on a cir cle of
r adius R. Ther e ar e pr oposals t o space t hem non-unifor mly t o lower t he audible noise gener at ed
by t he bundle conduct or , but we will develop t he r elevant geomet r ical pr oper t ies of an N-
conduct or bundle on t he assumpt ion of unifor m spacing of t he sub-conduct or s (Fig. 3.4). It is
also r epor t ed t hat t he flashover volt age of a long air gap is incr eased when a non-unifor m
spacing for sub-conduct or s is used for t he phase conduct or .
d = 2r
B
B
B B
R
R
R
R
R
B
Single Twin 3-Cond. 4-Cond. 6-Cond. 8-Cond.
Fi g. 3.4 Bundle spacing B, and bundle r adius R.
The spacing bet ween adjacent sub-conduct or s is t er med 'Bundle Spacing' and denot ed by
B. The r adius of t he pit ch cir cle on which t he sub-conduct or s ar e locat ed will be called t he
'Bundle Radius', denot ed as R. The r adius of each sub-conduct or is r wit h diamet er d. The angle
sub-t ended at t he cent r e by adjacent sub-conduct or s is (2/N) r adians, and it is r eadily seen t hat
2
B
= R sin (/N) giving R = B/2 sin (/N) ...(3.11)
For N = 2 t o 18, t he following t able gives (R/B) and (B/R).
N = 2 3 4 6 8 12 18
R/B = 0.5 0.578 0.7071 1 1.308 1.874 2.884
B/R = 2
3 2
1 0.7654 0.5344 0.3472
3.3.2 Geometric Mean Radius of Bundle (Equivalent Radius)
Except for calculat ing t he sur face volt age gr adient fr om t he char ge of each sub-conduct or , for
most ot her calculat ions t he bundle of N-sub-conduct or s can be r eplaced by a single conduct or
having an equivalent r adius. This is called t he 'Geomet r ic Mean Radius' or simply t he 'Equivalent
Radius.' It will be shown below t hat it s value is
r
eq
= (N.r.R
N1
)
1/N
= r[N.(R/r)
N1
]
1/N
= R(N.r/R)
1/N
...(3.12)
It is t he Nt h r oot of t he pr oduct of t he sub-conduct or r adius r' , and t he dist ance of t his sub-
conduct or fr om all t he ot her (N 1) companions in t he bundle. Equat ion (3.12) is derived as follows:
Refer r ing t o Fig. 3.4, t he pr oduct of (N 1) mut ual dist ances is
,
`
.
|
,
`
.
|
,
`
.
|
N
R
N
R
N
R
3
sin 2
2
sin 2 sin 2
....

,
`
.
|
N
N
R
1
sin 2
=
,
`
.
|
,
`
.
|
N N
R
N
2
sin sin ) 2 (
1
....
.
1
sin
,
`
.
|
N
N
N
4
N
2
N
R
N 2
1
3
B
R
4
N
N
1
2
r
eq
=
N
N
N
N
N N
R r
/ 1
1
1
sin
2
sin . sin ) 2 .(
]
]
]

...(3.13)
For N = 2, r
eq
= (2rR)
1/2
For N = 3, r
eq

=

3 / 1 2
3 / 1
2 2
) 3 (
3
2
sin .
3
sin . . . 2 rR r R
,
`
.
|
For N = 4, r
eq
=
4 / 1 3
4 / 1
3 3
) 4 (
4
3
sin .
4
2
sin .
4
sin . . . 2 rR r R
,
`
.
|
For N = 6, r
eq
=
6 / 1 5
6 / 1
5 5
) . . 6 (
6
5
sin
6
2
sin .
6
sin . . . 2 R r r R
,
`
.
|
This is equat ion (3.12) wher e t he gener al for mula is r
eq
= (N.r.R
N1
)
1/N
.
The r eader should ver ify t he r esult for N = 8, 12, 18.
Exa mp l e 3.6 The configur at ions of some e.h.v. lines for 400 kV t o 1200 kV ar e given.
Calculat e r
eq
for each.
(a) 400 kV : N = 2, d = 2r = 3.18 cm, B = 45 cm
(b) 750 kV : N = 4, d = 3.46 cm, B = 45 cm
(c) 1000 kV : N = 6, d = 4.6 cm, B = 12 d
(d) 1200 kV : N = 8, d = 4.6 cm, R = 0.6 m
Sol u t i on . The pr oblem will be solved in differ ent ways.
(a) r
eq
=
B r.
= (1.59 45)
1/2
= 8.46 cm = 0.0846 m
(b) r
eq
=
4 / 1 3
] ) 2 / 45 ( 73 . 1 4 [
= 21.73 cm = 0.2173 m
(c) r
eq
= [6 2.3 55.2
5
]
1/6
= 43.81 cm = 0.4381 m
Also, r
eq
= 55.2 (6 2.3/55.2)
1/6
= 43.81 cm
(d) r
eq
= 60 (8 2.3/60)
1/8
= 51.74 cm = 0.5174 m
We obser ve t hat as t he number of sub-conduct or s incr eases, t he equivalent r adius of
bundle is appr oaching t he bundle r adius. The r at io r
eq
/R is (Nr/R)
1/N
. The concept of equivalent
bundle r adius will be ut ilized for calculat ion of induct ance, capacit ance, char ge, and sever al
ot her line par amet er s in t he sect ions t o follow.
3.4 INDUCTANCE OF E.H.V. LINE CONFIGURATIONS
Fig. 3.5 shows sever al examples of line configur at ion used in var ious par t s of t he wor ld. They
r ange fr om single-cir cuit (S/C) 400 kV lines t o pr oposed 1200 kV lines. Double-cir cuit (D/C)
lines ar e not ver y common, but will come int o pr act ice t o save land for t he line cor r idor . As
point ed out in chapt er 2, one 750 kV cir cuit can t r ansmit as much power as 4-400 kV cir cuit s
and in t hose count r ies wher e t echnology for 400 kV level exist s t her e is a t endency t o favour
t he four -cir cuit 400 kV line inst ead of using t he higher volt age level. This will save on impor t of
equipment fr om ot her count r ies and ut ilize t he know-how of one's own count r y. This is a
Nat ional Policy and will not be discussed fur t her .
...
...
Fi g. 3.5 E.h.v. line configur at ions used.
3.4.1 Inductance of Two Conductors
We shall ver y quickly consider t he met hod of handling t he calculat ion of induct ance of t wo
conduct or s each of ext er nal r adius r and separ at ed by a dist ance D which for ms t he basis for
t he calculat ion of t he mat r ix of induct ance of mult i-conduct or configur at ions.
Fi g. 3.6 Round conduct or wit h int er nal and ext er nal flux linkages.
1 2 3
2 3 3 3'
2' 2
1
1 1'
(a) S/C Horizontal (b) S/C L-Type (c) D/C Conventional
1 1' 1
3
2 3' 2' 3 2
(d) D/C Double Triangle (e) S/C Delta
No.1 No.2 No.3 No.4
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
(4) Four-Circuit Tower
y
x
r
ye
dy
dye
P
Figur e 3.6 shows a r ound conduct or car r ying a cur r ent I. We fir st invest igat e t he flux
linkage exper ienced by it due, up t o a dist ance x, t o it s own cur r ent , and t hen ext end it t o t wo
conduct or s. The conduct or for t he pr esent is assumed r ound and solid, and t he cur r ent is also
assum ed to be uniform ly distributed with a constant value for current density J = I/r
2
. Ther e
ar e t wo component s t o t he flux linkage: (1) flux int er nal t o t he conduct or up t o r; and (2) flux
ext er nal t o t he conduct or fr om r up t o x.
I n d u ct a n ce Du e t o I n t er n a l Fl u x
At a r adius y inside t he conduct or , Amper e's cir cuit al law gives H.dl= cur r ent enclosed.
Wit h a unifor m cur r ent densit y J , t he cur r ent enclosed up t o r adius y is I
y
= y
2
I/r
2
. This
gives,
H
y
.2y = Iy
2
/r
2
or , H
y
=
y
r
I
.
2
2
...(3.14)
Now, t he ener gy st or ed in a magnet ic field per unit volume is
w
y
=
,
8
2
1
2
4 2
0
2
2
0
y
r
I
H
r
y r

J oules/m
3
...(3.15)
Consider an annular volume at y, t hickness dy, and one met r e lengt h of conduct or . It s
volume is (2y.dy.1) and t he ener gy st or ed is
dW = 2 y.w
y
.dy =
dy y
r
I
r
.
4
3
4
0
2

Consequent ly, t he t ot al ener gy st or ed up t o r adius r in t he conduct or can be calculat ed.
But t his is equal t o ,
2
1
2
I L
i
wher e = L
i
= induct ance of t he conduct or per met r e due t o t he
int er nal flux linkage.
Ther efor e,
2
2
1
I L
i
=

r
r r
r
I dy y
r
I
dW
0
2
0
3
4
0
2
0 16
.
4
...(3.16)
Consequent ly,
L
i
=
0
r
/8, Henr y/met r e ...(3.17)
For a non-magnet ic mat er ial,
r
=

1. Wit h
0
= 4 10
7
H/m, we obt ain t he int er est ing
r esult t hat ir r espect ive of t he size of t he conduct or , t he induct ance due t o int er nal flux linkage is
L
i
= 0.05 Henr y/met r e for
r
= 1
The effect of non-unifor m cur r ent dist r ibut ion at high fr equencies is handled in a manner
similar t o t he r esist ance. Due t o skin effect , t he int er nal flux linkage decr eases wit h fr equency,
cont r ar y t o t he behaviour of r esist ance. The equat ion for t he induct ive r eact ance is (W.D.
St evenson, 2nd Ed.)
X
i
( f ) = R
0
.(X/2).
2 2
)] ( ei B [ )] ( er B [
) ( ei B . ) ( Bei ) ( er B ). ( Ber
X X
X X X X
+
+
...(3.18)

wher e X
i
(f) = r eact ance due t o int er nal flux linkage at any fr equency f, R
0
= dc r esist ance
of conduct or per mile in ohms, and X = 0.0636 . /
0
R f [If R
m
= r esist ance per met r e, t hen X =
1.59 10
3
. /
m
R f ]
Figur e 3.2 (b) shows t he r at io L
i
/L
0
plot t ed against X, wher e L
i
= X
i
/2f and L
0
=
0
/8
der ived befor e.
I n d u ct a n ce Du e t o Ex t er n a l Fl u x
Refer r ing t o Figur e 3.6 and applying Amper e's cir cuit al law ar ound a cir cle of r adius y
e
on
which t he field st r engt h H is same ever ywher e, t he magnet ic field st r engt h is given as
H
e
= I/2y
e
giving B
e
=
0
r
I/2y
e
Since e.h.v. line conduct or s ar e always locat ed in air ,
r
= 1. In a differ ent ial dist ance dy
e
,
t he magnet ic flux is d = B
e
.dy
e
per met r e lengt h of conduct or . Consequent ly, t he flux linkage
of conduct or due t o ext er nal flux up t o a dist ance x is
e
=
) / ( ln .
2
.
0
r x I dy B
r
x
r
e e
...(3.19)
The induct ance is L
e
=
e
/I =
) / ( ln
2
0
r x
r

...(3.20)
In air , and wit h
0
= 4 10
7
H/m,
L
e
= 0.2 ln (x/r) H/m.
For a r ound conduct or wit h unifor m cur r ent densit y, t he combined induct ance due t o
int er nal and ext er nal flux linkage up t o dist ance x fr om t he cent r e of conduct or is
L = 0.2[0.25 + ln (x/r)] = 0.2[in 1.284 + ln (x/r)]
= 0.2 ln (x/0.7788r), H/m or mH/km
This expr ession can be int er pr et ed as t hough t he effect ive r adius of conduct or becomes r
e
= 0.7788 act ual r adius. We emphasize her e t hat t his applies only t o a solid r ound conduct or
wit h unifor m cur r ent densit y dist r ibut ion inside. It does not apply t o st r anded conduct or s nor
at alt er nat ing cur r ent s wher e t he cur r ent densit y is not unifor mly dist r ibut ed. For st r anded
conduct or s and at power fr equency, conduct or manufact ur er s pr ovide dat a of t he effect ive
r adius t o be used for induct ance calculat ion. This is known as t he 'Geomet r ic Mean Radius' and
t he r eader should consult cat alogues of conduct or det ails. It s aver age value lies bet ween 0.8
and 0.85 t imes t he conduct or r adius.
Th e Two-Con d u ct or Li n e
Figur e 3.7 depict s t wo conduct or s each of r adius r, separ at ed by a cent r e-t o-cent r e dist ance D,
and car r ying cur r ent s I and I. We will der ive expr ession for t he flux linkage and induct ance of
1 met r e lengt h of t he 2-conduct or syst em which will enable us t o t r anslat e t he r esult t o t he
case of a single conduct or locat ed at a height H = D/2 above a gr ound plane.
Fir st consider a flux line
e
flowing ext er nal t o bot h conduct or s. It is clear t hat t his line
links zer o cur r ent and so t he magnet ic field st r engt h is zer o. Ther efor e, all t he flux must flow
in bet ween t he conduct or s fr om r t o (D r). The flux linkage of conduct or 1 shown on t he left
has t wo par t s:
(i) Due t o it s own cur r ent I, a nd (ii) due t o t he cur r ent I in conduct or 2. Neglect ing
int er nal flux linkage, t he flux linkage due t o it s own cur r ent in t he absence of cur r ent in
conductor 2 up to the distance (x) is
11
=
r
x
I x dx I d
x
r
r r
x
r
ln
2
/
2
0 0
11

...(3.21)
Fi g. 3.7 Flux linkage calculat ion of 2-conduct or line.
Consider t he effect of cur r ent in conduct or 2. Fleming's r ule shows t hat t he flux is in t he
same dir ect ion as t hat pr oduced by cur r ent in conduct or 1. The flux linkage of conduct or 1 due
t o cur r ent in conduct or 2 is
12
=

x
r D
r
x
x
r D
I d
0
12
. ,
ln
2
...(3.22)
Hence, t he t ot al flux linkage of conduct or 1 due t o bot h cur r ent s is
1
=
11
+
12
=
) / ( ln .
ln .
0 0
r D I
r
r D
I
r r

...(3.23)
(when D r). The cent r e line G G bet ween t he t wo conduct or s is a flux line in t he field
of t wo equal but opposit e cur r ent s. The induct ance of any one of t he conduct or s due t o flux
flowing up t o t he plane G G will be one half t hat obt ained fr om equat ion (3.23). This is
L = ) / ( ln
2
0
r D
r

...(3.24)
Using
0
= 4 10
7
,
r
= 1, and D = 2H, t he induct ance of a single over head-line conduct or
above a gr ound plane can be wr it t en as
L = 0.2 ln (2H/r), Henr y/met r e (milli Henr y/km) (3.25)
To t his can be added t he int er nal flux linkage and t he r esult ing induct ance using t he
geomet r ic mean r adius.
Exa mp le 3.7. A 345-kV line has an ACSR Bluebir d conduct or 1.762 inches (0.04477 m) in
diamet er wit h an equivalent r adius for induct ance calculat ion of 0.0179 m. The line height is 12
m. Calculat e t he induct ance per km lengt h of conduct or and t he er r or caused by neglect ing t he
int er nal flux linkage.
Sol u t i on : L = 0.2 ln (24/0.0179) = 1.44 mH/km.
If int er nal flux linkage is neglect ed,
L = 0.2 ln (24/0.02238) = 1.3955 mH/km
Er r or = (1.44 1.3955) 100/1.44 = 3.09%.
D/2
2r
D
I
e
G
G
We also not e t hat GMR/out er r adius = 0.0179/0.02238 = 0.8. For a r ound solid conduct or ,
GMR = 0.7788 out er r adius.
3.4.2 Inductance of Multi-Conductor LinesMaxwell's Coefficients
In t he expr ession for t he induct ance L = 0.2 ln (2H/r) of a single conduct or locat ed above a
gr ound plane, t he fact or P = ln (2H/r) is called Maxwell's coefficient . When sever al conduct or s
ar e pr esent above a gr ound at differ ent height s each wit h it s own cur r ent , t he syst em of n-
conduct or s can be assumed t o consist of t he act ual conduct or s in air and t heir images below
gr ound car r ying equal cur r ent s but in t he opposit e dir ect ion which will pr eser ve t he gr ound
plane as a flux line. This is shown in Fig. 3.8.
Fi g. 3.8 Mult i-conduct or line above gr ound wit h image conduct or s below gr ound.
The flux linkage of any conduct or , say 1, consist s of 3 par t s in a 3-phase line, due it s own
cur r ent and t he cont r ibut ion fr om ot her conduct or s. The self flux linkage is
11
= (
0
/2) I
1
ln
(2H/r). We may use t he geomet r ic mean r adius inst ead of r t o account for int er nal flux linkage
so t hat we wr it e
11
= (
0
2) I
1
ln (2H/D
s
), wher e D
s
= self-dist ance or GMR. For a bundle-
conduct or , we will obser ve t hat an equivalent r adius of t he bundle, equat ion (3.12), has t o be
used.
Now consider t he cur r ent in conduct or 2 only and t he flux linkage of conduct or 1 due t o
t his and t he image of conduct or 2 locat ed below gr ound. For t he pr esent neglect t he pr esence
of all ot her cur r ent s. Then, t he flux lines will be concent r ic about conduct or 2 and only t hose
lines beyond t he aer ial dist ance A
12
fr om conduct or 1 t o conduct or 2 will link conduct or 1.
Similar ly, consider ing only t he cur r ent I
2
in t he image of conduct or 2, only t hose flux lines
flowing beyond t he dist ance I
12
will link t he aer ial conduct or 1. Consequent ly, t he t ot al flux
linkage of phase conduct or 1 due t o cur r ent in phase 2 will be
12
=
) / ln(
2
/ /
2
12 12 2
0
2 2
0
12 12
A I I x dx I x dx I
r
I A
r
]
]
]

...(3.26)
The mut ual Maxwell's coefficient bet ween conduct or s 1 and 2 will be
P
12
= ln (I
12
/A
12
)
In gener al, it is evident t hat t he mut ual Maxwell's coefficient for t he flux linkage of
conduct or i wit h conduct or j (and vice-ver sa) will be wit h i, j = 1, 2, ...n,
P
ij
= ln (I
ij
/A
ij
), i j. ...(3.27)
H1
I
1
I
2
I3
H2 H3
1
2
3
Ground
A
1
2
I
1
I1
I
2
I
3
I
3
I2
1
2
3
2H1
2H2
2H
3
I12
Ground
Thus, for a syst em of n conduct or s (phases or poles) shown in Fig. 3.8, t he flux-linkage
mat r ix is
[]
n
= n nn n nn
r
I L I P ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [
2
0

...(3.28)
wher e []
n
= [
1
,
2
,...,
n
]
t
,
[I
n
] = [I
1
,I
2
,..., I
n
]
t
,
and t he element s of Maxwell's coefficient mat r ix ar e
P
ii
= ln (2H/r
eq
) and P
ji
= P
ij
= ln (I
ij
/A
ij
), i j ...(3.29)
The diagonal element s of t he induct ance mat r ix [L]
nn
r epr esent t he self-induct ances, and
t he off-diagonal element s t he mut ual-induct ances.
3.4.3 Bundled Conductor Lines: Use of Equivalent Radius, r
eq
In t his sect ion we will show t hat for a bundle conduct or consist ing
of N sub-conduct or s, t he denominat or in t he self Maxwell's
coefficient is t o be t aken as r
eq
of equat ion (3.12). This is done
under t he following basic assumpt ions:
(1) The bundle spacing B bet ween adjacent sub-conduct or s
or t he bundle r adius R is ver y small compar ed t o t he
height H of t he phase conduct or above gr ound. This
allows t he use of 2H as t he dist ance bet ween any sub-
conduct or of t he bundle and t he image of all t he ot her
(N1) sub-conduct or s below gr ound, as shown in Fig.
3.9. This means t hat
I
11
= I
12
= I
13
= ... = I
1N
= 2H
(2) The t ot al cur r ent car r ied by t he bundle is I and t hat
of each sub-conduct or is i = I/N.
(3) Int er nal flux linkages ar e omit t ed, but can be included
if t he pr oblem war r ant s it .
Consider t he flux linkage of conduct or 1, which is
1
=
]
]
]
]
]
+ +

N
N
R
H
N
R
H
N
R
H
r
H
N
I
r
1
sin 2
2
ln
2
sin 2
2
ln
sin 2
2
ln
2
ln
2
0
=

N
N
N N
R r
H
N
I
N
r
1
sin
2
sin . sin . ) 2 (
) (2
ln
2 1
N
0
=
eq
r
r
H
I
2
ln
2
0

...(3.30)
wher e r
eq
is pr ecisely what is given in equat ion (3.12). The self-induct ance of t he ent ir e
bundle is
L =
1
/I = ) / ln(2
2
0
eq
r
r H

...(3.31)
Fi g. 3.9 Calculat ion of equivalent
r adius of bundle.
...
...
2H
N
1
2
3
N'
1'
2'
3'
Ground
while t he induct ance of each subconduct or will be
L
c
=
1
/i =
) / ln(2
2
0
eq
r
r H N

...(3.32)
which is also N t imes t he bundle induct ance since all t he sub-conduct or s ar e in par allel.
The Maxwell's coefficient for t he bundle is P
b
= ln (2H/r
eq
), as for a single conduct or wit h
equivalent r adius r
eq
.
Exa mp l e 3.7. The dimensions of a 3-pha se 400-kV hor izont a l line, Fig. 3.10, a r e:
H = 15 m, S = 11 m phase separ at ion, conduct or 2 3.18 cm dia, and B = 45.72 cm. Calculat e.
(a) t he mat r ix of induct ances per km, for unt r ansposed configur at ion, and
(b) t he same when t her e is complet e t r ansposit ion.
F i g. 3.10 400-kV line for Example 3.7
Sol u t i on . r
eq
= m B r 0853 . 0 4572 . 0 0159 . 0 .
P
11
= P
22
= P
33
= ln (2 15/0.0853) = 5.863
P
12
= P
21
= P
23
= P
32
= ln
0664 . 1 ) / 4 (
2 2
+ S S H
P
13
= P
31
= ln
525 . 0 ) 2 / 4 4 (
2 2
+ S S H
(a) [L]
ut
= 0.2
H/m
mH/km
863 . 5 , 0664 . 1 , 525 . 0
0664 . 1 , 863 . 5 , 0664 . 1
525 . 0 , 0664 . 1 , 863 . 5
]
]
]
]
]
=
mH/km
173 . 1
213 . 0 , 173 . 1
105 . 0 , 213 . 0 , 173 . 1
]
]
]
]
]
(b)For t he complet ely t r ansposed line, since each phase occupies each of t he 3 posit ions
for 1/3 t he dist ance, t he aver age mut ual induct ance will be 0.2 (1.0664 + 1.0664 + 0.525)/3
= 0.177 mH/km.
[L]
t
=
mH/km
173 . 1 , 177 . 0 , 177 . 0
177 . 0 , 173 . 1 , 177 . 0
177 . 0 , 177 . 0 , 173 . 1
, ,
, ,
, ,
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
s m m
m s m
m m s
L L L
L L L
L L L
Not e t hat t he self induct ance of usual e.h.v. lines is in t he neighbour hood of 1 mH/km. We
observed t hat as t he number of sub-conduct ors is increased, t he geomet ric mean radius or equivalent
H = 15m
1 2 3
11 m 11 m
r adius of bundle incr eases. Since r
eq
divides 2H in t he logar it hm, bundling will r educe t he ser ies
induct ance of a line, which will incr ease t he power -handling capacit y. Table 2.1 in Chapt er 2
shows t his pr oper t y wher e, as t he syst em kV incr ease s, t he need for using mor e sub-conduct or s
is ur gent fr om consider at ions of cur r ent -car r ying capacit y as well as r educing t he volt age gr adient
on conduct or sur face. This also br ings t he benefit of decr ease in ser ies r eact ance and impr ovement
in power -handling capacit y of a single cir cuit . Fig. 3.5 must again be r efer r ed for det ails.
3.5 LINE CAPACITANCE CALCULATION
Consider t wo conduct or s of equal r adii r loca t ed wit h t heir cent r es 2H apar t , as shown in
Fig. 3.11. The char ges on each is Q coulombs/met r e and of opposit e polar it y. On a unit posit ive
t est char ge locat ed at point F at a dist ance x fr om t he cent r e of t he conduct or on t he left wit h
posit ive char ge Q, t he t ot al for ce exer t ed will be
E
f
=
Newt ons
2
1 1
2
0
,
`
.
|
+
x H x e
Q
...(3.33)
Fig. 3.11 Single-phase line for capacit ance calculat ion.
(This r esult s fr om Gauss's Law and t he r eader is r efer r ed t o Chapt er 4 if it is not alr eady
known fr om pr evious cour ses devot ed t o Elect r ost at ics.). Consequent ly, t he pot ent ial differ ence
bet ween t he t wo conduct or s is
V =
r
r H
e
Q
dx x H x
e
Q
r H
r
2
ln )] 2 /( 1 / 1 [
2
0
2
0

+

...(3.34)
If 2H r as is usual in e.h.v. lines, V =
0
e
Q
ln (2H/r); By symmet r y, t he mid-plane GG

will be at 0.5 V and t he p.d. bet ween t he posit ive conduct or and GG is V
g
= V/2.
Ther efor e
V
g
=
char ge posit ive fr om cond. of Dist .
char ge negat ive fr om cond. of Dist .
ln
2
2
ln
2
0 0
e
Q
r
H
e
Q
...(3.35)
2 r
F'
E'F
E'
F
Q
Q
2 H
x
G
G
Since t he fact or ln (2H/r) mult iplies t he char ge coefficient (Q/2e
0
), which is in volt s, it is
called Mawell's Pot ent ial coefficient . We encount er ed t he same fact or in induct ance calculat ion
also. The mid-plane GG is an equipot ent ial sur face since t he elect r ic for ce is ever ywher e
per pendicular t o it as can be obser ved fr om t he vect or field int ensit y E
F
' at a point F' , whose
component s along G G ar e equal and opposit e.
We again obser ve t hat when t he gr ound plane G G is consider ed an equipot ent ial sur face
for capacit ance calculat ions, it s effect can be consider ed by using an image conduct or wit h a
char ge equal t o t he char ge on t he aer ial conduct or but of opposit e polar it y. Fr om equat ion
(3.35), we wr it e t he self pot ent ial coefficient as
P
ii
= ln (2H/r) ...(3.36)
The mut ual pot ent ial coefficient s bet ween phases ar e det er mined by placing t he conduct or s
and t heir images wit h pr oper char ges as shown in Fig 3.12. Following equat ion (3.35) t he
pot ent ial of conduct or 1 due t o t he char ges Q
2
and Q
2
of conduct or 2 and it s image will be
V
12
=
12
0
2
12 12
0
2
2
2
0
2
.
2
) / ( ln
2 fr om Dist ance
fr om Dist ance
ln
2
P
e
Q
A I
e
Q
Q
Q
e
Q
+
...(3.37)
For a syst em of n conduct or s (phases or poles) above gr ound, t he pot ent ial of conduct or s
will be
r
H
e
Q
A
I
e
Q
A
I
e
Q
V
A
I
e
Q
A
I
e
Q
r
H
e
Q
V
n n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n n
2
ln
2
ln
2
ln
2
ln
2
ln
2
2
ln
2
0 2
2
0
2
1
1
0
1
1
1
0 12
12
0
2 1
0
1
1
+ +
+ +
In mat r ix for m,
[V]
n
= [P]
nn
[Q/2e
0
]
n
...(3.38)
Fig. 3.12 Mult i-conduct or line for calculat ion of Maxwell's pot ent ial coefficient s.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . . .
. . . .
1'
2'
3'
A23
A
12
A
13
1
2
3
2H
3
2H
2
2H
1
I12
I
13
I23
wher e [V]
n
= [V
1
, V
2
, ..., V
n
]
t
= t he pot ent ials wit h r espect t o gr ound, and [Q]
n
= [Q
1
, Q
2
, ...,
Q
n
]
t
= t he conduct or char ges. The element s of t he pot ent ial coefficient mat r ix ar e
P
ii
= ln (2H
i
/r), P
ij
= ln (I
ij
/A
ij
), i j, i, j = 1, 2, ..., n ...(3.39)
The capacit ance mat r ix of t he n-conduct or syst em
[C ]
nn
= ] [ 2 ] [ 2
0
1
0
M e P e
nn
...(3.40)
We der ived t he induct ance mat r ix for t he n-conduct or syst em t o be, equat ion (3.28)
[L]
nn
=
nn
P] [
2
0
...(3.41)
If int er nal flux linkages be neglect ed t her e r esult s t he impor t ant r elat ion
[L][C ] =
0
e
0
[U] =
] [
1
2
U
g
...(3.42)
wher e [U] = unit mat r ix, and g = velocit y of light = 3 10
5
km/sec.*
Potential Coefficients for Bundled-Conductor Lines
When each phase or pole compr ises of N sub-conduct or s we once again ar r ive at t he concept of
geomet r ic mean r adius or equivalent r adius of bundle r
eq
exact ly in t he same manner as for
induct ance calculat ions. In t he self pot ent ial coefficient , equat ion (3.39), r
eq
will be used inst ead
of r. This is der ived as follows, on t he assumpt ions t hat
(1) t he bundle dimensions B and R ar e small compar ed t o line height H, and
(2) B and R ar e small compar ed t o t he spacing S fr om t he cent r e of one phase t o anot her .
Fig. 3.9 is again r efer r ed fr om which, wit h each conduct or having a char ge q = Q/N per
unit lengt h, t he pot ent ial of conduct or 1 is
V
1
=
]
]
]
]
]
]
+ +
N
N
R
H
N
R
H
N
R
H
r
H
N e
Q
1
sin 2
2
ln
2
sin 2
2
ln
sin 2
2
ln
2
ln
1
2
0
L
=
0
2 e
Q
ln (2H/r
eq
)
Thus, P
ii
= ln (2H/r
eq
). (3.43)
For calculat ing t he mut ual pot ent ial coefficient s we can assume t hat t he t ot al bundle
char ge is concent r at ed at t he cent r e of t he bundle conduct or , or else use t he t wo assumpt ions
above t hat t he bundle dimensions ar e small compar ed t o H and S .
Exa mp l e 3.8. Calculat e t he capacit ance mat r ix of t he 3-phase 400 kV line of Example 3.7.
Sol u t i on . (a) For t he unt r ansposed configur at ion, t he mat r ix of Maxwell's pot ent ial
coefficient s was found t o be
[P]
ut
=
]
]
]
]
]
863 . 5 , 0664 . 1 , 525 . 0

0664 . 1 , 863 . 5 , 0664 . 1
525 . 0 , 0664 . 1 , 863 . 5
*In t his book, t he symbol g denot es light velocit y or velocit y of e.m. wave in fr ee space, inst ead of t he
st a nda r d symbol c. This is because c is r eser ved for denot ing capacit ance per unit lengt h.
It s inver se is
[M]
ut
=
1
] [
ut
P =
]
]
]
]
]
176 . 0 , 0298 . 0 , 0104 . 0

0298 . 0 , 1805 . 0 , 0298 . 0
0104 . 0 , 0298 . 0 , 176 . 0
The r esult ing capacit ance mat r ix will be
[C ] = 2e
0
[M] = e Far ad/met r ], [
18
10
9
M
[C ]
ut
= nF/km
77 . 9 , 65 . 1 , 58 . 0
65 . 1 , 02 . 10 , 65 . 1
58 . 0 , 65 . 1 , 77 . 9
]
]
]
]
]
(b) For t he complet ely t r ansposed line,

[C ] =
nF/km 29 . 1
and nF/km 85 . 9
,
, ,
, ,
, ,
]
]
]
]
]
m
s
s m m
m s m
m m s
c
c with
c c c
c c c
c c c
We obser ve t hat t he self capacit ance of e.h.v. lines is in t he neighbour hood of 10 nF/km.
All t he self-capacit ance coefficient s ar e posit ive while t he mut ual capacit ance coefficient s ar e
negat ive. For t he hor izont al configur at ion of phases, t he cent r e-phase has a slight ly higher
self-capacit ance (capacit ance t o gr ound) due t o t he incr ease in number of dielect r ic lines of
for ce t er minat ing on it . The negat ive sign in mut ual-capacit ance follows fr om t he physical
consider at ion t hat a char ge of one polar it y placed on a conduct or induces a char ge of opposit e
polar it y on anot her , i.e., t he t wo conduct or s for m t he posit ive and negat ive elect r odes of a
capacit or .
Bundling incr eases t he capacit ance fr om t hat of a single conduct or having t he same cr oss-
sect ional ar ea because of t he equivalent bundle r adius which depends on t he bundle r adius
which is lar ger t han t he conduct or r adius. We will consider t hese aspect s under volt age-gr adient
calculat ions in a lat er sect ion.
3.6 SEQUENCE INDUCTANCES AND CAPACITANCES
The use of Symmet r ical Component s for analysing 3-phase pr oblems has made it possible t o
solve ver y ext ensive net wor k pr oblems. It depends upon obt aining mut ually-independent
quant it ies fr om t he or iginal phase quant it ies t hat have mut ual int er act ion. Following t his
concept , we will now r esolve t he induct ances, capacit ances, char ges, pot ent ials et c., int o
independent quant it ies by a gener al met hod. This pr ocedur e will be used for many t ypes of
excit at ions ot her t han power -fr equency lat er on. The basis for such t r ansfor mat ions is t o impr ess
suit able dr iving funct ions and obt ain t he r esult ing r esponses.
Inductance Transformation to Sequence Quantities
We obser ved t hat for a fully-t r ansposed 3-phase ac line, t he flux-linkage equat ion is
[]
3
= [L]
33
[I]
3
...(3.44)
The induct ance mat r ix is symmet r ic for a t r ansposed line for which t he symmet r ical-
component s t heor y will be used. For zer o-sequence, t he cur r ent s in t he 3 phases ar e equal and
in phase so t hat I
1
= I
2
= I
3
= I
0
. The r esult ing flux linkage is.
[
0
] =
0 0
) 2 (
1
1
1
1
1
1
, ,
, ,
, ,
I L L I
L L L
L L L
L L L
m s
s m m
m s m
m m s
+
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
Consequent ly, t he induct ance offer ed t o zer o-sequence cur r ent s is

L
0
= L
s
+ 2L
m
...(3.45)
When posit ive-sequence cur r ent s ar e impr essed,
I
1
= I
m
sin wt , I
2
= I
m
sin (wt 120) and I
3
= I
m
sin (wt + 120)
[
1
] =
m
s m m
m s m
m m s
I
wt
wt
wt
L L L
L L L
L L L
]
]
]
]
]
+

]
]
]
]
]
) 120 ( sin
) 120 ( sin
sin
, ,
, ,
, ,
=
m m s
I L L
wt
wt
wt
) (
) 120 sin(
) 120 sin(
sin
]
]
]
]
]
+

Hence, t he induct ance offer ed t o posit ive-sequence cur r ent s is
L
1
= L
s
L
m
...(3.46)
Similar ly, for negat ive-sequence cur r ent s, t he induct ance is also
L
2
= L
s
L
m
...(3.47)
S equ en ce Ca p a ci t a n ces
In a similar manner , we can evaluat e t he zer o-, posit ive-, and negat ive-sequence capacit ances
by r e-wr it ing equat ion (3.38) as
[Q] = 2e
0
[P]
1
[V] = [C][V] ...(3.48)
For zer o-sequene volt ages, [V
0
] = [1, 1, 1] V, and we obt ain
C
0
= C
s
+ 2C
m
...(3.49)
For posit ive-sequence volt ages, [V
+
] = [sin wt , sin (wt 120), sin (wt + 120)] V, and C
1
=
C
s
C
m
. Similar ly, C
2
= C
s
C
m
for negat ive-sequence volt ages.
Fr om t he above r esolut ion of phase induct ances int o sequence induct ances, and t he
capacit ances, we can obser ve t he following pr oper t ies which ar e ver y impor t ant for modelling
of t r ansmission lines.
(1) The zer o-sequence induct ance L
0
is higher t han t he self induct ance L
s
, while t he posit ive
and negat ive sequence induct ances ar e lower t han L
s
.
(2) The conver se holds for capacit ances since C
m
is a negat ive quant it y.
C
0
< C
s
and, C
1
and C
2
> C
s
.
(3) Fr om equat ions (3.45) and (3.46), t he self and mut ual induct ances can be found fr om
t he sequence induct ances.
L
s
=
) (
3
1
and ) 2 (
3
1
1 0 1 0
L L L L L
m
+
...(3.50)
(4) Similar ly, C
s
=
) (
3
1
and ) 2 (
3
1
1 0 1 0
C C C C C
m
+
...(3.51)
Fig. 3.13 shows r epr esent at ive models of t r ansmission lines used for syst em st udy on
Net wor k Analyser s or Digit al Comput er s. It is easy t o impr ess zer o-sequence and posit ive-
sequence volt ages and cur r ent s and measur e t he r esponses in a pr act ical t est set up.
Fig. 3.13 Model of t r ansmission lines for TNA st udy and Digit al-Comput er Calculat ion.
The sequence induct ances and capacit ances can be obt ained fr om t he phase quant it ies in
a ver y gener al manner by mat r ix diagonalizat ion pr ocedur e which will be descr ibed in t he next
sect ion. Refer r ing t o t he symmet r ical component t heor y, t he phase quant it ies ar e t r ansfor med
t o symmet r ical component s by t he mat r ix mult iplicat ion
]
]
]
]
]
2
1
0
V
V
V
=
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
c
b
a
V
V
V
a a
a a
2
2
1
1
1 1 1
3
1
...(3.52)
wher e a = 1 120.
The conver se of combining t he symmet r ical component s is car r ied out t hr ough t he mat r ices
]
]
]
]
]
c
b
a
V
V
V
=
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
2
1
0
2
2
1
1
1 1 1
V
V
V
a a
a a ...(3.53)
These follow t he or iginal r elat ions for mulat ed by Dr . C.L. For t escue as far back as 1915.
We now denot e
[T ] =
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
a a
a a T
a a
a a
2
2 1
2
2
1
1
1 1 1
3
1
] [ and
1
1
1 1 1
...(3.54)
If now we car r y out t he mult iplicat ions [T ]
1
[L] [T ] and [T ]
1
[C] [T ] for a complet ely
t r ansposed line, t he r esult is (mult iply and ver ify)
[T ]
1
[L] [T ] =
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
2
2
2
2
1
1
1 1 1
, ,
, ,
, ,
1
1
1 1 1
3
1
a a
a a
L L L
L L L
L L L
a a
a a
s m m
m s m
m m s
Ground
L L s m
r
Cm
C
s
=
]
]
]
]
]
+
m s
m s
m s
L L
L L
L L
,
, 2
...(3.55)
The diagonal element s ar e t he induct ances for zer o-sequence, posit ive-sequence and
negat ive-sequence net wor ks.
Similar ly,
[T ]
1
[C ] [T ] =
]
]
]
]
]
+
m s
m s
m s
C C
C C
C C
,
, 2
...(3.56)
Such a gener al pr ocedur e is ver y convenient for de-coupling mut ually-int er act ing quant it ies
and t hen combining t hem suit ably. For a gener al pr oblem encount er ed wit h e.h.v. t r ansmission
lines, t hey ar e given t he gener ic name 'Modes of Pr opagat ion'.
3.7 LINE PARAMETERS FOR MODES OF PROPAGATION
The sequence par amet er s given in t he pr evious sect ion apply t o st eady-st at e condit ions and
use phasor algebr a. The quant it y a = 1 120 = 0.5 + j0.866 is a complex number . This is not
always convenient when solving equat ions encount er ed wit h wave pr opagat ion on t he phase or
pole conduct or s which ar e char act er ized by (a) velocit y of pr opagat ion, (b) at t enuat ion, and
(c) sur ge impedance. Following t he ideas pr opounded by Dr . For t escue, t he waves on mult i-
conduct or lines can also be r esolved int o 'modes of pr opagat ion'. The t r ansfor mat ion mat r ix
[ T ] and it s inver se [ T ]
1
have t o be evaluat ed for a given pr oblem t hr ough st andar d set of r ules
which event ually diagonalize t he given mat r ix of induct ances, capacit ances, r esist ances, sur ge
impedances, and ot her par amet er s which gover n t he pr opagat ion char act er ist ics. For a fully-
t r ansposed line, analyt ical expr essions in closed for m can be obt ained for t he t r ansfor mat ion
mat r ix and it s inver se using r eal number s. But for unt r ansposed lines t he evaluat ion of [ T ] and
[ T ]
1
can also be car r ied case by case when numer ical values for t he induct ances, et c. ar e
given. These will be discussed in det ail below.
3.7.1 Diagonalization Procedure
The r esolut ion of mut ually-int er act ing component s of volt age, cur r ent , char ge, or ener gy in
waves pr opagat ing on t he mult i-conduct or s depends upon diagonalizat ion of t he n n impedance
mat r ix. A gener al pr ocedur e is given her e while t heir applicat ion t o Radio Noise, Swit ching
Sur ges, et c, will be discussed in lat er chapt er s when we consider t hese pr oblems individually.
Fir st consider t he diagonalizat ion of t he induct ance mat r ix of a t r ansposed line
[L] =
]
]
]
]
]
s m m
m s m
m m s
L L L
L L L
L L L
, ,
, ,
, ,
The following st eps have t o be followed for diagonalizat ion.
S tep 1. We eva lua t e t he 'cha r a ct er ist ic r oot s' or 'eigenva lues' () of t he given mat r ix
accor ding t o t he det er minant al equat ion
| [ U ] [L]| = 0, which gives
0
, ,
, ,
, ,
s m m
m s m
m m s
L L L
L L L
L L L
...(3.57)
This gives
3
3L
s
2
+ 0 ) 2 3 ( ) ( 3
3 2 3 2 2
+
m m s s m s
L L L L L L
or , ( L
s
2L
m
) ( L
s
+ L
m
)
2
= 0 ...(3.58)
The t hr ee eigenvalues ar e
1
= L
s
+ 2L
m
,
2
= L
s
L
m
,
3
= L
s
L
m
...(3.59)
S tep 2. For each of t hese eigenvalues in t ur n, we evaluat e t he 'eigenvect or ' [x], which is a
column mat r ix, accor ding t o t he equat ion.
{[ U ]
n
[L]} [x] = [0] ...(3.60)
Consider ing
1
= L
s
+ 2L
m
, t her e r esult s t he explicit equat ion
{
1
[ U ] [L]}
]
]
]
]
]
3
2
1
x
x
x
= L
m

]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
0
0
0
2 , 1 , 1
1 , 2 , 1
1 , 1 , 2
3
2
1
x
x
x
,
which in t ur n yields t he t hr ee equat ions for x
1
, x
2
, x
3
t o be
'
+
+
0 2
0 2
0 2
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
x x x
x x x
x x x
...(3.61)
By choosing x
1
= 1, t her e r esult s x
2
= x
3
= x
1
= 1. These cor r esponding eigenvect or is [1, 1,
1]
t
wit h t he nor malized for m [1, 1, 1]
t
(1/3).
By following a similar pr ocedur e for
2
= L
s
L
m
, t her e r esult s
{
2
[U] [L]}
]
]
]
]
]
3
2
1
y
y
y
= L
m
.
0
0
0
1 , 1 , 1
1 , 1 , 1
1 , 1 , 1
3
2
1
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
y
y
y
The t hr ee equat ions for y
1
, y
2
, y
3
ar e all equal t o y
1
+ y
2
+ y
3
= 0. Once again let t ing y
1
=
1, we have y
2
+ y
3
= 1. Now we have an infinit e number of choices for t he values of y
2
and y
3
,
and we make a judicial choice for t hem based on pr act ical engineer ing consider at ions and
ut ilit y.
As a fir st choice, let y
2
= 0. Then y
3
= 1. The r esult ing eigen-vect or and it s nor malized
for m ar e
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
1
0
1
2
1
and
1
0
1
Since t he t hir d eigenvalue
3
is also t he same as
2
, we obt ain t he same equat ions for t he
component s of t he eigenvect or which we can designat e as[z
1
, z
2
, z
3
]
t
. By choosing z
1
= 1 and z
3
= 1, we obt ain z
2
= 2. The t hir d eigenvect or and it s nor malized for m ar e
[1, 2, 1]
t
and (1/6) [1, 2, 1]
t
.
S tep 3. For mulat e t he complet e 3 3 eigenvect or mat r ix or in gener al, n n for t he n
eigenvalues and call it t he inver se of t he t r ansfor mat ion mat r ix [T]
1
. For t he pr oblem under
consider at ion.
[T ]
1
=
6 / 1
1 , 2 , 1
3 , 0 , 3
2 , 2 , 2
]
]
]
]
]
]

...(3.62)
S tep 4. The t r ansfor mat ion mat r ix [T] will be
[T ] =
6 / 1
1 , 3 , 2
2 , 0 , 2
1 , 3 , 2
]
]
]
]
]
]

...(3.63)
which t ur ns out t o be t he t r anspose of [T ]
1
.Their det er minant is 6.
S tep 5. The given induct ance mat r ix is diagonalized by t he r elat ion
[T ]
1
[L] [T ] =
] [
,
, 2

]
]
]
]
]
+
m s
m s
m s
L L
L L
L L
...(3.64)
This is a diagonal mat r ix whose element s ar e equal t o t he t hr ee eigenvalues, which might
be seen t o be t he same as t he sequence induct ances pr esent ed t o t he volt age and cur r ent . But
now t hey will be called t he induct ances for t he t hr ee modes of pr opagat ion of elect r omagnet ic
ener gy of t he waves gener at ing t hem.
3.7.2 Interpretation of the Eigenvectors
We obser ve t hat t he eigenvect or cor r esponding t o t he fir st eigenvalue
1
= L
s
+ 2L
m
consist s of
[1, 1, 1], which can be int er pr et ed as follows:
In t he fir st mode of behaviour (or t r avel of all quant it ies on t he t hr ee conduct or s), t he
volt ages, cur r ent s, char ges, and accompanying ener gies ar e all equal on t he t hr ee conduct or s.
Also, t hey ar e all of t he same sign or polar it y. In t his mode of pr opagat ion, t he r et ur n cur r ent
flows in t he gr ound and t he r esult ing at t enuat ion of ener gy et c., ar e high because of gr ound
r esist ance. It is usually called t he 'Line-t o-Gr ound' mode of pr opagat ion or t he 'homopolar '
mode.
The eigenvect or [1, 0, 1] cor r esponds t o t he second eigenvalue
2
= L
s
L
m
. In t his case
t he pr opagat ion can be seen t o t ake place bet ween t he out er phase-conduct or s only, wit h t he
cent r e phase being idle. Also, because t his is a closed syst em, involving t he t wo out er phases,
gr ound is not involved in pr opagat ion so t hat at t enuat ion is lower t han in t he line-t o-gr ound
mode. The second mode is called 'Line-t o-Line Mode of t he 1st kind', or simply 'phase-phase'
mode.
The last eigenvect or is [1, 2, 1] cor r esponding t o t he r epeat ed eigenvalue
3
=
2
= L
s

L
m
. We obser ve t hat t hese eigenvect or s have depended upon t he choice made by us for t he
r elat ive values of t he component s of t he eigenvect or in st ep 2 of t he diagonalizat ion pr ocedur e.
Th er e a r e i n fi n i t e s et of s u ch va l u es for t h e ei gen vect or compon en t s , a n d t h e ch oi ce
r ecommended her e is felt t o be t he most convenient fr om t he point of view of int er pr et at ion of
t he physical mechanism of behaviour of t he sever al quant it ies of int er est in t he wave-pr opagat ion
phenomenon involving t he t hr ee phase-conduct or s and gr ound. The eigenvect or [1, 2, 1] can
be int er pr et ed by not ing t hat t he out er phases for m t he 'go' for t he cur r ent and t he cent r e-
phase t he 'r et ur n'. Once again t he syst em is closed if we assume char ges of + 1 and + 1 on t he
out er s and 2 on t he cent r e phase. Ther efor e, gr ound is not involved in t he pr opagat ion in t his
mode. It is called t he 'Line-t o-Line Mode of t he 2nd kind', or t he 'int er -phase mode'.
F i g. 3.14 Pict or ial r epr esent at ion of condit ions of modes of pr opagat ion on 3-phase line.
These t hr ee modes can be r epr esent ed pict or ially as shown in Figur e 3.14. Once t he
mut ually-int er act ing quant it ies ar e r esolved int o t he t hr ee independent modes of pr opagat ion,
in a manner ident ical t o symmet r ical-component analysis of which we ar e familiar , t he behaviour
of all quant it ies in each mode can be analyzed and t he phase quant it ies obt ained finally by t he
inver se pr ocedur e. In gener al, r esolut ion int o modes r equir es pr emult iplicat ion by [T]
1
of t he
volt ages, cur r ent s, and char ges on t he phase conduct or s, while combining t he modal quant it ies
t o obt ain phase quant it ies r equir es pr e-mult iplicat ion of t he modal volt ages, cur r ent s, char ges
and ot her r esponses t o t hese by [T], t he t r ansfor mat ion mat r ix.
The concept of modes of pr opagat ion is ver y useful for :
(a) design of car r ier equipment for speech and pr ot ect ion wher e t he at t enuat ion of signals
and t heir dist or t ion is of pr imar y concer n in det er mining t he t r ansmit t er and r eceiver
power s;
(b) pr opagat ion of swit ching and light ning sur ges on t he lines which cause over -volt ages
and cont r ol t he design of insulat ion clear ances; and
(c) r adio-int er fer ence levels gener at ed by cor ona pulses on t he phase-coduct or s which
pr opagat e on t he conduct or s over a gr ound plane.
In t he above illust r at ion, t he diagonalizat ion pr ocedur e was applied t o t he mat r ix of
induct ances of a t r ansposed line. A similar diagonalizat ion of t he capacit ance mat r ix for t he
fully-t r ansposed line will yield t he same t r ansfor mat ion mat r ices. In t his case, t he r esult ing
eigen-values for bot h induct ance and capacit ance ar e equal t o t he zer o-, posit ive-, and negat ive-
s equ en ce qu a n t i t i es obt a i n ed fr om For t es cu e' s t r a n s for ma t i on u s i n g ph a s or s i n t h e
t r ansfor mat ion mat r ix. Her e, we have used only r eal number s t o effect t he diagonalizat ion
pr ocedur e. The r esult ing [T] a nd [T]
1
ar e called 'Modified Clar ke Tr ansfor mat ion' mat r ices
aft er t he eminent lady engineer Dr . Edit h Clar ke, who is also known for her or
0 component s of Machines Theor y.
3.7.3 Velocities of Propagation for the Modes in Transposed Lines
When wor king wit h phase quant it ies, eq. (3.42) gave [L] [C] =
2
1
g
[U] wher e g = velocit y of e.m.
wave pr opagat ion, which is equal t o velocit y of light in a medium wit h
r
= 1 and e
r
= 1. [g = 1/
+1 +1 +1 +1 0 1 +1 2 +1
Mode 1 Mode 3 Mode 2
0 0
e ]. Now, consider t he effect of pr e-mult iplying equat ion (3.42) by [ T ]
1
and post -mult iplying
by [T]:
[ T ]
1
[L] [ C ] [ T ] = {[ T ]
1
[L] [ T ]}{[T]
1
[ C ] [ T ]}
= [ T ]
1
[ U ] [ T ] ] [
1 1
2 2
U
g g
...(3.65)
i.e.,
]
]
]
]
]
+
]
]
]
]
]
+
m s
m s
m s
m s
m s
m s
C C
C C
C C
L L
L L
L L
,
, 2
,
, 2
=
]
]
]
]
]
1
1
1
1
2
g
'

+ +
2
1 1
2
0 0
/ 1 ) )( (
/ 1 ) 2 )( 2 ( gives This
g C L C C L L and
g C L C C L L
m s m s
m s m s
...(3.66)
This shows t hat t he velocit ies of pr opagat ion of waves in all t hr ee modes ar e equal t o t he
velocit y of light . This is t he case when gr ound-r et ur n induct ance is not t aken int o account .
Usually, in t he fir st or line-t o-gr ound mode (homopolar mode) induct ance of gr ound r et ur n
r educes t he velocit y of pr opagat ion of t hat modal component t o about 2 ~ 2.5 10
5
km/s (near ly
70-85% of g) as will be discussed aft er we evaluat e t he gr ound-r et ur n induct ance in Sect ion 3.8.
3.7.4 Untransposed Line: Modes of Propagation
The eigenvalues and eigenvect or s r esult ing in t r ansfor mat ion mat r ix and it s inver se for an
unt r ansposed line must be wor ked out on a case-by-case basis using t he numer ical values of
t he induct ance and capacit ance. No gener al expr essions can be given alt hough t he gener al
pr ogr amme for t he diagonalizat ion is t he same as out lined befor e. Thus, a digit al comput er can
handle any t ype of mat r ix diagonalizat ion. We will illust r at e t he pr ocedur e t hr ough an example.
Exa mp le 3.9. The induct ance and capacit ance mat r ices for t he 400-kV hor izont al line
wer e wor ked out in Examples 3.7 and 3.8. Diagonalize t he capacit ance mat r ix of t he unt r ansposed
line.
Sol u t i on . [C]
ut
= nF/km
77 . 9 , 65 . 1 , 58 . 0
65 . 1 , 02 . 10 , 65 . 1
58 . 0 , 65 . 1 , 77 . 9
]
]
]
]
]
S t ep 1. | [U] [C]| =
77 . 9 , 65 . 1 , 58 . 0
65 . 1 , 02 . 10 , 65 . 1
58 . 0 , 65 . 1 , 77 . 9
=
3
29.65
2
+ 285.46 896.67 = 0
The eigenvalues ar e
1
= 11.9755,
2
= 10.35,
3
= 7.2345. Not e t hat t he char act er ist ic
r oot s ar e now dist inct .
S t ep. 2. {
1
[U] [C]} [x] =
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
0
0
0
2055 . 2 , 65 . 1 , 58 . 0
65 . 1 , 9555 . 1 , 65 . 1
58 . 0 , 65 . 1 , 2055 . 2
3
2
1
x
x
x
Ther efor e, t aking x
1
= 1, t her e r esult x
2
+ 0.3515 x
3
= 1.3367
and x
2
+ 0.8438 x
3
= 0.8438
Thus we obt ain t he component s of t he fir st eigenvect or t o be x
1
= 1, x
2
= 1.6887, and x
3
= 1.00127 1. Lengt h of vect or = 2.2032. The nor malized for m is [0.454, 0.7665, 0.454].
Similar ly, for
2
= 10.35, t her e r esult s t he nor malized eigenvect or [0.7071, 0, 0.7071], and for
3
= 7.2345 , [0.542, 0.6422, 0.542].
S t ep 3. [T]
1
=
]
]
]
]
]
542 . 0 , 6422 . 0 , 542 . 0

7071 . 0 , 0 , 7071 . 0
454 . 0 , 7655 . 0 , 454 . 0
and [T] =
1
] [
542 . 0 , 7071 . 0 , 454 . 0
6422 . 0 , 0 , 7655 . 0
542 . 0 , 7071 . 0 , 454 . 0
t
T
]
]
]
]
]
S t ep 4. [T]
1
[C] [T] =
s. eigenvalue of mat r ix t he near ly is which
nF/km,
234 . 7
36 . 10
954 . 11
]
]
]
]
]
Figur e 3.15 shows t he dist r ibut ion of cur r ent s in t he t hr ee modes. We not e t hat in only
one mode gr ound is not involved in t he pr opagat ion.
F i g. 3.15. Dist r ibut ion of cur r ent s in t he t hr ee modes of pr opagat ion of Example 3.9.
Di a gon a l i z a t i on of [L]
ut
We will show t hat t he same t r ansfor mat ion mat r ices obt ained for diagonalizing t he capacit ance
mat r ix of t he unt r ansposed configur at ion will also diagonalize t he induct ance mat r ix when
[L] [C] =
], [
1
2
U
g
i.e. when [L] and [C] ar e calculat ed on t he basis of light -velocit y t heor y.
0.454 0.454 0.542 0.6422 0.542 0.7071 0.7655 0.7071 0
Mode 1 Mode 3 Mode 2
Ground
Return
0.1425 0 1.7262
We obser ve t hat
{[ T ]
1
[L] [ T ]} {[ T ]
1
[ C ] [ T ]} =
] [
1
2
U
g
(3.67)
so t hat [ T ]
1
[L] [ T ] =
2
1
g
{[ T ]
1
[ C ] [ T ]}
1
=
1
2
] [
1
g
(3.68)
The t hr ee eigenva lues of [L] ar e
1
= 1/g
2
1
,
2
= 1/g
2

2
and
3
= 1/g
2

3
(3.69)
Exa mp le 3.10. The eigenvalues of t he capacit ance mat r ices ar e 11.954 10
9
F/km, 10.36
10
9
F/km, and 7.234 10
9
F/km.
Ther efor e, t he eigenvalues of t he induct ance mat r ix will t ur n out t o be
1
=
1076
1
10 954 . 11 ) 10 3 (
1
9 2 5

Henr y/km = 0.93 mH/km.
2
= mH/km 0725 . 1
4 . 932
1
10 36 . 10 ) 10 3 (
1
9 2 5

and
3
=
mH/km 536 . 1
651
1
10 234 . 7 ) 10 3 (
1
9 2 5

Exa mp le 3.11. Taking t he induct ance mat r ix [L]
ut
of example 3.7 and t he t r ansfor mat ion
mat r ix [ T ] and it s inver se [ T ]
1
fr om example 3.9, show t hat [ T ]
1
[L]
ut
[ T ] is diagonalized and
t he eigenvalues ar e near ly
1
,
2
,
3
obt ained in example 3.10.
Sol u t i on .
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
542 . , 7071 . , 454 .

6422 . , 0 , 7655 .
542 . , 7071 . , 454 .
173 . 1 , 213 . , 105 .
213 . , 173 . 1 , 213 .
105 . , 213 . , 173 . 1
542 . , 6422 . , 542 .
7071 . , 0 , 7071 .
454 . , 7655 . , 454 .
=
mH/km,
535 . 1 , 0 , 0
0 , 068 . 1 , 0
0 , 0 , 92 . 0
]
]
]
]
]
which check wit h

1
,
2
,
3
. (Calculat ed on hand calculat or )
3.8 RESISTANCE AND INDUCTANCE OF GROUND RETURN
Under balanced oper at ing condit ions of a t r ansmission line, gr ound-r et ur n cur r ent s do not
flow. However , many sit uat ions occur in pr act ice when gr ound cur r ent s have impor t ant effect
on syst em per for ma nce. Some of t hese a r e:
(a) Flow of cur r ent dur ing shor t cir cuit s involving gr ound. These ar e confined t o single
line t o gr ound and double line t o gr ound fault s. Dur ing t hr ee phase t o gr ound fault s
t he syst em is st ill balanced;
(b) Swit ching oper at ions and light ning phenomena;
(c) Pr opagat ion of waves on conduct or s;
(d) Radio Noise st udies.
The gr ound-r et ur n r esist ance incr eases wit h fr equency of t he cur r ent while t he induct ance
decr eases wit h fr equency par alleling t hat of t he r esist ance and induct ance of a conduct or . In all
cases involving gr ound, t he soil is inhomogeneous and st r at ified in sever al layer s wit h differ ent
values of elect r ical conduct ivit y. In t his sect ion, t he famous for mulas of J .R. Car son (B.S.T.J .
1926) will be given for calculat ion of gr ound r esist ance and induct ance at any fr equency in a
homogeneous single-layer soil. The pr oblem was fir st applied t o t elephone t r ansmission but we
will r est r ict it s use t o apply t o e.h.v. t r ansmission lines.
The conduct ivit y of soils has t he following or der s of magnit ude: 10 mho/met r e for moist
soil, 10
1
for loose soil, 10
2
for clay, and 10
3
for bed r ock.
F i g. 3.16 Geomet r ical par amet er s for calculat ion of gr ound-r et ur n r esist ance and induct ance.
Figur e 3.16 descr ibes t he impor t ant par amet er s involved in t he calculat ion showing t wo
conduct or s i and j above gr ound t oget her wit h t heir images. We t ake
c
s
= soil conduct ivit y in mho/m,
f = fr equency of cur r ent , Hz,
G = 1.7811, Euler 's number ,
0
= 4 10
7
H/m,
I
ij
= dist ance of conduct or j fr om image of conduct or i, met r e,
ij
= ar c t an [X
ij
/(H
i
+ H
j
)], r adians
The most impor t ant par amet er involved in t he calculat ion is
F
ij
= I
ij
s
fc
0
2
...(3.70)
For usual e.h.v. configur at ions, F
ij
< 1.
[When c.g.s. unit s ar e used, I
ij
is in cm, and c
s
is also in c.g.s. e.m. unit s. To conver t ohm/
m int o c.g.s. unit s, t he mult iplying fact or is 10
-11
. Then, F
ij
= ] 8
2
s ij
fc I
Having calculat ed F
ij
, t he gr ound r esist ance and induct ance ar e
R
g
= 8f J
r
. 10
4
, ohm/km ...(3.71)
X
ij
Hi
H
i
H
j
H
j
I
ij
J
J'
i
i'
ij
and L
g
= 4. J
i
.10
4
, Henr y/km ...(3.72)
wher e J
r
and J
i
ar e calculat ed as follows:
J
r
=
2 1 2 2 4
2 2
1
2
1
5 . 0 ) / 2 ( ln . . 5 . 0
8
) 1 ( W W T F G S S
ij ij
+ + +
...(3.73)
J
i
= 0.25 + 0.5 (1 S
4
). ln (2/G F
ij
) 0.5
ij
T
4

8
S
2
+ 4 3 1
5 . 0 ) (
2
1
W W W +
...(3.74)
Ther e ar e sever al quant it ies above, (S, T, W), which ar e given by Car son by t he following
infinit e ser ies when F
ij
< 1. For most calculat ions, only t wo or t hr ee leading t er ms will be
sufficient as will be shown by an example of a hor izont al 400-kV line.
S
2
= ij
k
ij
k
k
k
k k
F +
+ +
2 ) 1 2 cos(
)! 2 2 ( )! 1 2 (
1
) 2 / .( ) 1 (
) 1 2 ( 2
0
...(3.75)
T
2
= same as S
2
wit h cosine changed t o sine ...(3.76)
S
4
= ij
k
ij k
k
k
k k
F
+ +
,
`
.
|
) 4 ( cos
)! 2 ( )! 1 (
1
2
) 1 (
4
1
1
...(3.77)
T
4
= same as S
4
wit h cosine changed t o sine ...(3.78)
W
1
= ij
k
ij
k
k
k
k
F
) 3 4 ( cos
) 1 4 ...( 5 . 3 . 1
1
) 1 (
2 2 2
) 1 4 ( 1
1
...(3.79)
W
2
= 1.25 S
2
, W
4
=
3
5
4
S
...(3.80)
W
3
= ij
k
ij
k
k
k
k
F
+
) 1 4 ( cos
) 1 4 ...( 5 3
1
) 1 (
2 2
) 1 4 ( 1
1
...(3.81)
The impor t ant and int er est ing pr oper t ies of R
g
and L
g
for a- 3-phase line ar e illust r at ed by
t aking an example of t he hor izont al 400-kV line. These pr oper t ies come out t o be
[R
g
] R
g
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
1 , 1 , 1
1 , 1 , 1
1 , 1 , 1
] [ and
1 , 1 , 1
1 , 1 , 1
1 , 1 , 1
g g
L L ...(3.82)
Exa mp le 3.12. Figur e 3.17 shows all major dimensions of a 400-kV line. Calculat e t he
mat r ices of gr ound-r et ur n r esist ance and induct ance per km at f = 1 kHz for c
s
= ear t h conduct ivit y
= 10
2
mho/m.
Sol u t i on . The fr equency of 1 kHz is useful for swit ching-sur ge pr opagat ion st udies. The
r equir ed par amet er s ar e:
12
=
23
= ar c t an (11/26) = 0.4014 r adian.
13
= ar c t an (22/26) = 0.7025 r adian.
11
=
22
=
33
= 0. I
12
= 30 m, I
13
= 34 m.
F
ij
: F
11
= 0.234, F
12
= 0.27, F
13
= 0.306
F i g. 3.17. Dimensions of 400 kV line for example 3.12
Self r esist ances and induct ances:
ij
= 0.
S
2
=
00685 . 0
! 4 ! 3
1
2
234 . 0
! 2
1
2
234 . 0
6 2
+
,
`
.
|
,
`
.
|
T
2
= 0, W
2
= 1.25 S
2
= 0.00856
S
4
= . negligible is . 0 . negligible ,
6 2
117 . 0
4 4
4
W T
W
1
=
00028 . 0
5 . 3
234 . 0
, 0043 . 0
3 . 1
234 . 0
2
3
3
2
3
W
Ther efor e
J
r
=
2 2
0086 . 0
00215 . 0
234 . 0 7811 . 1
2
ln 00685 . 0 5 . 0
8
+
,
`
.
|
= 0.4
J
i
= 0.25 + 0.5 1.61
2
0046 . 0
00685 . 0
8
+
= 1.055
Ther efor e
R
ii
= 8 10
3
10
4
0.4 = 1 ohm/km
L
ii
= 4 1.055 10
4
= 0.422 mH/km
Mu t u a l bet ween 1 a n d 2 (ou t er a n d i n n er )
Calculat ions yield J
r
= 0.3983 0.4 and J
i
= 0.952
Ther efor e R
12
= R
23
= 1 ohm/km, L
12
= L
23
= 0.38 mH/km
13
I
12 I13 I
23
13
12
23
13
1 2 3
11 11
...
Mu t u a l bet ween 1 a n d 3 (ou t er a n d ou t er )
J
r
= 0.3925, J
i
= 0.89, giving R
13
1 ohm/km a nd
L
13
= 0.356 mH/km.
[R
g
] = ohm/km
1 , 1 , 1
1 , 1 , 1
1 , 1 , 1
]
]
]
]
]
and
[L
g
] =
mH/km
422 . 0 , 38 . 0 , 356 . 0
38 . 0 , 422 . 0 , 38 . 0
356 . 0 , 38 . 0 , 422 . 0
]
]
]
]
]
The mut ual induct ances ar e quit e close t o an aver age value of
(0.422 3 + 0.38 4 + 0.356 2)/9 = 0.39 mH/km
We see t hat t he r esist ance and induct ance of gr ound r et ur n ar e given appr oximat ely as
[R
g
] = ohm/km 1 wher e ,
1 , 1 , 1
1 , 1 , 1
1 , 1 , 1
]
]
]
]
]
g g
R R
and [L
g
] = mH/km. 39 . 0 wher e ,
1 , 1 , 1
1 , 1 , 1
1 , 1 , 1
]
]
]
]
]
g g
L L
We will denot e
[D] =
]
]
]
]
]
1 , 1 , 1
1 , 1 , 1
1 , 1 , 1
...(3.83)
Then, [R
g
] = R
g
[D], and [L
g
] = L
g
[D] ...(3.84)
This pr oper t y will be used t hr oughout t he book whenever gr oundr et ur n effect s ar e t o be
consider ed.
Di a gon a l i z a t i on of [D]
It is int er est ing t o obser ve t he pr oper t ies of [D] by diagonalizing it . The 3 eigenvalues come out
t o be
1
= 3,
2
=
3
= 0. One set of [T] and [T]
1
which will diagonalize [D] t ur n out t o be exact ly
t he same as Clar ke's Modified Tr ansfor mat ion, equat ions (3.62) and (3.63), as can be wor ked
out by t he r eader . Also,
[T]
1
[D] [T] =
6
1
1 , 3 , 2
2 , 0 , 2
1 , 3 , 2
1 , 1 , 1
1 , 1 , 1
1 , 1 , 1
1 , 2 , 1
3 , 0 , 3
2 , 2 , 2
6
1
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]

=
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
3
2
1
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 3
...(3.85)
We could have applied t his pr oper t y for diagonalizing t he mat r ices of [L]
t
and [C]
t
of t he
t r ansposed line inst ead of t he lengt hy pr ocedur e in st ep 1 of Sect ion. 3.7 for finding t he t hr ee
eigenvalues or char act er ist ic r oot s. Obser ve t hat
[L]
t
= ] [ ] )[ (
, ,
, ,
, ,
D L U L L
L L L
L L L
L L L
m m s
s m m
m s m
m m s
+
]
]
]
]
]
...(3.86)
Any t r ansfor mat ion mat r ix which diagonalizes [D] will also diagonalize (L
s
L
m
) [U] which
is alr eady in diagonalized for m.
Com p l et e Li n e Pa r a m et er s wi t h Gr ou n d R et u r n
We can now combine t he r esist ances, induct ances and capacit ances of t he phase conduct or s
wit h t hose of gr ound r et ur n t o for mulat e t he complet e line-par amet er s for a t r ansposed line.
(a) Resist ance
The conduct or r esist ance mat r ix is [R
c
] = R
c
[ U ]
Gr ound-r et ur n r esist ance mat r ix [R
g
] = R
g
[ D ]
Ther efor e
[R] = [R
c
] + [R
g
] = R
c
[U] + R
g
[D] =
]
]
]
]
]
+
+
+
g c g g
g g c g
g g g c
R R R R
R R R R
R R R R
, ,
, ,
, ,
...(3.87)
(b) Induct ance
[L
c
] = ] [ ] [ ) (
, ,
, ,
, ,
D L U L L
L L L
L L L
L L L
m m s
s m m
m s m
m m s
+
]
]
]
]
]
...(3.88)
[L
g
] = L
g
[D]
[L] = [L
c
] + [L
g
] = (L
s
L
m
) [U] + (L
g
+ L
m
) [D] ...(389)
(c) Capacitance
[C] = (C
s
C
m
) [U] + C
m
(D) ...(3.90)
Diagonalizat ion of any of t hese mat r ices is easily car r ied out t hr ough [T] a nd [T]
1
of
Clar ke's modified t r ansfor mat ion mat r ices.
[T ]
1
[R][T ] = R
c
[U] + R
g
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
c
c
g c
R
R
R R 3
0
0
3
...(3.91)
Not e t hat t he gr ound cont r ibut es (3R
g
) t o t he fir st mode or line-t o-gr ound mode of
pr opagat ion. The t er m R
0
= R
c
+ 3R
g
may st ill be called t he zer o-sequence r esist ance.
[T ]
1
[L] [T ] = (L
s
L
m
) [U] + (L
g
+ L
m
)
]
]
]
]
]
0
0
3
=
]
]
]
]
]
+ +
m s
m s
g m s
L L
L L
L L L
,
, 3 2
...(3.92)
Compar ing wit h equat ion (3.64) we obser ve t hat gr ound has cont r ibut ed an induct ance of
3L
g
t o t he fir st or line-t o-gr ound mode of pr opagat ion since in t his mode gr ound-r et ur n cur r ent
is equal t o t he sum of t he cur r ent s flowing in t he 3-phase conduct or s above gr ound.
On t he ot her hand, t he gr ound has not cont r ibut ed t o t he line-t o-line modes of pr opagat ion
as t her e is no r et ur n cur r ent in t he gr ound in t hese t wo modes. We also obser ve t hat L
g
+ L
m
= (L
0
L
1
)/3.
The capacit ance t r ansfor mat ion is
[T ]
1
[C][T ] = (C
s
C
m
) [U ] + C
m

]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
m s
m s
m s
C C
C C
C C 2
0
0
3
...(3.93)
This is t he same as equat ion (3.64) wit h induct ance r eplaced by capacit ance. Ther efor e,
gr ound has not added any capacit ance t o any of t he t hr ee modes of pr opagat ion.
We can obser ve t he fur t her pr oper t y t hat in t he pr esence of gr ound act ivit y.
[T ]
1
[L ][C][T ] =
]
]
]
]
]

+ + +
) )( (
) )( (
), 2 )( 3 2 (
m s m s
m s m s
m s g m s
C C L L
C C L L
C C L L L
...(3.94)
This clear ly shows t hat t he velocit y of wave pr opagat ion in t he second and t hir d modes,
t he t wo line-t o-line modes, is st ill t he velocit y of light as discussed in Sect ion 3.7.3, equat ion
(3.66). However , t he velocit y of pr opagat ion in t he line-t o-gr ound mode is
v
1
= ) 2 )( 3 2 ( / 1
m s g m s
C C L L L + + + ...(3.95)
Since L
g
is a posit ive quant it y, v
1
< g, t he velocit y of light .
Exa mp le 3.13. A 400-kV line (Example 3.7) gave t he following induct ance mat r ix
[L]
t
= mH/km
173 . 1 , 177 . 0 , 177 . 0
177 . 0 , 173 . 1 , 177 . 0
177 . 0 , 177 . 0 , 173 . 1
]
]
]
]
]
Ta ke (C
s
+ 2C
m
) = (1/g
2
) (L
s
+ 2L
m
)
1
and (C
s
C
m
) (L
s
L
m
) = 1/g
2
. The gr ound r et ur n
cont r ibut es 0.39 mH/km as calculat ed in Example 3.12. Calculat e t he velocit ies in t he t hr ee
modes.
Sol u t i on . C
s
+ 2C
m
= (1/g
2
)[(1.173 + 2 0.177) 10
3
]
1
=
527 . 1
10 1
3
2
g
L
s
+ 2L
m
+ 3L
g
= 2.697 10
3
(L
s
+ 2L
m
+3L
g
) (C
s
+ 2C
m
) = 1.7662/g
2
= (1.329/g)
2
and v
1
= g/1.329 = 0.7524g = 2.2572 10
5
km/sec.
The velocit y of pr opagat ion in t he line-t o-gr ound mode is now 75.24% of light velocit y.
Equ i va l en t Ci r cu i t of Li n e Mod el f or Net wor k S t u d i es
Fr om equat ions (3.91) and (3.92), we obt ain t he quant it ies
R
0
= R
c
+ 3R
g
, R
1
= R
c
, L
0
= L
s
+ 2L
m
+ 3L
g
, and L
1
= L
s
L
m
...(3.96)
Fig. 3.18 Line model wit h gr ound-r et ur n par amet er s included.
The gr ound-r et ur n r esist ance is t hen
R
g
= (R
0
R
1
)/3 ...(3.97)
and t her e also r esult s
L
g
+ L
m
= (L
0
L
1
)/3 ...(3.98)
The qua nt it ies R
0
and L
0
ca n be consider ed a s t he zer o-sequence qua nt it ies while R
1
a nd
L
1
a r e posit ive-sequ en ce qu a n t it ies obt a in ed u n der symmet r ica l compon en t con cept of
C C
0

3
1
I
1
I
2
I
3
I
1 2 3
+ I + I
L1 R
1
B
B'
L L
2
0 1 R R
3
0 1
C 2C
3
0 1
A
A'
For t escue. Using t hese, a line model ca n be const r uct ed simila r t o Figur e 3.13. This is shown
in Figur e 3.18.
The three lines are represented by their positive-sequence quantities R
1
and L
1
. The
gr ound-r et ur n par t const it ut es R
g
and (L
g
+ L
m
) which ar e denot ed as (R
0
R
1
)/3, and (L
0
L
1
)
/3 r espect ively. The capacit ance net wor k consist s of a Y-connect ed set equal t o C
s
= (C
0
+ 2C
1
)/
3 and a -connect ed set of C
m
= (C
0
C
1
)/3. The -connect ed set may be conver t ed t o an
equivalent Y if necessar y each leg having a capacit ance of 3C
m
= (C
0
C
1
). Such a r epr esent at ion
of a line sect ion has been used for set t ing up miniat ur e models on a Tr ansient Net wor k Analyzer
for swit ching-sur ge st udies and in mat hemat ical models for comput at ion of t r ansient per for mance
of t r ansmission lines using t he Digit al Comput er .
The r eader can pr ove t hat t he volt age dr op fr om A t o A' is
{(R
c
+ R
g
) + s(L
s
+ L
g
)}I
1
(s) + {R
g
+ (L
m
+ L
g
)s}I
2
(s) + {R
g
+ (L
m
+ L
g
)s}I
3
(s) ...(3.99)
This is left as an exer cise at t he end of t he chapt er .
1. A Moose conduct or has t he following det ailsOut er dia = 31.8 mm. Ar ea of Al = 515.7
mm
2
. Calculat e t he r esist ance of 1 km of a double-Moose bundled conduct or at 50C
given t hat
a
= 2.7 10
8
ohm-m at 20C and t emper at ur e r esist ance coefficient of A1
= 4.46 10
3
/C. (Incr ease lengt h by 5% for st r anding.)
2. The closest conduct or t o Moose of Nor t h-Amer ican manufact ur e is Bluejay wit h ar ea
= 1.113 10
6
cir -mil, out er dia = 1.259". It s r esist ance is list ed in t ables of conduct or s
as 0.0166 ohm/1000 feet at 20C for dc and 0.0941 ohm/mile at 50C and 50/60 Hz.
(a) Ver ify t hese values.
(b) Find % incr ease due t o skin effect .
3. A 750 kV line has t he det ails given below. Calculat e t he t emper at ur e r ise of t he
conduct or under given condit ions. Conduct or 4 0.03 m ACSR (ar ea = 954,000 cir -
mils). Power car r ied 2000 MW.
a
= 2.7 10
8
ohm-m at 20C, = 0.0045 ohm/C,
ambient t
a
= 45C, e = 0.5, p = 1, v = 1.2 m/s, solar ir r adiat ion 1 kW/m
2
, s
a
= 0.8.
4. A 3-phase 750 kV hor izont al line has minimum height of 12 m, sag at midspan = 12 m.
Phase spacing S = 15 m. Conduct or s a r e 4 0.035 m wit h bundle spa cing of
B = 0.4572 m. Calculat e per kilomet r e:
(a) The mat r ix of Maxwell's Pot ent ial coefficient s for an unt r ansposed configur at ion.
(b) The induct a nce a nd ca pa cit a nce ma t r ices for unt r a nsposed a nd t r a nsposed
configur at ions.
(c) The zer o-, posit ive-, and negat ive-sequence induct ances and capacit ances for
t r ansposed line.
(d) The gr ound-r et ur n r esist ance and induct ance mat r ices at 750 Hz t aking
s
= 100
ohm-met r e.
For calculat ion t ake H
av
= H
min
+ Sag/3.
5. Repeat pr oblem 3.4 for a 1150-kV delt a configur at ion of t he 3-phases wit h aver age
height of 18 m for t he lower conduct or s, 36 m for t he t op conduct or , and spacing of 24
m bet ween bot t om conduct or s. Bundle r adius = 0.6 m and conduct or size = 6 0.046
m diamet er . f = 1000 Hz and
s
= 50 ohm-met r e.
6. Diagonalize t he mat r ix
[D] =
.
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
]
]
]
]
]
Give eigenvalues and eigen-vect or mat r ices.

7. Discuss t he convenience offer ed by using modes of pr opagat ion and possible uses of
t his t echnique.
8. The capacit ance mat r ix of a 750-kV hor izont al configur at ion line is
[C] =
nF/km
20 . 10 45 . 1 35 . 0
45 . 1 45 . 10 , 45 . 1
35 . 0 45 . 1 , 20 . 10
]
]
]
]
]
(a) Find t he 3 eigenvalues of t he mat r ix, (

1
,
2
,
3
).
(b) Diagonalize t he mat r ix by evaluat ing suit able t r ansfor mat ion mat r ix [T] and it s
inver se [T ]
1
.
(c) Then pr ove t hat
[T ]
1
[C] [T ] =
]
]
]
]
]
3
2
1
9. I n pr oblems 3.4 a nd 3.5 ca lcula t e t he cha r ging cur r ent supplied. Assume full
t r ansposit ion and place all t he capacit ance at t he line ent r ance acr oss t he sour ce. L =
400 km.
10. In Fig. 3.18 show t hat t he volt age dr op fr om A t o B and B' t o A add t o
{(R
c
+ R
g
) + s(L
s
+ L
g
)}I
1
+ (R
g
+ sL
m
+ sL
g
) I
2
+ (R
g
+ sL
m
+ sL
g
) I
3
.
wher e s = t he Laplace-Tr ansfor m oper at or .
11. (a) Using t he t r ansfor mat ion mat r ices for diagonalizing t he mat r ix [D], pr ove wit hout
mult iplying, t hat t he same t r ansfor mat ion mat r ices will diagonalize t he induct ance
or capacit ance mat r ices of a fully-t r ansposed line of t he t ype.
[L] =
]
]
]
]
]
s m m
m s m
m m s
L L L
L L L
L L L
(b) If
1
,
2
,
3
ar e t he eigenvalues of mat r ix [C] and given t hat [L ][C] = [U]/g
2
, pr ove
t ha t t he eigenva lues of [L] will be
1
= 1/g
2
1
,
2
= 1/g
2
2
and
3
= 1/g
2
3
. In
gener al, pr ove t hat if
1
,
2
,
3
ar e eigenvalues of a mat r ix [M], t hen t he eigenvalues
of it s inver se ar e t he r ecipr ocals of
1
,
2
,
3
.
12. The following t r ansfor mat ion mat r ix is at t r ibut ed t o Kar r enbauer .
[ T ] =
r s eigenvect o t hr ee t he having
2 , 1 , 1
1 , 2 , 1
1 , 1 , 1
]
]
]
]
]
.
2
1
1
,
1
2
1
,
1
1
1
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
(a) Calculat e [ T ]
1
.
(b) Nor malize [ T ] and [ T ]
1
.
(c) Pr ove t hat [ T ]
1
[L]
t
[ T ] give a diagonal mat r ix for t he induct ance of a fully-
t r ansposed line. Det er mine t he eigenvalues of [L]
t
.
(d) Check t hat [ T ]
1
[C]
t
[ T ] is also diagonal wher e [L]
t
[ C ]
t
= [ U ]/g
2
.
(e) Int er pr et t he eigenvect or s of t he Kar r enbauer t r ansfor mat ion mat r ix.
( f ) Is t his t ype of t r ansfor mat ion unit ar y?
4.1 ELECTROSTATICS
Conduct or s used for e.h.v. t r ansmission lines ar e t hin long cylinder s which ar e known as 'line
char ges'. Their char ge is descr ibed in coulombs/unit lengt h which was used for evaluat ing t he
capacit ance mat r ix of a mult iconduct or line in Chapt er 3. The pr oblems cr eat ed by char ges on
t he conduct or s manifest t hemselves as high elect r ost at ic field in t he line vicinit y fr om power
fr equency t o TV fr equencies t hr ough audio fr equency, car r ier fr equency and r adio fr equency
(PF, AF, CF, TVF). The at t enuat ion of t r avelling waves is also gover ned in some measur e by
t he incr ease in capacit ance due t o cor ona dischar ges which sur r ound t he space near t he
conduct or wit h char ges. When t he macr oscopic pr oper t ies of t he elect r ic field ar e st udied, t he
conduct or char ge is assumed t o be concent r at ed at it s cent r e, even t hough t he char ge is
dist r ibut ed on t he sur face. In cer t ain pr oblems wher e pr oximit y of sever al conduct or s affect s
t he field dist r ibut ion, or wher e conduct ing sur faces have t o be for ced t o become equipot ent ial
sur faces (in t wo dimensions) in t he field of sever al char ges it is impor t ant t o r eplace t he given
set of char ges on t he conduct or s wit h an infinit e set of char ges. This met hod is known as t he
Met hod of Successive Images. In addit ion t o t he elect r ic-field pr oper t ies of long cylinder s, t her e
ar e ot her t ypes of impor t ant elect r ode configur at ions useful for ext r a high volt age pr act ice in
t he field and in labor at or ies. Examples of t his t ype ar e spher e-plane gaps, spher e-t o-spher e
gaps, point -t o-plane gaps, r od-t o-plane gaps, r od-r od gaps, conduct or -t o-t ower gaps, conduct or -
t o-conduct or gap above a gr ound plane, et c. Some of t hese t ypes of gaps will also be dealt wit h
in t his chapt er which may be used for e.h.v. measur ement , pr ot ect ion, and ot her funct ions.
The coaxial-cylindr ical elect r ode will also be discussed in gr eat det ail because of it s impor t ance
in cor ona st udies wher e t he bundle of N sub-conduct or s is st r ung inside a 'cage' t o simulat e t he
sur face volt age gr adient on t he conduct or s in a set up which is smaller in dimensions t han an
act ual out door t r ansmission line.
4.1.1 Field of a Point Charge and Its Properties
The pr oper t ies of elect r ic field of almost all elect r ode geomet r ies will ult imat ely depend on t hat
of a point char ge. The laws gover ning t he behaviour of t his field will for m t he basis for ext ending
t hem t o ot her geomet r ies. Consider Figur e 4.1 which shows t he sour ce point S
1
wher e a point
char ge + Q coulombs is locat ed. A second point char ge q coulomb is locat ed at S
2
at a dist ance
r met r e fr om S
1
. Fr om Coulomb's Law, t he for ce act ing on eit her char ge is
4
Vol t a ge Gra d i en t s of Con d u ct ors
F =
2
0
4 / . r e e q Q
r
, Newt on ...(4.1)
1 2
0 0
) ( [

g e = m F m F / 84194 . 8 / 36 / 1000
r
e = r elat ive per mit t ivit y of t he medium = 1 in air ]
Fi g. 4.1 Point cha r ge Q and for ce on t est char ge q.
Wher e q is ver y small ) 0 ( q , we define t he elect r ic field pr oduced by Q at t he locat ion of q as
E =
2
0
0
4 / ) / ( r e e Q q F Lim
r
q

, Newt on/Coulomb ...(4.2)

The condit ion 0 q is necessar y in or der t hat q might not dist ur b t he elect r ic field of Q.
Equat ion (4.2) may be r e-wr it t en as
) )( 4 (
0
2
E e e r
r
=
Q D r
2
4
...(4.3)
Her e we not e t hat
2
4 r = sur face ar e of a spher e of r adius r dr awn wit h cent r e at S
1
. The
quant it y D = E e e
r 0
is t he dielect r ic flux densit y. Thus, we obt ain Gauss's Law which st at es
t hat 't he sur face int egr al of t he nor mal component of dielect r ic flux densit y over a closed
sur face equals t he t ot al char ge in t he volume enclosed by t he sur face'. This is a gener al r elat ion
and is valid for all t ypes of elect r ode geomet r ies.
Some impor t ant pr oper t ies of t he field of a point char ge can be not ed:
(a) The elect r ic field int ensit y decr eases r apidly wit h dist ance fr om t he point char ge
inver sely as t he squar e of t he dist ance,
) / 1 (
2
r Q
.
(b) E is inver sely pr opor t ional t o ) / 1 .(
r r
e E e .
(c) The pot ent ial of any point in t he field of t he point char ge Q, defined as t he wor k done
against t he for ce field of Q in br inging q fr om t o S
2,
is

r r
r r
r e e
Q
r
dr
e e
Q
Edr
1
4 4
0
2
0
, volt ...(4.4)
(d ) The pot ent ial differ ence bet ween t wo point s at dist ances r
1
and r
2
fr om S
1
will be
12
=
,
`
.
|
2 1 0
1 1
4 r r e e
Q
r
, volt ...(4.5)
For a posit ive point char ge, point s closer t o t he char ge will be at a higher posit ive
pot ent ial t han a fur t her point .
(e) The capacit ance of an isolat ed spher e is
C = , 4 /
0
r e e Q
r
Far ad ...(4.6)
r
S1
S
2
F1
q
Q
F
Voltage Gradients of Conductors 63
This is based on t he assumpt ion t hat t he negat ive char ge of Q is at infinit y.
These pr oper t ies and concept s can be ext ended in a st r aight for war d manner t o apply t o
t he field of a line char ge and ot her elect r ode configur at ions.
Exa mp le 4.1. A point char ge Q = 10
6
coulomb (1 C) is kept on t he sur face of a conduct ing
spher e of r adius r = 1 cm, which can be consider ed as a point char ge locat ed at t he cent r e of t he
spher e. Calculat e t he field st r engt h and pot ent ial at a dist ance of 0.5 cm fr om t he sur face of t he
spher e. Also find t he capacit ance of t he spher e, 1
r
.
Sol u t i on . The dist ance of S
2
fr om t he cent r e of t he spher e S
1
is 1.5 cm.
E =
]
]
]

4 2 12 6
10 5 . 1 10
36
1000
4 10
= 10
6
/(0.25 10
13
)
= 40 10
6
V/m = 40 MV/m = 400 kV/cm
= E.r = 600 kV [using equat ions 4.2 and 4.4]

C = F r e e
r
111 . 1 4
0
wit h r = 0.01.
Exa mp le 4.2. The field st r engt h on t he sur face of a spher e of 1 cm r adius is equal t o t he
cor ona-incept ion gr adient in air of 30 kV/cm. Find t he char ge on t he spher e.
Sol u t i on . 30 kV/cm = 3000 kV/m = 3 10
6
V/m.
3 10
6
=
]
]
]

4 12
0
10 10
36
1000
4 Q
= 9 10
13
Q
0
giving Q
0
= 3.33 10
8
coulomb = 0.033 C.
The pot ent ial of t he spher e is
V = 3 10
6
10
2
= 30 kV.
4.2 FIELD OF SPHERE GAP
A spher e-spher e gap is used in h.v. labor at or ies for measur ement of ext r a high volt ages and for
calibr at ing ot her measur ing appar at us. If t he gap spacing is less t han t he spher e r adius, t he
field is quit e well det er mined and t he spher e-gap br eaks down consist ent ly at t he same volt age
wit h a disper sion not exceeding 3%. This is t he accur acy of such a measur ing gap, if ot her
pr ecaut ions ar e t aken suit ably such as no collect ion of dust or pr oximit y of ot her gr ounded
object s close by. The spher e-gap pr oblem also illust r at es t he met hod of successive images used
in elect r ost at ics.
Figur e 4.2 shows t wo spher es of r adii R separ at ed by a cent r e-cent r e dist ance of S , wit h
one spher e at zer o pot ent ial (usually gr ounded) and t he ot her held at a pot ent ial V. Since bot h
spher es ar e met allic, t heir sur faces ar e equipot ent ials. In or der t o achieve t his, it r equir es a
set of infinit e number of char ges, posit ive inside t he left spher e at pot ent ial V and negat ive
inside t he r ight which is held at zer o pot ent ial. The magnit ude and posit ion of t hese char ges
will be det er mined fr om which t he volt age gr adient r esult ing on t he sur faces of t he spher e on
a line joining t he cent r es can be det er mined. If t his exceeds t he cr it ical disr upt ive volt age, a
spar k br eak-down will occur . The volt age r equir ed is t he br eakdown volt age.
Fi g. 4.2 The spher e gap.
Consider t wo point char ges Q
1
and Q
2
locat ed wit h a separ at ion D, Figur e 4.3. At a point
P(x, y) wit h coor dinat es measur ed fr om Q
1
, t he pot ent ials ar e as follows:
Pot ent ial at P due t o Q
1
=
2 2
1
1 0
1
wit h
1
4
y x r
r e
Q
+
Pot ent ial at P due t o Q

2
=
2 2
2
2 0
2
) ( wit h
1
4
y x D r
r e
Q
+
Fi g. 4.3 Point cha r ge Q

1
and spher e of r adius R.
The t ot al pot ent ial at P is V
P
=
) / / (
4
1
2 2 1 1
0
r Q r Q
e
+
.
If t his is t o be zer o, t hen Q
2
/Q
1
= r
2
/r
1
... (4.7)
This clear ly shows t hat Q
1
and Q
2
must be of opposit e polar it y.
Fr om (4.7),
2
1
2
2
/r r =
, /
) (
2
1
2
2
2 2
2 2
Q Q
y x
y x D
+
+
giving
2
2
2
1 2
) / ( 1
y
Q Q
D
x +
'
'
=
2 2
1 2
2
1 2
2
} ) / ( 1 /{ ) / ( Q Q Q Q D ...(4.8)
This is an equat ion t o a cir cle in t he t wo-dimensional plane and is a spher e in t hr ee-
dimensional space.
R = } ) / ( 1 /{ ) / (
2
1 2 1 2
Q Q Q Q D ...(4.9)
This r equir es Q
2
t o be less t han Q
1
if t he denominat or is t o be posit ive. The cent r e of t he
zer o-pot ent ial sur face is locat ed at (S
1
, 0), wher e
S
1
= R
Q
Q
Q Q D
2
1 2
1 2
} ) / ( 1 /{ ...(4.10)
V V
1
= V
2
= 0
R R
S
V = O
R
Q
2
D
S1
Q1
P x, y ( )
S
2
This makes S
2
=
R
Q
Q
Q Q
Q Q D
D S
1
2
2
1 2
2
1 2
1
) / ( 1
) / (

...(4.11)
Ther efor e, t he magnit ude of Q
2
in r elat ion t o Q
1
is
Q
2
=
1
1
2
1
S
R
Q
R
S
Q ...(4.12)
Also, S
1
S
2
= R
2
...(4.13)
These r elat ions give t he following impor t ant pr oper t y:
'Given a posit ive char ge Q
1
and a spher e of r adius R, wit h Q
1
locat ed ext er nal t o t he
spher e, whose cent r e is at a dist ance S
1
fr om Q
1
, t he spher e can be made t o have a zer o
pot ent ial on it s sur face if a char ge of opposit e polar it y and magnit ude Q
2
= (Q
1
R/S
1
) is placed at
a dist ance S
2
= R
2
/ S
1
fr om t he cent r e of t he given spher e t owar ds Q
1
.'
Exa mp le 4.3. A char ge of 10 C is placed at a dist ance of 2 met r es fr om t he cent r e of a
spher e of r adius 0.5 met r e (1-met r e diamet er spher e). Calculat e t he magnit ude, polar it y, and
locat ion of a point char ge Q
2
which will make t he spher e at zer o pot ent ial.
Sol u t i on . R = 0.5, S
1
= 2 S
2
= R
2
/S
1
= 0.125 m
Q
2
= C S R Q 5 . 2 2 / 5 . 0 10 /
1 1
The cha r ge Q
2
is of opposit e sign t o Q
1
. Figur e 4.4 shows t he spher e, Q
1
and Q
2
.
Exa mp le 4.4. An isolat ed spher e in air has a pot ent ial V and r adius R. Calculat e t he
char ge t o be placed at it s cent r e t o make t he sur face of t he spher e an equipot ent ial.
Sol u t i on . Fr om equat ion (4.4), Q = VR e
0
4 .
S
2
= 0.125 m = R
2
/S
Q
2
= 2.5 c = Q
1
R/S
Fi g. 4.4 Locat ion of image char ge Q
2
inside spher e t o make spher e pot ent ial zer o.
We now ar e in a posit ion t o analyze t he syst em of char ges r equir ed t o make one spher e at
pot ent ial V and a second spher e at zer o pot ent ial as is t he case in a spher e-spher e gap wit h one
spher e gr ounded. Figur e 4.5 shows t he t wo spher es separ at ed by t he cent r e-cent r e dist ance S .
The spher e 1 at left has pot ent ial V and t hat at r ight zer o pot ent ial. Bot h spher es have equal
r adii R.
In or der t o hold spher e 1 at pot ent ial V, a char ge Q
1
= VR e
0
4 must be placed at it s
cent r e. In t he field of t his char ge, spher e 2 at r ight can be made a zer o pot ent ial sur face if an
ima ge ch a r ge Q
2
is pla ced in side t h is sph er e. Fr om t h e discu ssion pr esen t ed ea r lier ,
= 10 C
1 Q
2
R
0.5 m
0.125 m
S
2 m
Q
2
= Q
1
R/S and S
2
= R
2
/S , as shown in Figur e 4.5. However , locat ing Q
2
will dist ur b t he
pot ent ial of spher e 1. In or der t o keep t he pot ent ial of spher e 1 undist ur bed, we must locat e an
image char ge ) /(
2 2 1
S S R Q Q
'
inside spher e 1 so t hat in t he field of Q
2
and
'
Q
1
t he pot ent ial
of spher e 1 is zer o leaving it s pot ent ial equal t o V due t o Q
1
. The cha r ge
'
Q
1
is locat ed at
) /(
2
2
1
S S R S
'
fr om Q
1
(cent r e of spher e 1). It is now easy t o see t hat t he pr esence of
'
Q
1
will
dist ur b t he pot ent ial of spher e 2. An image char ge ) /(
1 1 2
' ' '
S S R Q Q is called for inside
spher e 2 locat ed at ) /(
1
2
2
' '
S S R S fr om t he cent r e of spher e 2.
Fi g. 4.5. Locat ion of successive image char ges t o maint ain spher es at pot ent ials V and zer o.
Successive image char ges will have t o be suit ably locat ed inside bot h spher es.
The sequence of char ges and t heir locat ions can be t r acked in a t abular for m.
'

. et c ) /(
), /( ), /( , /
2) spher e of cent r e (Fr om
. et c ), /(
), /( ), /( , / Q
et c. ), /( ), /( ), /(
1) spher e of cent r e (Fr om
. et c ), /(
). /( ), /( , 4
1
2
2
1
2
2 1
2
2
2
2
1 1 2
1 1 2 1 1 2 1 2
2
2
1 2
2
1 2
2
1
2 2 1
2 2 1 2 2 1 0 1
"' "'
" " ' '
"' "' "'
" " " ' ' '
" "' ' " '
" " "'
' ' " '
S S R S
S S R S S S R S S R S
S S R Q Q
S S R Q Q S S R Q Q S R Q
S S R S S S R S S S R S
S S R Q Q
S S R Q Q S S R Q Q VR e Q
...(4.14)
Exa mp le 4.5. A spher e gap consist s of t wo spher es wit h R = 0.25 m each. The gap bet ween
t heir sur faces is 0.5 m. Calculat e t he char ges and t heir locat ions t o make t he pot ent ials 1 and 0.
Sol u t i on . The dist ance S bet ween cent r es of t he spher es = 1 m.
R
2
/S = 0.25
2
/1 = 0.0625 m
V = V
1
V = 0
2
R R
S ' 1
S "
1
Q1Q ' Q" 1 1
Q "' 1
Q'"
2
Q'
2
Q
2
Q"
2
S2
S'
2
S"
2
S
Charges inside sphere 1 Charges inside sphere 2
V = 1 V = 0
Magnitude Dist ance from Magnitude Dist ance from
cent re of cent re of
sphere 1 sphere 2
Q
1
=
0
e S
1
= 0 Q
2
= 0.25 Q
1
S
2
= 0.0625 m
'
Q
1
=
0625 . 1
25 . 0
1
2
Q
'
S
1
=
0625 . 1
25 . 0
2
'
Q
2
=
067 . 1
25 . 0 0667 .
1
Q
'
S
2
=
0667 . 1
25 . 0
2
= .0667Q
1
= 0.06667 = 0.01786Q
1
= 0.067
"
Q
1
=
067 . 1
25 . 0 01786 . 0
1
Q
"
S
1
=
067 . 1
25 . 0
2
"
Q
2
=
067 . 1
25 . 0 0487 . 0
1
Q
"
S
2
= 0.067
= 0.00478Q
1
= 0.067 = 0.00128Q
1
"'
Q
1
= 0.000344Q
1
"'
S
1
= 0.067.
Not e t hat fur t her calculat ions will yield ext r emely small values for t he image char ges.
Fur t her mor e, t hey ar e all locat ed almost at t he same point s. The char ges r educe successively
in t he r at io 0.25/0.933 = 0.268; i.e.
n n n n
Q Q Q Q
2
1
1 1 2
268 . 0 and 268 . 0
+
. The elect r ic field at
any point X along t he line joining t he cent r es of t he t wo spher es is now found fr om t he expr ession
E =
+

+

+
2
1
0
1
2
1
0
1
2
0
1
) (
1
4 ) (
1
4
1
4
"
"
'
'
S X e
Q
S X e
Q
X e
Q
...
) (
1
4 ) (
1
4 ) (
1
4
2
2 0
2
2
2 0
2
2
2 0
2
"
"
'
'
S X S e
Q
S X S e
Q
S X S e
Q

...(4.15)
Since
" '
Q Q Q
2 2 2
, , et c., ar e opposit e in polar it y t o
" '
Q Q Q
1 1 1
, , et c., t he for ce on a unit t est
char ge placed at X will be in t he same dir ect ion due t o all char ges. The most impor t ant value of
X is X = R on t he sur face of spher e 1. If t he value of E at X = R exceeds t he cr it ical gr adient for
br eakdown of air (usually 30 kV/cm peak at an air densit y fact or 1 ), t he gap br eakdown
commences.
Exa mp l e 4.6. Ca lcula t e t he volt a ge gr a dient a t X = 0.25 m for t he spher e ga p in
Exa mple 4.5.
Sol u t i on . S = 1 m, X = R = 0.25 m, S X = 0.75 m
E = ]
]
]
...
) 067 . 0 25 . 0 (
00478 . 0
) 067 . 0 25 . 0 (
0667 . 0
25 . 0
1
4
2 2 2
0
1
e
Q
]
]
]
+

+ ...
) 067 . 0 75 . 0 (
00128 . 0
) 067 . 0 75 . 0 (
01786 . 0
) 065 . 0 75 . 0 (
25 . 0
4
2 2 2
0
1
e
Q
= 0 1
0
1
0
1
wit h ,
4
693 . 18 ] 573 . 0 12 . 18 [
4
e Q
e
Q
e
Q

= 4.673 V/m per volt

The cont r ibut ion of char ges inside t he gr ounded spher e amount t o
100
693 . 18
573 . 0
= 3.06%
Exa mp le 4.7. In t he pr evious example calculat e t he pot ent ial differ ence bet ween t he
spher es for E = 30 kV/cm = 3000 kV/m, peak.
Sol u t i on . V = 3000/4.673 kV = 642 kV
Thus, t he 0.5 met r e diamet er spher es wit h a gap spacing of 0.5 met r e exper ience disr upt ion
at 642 kV, peak. The br eakdown volt age is much higher t han t his value.
Sphere-Plane Gap
When a spher e of r adius R and pot ent ial V is placed above a gr ound plane at zer o pot ent ial, t he
pr oblem is similar t o t he spher e-t o-spher e gap pr oblem. It is clear t hat in or der t o place zer o
pot ent ial on t he plane, an image spher e wit h pot ent ial V is necessar y. The pr oblem is fir st
solved wit h t he given spher e at + V and t he image spher e at 0 pot ent ial, t hen keeping t he
image spher e at V and t he given spher e at 0 pot ent ial. The syst em of char ges r equir ed will
now be t he same as wit h t he spher e-t o-spher e gap but t he t ot al char ge inside t he given spher e
and it s image ar e equal and amount t o t he sum of t he char ges ... , , , , ,
2 2 2 1 1 1
" ' " '
Q Q Q Q Q Q wit h all
char ges having t he same sign. Their locat ions ar e also t he same as befor e. Char ges inside t he
given spher e have posit ive polar it y and t hose inside t he image spher e ar e negat ive.
4.3 FIELD OF LINE CHARGES AND THEIR PROPERTIES
Figur e 4.6 shows a line char ge of q coulomb/met r e and we will calculat e t he elect r ic field
st r engt h, pot ent ial, et c., in t he vicinit y of t he conduct or . Fir st , enclose t he line char ge by a
Gaussian cylinder , a cylinder of r adius r and lengt h 1 met r e. On t he flat sur faces t he field will
not have an out war d nor mal component since for an element of char ge dq locat ed at S , t her e
can be found a cor r esponding char ge locat ed at S ' whose fields (for ce exer t ed on a posit ive t est
char ge) on t he flat sur face F will yield only a r adial component . The component s par allel t o t he
line char ge will cancel each ot her out . Then, by Gauss's Law, if E
p
= field st r engt h nor mal t o
t he cur ved sur face at dist ance r fr om t he conduct or ,
) )( 2 (
0 p r
E e e r = q ...(4.16)
Fi g. 4.6 Line char ge wit h Gaussian cylinder .
The field st r engt h at a dist ance r fr om t he conduct or is
E
p
= ), / 1 )( 2 / (
0
r e e q
r
Volt s/met r e ...(4.17)
This is called t he (1/r)-field as compar ed t o t he (1/r
2
)-field of a point char ge.
1 m
Gaussian
cylinder
Line charge
q. c/m
S S' q,e,e
r 0
r
P
F
F'
EP
Let a r efer ence dist ance r
0
be chosen in t he field. Then t he pot ent ial differ ence bet ween
any point at dist ance r and t he r efer ence is t he wor k done on a unit t est char ge fr om r
0
t o r.
Thus, V
r
=

r
r
r r
r r
e e
q
d
e e
q
0
) ln (ln
2
1
2
0
0 0
...(4.18)
In t he case of a line char ge, t he pot ent ial of a point in t he field wit h r espect t o infinit y
cannot be defined as was done for a point char ge because of logar it hmic t er m. However , we can
find t he p.d. bet ween t wo point s at dist ances r
1
and r
2
, since
(p.d. bet ween r
1
and r
2
) = (p.d. bet ween r
1
and r
0
) (p.d. bet ween r
2
and r
0
)
i.e. V
12
=
1
2
0
1 2
0
ln
2
) ln (ln
2 r
r
e e
q
r r
e e
q
r r

...(4.19)
In t he field of a posit ive line char ge, point s near er t he char ge will be at a higher posit ive
pot ent ial t han point s far t her away (r
2
> r
1
).
The pot ent ial (p.d. bet ween t wo point s, one of t hem being t aken as r efer ence r
0
) in t he
field of a line char ge is logar it hmic. Equipot ent ial lines ar e cir cles. In a pr act ical sit uat ion, t he
char ge dist r ibut ion of a t r ansmission line is closed, t her e being as much posit ive char ge as
negat ive.
4.3.1 2-Conductor Line: Charges + q and q
Consider a single-phase line, Figur e 4.7, showing t wo par allel conduct or s each of r adius
separ at ed by cent r e-t o-cent r e dist ance of 2d wit h each conduct or car r ying a char ge of q coulombs/
met r e but of opposit e polar it ies. Place a unit t est char ge at point P at a dist ance X fr om t he
cent r e of one of t he conduct or s. Then t he for ce act ing on it is t he field st r engt h at X, which is
p
E =

,
`
.
|
+
X d X e e
q
r
2
1 1
2
0
Newt on/coulomb or V/m ...(4.20)
Fi g. 4.7 Single-phase line.
The pot ent ial differ ence bet ween t he conduct or s is
V =
,
`
.
|
d
r
dX
X d X e e
q
2
0
2
1 1
2
=

d
e e
q d
e e
q
r r
2
ln
2
ln
0 0
, if 2d ...(4.21)
+ q
q
V
P
x
2
2 d
Hence, t he capacit ance of 1 met r e lengt h of bot h conduct or s is
C = ) / 2 ( ln / /
0
d e e V q
r
...(4.22)
On t he sur face of any one of t he conduct or s, t he volt age gr adient is, fr om equat ions (4.20)
and (4.21)
E =
) / 2 ln( 2 2
1 1
2
0

,
`
.
|

+
d
V
d e e
q
r
...(4.23)
This is t r ue on t he basis of neglect ing t he effect of t he char ge of t he ot her conduct or if it
is far away t o make t he separ at ion bet ween conduct or s much gr eat er t han t heir r adii.
Fi g. 4.8 Two-conduct or line above gr ound plane and image conduct or s.
A t r ansmission line in pr act ice is st r ung above a gr ound plane and we obser ved in Chapt er
3 t hat it s effect can be t aken int o account by placing image char ges, as shown in Figur e 4.8.
The char ges on t he aer ial conduct or s ar e q
1
and q
2
coulombs/met r e and t heir pot ent ials wit h
r espect t o gr ound ar e V
1
and V
2
. Then,

'
) / 2 ln(
2
) / ln(
2
) / ln(
2
) / 2 ln(
2
2 2
0
2
12 12
0
1
2
12 12
1 0
2
1 1
0
1
1
H
e e
q
A I
e e
q
V
A I
e e
q
H
e e
q
V
r r
r
...(4.24a)
In mat r ix for m,
]
]
]
2
1
V
V
= ]
]
]
]
]
]
r
r
e e q
e e q
H A I
A I H
0 2
0 1
2 2 12 12
12 12 1 1
2 /
2 /
) / 2 ln( ), / ln(
) / ln( ), / 2 ln(
...(4.24b)
or [V] = ] 2 / ][ [
0 r
e e q P ...(4.24c)
The element s of [P] ar e Maxwell's Pot ent ial Coefficient s which we have encount er ed in
Chapt er 3. For a single-phase line above gr ound, V
1
= V
2
= V. Also, let H
1
= H
2
= H and
.
2 1
Then obviously, q q q
2 1
. Let A
12
= A.
V =
)] / 4 ln( ) / 2 [ln(
2
2 2
0
A A H H
e e
q
r
+
=
Volt s , ] 4 / 2 ln[
2
2 2
0
A H HA
e e
q
r
+
...(4.25)
This gives t he capacit ance per unit lengt h of each conduct or t o gr ound t o be
C
g
=
Far ads )], /2 4 ln( ) / /[ln( 2 /
2 2
0
H A H A e e V q
r
+
...(4.26)
V2
H
A
I
V
1
, H
H
G
Ground
The capacit ance bet ween t he t wo conduct or s is one-half of t his since t he t wo capacit ances
t o gr ound ar e in ser ies. Compar ing equat ions (4.26) and (4.22) wit h 2d = A, we obser ve t hat in
t he pr esence of gr ound, t he capacit ance of t he syst em has been incr eased slight ly because t he
denominat or of (4.26) is smaller t han t hat in (4.22).
The char ging cur r ent of each conduct or is
I
c
= Amper es , 2 V C f
g
...(4.27)
and t he char ging r eact ive power is
Q
c
= Var s , 2
2
V C f
g
...(4.28)
Exa mp le 4.8. A single-conduct or e.h.v. t r ansmission line st r ung above gr ound is used for
exper iment al pur poses t o invest igat e high-volt age effect s. The conduct or is expanded ACSR
wit h diamet er of 2.5 inches (0.0635 m) and t he line height is 21 met r es above gr ound.
(a) Calculat e t he volt age t o gr ound which will make it s sur face volt age gr adient equal t o
cor ona-incept ion gr adient given by Peek's For mula:
E
or
=
,
`
.
|
+
301 . 0
1
1
2
30
m
, kV/cm, r .m.s., wher e m = 1.3 r equir ed for st r anding effect ,
and t he conduct or r adius is in cm.
(b) Find t he char ging cur r ent and MVAR of t he single-phase t r ansfor mer for excit ing 1
km lengt h of t he exper iment al line.
Sol u t i on . Refer t o Figur e 4.9. = 0.03175 m = 3.175 cm.
Fr om equa t ion (4.24) a nd in t he a bsence of a second
conduct or ,
V =

1
2
and ) / 2 ln(
2
0 0
e
q
E H
e
q
Now,
or
E =

,
`
.
|
+
175 . 3
301 . 0
1
2 3 . 1
10 30
2
= 1907.4 kV/m
(a) V = 1907.4 0.03175 ln (42/0.03175) = 435.4 kV,
r .m.s.
(b) Ca pa cit a nce ) / 2 ln( / 2 /
0
H L e V qL C
g
= 7.747
nF/km
Char ging cur r ent at 50 Hz is
I
c
= 2 50 7.747 10
9
435.4 10
3
A
= 1.06 Amper e
Char ging kVAR Q
c
= 1.06 435.4 = 461.5.
Fi g. 4.9 Single-phase exper iment al
line above gr ound for Example 4.8
The design of such an exper iment al 1 km line wit h 2.5 inch diamet er conduct or st r ung at
an aver age height of 21 m above gr ound will need a 500 kV single-phase t r ansfor mer r at ed for
1.1 A and 550 kVAR. In all such exper iment al pr oject s, a r esear ch fact or of 1.3 may be r equir ed
so t hat t he act ual r at ing may be 565 kV at 1.38 A giving near ly 750 kVA.
2 0.0635 m =
V
2 H = 42 m
4.4 CHARGE-POTENTIAL RELATIONS FOR MULTI-CONDUCTOR LINES
Sect ion 3.5 in t he last Chapt er 3, equat ions (3.38) t o (3.40) descr ibe t he char ge-pot ent ial r elat ions
of a transm ission line with n conduct or s on a t ower . The effect of a gr ound plane consider ed as
an equipot ent ial sur face gave r ise t o Maxwell's Pot ent ial coefficient s and t he gener al equat ions
ar e
[V] = ] 2 / ][ [
0
e Q P ...(4.29)
wher e t he element s of t he t hr ee mat r ices ar e, for i, j = 1, 2, ..., n

'
j i A I P i r H P
Q Q Q e e Q
V V V V V
ij ij ij eq i ii
t n
t n
), / ln( )), ( / 2 ln(
] ,...., , )[ 2 / 1 ( ] 2 / [
] ,..., , , [ ] [
2 1 0 0
3 2 1
...(4.30)
The equivalent r adius or geomet r ic mean r adius of a bundled conduct or has alr eady been
discussed and is
r
eq
=R(N. r/ R)
1/ N
...(4.31)
wher e R = bundle r adius = B/2 sin ) / ( N ,
B = bundle spacing (spacing bet ween adjacent conduct or s)
r = r adius of each sub-conduct or ,
and N = number of conduct or s in t he bundle.
The element s of Maxwell's pot ent ial coefficient s ar e all known since t hey depend only on
t he given dimensions of t he line-conduct or configur at ion on t he t ower . In all pr oblems of int er est
in e.h.v. t r ansmission, it is r equir ed t o find t he char ge mat r ix fr om t he volt age since t his is also
known. The char ge-coefficient mat r ix is evaluat ed as
] 2 / [
0
e Q = [P]
1
[V] = [M] [V] ...(4.32)
or , if t he char ges t hemselves ar e necessar y,
[Q] = ] ][ [ 2
0
V M e ...(4.33)
In nor mal t r ansmission wor k, t he quant it y
0
2 / e Q occur s most of t he t ime and hence
equat ion (4.32) is mor e useful t han (4.33). The quant it y
0
2 / e Q has unit s of volt s and t he
element s of bot h [P] and [M] = [P]
1
ar e dimensionless number s.
On a t r ansmission t ower , t her e ar e p phase conduct or s or poles and one or t wo gr ound
wir es which ar e usually at or near gr ound pot ent ial. Ther efor e, inver sion of [P] becomes easier
and mor e meaningful if t he suit able r ows and columns belonging t o t he gr ound wir es ar e
eliminat ed. An example in t he Appendix illust r at es t he pr ocedur e t o obser ve t he effect of gr ound
wir es on t he line-conduct or char ges, volt age gr adient s, et c. On a 3-phase ac line, t he phase
volt ages ar e var ying in t ime so t hat t he char ges ar e also var ying at 50 Hz or power fr equency.
This will be necessar y in or der t o evaluat e t he elect r ost at ic field in t he line vicinit y. But for
Radio Noise and Audible Noise calculat ions, high-fr equency effect s must be consider ed under
suit able t ypes of excit at ion of t he mult iconduct or s. Similar ly, light ning and swit ching-sur ge
st udies also r equir e unbalanced excit at ion of t he phase and gr ound conduct or s.
4.4.1 Maximum Charge Condition on a 3-Phase Line
E.H.V. t r ansmission lines ar e most ly single-cir cuit lines on a t ower wit h one or t wo gr ound
wir es. For pr eliminar y consolidat ion of ideas, we will r est r ict our at t ent ion her e t o 3 conduct or s
excit ed by a balanced set of posit ive-sequence volt ages under st eady st at e. This can be ext ended
t o ot her line configur at ions and ot her t ypes of excit at ion lat er on. The equat ion for t he char ges
is,
]
]
]
]
]
3
2
1
0
2
1
Q
Q
Q
e
=
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
3
2
1
33 32 , 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
,
, ,
, ,
V
V
V
M M M
M M M
M M M
...(4.34)
For a 3-phase ac line, we have
V
1
= ), sin( 2 + wt V
V
2
= ) 120 sin( 2 + wt V
and V
3
= wit h ) 120 sin( 2 + + wt V
V = r .m.s. value of line-t o-gr ound volt age and w = 2f,
f = power fr equency in Hz. The angle denot es t he inst ant on V
1
wher e
t = 0. If + wt is denot ed as , t her e r esult s
0 1
2 / e Q = )] 120 sin( ) 120 sin( sin [ 2
13 12 11
+ + + M M M V
= ] cos ) ( 866 . 0 sin )} ( 5 . 0 [{ 2
12 13 13 12 11
+ + M M M M M V ...(4.35)
Differ ent iat ing wit h r espect t o and equat ing t o zer o gives
) 2 / (
0 1
e Q
d
d
= 0
= ] sin ) (
2
3
cos ) 5 . 0 5 . 0 [( 2
12 13 13 12 11
M M M M M V
This gives t he value of
m
at which Q
1
r eaches it s maximum or peak value. Thus,
m
=
1
13 12 11 12 13
)] 2 /( ) ( 3 t an[ ar c

M M M M M ...(4.36)
Subst it ut ing t his value of in equat ion (4.35) yields t he maximum value of Q
1
.
An alt er nat ive pr ocedur e using phasor algebr a can be devised. Expand equat ion (4.35) as
0 1
2 / e Q = ) sin( ) ( 75 . 0 ) 5 . 5 . ( 2
2
12 13
2
13 12 11
+ + M M M M M V ...(4.37)
The amplit ude or peak value of
0 1
2 / e Q is
max 0 1
) 2 / ( e Q =
2 / 1
11 13 13 12 12 11
2
13
2
12
2
11
)] ( [ 2 M M M M M M M M M V + + + + ...(4.38)
It is left as an exer cise t o t he r eader t o pr ove t hat subst it ut ing
m
fr om equat ion (4.36) in
equat ion (4.35) gives t he amplit ude of
max 0 1
) 2 / ( e Q in equat ion (4.38).
Similar ly for Q
2
we t ake t he element s of 2nd r ow of [M].
max 0 2
) 2 / ( e Q =
2 / 1
21 23 23 22 22 21
2
23
2
21
2
22
)] ( [ 2 M M M M M M M M M V + + + + ...(4.39)
For Q
3
we t ake t he element s of t he 3r d r ow of [M].
max 0 3
) 2 / ( e Q =
2 / 1
31 33 33 31 32 31
2
32
2
31
2
33
)] ( [ 2 M M M M M M M M M V + + + + ...(4.40)
The gener al expr ession for any conduct or is, for i = 1, 2, 3,
max 0
) 2 / ( e Q
i
=
2 / 1
1 3 3 2 2 1
2
3
2
2
2
1
)] ( [ 2
i i i i i i i i i
M M M M M M M M M V + + + +
...(4.41)
4.4.2 Numerical Values of Potential Coefficients and Charge of Lines
In t his sect ion, we discuss r esult s of numer ical comput at ion of pot ent ial coefficient s and char ges
pr esent on conduct or s of t ypical dimensions fr om 400 kV t o 1200 kV whose configur at ions ar e
given in Chapt er 3, Figur e 3.5. For one line, t he effect of consider ing or neglect ing t he pr esence
of gr ound wir es on t he char ge coefficient will be discussed, but in a digit al-comput er pr ogr amme
t he gr ound wir es can be easily accommodat ed wit hout difficult y. In making all calculat ions we
must r emember t hat t he height H
i
of conduct or i is t o be t aken as t he aver age height . It will be
quit e adequat e t o use t he r elat ion, as pr oved lat er ,
H
av
= H
min
+ Sag/3 ...(4.42)
Average Line Height for Inductance Calculation*
The shape assumed by a fr eely hanging cable of lengt h L
c
over a hor izont al span S bet ween
suppor t s is a cat enar y. We will appr oximat e t he shape t o a par abola for der iving t he aver age
height which holds for small sags. Figur e 4.10 shows t he dimensions r equir ed. In t his figur e,
H = minimum height of conduct or at midspan
S = hor izont al span,
and d = sag at midspan.
Fig. 4.10 Calculat ion of aver age height over a span S wit h sag d.
The equat ion t o t he par abolic shape assumed is
y = H + (4d/S
2
) x
2
...(4.43)
The induct ance per unit lengt h at dist ance x fr om t he point of minimum height is
L = 0.2 ln (2y/r) = 0.2 [ln 2y ln r] ...(4.44)
Since t he height of conduct or is var ying, t he induct ance also var ies wit h it .
The aver age induct ance over t he span is
L
av
=

2 /
S/2
) ln 2 (ln 2 . 0
1
S
dx r y
S
*The aut hor is indebt ed t o Ms. S. Ganga for help in making t his analysis.
S
d
H
x
y
y = H + (4d/S )x
2
=

2 /
0
) ln 2 ln (
4 . 0
S
dx r y
S
...(4.45)
Now, ln 2y = ln (2H + 8dx
2
/S
2
) = ln (8d/S
2
) + ln (x
2
+ S
2
H/4d) ...(4.46)
Let a
2
= S
2
H/4d. Then,
+ +
2 /
0
2 2 2
) ln(
2
) / 8 ln(
S
dx a x
S
S d = ln [(1 + H/d) S
2
/4]
) / 8 ln( / t an / 2 2
2 1
S d H d d H + +

= ln 2d + ln (1 + H/d) 2 + 2
H d d H / t an /
1
...(4.47)
If t he r ight -hand side can be expr essed as ln (2 H
av
), t hen t his gives t he aver age height for
induct ance calculat ion. We now use some numer ical values t o show t hat H
av
is appr oximat ely
equal t o
,
`
.
|
+ d H
3
1
=
Sag
3
1
min
+ H
Fig. 4.11 Induct ances and capacit ances of 400 kV hor izont al line.
(a) Consider H = 10, d = 10. Using t hese in equat ion (4.47) give
ln 20 + ln (1 + 1) 2 + 2 t an
1
1 = 3 + 0.6931 2 + /2 = 3.259 = ln 26 = ln(2 H
av
)
H
av
= 26/2 = 13 = 10 + 3 = H + 0.3d
(b) H = 10, d = 8. ln 16 + ln 2.25 2 + 2
8 . 0 t an 25 . 1
1
= ln 24.9
H
av
= 12.45 = H + 2.45 = H + 0.306d
(c) H = 14, d = 10. H
av
= 17.1 = 14 + 3.1 = H + 0.3d
These examples appear t o show t hat a r easonable value for aver age height is H
av
= H
min
+
sag/3. A r igor ous for mulat ion of t he pr oblem is not at t empt ed her e.
Figur e 4.11, 4.12 and 4.13 show induct ances and capacit ances of conduct or s for t ypical 400
kV, 750 kV and 1200 kV lines.
Ls
L
m
Lm
m
H
/
k
m
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.2
0.1
0
Outer-Inner
Outer-Outer
0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Outer-Inner
Outer-Outer
Inner
Outer
11
10
9
2
0
1
Cm
C
s
0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
n
F
/
k
m
Cond. Dia., metre Cond. Dia., metre
400-kV Horizontal
H = 15 m, S = 12 m
N = 2, B = 0.4572 m
4.5 SURFACE VOLTAGE GRADIENT ON CONDUCTORS
The sur face volt age gr adient on conduct or s in a bundle gover ns gener at ion of cor ona on t he
line which have ser ious consequences causing audible noise and r adio int er fer ence. They also
affect car r ier communicat ion and signalling on t he line and cause int er fer ence t o t elevision
r ecept ion. The designer of a line must eliminat e t hese nuisances or r educe t hem t o t oler able
limit s specified by st andar ds, if any exist . These limit s will be discussed at appr opr iat e places
wher e AN, RI and ot her int er fer r ing fields ar e discussed in t he next t wo chapt er s. Since cor ona
gener at ion depends on t he volt age gr adient on conduct or sur faces, t his will be t aken up now for
e.h.v. conduct or s wit h number of sub-conduct or s in a bundle r anging fr om 1 t o N. The maximum
value of N is 8 at pr esent but a gener al der ivat ion is not difficult .
F i g. 4.12. L a nd C of 750 kV hor izont al line.
Fig. 4.13 L a nd C of 1200 kV hor izont al line.
4.5.1 Single Conductor
Figur e 4.9 can be used for a single conduct or whose char ge is q coulomb/met r e. We ha ve
already found the line charges or the term s (Q
i
/2e
0
) in t er ms of t he volt ages V
i
and t he Maxwell's
Pot ent ial Coefficient mat r ix [P] and it s inverse [M], wher e i = 1, 2, ..., n, t he number of conduct or s
Ls
Lm
L
m
m
H
/
k
m
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.2
0.1
0
Outer-Inner
Outer-Outer
0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Outer-Inner
Outer-Outer
Inner
Outer
13
12
11
10
2
0
1 C
m
Cs
0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
n
F
/
k
m
750-kV Horizontal
H = 20 m, S = 15 m
N = 4, B = 0.4572 m
L
s
L
m
Lm
m
H
/
k
m
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.2
0.1
0
Outer-Inner
Outer-Outer
0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Outer-Inner
Outer-Outer
Inner
Outer
14
13
12
3
2
1 C
m
C
s
0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
n
F
/
k
m
1200 kV, Horizontal
H = 20 m, S = 24 m
N = 8, R = 0.6 m
on a t ower . For t he single conduct or per phase or pole, t he sur face volt age gr adient is
E
c
=
r e
q 1
2
0
volt s/met r e ...(4.48)

Fig. 4.14 Volt age gr adient of single conduct or .
This is plot t ed in Figur e 4.14 as a funct ion of conduct or diamet er s r anging fr om 0.02 t o
0.065 m. The lar gest single conduct or manufact ur ed is 2.5 inches (0.0635 m) in diamet er for t he
B.P.A. 525 kV line in t he U.S.A. In t er ms of volt age t o gr ound, V =
) / 2 ln(
2
0
r H
e
q
so t hat
E
c
=
) / 2 ln( . r H r
V
volt s/met r e ...(4.49)
Th e fa ct or E
c
/(q/2e
0
) is a lso plot t ed a ga inst t he r ecipr oca l of dia met er a nd yields
appr oximat ely a st r aight line.
4.5.2 2-Conductor Bundle (Figure 4.15)
In t his case, t he char ge Q obt ained fr om equat ion (4.33) is t hat of t he t ot al bundle so t hat t he
char ge of each sub-conduct or per unit lengt h is q = Q/2. This will for m one phase of an ac line
or a pole of a dc line. In calculat ing t he volt age gr adient on t he sur face of a sub-conduct or , we
will make t he following assumpt ions:
Fig. 4.15 2-conduct or bundle above gr ound for volt age gr adient calculat ion.
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
10 20 30 40 50
0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
2
e
E
/
q
0
c
d, meter
1/d
1/d
d
m
1
H
Ground
2 r
B
q = Q/2
R = B/2
(1) The conduct or s of t he ot her phases or poles ar e ver y far fr om t he bundled conduct or
under examinat ion, i.e. S B or 2R.
(2) The image conduct or s ar e also ver y far , i.e. 2H B or 2R.
This allows us t o ignor e all ot her char ges except t hat of t he conduct or s in t he bundle.
Now, by definit ion, t he elect r ic field int ensit y is t he for ce exer t ed on a unit posit ive t est char ge
placed at t he point wher e t he field int ensit y is t o be evaluat ed, which in t his case is a point on
t he sub-conduct or sur face. Consider point P
i
on t he inside of t he bundle, Figur e 4.16. The for ce
on a t est char ge is
E
i
= For ce due t o conduct or char ge For ce due t o t he char ge on second conduct or of
bundle.
At t he point P
0
on t he out side of t he bundle, t he t wo for ces ar e dir ect ed in t he same sense.
It is clear t hat it is her e t hat t he maximum sur face volt age gr adient occur s.
Now, t he for ce due t o conduct or char ge =
r e
q 1
2
0
. In comput ing t he for ce due t o t he

char ge of t he ot her sub-conduct or t her e is t he impor t ant point t hat t he conduct or s ar e met allic.
When a conduct ing cylinder is locat ed in t he field of a char ge, it dist or t s t he field and t he field
int ensit y is higher t han when it is absent . If t he conduct ing cylinder is placed in a unifor m field
of a char ge q, elect r ost at ic t heor y shows t hat st r ess-doubling occur s on t he sur face of t he
met allic cylinder . In t he pr esent case, t he left cylinder is placed at a dist ance B fr om it s companion
at r ight . Unless B r, t he field is non-unifor m. However , for t he sake of calculat ion of sur face
volt age gr adient s on sub-conduct or s in a mult i-conduct or bundle, we will assume t hat t he field
is unifor m and st r ess-doubling t akes place. Once again, t his is a pr oblem in successive images
but will not be pur sued her e.
Ther efor e, E
i
=

,
`
.
|
B r e
q 2 1
2
0
=
) / 1 (
1
.
2
0
R r
r e
q
=
) / 1 (
1
.
2
1
2
0
R r
r e
Q
...(4.50)
wher e Q = t ot al bundle char ge.
On t he ot her hand, at point P
0
on t he out side of bundle
E
0
=
) / 1 (
1
2
1
2
0
R r
r e
Q
+
...(4.51)
These ar e t he minimum and maximum values, and t hey occur at and 0 . The
aver age is
r e
Q
E
1
2
1
2
0
av
. The var iat ion of sur face volt age gr adient on t he per ipher y can be
appr oximat ed t o a cosine cur ve
E() =

,
`
.
|
+
cos 1
1
2
1
2
0
R
r
r e
Q
=
,
`
.
|
+ cos 1
av
R
r
E ...(4.52)
Fig. 4.16 Dist r ibut ion of volt age gr adient on 2-conduct or bundle illust r at ing t he cosine law.
This is shown in Figur e 4.16. This is called t he "cosine law" of var iat ion of E wit h . We
ar e now encount er ing t hr ee t er ms: Maximum gr adient , Minimum gr adient and Aver age gr adient .
Since we have neglect ed t he char ges on t he ot her phases and t he image conduct or s, t he sur face
volt age gr adient dist r ibut ion on bot h sub-conduct or s of t he bundle is ident ical. The concept s
given above can be easily ext ended t o bundles wit h mor e sub-conduct or s and we will consider N
fr om 3 t o 8.
Exa mp le 4.9. The dimensions of a 400 kV dc line ar e shown in Figur e 417. Calculat e
(a) t he char ge coefficient
0
2 / e Q for each bundle,
(b) t he maximum and minimum sur face gr adient on t he conduct or s by
(i) omit t ing t he char ges of t he second pole and image conduct or s,
(ii) consider ing t he char ge of t he second pole but omit t ing t he char ge of t he image
conduct or s,
(c) t he aver age maximum sur face volt age gr adient of t he bundle under case b (ii).
Sol u t i on . The pot ent ial coefficient s ar e fir st calculat ed.
r
eq
= m 08874 . 0 45 . 0 0175 . 0
P
11
= P
22
= ln (24/0.08874) = 5.6
P
12
= P
21
= ln (
9 / 9 24
2 2
+
) = 1.047.
Fig. 4.17 Maximum and minimum values of volt age gr adient s on 2-conduct or bundles.
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Emax
Eav
Emin = E r R av(1 / )
E = av
Q
e
2
2 0
1
2
1
r
. .
r/R E = E ( + ) ( ) 1 cos av
r
R
= 0
2
r
q q
R
P0
Pi
Q
2
= 2q
r
H = m 12
2 = 3.5 cm r
B = 0.45 m
B
2 r
P
01
P
02
P
P = 9 m
[P] =
]
]
]

]
]
]

185 . 0 , 0346 . 0
0346 . 0 , 185 . 0
] [ ] [ giving
6 . 5 , 047 . 1
047 . 1 , 6 . 5
1
P M
(a) ]
]
]
2
1
0
2
1
Q
Q
e
=
3
10
400
400
185 . 0 , 0346 . 0
0346 . 0 , 185 . 0
]
]
]
]
]
]
=
3
10 84 . 87
1
1
]
]
]
The char ge of each bundle is c/m

18
84 . 87
10 84 . 87 2
3
0
e
= 4.88 c/m.
The char ge of each sub-conduct or is q = 2.44 c/m lengt h.
(b) (i) Maximum and minimum gr adient =
) / 1 (
1
2
0
R r
r e
q
t
Maximum E
0
=
) 225 . 0 / 0175 . 0 1 (
0175 . 0
1
2
1
10 84 . 87
3
+
= 2705 kV/m = 27.05 kV/cm
Minimum E
i
= 23.15 kV/cm = 2315 kV/m
Aver age gr adient =
kV/m 2510
0175 .
1
2
84 . 87 1
2
0

r e
q
= 25.1 kV/cm
(ii) Consider t he 2 sub-conduct or s on t he left .
At P
01
, t he for ces on a posit ive t est char ge ar e as shown in Figur e 4.17.
E
01
=

,
`
.
|
+
+
4675 . 9
2
0175 . 9
2
2
) / 1 (
1
2
0 0
e
q
R r
r e
q
= 2705 19 = 2686 kV/m = 26.86 kV/cm
E
02
=

,
`
.
|
+
+ +
9325 . 8
2
4825 . 8
2
2
) / 1 (
1
2
0 0
e
q
R r
r e
q
= 2705 + 20.2 = 2725.2 kV/m = 27.25 kV/cm
1
i
E
=

,
`
.
|
+
+
4325 . 9
2
9825 . 8
2
2
) / 1 (
1
2
0 0
e
q
R r
r e
q
= 2315 + 19.1 = 2334 kV/m = 23.34 kV/cm
2
i
E
=

,
`
.
|
+

0225 . 9
2
5725 . 8
2
2
) / 1 (
1
2
0 0
e
q
R r
r e
q
= 2315 20 = 2295 kV/m = 22.95 kV/cm.
The maximum gr adient s on t he t wo sub-conduct or s have now become 26.86 kV/cm and
27.25 kV/cm inst ead of 27.05 kV/cm calculat ed on t he basis of omit t ing t he char ges of ot her
pole.
(c) The aver age maximum gr adient is defined as t he ar it hmet ic aver age of t he t wo
maximum gr adient s.
E
avm
= kV/cm 055 . 27 ) 25 . 27 86 . 26 (
2
1
+
This is almost equal t o t he maximum gr adient obt ained by omit t ing t he char ges of t he
ot her pole.
For a 3-phase ac line, t he effect of char ges on ot her phases can usually be ignor ed because
when t he char ge on t he conduct or of one phase is at peak value, t he char ge on t he ot her phases
ar e passing t hr ough 50% of t heir peak values but of opposit e polar it y. This has an even less
effect t han t hat has been shown for t he bipolar dc line wher e t he char ge of t he second pole is
equal and opposit e t o t he char ge of t he conduct or under consider at ion. However , in a digit al
comput er pr ogr amme, all t hese could be incor por at ed. It is well t o r emember t hat all calculat ions
ar e based on t he basic assumpt ion t hat gr ound is an equipot ent ial sur face and t hat t he sub-
conduct or char ges ar e concent r at ed at t heir cent r es. Bot h t hese assumpt ions ar e appr oximat e.
But a mor e r igor ous analysis is not at t empt ed her e.
4.5.3 Maximum Surface Voltage Gradients for
3 N
The met hod descr ibed befor e for calculat ing volt age gr adient s for a t win-bundle conduct or , N =
2, can now be ext ended for bundles wit h mor e t han 2 sub-conduct or s. A gener al for mula will be
obt ained under t he assumpt ion t hat t he sur face volt age gr adient s ar e only due t o t he char ges
of t he N sub-conduct or s of t he bundle, ignor ing t he char ges of ot her phases or poles and t hose
on t he image conduct or s. Also, t he sub-conduct or s ar e t aken t o be spaced far enough fr om each
ot her so as t o yield a unifor m field at t he locat ion of t he sub-conduct or and hence t he concept of
st r ess-doubling will be used.
Figur e 4.18 shows bundles wit h N = 3, 4, 6, 8 sub-conduct or s and t he point P wher e t he
maximum sur face volt age gr adient occur s. The for ces exer t ed on a unit posit ive t est char ge at
P due t o all N conduct or -char ges q ar e also shown as vect or s. The component s of t hese for ces
along t he vect or for ce due t o conduct or char ge will yield t he maximum sur face volt age gr adient .
Due t o symmet r y, t he component s at r ight angles t o t his for ce will cancel each ot her , as shown
on t he figur es.
N = 3. B =
R 3
for equilat er al spacing.
Fig. 4.18 Dist r ibut ion of sur face volt age gr adient s on 3-, 4-, 6-, and 8-conduct or bundles.
B
B
R
P
30
q
e 2
0
q
e 2 0
q
e 2 0
2
/ 3

R
R
P 45
30 60
R
B
R
B
2 sin /8 R
2 sin /4 R
2 si n3 R /8
( ) a ( ) b
( ) c
( ) d
R = B/ 3 R = B/ 2 R = B R = B/2 sin 22.5
q
e 2 0
2
B
.
q
e 2 0
2
B
.
q
e 2
0
2
B
.
q
e 2 0
1
r
.
q
e 2 0
1
r
.
q
e 2
0
1
r
.
2
R 2
.
2
R 2
.
.
E
P
=
) / 2 1 (
1
2
30 cos
2
. 2 1
1
2
0 0
R r
r e
q
B
r
r e
q
+

,
`
.
|
+
...(4.53)
Th e s u b-con du ct or ch a r ge i s q = Q/3 wh er e Q is obt a in ed fr om equ a t ion (4.32),
] ][ [ ] 2 / [
0
V M e Q as discussed ear lier .
N = 4. B =
R 2
for quadr ilat er al spacing.
E
P
=

,
`
.
|
+ +
45 cos
2
2
2
2
2 1
2
0 R
R r e
q
=
) / 3 1 (
1
2
0
R r
r e
q
+
...(4.54)
Not e t he emer gence of a gener al for mula
E
P
=
] / ) 1 ( 1 [
1
2
0
R r N
r e
q
+
...(4.55)
N = 6. B = R for hexagonal spacing.
E
P
= ]
]
]
+ + +
30 cos
3
2
2 60 cos
2
2
2
2 1
2
0 R
R R r e
q
=
] / ) 1 ( 1 [
1
2
) / 5 1 (
1
2
0 0
R r N
r e
q
R r
r e
q
+
...(4.56)
N = 8, B = 2R sin 22.5 for oct agonal spacing
E
P
=
+ +
4
cos
4 / sin 2
2
2
8
3
cos
8 / sin 2
2
2
2
2 1
2
0
R R R r e
q
]
]
]
8
cos
8 / 3 sin 2
2
2
R
=
) / 7 1 (
1
2
2 2 2 1 1
2
0 0
R r
r e
q
R R R R r e
q
+

,
`
.
|
+ + + +
=
] / ) 1 ( 1 [
1
2
0
R r N
r e
q
+
...(4.57)
Fr om t he above analysis, we obser ve t hat t he cont r ibut ions t o t he gr adient at P fr om ea ch
of t he (N 1) sub-conduct or s ar e all equal t o
R e
q 1
2
0
. In gener al, for an N-conduct or bundle,

E
P
=
+
,
`
.
|
+ +
N R N N R R r e
q
/ 2 sin 2
2
2
2
cos
/ sin 2
2
2
2
2 1
2
0
]
]
]
,
`
.
|

+ +
,
`
.
|
N
N
N N R N
1
2
cos
/ ) 1 sin( 2
2
2 ...
2
2
cos
=
] / ) 1 ( 1 [
1
2
) 2 ( 1 1
2
0 0
R r N
r e
q
R
N
R r e
q
+
]
]
]

+ +
...(4.58)
Figur es 4.19, 4.20, and 4.21 show t ypical r esult s of maximum sur face volt age gr adient s
for 400 kV, 750 kV, and 1200 kV lines whose dimensions ar e shown in Figur e 3.5 [See S. Ganga,
Ref. 17, "Ot her J our nals"]
F i g. 4.19 Sur face volt age gr adient on conduct or s of 400 kV line. See Figur e 4.11 for dimensions.
4.5.4 Mangoldt (Markt-Mengele) Formula
In t he case of a 3-phase ac line wit h hor izont al configur at ion of phases, a convenient for mula
due t o Mangoldt can be der ived. This is also known as t he Mar kt -Mengele For mula by some
ot her s.
Fig. 4.20 Sur face volt age gr adient on conduct or s of 750 kV line. See Figur e 4.12 for dimensions.
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Inner
Outer
(
k
V
/
m
)
/
k
V
Cond. Dia., metre
400 kV, Horizontal
H = 15 m, S = 12 m, N = 2,
B = 0.4572
7
6
5
4
3
2
0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Inner
Outer
(
k
V
/
m
)
/
k
V
Cond. Dia., metre
750 kV, Horizontal
H = 20 m, S = 15 m, N = 4
B = 0.4572 m
Fig. 4.21 Sur face volt age gr adient s on 1200 kV lines. See Figur e 4.13 for dimensions.
Refer r ing t o Figur e 4.22, let Q
1
, Q
2
, Q
3
be t he inst ant aneous char ges on t he bundles. The
Maxwell's Pot ent ial coefficient s ar e
'
+ +
+ +

2 2 2
31 13
2 2 2
32 23 21 12
/ 1
33 22 11
) / ( 1 ln ) 2 / 4 4 ln(
) / 2 ( 1 ln ) / 4 ln(
) / ( wher e ), / 2 ln(
S H S S H P P
S H S S H P P P P
R Nr R r r H P P P
N
eq eq
...(4.59)
Fig. 4.22 3-phase hor izont al configur at ion of line for der ivat ion of Mangoldt For mula.
5
4
3
2
1
0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
(
k
V
/
m
)
/
k
V
Cond. Dia., metre
1200-kV Horizontal
H = 20, S = 24, N = 8, R = 0.6
4 + 4 H S
2 2
4 + H S
2 2
Q
1
Q
2
Q3
2H
H
S
2S
S
R
2r
N -
r
conductor
bundle
eq
N
= R Nr/R ( )
1/
The volt age-char ge r elat ions ar e
'
+ +
+ +
+ +
0 3 33 0 2 32 0 1 31 3
0 3 23 0 2 22 0 1 21 2
0 3 13 0 2 12 0 1 11 1
2 / . 2 / . 2 / .
2 / . 2 / . 2 / .
2 / . 2 / . 2 / .
e Q P e Q P e Q P V
e Q P e Q P e Q P V
e Q P e Q P e Q P V
...(4.60)
Bot h t he volt ages and t he char ges ar e sinusoidally var ying at power fr equency and at
ever y inst ant of t ime, 0
3 2 1
+ + V V V and 0
3 2 1
+ + Q Q Q . When t he char ge of any phase is
passing t hr ough it s peak value, t he char ges of t he r emaining t wo phases ar e negat ive but of
magnit ude 0.5 peak. Fr om symmet r y, t he peak values of char ges on t he t wo out er phases will
be equal. If we assume the peak values of Q
1
, Q
2
, Q
3
t o be appr oximat ely equal, t hen, combining
equat ions (4.59) and (4.60) we obt ain t he following equat ions:
For t h e Ou t er Ph a ses
V
1
=
) 5 . 0 5 . 0 (
2
13 12 11
0
1
P P P
e
Q

=
4 / 1
2 2
0
1
1
2
1
1 2
ln
2
]
]
]
]
'
'
,
`
.
|
+
'
'
,
`
.
|
+
S
H
S
H
r
H
e
Q
eq
...(4.61)
Ther efor e,
0
1
2 e
Q
is found fr om t he given volt age. If t he r .m.s. value of phase volt age t o

gr ound is used,
0
1
2 e
Q
is also t he r .m.s. value of t he char ge coefficient and t he r esult ing sur face
volt age gr adient will also be in kV (r .m.s.)/met r e, if V is in kV. The maximum sur face volt age
gr adient will t hen be accor ding t o equat ion (4.58).
E
0m
= ]
]
]
+
R
r
N
r N e
Q
) 1 ( 1
1 1
2
0
1
= ,
}] ) / ( 1 }{ ) / 2 ( 1 [{
1 2
ln . .
/ ) 1 ( 1
4 / 1 2 2
V
S H S H r
H
r N
R r N
eq
+ +
+
...(4.62)
Similar ly, for t he cent r e phase,
0
2
2 e
Q
= V P P P . )] ( 5 . 0 [
1
23 21 22
+
and E
cm
= V
S H r
H
r N
R r N
eq
2 / 1 2
] ) / 2 ( 1 [
1 2
ln .
/ ) 1 ( 1
+
+
...(4.63)
Equat ions (4.62) and (4.63) ar e known as Mangoldt or Mar kt -Mengele For mulas. They
wer e fir st der ived only for t he cent r e phase which gives a higher maximum volt age gr adient
t han t he out er phases. Wit h cor ona assuming lot mor e impor t ance since t his for mula was
der ived, we have ext ended t heir t hinking t o t he out er phases also.
Exa mp le 4.10. For a 400-kV line, calculat e t he maximum sur face volt age gr adient s on
t he cent r e and out er phases in hor izont al configur at ion at t he maximum oper at ing volt age of
420 kV, r .m.s. line-t o-line. The ot her dimensions ar e
H = 13 m, S = 11 m, N = 2, r = 0.0159 m, B = 0.45 m.
Sol u t i on . 2H/S = 26/11 = 2.364 and H/S = 1.182
4 / 1 2 2
}] ) / ( 1 }{ ) / 2 ( 1 [{ S H S H + +
=
567 . 2 ) / ( 1 ; 982 . 1
2
+ S H
eq
r = R(N .r /R)
1/N
= 0.225 (2 0.0159/0.225)
1/2
= 0.0846 m
Also, r
eq
= 3 . 307 / 2 , m 0846 . 0 45 . 0 0159 . 0
eq
r H
(a) Out er Phases
E
0m
=
) 982 . 1 / 3 . 307 ( ln 0159 . 0 2
3 / 420 ) 225 . 0 / 0159 . 0 1 (
+
= 1619 kV/m = 16.19 kV/cm
(b) Cent r e Phase.
E
cm
=
) 567 . 2 / 3 . 307 ln( 0159 . 0 2
3 / 420 ) 225 . 0 / 0159 . 0 1 (
+
= 1707 kV/m = 17.07 kV/cm
The cent r e phase gr adient is higher t han t hat on t he out er phases by
100
19 . 16
19 . 16 07 . 17
= 5.44%
For a bipolar dc line, it is easy t o show t hat t he maximum sur face volt age gr adient on t he
sub-conduct or of a bundle is
E
m
=
V
P H
r
H
r N
R r N
eq
]
]
]
]
+
+
2
) / 2 ( 1
1 2
ln . .
/ ) 1 ( 1
...(4.64)
wher e H = height of each pole above gr ound
P = pole spacing
and V = volt age t o gr ound
Exa mp le 4.11. Using t he dat a of Example 4.9, and using equat ion (4.64), calculat e t he
maximum sur face volt age gr adient on t he 2-conduct or bundle for 400 kV dc line.
Sol u t i on . H = 12, P = 9, r = 0.0175, N = 2, R = 0.225
r
eq
= 0.08874,
E
m
=
]
]
]
]
+
2
) 9 / 24 ( 1
1
08874 .
24
ln 0175 . 0 2
400 ) 225 . 0 / 0175 . 0 1 (
= 2705 kV/m = 27.05 kV/cm
4.6 EXAMPLES OF CONDUCTORS AND MAXIMUM GRADIENTS ON
ACTUAL LINES
Sever al examples of conduct or configur at ions used on t r ansmission lines following wor ld-wide
pr act ice ar e given in t he Table 4.1. The maximum sur face volt age gr adient s ar e also indicat ed.
These ar e only examples and t he r eader should consult t he vast lit er at ur e (CIGRE Pr oceedings,
et c.) for mor e det ails. Most conduct or manufact ur er s use Br it ish unit s for conduct or sizes and
t he SI unit s ar e given only for calculat ion pur poses. These det ails ar e gat her ed fr om a lar ge
number of sour ces list ed in t he bibliogr aphy at t he end of t he book.
The conduct or sizes given in t he t able ar e not t he only ones used. For example, t he
following r ange of conduct or sizes is found on t he Nor t h Amer ican cont inent .
345 kV. Single conduct or 1.424, 1.602, 1.737, 1.75, 1.762 inches dia
2-conduct or bundle1.108, 1.165, 1.196, 1.246 inches dia.
500 kV. Single conduct or 2.5 inches dia
2-bundle1.602, 1.7, 1.75, 1.762, 1.82 inches dia (ACAR).
3-bundle1.165 inches dia.
4-bundle0.85, 0.9, 0.93 inches dia.
735-765 kV 4-bundle1.165, 1.2, 1.382 inches dia.
4.7 GRADIENT FACTORS AND THEIR USE
Fr om t he Mangoldt (Mar kt -Mengele) for mula given in Sect ion 4.5, it is obser ved t hat t he
maximum sur face volt age gr adient in t he cent r e phase of a hor izont al 3-phase ac line is a
funct ion of t he geomet r ical dimensions and t he maximum oper at ing volt age V. As shown in
Table 4.1, t he maximum oper at ing volt ages show a wide var iat ion. It is t her efor e advant ageous
t o have a t able or gr aph of t he nor malized value called t he 'gr adient fact or ' in kV/cm per kV or
V/m per volt or ot her unit s which will be independent of t he volt age. The gr adient fact or is
denot ed by g
f
= E
cm
/ V and it s value is
g
f
= E
cm
/ V =
]
]
]
]
+
+
2
) / 2 ( 1
1 2
ln . .
/ ) 1 ( 1
S H
r
H
r N
R r N
eq
...(4.65)
Ta ble 4.1. Con d u ct or Det a i ls a n d Ma xi mu m Su r fa ce Volt a ge Gr a d i en t s
Used i n EHV Li n es
Country Maximum Conductor Details Maximum Gradient
Operating Voltage No. dia in inches (cm) k v/ cm, RMS
kV, RMS
(1) India 420 2 1.258 (3.18) 17.0
(2) Canada 315 2 1.382 (3.51) 17.4
380 2 1.108 (2.814) 17.5 18.0
525 4 0.93 (2.362) 18.8
735 4 1.2, 1.382 (3.05, 3.51) 17.720.4
1200 6 1.84, 2.0 (4.674, 5.08)
8 1.65, 1.84 (4.19, 4.674)
(3) U.S.A. 355 362 1 1.602 (4.07) 16.6
2 1.175, 1.196 (2.985, 3.04) 1516
500 2 1.65 (4.19) 16.9
3 1.19 (3.02) 16.4
550 2 1.6 (4.07) 16.9
1 2.5 (6.35) 16.7
765 4 1.165 (2.96) 20.4
1200 8 1.602 (4.07) 13.5
(4) U.S.S.R. 400 3 1.19 (3.02) 13.6
525 3 1.19 (3.02) 18.0
1200 8 0.96 (2.438) 21.4
(5) U.K. 420 2 1.09 (2.77) 19.6
4 1.09 (2.77) 13.5
(6) Fr ance 420 2 1.04 (2.64) 19.0
(7) Ger many 380 4 0.827 (2.1) 15.7
420 4 0.854 (2.17) 16.7
(8) It a ly 380 2 1.168 (2.97) 15.0
1050 4 1.76, 1.87 (4.47, 4.75) 17.1 19.8
6 1.5 (3.81)
(9) Sweden 380 3 1.25 (3.18) 12.5
400 2 1.25 (3.18) 16.5
800 4 1.6 (4.06) 17.6
By var ying t he par amet er s (r, N, R, H and S ) over a lar ge r ange cur ves can be plot t ed for
g
f
against t he desir ed var iable. Fr om pr oduct of g
f
and t he maximum oper at ing line-t o-gr ound
volt age of t he line, t he maximum sur face volt age gr adient is r eadily obt ained. Such cur ves ar e
shown in Figur e 4.23 for N = 1, 2, 4 and for conduct or diamet er s r anging fr om 0.7" t o 2.5" (1.78
cm t o 6.35 cm). The height H in all cases has been fixed at H = 50' (15 m) and t he phase spacing
S r anging fr om 20' t o 50' (6 t o 15 m). Calculat ions have shown t hat a var iat ion of height H fr om
10 to 30 m etres does not change g
f
by mor e t han 1%. The abscissa has been chosen as t he
r ecipr ocal of t he diamet er and t he r esult ing var iat ion of gr adient fact or wit h (1/d) is near ly a
st r aight line, which is ver y convenient . In equat ion (4.65) it is obser ved t hat t he conduct or
r adius occur s in t he denominat or and t his pr oper t y has been used in plot t ing Figur e 4.23. [Also
see G. Veena, Ref. 16, "Ot her J our nals"].
Fig. 4.23 Gr adient fact or s of conduct or s (g
f
in V/m/Volt ).
Such gr aphs can also be pr epar ed for t he maximum sur face volt age gr adient fact or s for
t he out er phases or bipolar dc lines, et c., in a design office.
4.8 DISTRIBUTION OF VOLTAGE GRADIENT ON SUB-CONDUCTORS
OF BUNDLE
While discussing t he var iat ion of sur face volt age gr adient on a 2-conduct or bundle in sect ion
4.5.2, it was point ed out t hat t he gr adient dist r ibut ion follows near ly a cosine law, equat ion
(4.52). We will der ive r igor ous expr essions for t he gr adient dist r ibut ion and discuss t he
appr oximat ions t o be made which yields t he cosine law. The cosine law has been ver ified t o
hold for bundled conduct or s wit h up t o 8 sub-conduct or s. Only t he guiding pr inciples will be
indicat ed her e t hr ough an example of a 2-conduct or bundle and a gener al out line for N
3 will
be given which can be incor por at ed in a digit al-comput er pr ogr amme.
Figur e 4.24 shows det ailed view of a 2-conduct or bundle wher e t he char ges q on t he t wo
sub-conduct or s ar e assumed t o be concent r at ed at t he conduct or cent r es. At a point P on t he
sur face of a conduct or at angle fr om t he r efer ence dir ect ion, t he field int ensit ies due t o t he
t wo conduct or char ges ar e, using st r ess-doubling effect ,
E
1
=
B' e
q
E
r e
q 2
2
and
1
2
0
2
0

...(4.66)
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45
S
6
12
15
6
9
15
9
15
N = 2
N = 4
N = 1
Gradient Factors
(
k
V
/
m
)
/
k
V
1/d, d in cm
Fig. 4.25 Six-conduct or bundle and gr adient on sub-conduct or .
We fir st evaluat e t he dist ances
' '
B B
16 12
t o .
'
B
12
= ] ) cos 60 cos ( ) sin 60 sin [(
2 2
+ + + r R r R
'
B
13
= ] ) cos 30 cos 3 ( ) sin 30 sin 3 [(
2 2
+ + + r R r R
'
B
14
= ] ) cos 2 ( ) sin [(
2 2
+ + r R r ...(4.72)
'
B
15
= ] ) cos 30 cos 3 ( ) sin 30 sin 3 [(
2 2
+ + r R r R
'
B
16
= ] ) cos 60 cos ( ) sin 60 sin [(
2 2
+ + r R r R
Next t he hor izont al and ver t ical component s of t he field int ensit y at P ar e evaluat ed. The
fact or ) 2 / (
0
e q is omit t ed in wr it ing for t he pr esent but will be included at t he end.
Conduct or i Horizont al component Vertical component
(i = 1, 2, 3 E
h
(i) E
v
(i)
4, 5, 6)
1. cos
1
r
sin
1
r
2.
2
12
) /( ) cos 60 cos ( 2
'
B r R +
2
12
) /( ) sin 60 sin ( 2
'
B r R +
3.
2
13
) /( ) cos 30 cos 3 ( 2
'
B r R +
2
13
) /( ) sin 30 sin 3 ( 2
'
B r R +
4.
2
14
) /( ) cos 2 ( 2
'
B r R +
2
14
) /( sin 2
'
B r
5.
2
15
) /( ) cos 30 cos 3 ( 2
'
B r R +
2
15
) /( ) sin 30 sin 3 ( 2
'
B r R
6.
2
16
) /( ) cos 60 cos ( 2
'
B r R +
2
16
) /( ) sin 60 sin ( 2
'
B r R
Tot al field int ensit y
E
P
() =
2 / 1
2
6
1
2
6
1
0
) ( ) (
2
]
]
]
]
]
'
'
'
'

i
v
i
h
i E i E
e
q
Figur e 4.26 shows examples of sur face volt age gr adient dist r ibut ions on bundled conduct or s
wit h N = 2, 4, 6 subconduct or s.
'
1
2
P

B'15
B'
14
B'13
B'12
B'16
3
4
5
6
Fig. 4.26 Dist r ibut ion of volt age gr adient on bundle conduct or s for N = 2, 4, 6.
Var iat ion wit h conduct or diamet er .
4.9 DESIGN OF CYLINDRICAL CAGES FOR CORONA EXPERIMENTS
The effect s of high volt age-gr adient s on bundled conduct or s ar e evaluat ed all over t he wor ld by
"cages". In t he simplest of t hese ar r angement s a lar ge met allic cylinder at gr ound or near
gr ound pot ent ial for ms t he out er cage wit h t he bundled conduct or st r ung inside. The cent r es of
t he cylinder and t he bundle ar e coincident while t he subconduct or s t hemselves ar e displaced
off-cent r e, except for N = 1, a single conduct or . Sever al examples ar e shown in Figur e 4.27, in
which a squar e cage is also included. When t he dimensions of t he out er cage become ver y lar ge
or wher e t he lengt h of conduct or and weight ar e lar ge wit h a r esult ing sag, a squar e cage made
wit h mesh can be cont our ed t o follow t he sag. The cage ar r angement r equir es lower volt age for
cr eat ing t he r equir ed sur face volt age gr adient on t he conduct or s t han in an over head line
above gr ound. Also ar t ificial r ain equipment can be used if necessar y t o obt ain quick r esult s.
Measur ing inst r ument s ar e connect ed t o gr ound bot h fr om t he conduct or at high volt age and
t he cage at near gr ound pot ent ial wher e necessar y for Radio Int er fer ence, Cor ona Loss, char ge,
et c., measur ement s. Audible noise is usually measur ed as r adiat ion int o a micr ophone placed
away fr om t he t est set up. Nor mally, t he cage consist s of t hr ee sect ions, a long middle sect ion
which is t he pr incipal cage which could ext end up t o 60 met r es, wit h t wo shor t guar d cages at
eit her end gr ounded in or der t o minimize edge effect s.
Fig. 4.27 Configur at ion of 'cages' used for cor ona st udies.
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
180 360
N = 6
1.3 1.3
1.2 1.2
1.1 1.1
1.0 1.0
0.9 0.9
0.8 0.8
0.7 0.7
0.03
0.02
360 360 180
0.05
N = 2 N = 4
Cond. Dia., metre
2R
R
C
2r
We will der ive equat ions for calculat ing cor ona-incept ion gr adient on given bundled
conduct or s when placed inside a cylindr ical out er cage of a given r adius. Befor e t his is car r ied
out , t he r esult s of such calculat ions ar e pr esent ed for bundles up t o 8 sub-conduct or s which a
designer can use. Figur es 4.28 (a), (b), (c) give t he var iat ion of r .m.s. value of cor ona-incept ion
volt age which will be r equir ed fr om t he single-phase t r ansfor mer t hat excit es t he ent ir e
exper iment . The diamet er s of t he sub-conduct or s in 2, 4, 6 and 8 conduct or bundles have been
var ied fr om 0.02 t o 0.055 met r e (0.8 t o 2.2 inches), and t he out er r adius of t he cylinder fr om 2
t o 5 met r es, (4 t o 10m diamet er s). For 2- and 4-conduct or bundles, t he bundle spacing B is
t aken t o be 18 inches (45.72 cm) while for t he 6-, and 8-conduct or bundles t he bundle r adius R
has been fixed at 0.6 m (1.2 m diamet er ). The volt ages shown ar e for smoot h conduct or s. On a
r ough st r anded conduct or t he cor ona-incept ion occur s at a lower volt age and a suggest ed
r oughness fact or is 1.4. Thus, t he or dinat es must be divided by t his fact or t o yield t he r equir ed
cor ona-incept ion volt age in pr act ical cases.
Fig. 4.28 Cor ona-incept ion volt age on bundled conduct or s inside cylindr ical cage of r adius R
c.
Smoot h-conduct or va lues.
(a) 2-and 4-conduct or bundles.
(b) 6-conduct or bundle.
(c) 8-conduct or bundle.
4.9.1 Single Conductor Concentric with Cylinder
Figur e 4.29 shows a coaxial cylindr ical cage wit h out er cylinder r adius R
c
and inner conduct or
r adius r. The pr oblem is t he same as a coaxial cable wit h air dielect r ic. At any r adius x, t he field
st r engt h is
E
x
=
x e
q 1
2
0
and t he volt age is
c
R
r
c
r
R
e
q
x dx
e
q
V ln
2
/
2
0 0
1000
1200
1000
800
1000
800
600
800
600
400
600
400
200
400
200 200
0 0 0
N = 4
N = 2
k
V
5
5
5
4
4
4
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
Rc
R
c
Rc
N = 2 and 4 N = 8 N = 6
0.02 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.06 0.06
Conductor Dia., metre Conductor Dia., metre Conductor Dia., metre
( ) a ( ) b ( ) c
Fig. 4.29 Coaxial cylindr ical ar r angement of conduct or and cage.
This gives t he sur face volt age gr adient t o be
E
r
= V/ r ln (R
c
/r), which should equal t he cor ona-incept ion gr adient
E
0
= 21.92 10
2
(1 + 0.0308/
r
kV/m (r .m.s.) which is valid for a coaxial
cylindr ical elect r ode geomet r y, at an air densit y fact or = 1.
The r equir ed volt age at which cor ona-incept ion t akes place on t he smoot h conduct or is
V
0
= ), / ln( ). / 0308 . 0 1 ( 2192 r R r r
c
+ kV (r .m.s) ...(4.74)
The gr adient fact or of t he elect r ode ar r angement is
g
f
= ) / ln( / 1 / r R r V E
c r
...(4.75)
The capacit ance of t he ar r angement per unit lengt h is
C = ) / ln( / 2 /
0
r R e V q
c
Far ad/m ...(4.76)
and t he r esult ing char act er ist ic impedance is
Z
0
=

,
`
.
|
r
R
e
r R
g e gC
c
c
ln
2
1
) / ln(
2
1 1
0
0
0
= ohms ), / ln( 60 r R
c
...(4.77)
wher e g = velocit y of light =
0 0
/ 1 e
0
= 4 10
7
Henr y/m, e
0
= 10
9
/36 F/m,
and
0 0
/e = char act er ist ic impedance of fr ee space = 120. The capacit ance and sur ge or
char act er ist ic impedance of a cage syst em ar e impor t ant fr om t he point of view of det er mining
t he char ge-volt age r elat ionships under cor ona dischar ge and for t er minat ing t he conduct or
suit ably t o pr event st anding waves fr om dist ur bing t he act ual phenomena.
Exa mp le 4.12. A conduct or 5 cm diamet er is st r ung inside an out er cylinder of 2 met r e
r adius. Find
(a) The cor ona-incept ion gr adient on t he conduct or , kV/cm,
(b) The cor ona-incept ion volt age in kV, r ms,
(c) The gr adient fact or for t he elect r ode ar r angement ,
(d) The capacit ance of t he coaxial ar r angement per met r e, and
(e) The sur ge impedance.
Sol u t i on .
(a) E
0
= + ) 025 . 0 / 0308 . 0 1 ( 92 . 21 26.19 kV/cm, r .m.s.
x
d
x
(b) V
0
= E
0
r ln (R
c
/ r) = 26.19 2.5 ln (200/2.5) = 26.19 10.955 kV
= 286.9 kV, r .m.s.
(c) The gr adient fact or is 26.19/286.9 = 0.0913 kV/cm per kV
Also, 1/r ln (R
c
/ r) = 0.0913. or V/cm per V
(d) C =
F/m 68 . 12
) 80 ln( 18
10
) / ln(
2
9
0

r R
e
c
(e) Z
0
= 60 ln (R
c
/ r) = 263 ohms
Also, Z
0
= 1/gC = 1/(3 10
8
12.68 10
12
) = 263 ohms.
Such an ar r angement wit h a single conduct or is not of much use in ext r a high volt age
invest igat ions since t he conduct or is invar iably a bundled conduct or wit hout except ion. However ,
when t he cage consist s of shapes ot her t han cylinder s, or in a lar ge hall of a high volt age
labor at or y, it is ver y impor t ant t o have an idea of t he gr adient fact or and an equivalent r adius
of t he cage or hall. This is det er mined exper iment ally by st r inging a smoot h aluminium or
copper t ube of known diamet er for which cor ona-incept ion gr adient is known. A r adio noise
met er is used t o det er mine t he cor ona incept ion and t he volt age init iat ing t he r eading on t he
met er is accur at ely det er mined. This yields t he gr adient fact or fr om which t he equivalent
r adius R
c
of t he out er elect r ode can be easily calculat ed. The smoot h t ube must be pr efer ably
st r ung at t he cent r e of t he hall or wher e nor mal RIV (Radius Influence Volt age) measur ement s
ar e car r ied out . In a squar e cage, t he smoot h t ube is accur at ely cent r ed. The equivalent r adius
can be used for measur ement s and int er pr et at ion of r esult s obt ained wit h bundled conduct or s.
This will for m t he cont ent s of fur t her discussion.
4.9.2 Bundled Conductors Inside a Cylinder
When a bundle wit h N sub-conduct or s is cent r ed inside a cylinder , t he conduct or s t hemselves
ar e eccent r ic wit h r espect t o t he cylinder . We now examine t he pr oper t ies of t he elect r ic field
when a conduct ing cylinder is placed off-cent r e inside a lar ger conduct ing cylinder . This pr oblem
par allels t he spher e-gap pr oblem discussed ear lier .
4.9.2.1 S i n gl e Con d u ct or wi t h Eccen t r i ci t y
Figur e 4.30 shows a cylinder of r adius R
c
in which is locat ed a conduct or of r adius r
c
wit h
it s cent r e displaced by a dist ance R fr om t he cent r e of t he out er cylinder . Bot h t he cylindr ical
elect r odes ar e equipot ent ials wit h volt age V applied bet ween t hem. In near ly all cases, t he
out er cylinder is gr ounded and it s pot ent ial is zer o. The t wo cir cles (in t wo dimensions) of r adii
r
c
and R
c
can be made equipot ent ial lines under t he influence of t wo equal but opposit e char ges
+
q and
q per unit lengt h which ar e locat ed as shown in Figur e 4.30. An impor t ant pr oper t y of
t he field, which will be pr oved lat er in or der not t o int er r upt cont inuit y at t his st age and which
will be used for cage designs, is
r adius cylinder t he of squar e
cylinder given a of cent r e
t he fr om char ges t wo t he
t o dist ances of Pr oduct
'
'
...(4.78)
Fig. 4.30 Out er cylinder wit h eccent r ic conduct or .
'

+
2
1 2
2
2 1
) ( and
) ( Thus,
c
c
r R R R
R R R R
...(4.79)
Since we ar e given r
c
, R
c
, and R, t he r adii and t he eccent r icit y, it is easy t o det er mine R
1
and R
2
as follows:
Let D = R r R R
c c
/ ) (
2 2 2
+ . Then
R
1
= R R R D D
c c
/ ) ( 5 . 0
2 2 2
+ when
2 2
R R
c
+ ,
2
c
r
and R
2
= ) /(
1
2
R R r
c
.
The volt age r equir ed in t er ms of t he char ge q is
V =
2 1 0
2 1
0
ln
2
) )( (
ln
2 R R
r R
e
q
r R
R R R R
e
q
c c
c c

...(4.80)
This will also be der ived lat er . The maximum sur face volt age gr adient on t he inner
conduct or is ), 2 / (
0 c
r e q if we assume t he ot her char ge t o be locat ed ver y far . For cor ona-
incept ion, t his gr adient should equal t he cor ona-incept ion gr adient
E
0
= kV/m ) / 0308 . 0 1 ( 2192
c
r +
V
0
=
2 1
ln . ). / 0308 . 0 1 ( 2192
R R
r R
r r
c c
c c
+ ...(4.81)
Not e t hat when t he inner conduct or is concent r ic wit h t he cylinder , R = 0 and R
1
R
2
=
2
c
R .
This r educes t o equat ion (4.74) der ived befor e.
All quant it ies in equat ion (4.81) ar e known so t hat t he cor ona-incept ion volt age for a
smoot h conduct or can be det er mined. The capacit ance of t he eccent r ic conduct or and cylinder
is obviously
C = ]
]
]

2 1
0
ln / 2 /
R R
r R
e V q
c c
, Far ad/met er ...(4.82)
The sur ge impedance is
Z
0
=
2 1
8
ln 60 10 3 / 1
R R
r R
C
c c
...(4.83)
r
c
Rc
R
1
q
+ q
R2
R
The above analysis becomes ver y cumber some when t her e ar e mor e t han one eccent r ic
conduct or . We will develop a ver y gener al met hod in t he next sect ion based on t he ideas
developed her e for one eccent r ic conduct or .
Exa mp le 4.13. A st r anded conduct or 3.5 cm diamet er (r
c
= 0.0175 m) is displaced by R =
22.5 cm fr om t he cent r e of a cylinder 3.2 met r es is diamet er (R
c
= 1.6 m). Taking a r oughness
fact or m = 1.4, calculat e
(a) t he char ge coefficient
0
2 / e q at cor ona incept ion,
(b) t he locat ion of char ges q and q,
(c) t he cor ona-incept ion volt age V
0
, and
(d) t he capacit ance per met r e and sur ge impedance based on light velocit y.
Sol u t i on . Because of sur face r oughess, cor ona-incept ion t akes place at a gr adient equal
t o (1/1.4) t imes t hat on a smoot h conduct or .
E
or
= ) 0175 . 0 / 0308 . 0 1 (
4 . 1
92 . 21
+ = 19.3 kV/cm = 1930 kV/m
(a)
0
2 / e q = r
c
. E
or
= 33.81 kV
(b) D = R r R R
c c
/ ) (
2 2 2
+ = (160
2
+ 22.5
2
1.75
2
)/22.5 = 1161 cm
R
1
= ) ( 5 . 0
2 2
c
R D D + = 1155 cm = 11.55 m
R
2
= ) /(
1
2
R R r
c
= 2.7 10
3
cm = 2.7 10
5
m
Not e t hat t he negat ive char ge is displaced fr om t he cent r e of t he inner conduct or by only
2.7 10
3
cm while t he posit ive char ge is locat ed ver y far (11.55 m) fr om t he cent r e of t he out er
cylinder .
(c) Cor ona-incept ion volt age
V
0
= 19.32 1.75 ln [(1155 22.5) 22.5/(160 1.75)]
= 33.81 ln 91 = 33.81 4.51 = 152.5 kV.
(d) Capacit ance C = F/m 316 . 12 91 ln /
18
10
9

Sur ge impedance Z
0
= 1/Cg = 10
12
/12.316 3 10
8
= 271 ohms.
Exa mp le 4.14. Repeat t he pr evious pr oblem if t he inner conduct or is concent r ic wit h t he
out er cylinder .
Solut ion. (a)
0
2 / e q = 0 , (b) kV; 81 . 33
2 1
R R
(b) V
0
= kV 6 . 152 ) / ln( .
c c or c
r R E r
(c) C = F/m 3 . 12 ) / ln( / 2
0

c c
r R e
Z
0
= 10
12
/12.3 3 10
8
= 271 ohms.
The displacement of t he conduct or by 22.5 cm in a cylinder of r adius 160 cm, i.e., 14%
eccent r icit y has not made a not iceable differ ence in t he cor ona-incept ion volt age, et c., for t he
dimensions given. (This is one conduct or of a 2-conduct or bundle wit h 45 cm bundle spacing
placed inside a cylinder 10 ft in diamet er ).
We now give a pr oof for equat ions (4.78) and (4.79), which ar e also given in any st andar d
t ext book on elect r ost at ics (see Bewley or Zahn, under "Books" in Bibliogr aphy). Figur e 4.31
shows t wo line char ges + q and q coulomb/met r e separ at ed by a dist ance 2S . At a point
midway bet ween t hem t he pot ent ial is zer o and we can choose t his as t he or igin of a coor dinat e
syst em. The pot ent ial of a point P(x, y) wit h r espect t o t he r efer ence point 0 will be, accor ding
t o equat ion (3.35)
V =
2 2
2 2
0 0 ) (
) (
ln
4 char ge posit ive fr om Dist ance
char ge negat ive fr om Dist ance
ln
2
y S x
y S x
e
q
e
q
+ +
+
...(4.84)
Fig. 4.31 Locat ion of char ges and an equipot ent ial sur face of r adius R
c
wit h pot ent ial V
c
If we denot e U = exp ( ) / 4
0
q V e , a const ant -pot ent ial line in t he field of t he t wo char ges
will sat isfy t he equat ion
(x S )
2
+ y
2
= U[(x + S )
2
+ y
2
]
or
2
2
1
1
y
U
U
S x +
,
`
.
|
= 4S
2
U/(1 U)
2
...(4.85)
This is a cir cle wit h r adius ) 1 /( 2 | U U S | and cent r e at
,
`
.
|
+
0 ,
1
1
U
U
S
on t he line
joining t he t wo char ges.
A cir cle of r adius R
c
has t he pot ent ial given by
2
c
R =
c c
c
c c
U
S
U
S U
U U S

1
2
1
2
) 1 /( 4
2 2
...(4.86)
Now, r efer r ing t o Figur e 4.31 and equat ion (4.86), we obser ve t hat t he dist ances of t he
t wo char ges fr om t he cent r e of t he cir cle (a cylinder in 3 dimensions) ar e
1
=
,
1
2
1
1
and ,
1
2
1
1
2
c c
c
c
c
c
c
U
S
S
U
U
S
U
S U
S
U
U
S
+
Their pr oduct is
2
2
2 1
) 1 (
4
c
c
U
U S

which is
2
c
R accor ding t o equat ion (4.86). Ther efor e
equat ion (4.78) r esult .
In or der t o der ive equat ion (4.80), r efer t o Figur e 4.30, and consider t he line joining t he
t wo char ges and t he point s wher e it int er sect s t he t wo cylinder s of r adii R
c
and r
c
. The pot ent ials
of t hese t wo point s, r esult ing fr om equat ion (3.35), ar e as follows:
P x, y ( )
S S
q
+ q
= 2S U/1 U ( )
V
c
1
1
+ U
U
S R = 2S U/ 1 U
c c c
( )
Uc = e
4e V / q
0 c
On t he inner conduct or :
V
i
= )] /( ) ln[( ) 2 / (
1 2 0 c c
r R R R r e q ...(4.87)
On t he out er cylinder :
V
0
= )] /( ) ln[( ) 2 / (
1 2 0 c c
R R R R R e q ...(4.88)
Now, fr om equat ion (4.79),
R
2
+ R =
2
2
1
2
/ and , / R r R R R R
c 1 c
.
V
i
=
c
c c
c
r
R
e
q
r R r
R r
e
q
2
0
2
2
2
0
ln
2 /
ln
2
...(4.89a)
V
0
=
1 0 1
1
2
0
ln
2
/
ln
2 R
R
e
q
R R
R R R
e
q
c
c
c c
...(4.89b)
The p.d. bet ween t he inner conduct or and out er cylinder is
V =
2 1 0
0
ln
2 R R
r R
e
q
V V
c c
i
...(4.90)
4.9.2.2 Mu l t i -con d u ct or s wi t h Eccen t r i ci t y I n si d e Cyl i n d er
The cor ona-incept ion volt age of a single conduct or of r adius r
c
placed off-cent r e inside a
cylinder of r adius R
c
was der ived befor e, Figur e 4.30. In or der t o handle mor e conduct or s, we
give a differ ent met hod. This uses a cir cle called t he "Cir cle of Inver sion" whose r adius is 2R
c
and t ouches t he cylinder at one point .
Consider Figur e 4.32 in which is shown a cir cle of r adius R
c
wit h cent r e at O, and anot her
wit h r adius 2R
c
and cent r e O' wit h bot h cir cles t ouching at O". A st r aight line FF is dr awn
t hr ough O" t angent t o bot h cir cles. Taking a point P on cir cle R
c
, ext end O' t o P t o cut FF in P' .
Then
O' P O' P' = (2R
c
)
2
=
2
4
c
R ...(4.90)
which is pr oved as follows: Let O"O' P . Then
O' PO"
= cos / 2 , cos 2 , 90
c c
R O' P' R O' P O' O"P'
giving
O' P' O' P
=
2
4
c
R . All point s inside cir cle R
c
fall above FF.
Fig. 4.32 Cir cle of inver sion and out er cylinder of cage ar r angement .
This is t r ue of all point s such as P on t he cir cle of r adius R
c.
Thus, t he st r aight line FF is
t he locus of all point s on t he cir cle R
c
about t he cir cle of inver sion wit h r adius 2R
c
and cent r e at
R
c
2R
c
90
F
P
F
O
O'
O" P'
O' . If t he cir cle is t he out er cylinder of a "cage" ar r angement , t hen it has been t r ansfor med int o
a st r aight line and ever y point on it is t he inver se point on t he cir cle. Any ot her small cylinder
of r adius r
c
placed wit h an eccent r icit y R can also be t r ansfor med int o a cylinder about t he
cir cle of inver sion. Then Maxwell's Pot ent ial coefficient s can be ut ilized t o for mulat e t he char ge
equat ion in t er ms of t he pot ent ial of t he conduct or . This can be done for all t he conduct or s of
t he bundle t hr ough mat r ix [P]. This is car r ied out as follows: For t he point P
0
, t he cent r e of
conduct or , an inver se point ' P
0
can be found about t he cir cle of inver sion fr om t he r elat ion
), /( 4 / 4
2
0
2
0
R R R O'P R ' O'P
c c c
+ Figur e 4.33. If t he char ge of t he inner conduct or is locat ed
at it s cent r e P
0
, t hen t he imaged char ge about t he cir cle of inver sion will be locat ed at ' P
0
. It s
dist ance fr om t he flat sur face FF will be
H = ) /( ) ( 2 2
0
R R R R R R ' O' P
c c c c
+ ...(4.91)
Since t he sur face is an equipot ent ial at zer o pot ent ial, t he pot ent ial of t he conduct or is
V = ) / 2 ln( ) 2 / (
0
' r H e q
c
...(4.92)
Fig. 4.33 Single eccent r ic conduct or inside out er cylinder and cir cle of inver sion for calculat ion of images.
wher e ' r
c
= r adius of t he image of r
c
wit h cent r e at
'
P
0
. This is det er mined as follows:
Choosing t wo point s on a diamet er of r
c
at dist ances (R r
c
) and (R + r
c
), t heir inver se
point s ar e locat ed wit h r espect t o O' at dist ances ) /( 4
2
c c c
r R R R + and ) /( 4
2
c c c
r R R R + + .
Ther efor e,
' r
c
= )] /( 1 ) /( 1 [ 4 .
2
1
2
c c c c c
r R R r R R R + + +
O'
P "
O
P ' 0
P "'
0
R
c
R + r c
P . q 0
R r c
rc
F F
H
H
R
O
OP"' = R / R c
2
2
H = 2R c
R R
R + R
c
c
2
r' = c
4R r
(R + R) r
c c
c c
2
= ] ) /[( 4 .
2 2 2
c c c c
r R R R r + ...(4.93)
V =
R R
R R
r R
r R R
e
q
c
c
c c
c c
+
+
2 2
0
) (
ln
2
...(4.94)
In pr act ice, R
c
+ R r
c
so t hat
V =
c c
c
r R
R R
e
q
2 2
0
ln
2
...(4.95)
Having locat ed t he char ge q at ' P
0
, t he image char ge wit h r espect t o FF is sit uat ed at " P
0
at a dept h H whose dist ance fr om O' is
" O' P
0
=
R R
R R
R R
R R R
R H R
c
c
c
c c
c c
+

4 ) ( 2
2 2 ...(4.96)
The inver se point of " P
0
is locat ed at
' ' ' O' P
0
= R R R R " O'P R
c c c
/ ) ( / 4
0
2
+ ...(4.97)
Fur t her mor e, ' ' ' OP
0
= R R R ' ' ' O'P
c c
/
2
0
...(4.98)
Ther e ar e now t wo char ges + q and q locat ed at P
0
and
"'
P
0
at t he point s (O, R) and
) / , (
2
R R O
c
in whose field t he out er cylinder of r adius R
c
and inner conduct or of r adius r
c
ar e
equipot ent ial sur faces. The maximum sur face volt age gr adient on t he sur face of t he inner
conduct or is
E = )] /( 2 / 1 )[ 2 / (
2 2
0
R R R r e q
c c
+ ...(4.99)
since t he dist ance of
"'
P
0
fr om t he conduct or cent r e is
OP"' R = R R R
c
/ ) (
2 2
.
But in t er ms of pot ent ial, equat ion (4.95),
c c
c
r R
R R
V
e
q
2 2
0
ln /
2
The r elat ion bet ween volt age and sur face volt age gr adient becomes
V = )] /( 2 / 1 [ ln .
2 2
2 2
R R R r
r R
R R
E
c c
c c
c
+
,
`
.
|

...(4.100)
For cor ona -incept ion t o occur , E =
) / 0308 . 0 1 (
92 . 21
c or
r
m
E +
, kV/cm, wher e m =
r oughness fact or .
Exa mp le 4.15. Repeat Example 4.13 using t he modified met hod of images, equat ion (4.100).
Solut ion. r
c
= 0.0175 m, R
c
= 1.6 m, R = 0.225 m.
E
or
= 19.3 kV/cm = 1930 kV/m.
c c c
r R R R / ) (
2 2
= 7 . 318 / 1 ) /( 2 , 90
2 2
R R Rr
c c
which may be neglect ed in compar ison t o 1.
V
0
= 1930 0.0175 ln 90 = 152 kV
In Example 4.13, t he value obt ained was V
0
= 152.5 kV.
Fr om t his calculat ion we obser ve t hat t he effect of image char ge locat ed at " P
0
is pr act ically
nil on t he sur face volt age gr adient of t he conduct or (1/318.7 = 0.3%). Hence it s pr esence will be
neglect ed in all fur t her calculat ions.
N-con d u ct or Bu n d l e
For sever al sub-conduct or s locat ed off-cent r e inside t he out er cylinder wit h eccent r icit y R
fr om O, we must obt ain t he locat ion of images of all sub-conduct or s about t he cir cle of inver sion
so t hat Maxwell's Pot ent ial Coefficient Mat r ix will yield t he r elat ion bet ween volt age and char ge.
The comput at ion is lengt hy and must be per for med st ep by st ep. We shall fir st develop a
pr ogr amme suit able for a digit al comput er commencing wit h a 2-conduct or bundle and ext end
it t o a gener al case. Figur es 4.28 (a), (b), (c) wer e obt ained accor ding t o t his met hod and a
designer can use t hem.
In Figur e 4.34, t he pr esence of an image char ge is indicat ed for t he 2-conduct or bundle,
but as ment ioned befor e t his can be omit t ed in all cases. The quant it ies t o be calculat ed ar e
list ed in a t abular for m and will be t he sequence of st at ement s in a digit al comput er pr ogr amme.
Fig. 4.34 2-conduct or bundle inside out er cylinder and it s image conduct or s
about t he cir cle of inver sion.
Quantity Indicated Conduct or No. 1 Conduct or No. 2
(1) Coordinat es of Conduct or
X
n
A
1
= R B
1
= R
0
Y A
2
= O B
2
= O
0
O' P A
3
=
2 2
R R
c
+ B
3
= A
3
(2) Inverse
'
O'P
0
R
1
=
3
2
/ 4 A R
c
R
2
= R
1
sin S
1
=
3 1
/A A S
2
=
3 1
/B B
cos S
3
=
3
/ A R
c
S
4
=
3
/B R
c
' x
0
A
4
= R
1
.S
1
B
4
= R
2
.S
2
2R
B
H
H
F F
2r
c
2
q
q
q
q
Po
P"
R
c
2R
c
O'
P' x' , y' ( )
O'P"' =
4R
2
c
O'P"
o o o
o
o
o
o
O
' y
0
A
5
= R
1
S
3
R
c
B
5
= R
2
S
4
R
c
(3) Image about FF
" x
0
A
4
B
4
" y
0
A
6
=
5
2 A R
c
B
6
=
5
2 B R
c

" O' P
0
R
3
=
2
6
2
4
) (
c
R A A + + R
4
=
2
6
2
4
) (
c
R B B + +
(4) Inverse of " P
0
' ' ' O' P
0
A
7
=
3
2
/ 4 R R
c
B
7
=
4
2
/ 4 R R
c
' ' ' sin
T
1
=
3 6
/ ) ( R R A
c
+ T
2
=
4 6
/ ) ( R R B
c
+
' ' ' cos
T
3
=
3 4
/ R A T
4
=
4 4
/ R B
' ' ' x
0
A
8
=
3 7
T A B
8
=
4 7
T B
' ' ' y
0
A
9
=
c
R T A
1 7
B
9
=
c
R T B
2 7
H =
c
R ' y
0
H
1
=
c
R A
5
H
2
= H
1
' r
c
G
1
= ) /( 4
2 2
3
2
c c c
r A r R G
2
= G
1
(5) Potential Coefficients and Charges
P(1, 1) = ) / 2 ln( ) 2 , 2 (
1 1
G H P ,
) 2 , 1 ( P =
2
4 4
2
5 5
2
4 4
2
5 2
) ( ) (
) ( ) 2 (
ln 5 . 0 ) 1 , 2 (
A B A B
A B R A B
P
c
+
+ +
,
V =
). 2 , 1 ( ) 1 , 1 ( ,
2
)] 2 , 1 ( ) 1 , 1 ( [
2
0 0
P P L L
e
q
P P
e
q
+
For unit volt age,

0
2 e
q
= 1/ L.
(6) Potential Gradient
Due t o posit ive char ge on conduct or s, t he unit gr adient is
K
1
= ) / 1 / 1 )( 2 / (
0
R r e q
c
+ .
Due t o t he image char ge at ' ' ' P
0
t he gr adient is
K
2
=
]
]
]
]
+ +
+
+
+ +
+

2
1 8
2
2 9
2 9
2
1 8
2
2 9
2 9
0
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) 2 / (
A B r A B
r A B
A A r A A
r A A
e q
c
c
c
c
The t ot al gr adient for unit applied volt age, t he gr adient fact or is
g
f
= K
1
+ 2K
2
by t aking q/2e
0
= 1/L = 1/[P(1, 1) + P(1, 2)].
The cor ona-incept ion gr adient is
E
0
=
kV/m ), / 0308 . 0 1 (
2192
c
r
m
+
.
Then, t he cor ona-incept ion volt age becomes finally,
V
0
= E
0
/g
f
Figur e 4.28 (a) shows r esult s of cor ona-incept ion volt age on a 2-conduct or bundle as t he
inner conduct or r adius is var ied, and for sever al values of out er -cylinder r adius R
c
. These a r e
for smoot h conduct or s for which m = 1.
For 4-, 6-, and 8-conduct or bundles, t he following st eps ar e used.
Comput er Programme (for any number of sub-conduct or s N)
(1) Inputs. R
c
= r adius of out er cylinder
r
c
= r adius of sub-conduct or of bundle
R = bundle r adius = eccent r icit y
N = number of sub-conduct or s of bundle.
(2) Coordinat es of Conduct ors
I
I A y
I A x
'
) ( : s coor dinat e
) ( : s coor dinat e
2
1
= 1, 2, ..., N
O' P
0 :
2
2
2
1 3
) ) ( ( ) ( ) (
c
R I A I A I A +
(3) Inverse about the Circle of Inversion
) ( :
4 0
I A O'P
'
= ) ( / 4
3
2
I A R
c
) ( : sin
1
I S = ) ( / ) (
3 1
I A I A
) ( : cos
2
I S = ) ( / ) ) ( (
3 2
I A R I A
c
+
' x
0
: A
5
(I) = ) ( ). (
4 1
I A I S
' y
0
: A
5
(I) =
c
R I A I S ) ( ). (
4 2
H : H(I) =
c
R I A ) (
6
' r
c
: ) (
1
I R = ) ) ( /( 4
2 2
3
2
c c c
r I A r R
(4) Image of ' P
0
about FF
" x
0
= ' x
0
: A
5
(I)
" y
0
: ) ( 2 ) (
6 7
I A R I A
c

" O' P
0
:
2
7
2
5 8
) ) ( ( ) ( ) (
c
R I A I A I A + +
(5) Potential Coefficient Matrix
Self coefficient : P(I, I) = ln (2H(I )/R
1
(I ))

'
+
+ +
2
1 1
2
2
1 1
2
)) ( ) ( ( )) ( ) ( ( ) , ( : dist ance Aer ial
)) ( ) ( ( )) ( ) ( ( ) , ( : dist ance Image
J A I A J H I H J I F
J A I A J H I H J I B
J I
Mut ual coefficient : P(I, J ) = Ln (B(I, J )/F(I, J ))
(6) Charge Coefficient for Unit Voltage
Capacit ance : [C] = Inver se of
0
2 ] [ e P
Cha r ge : [Q] = [C] [V]
wher e [V] = column mat r ix wit h all element s equal t o 1.
(7) S urface Voltage Gradient
(a) Due t o conduct or char ges.
g
f
(I) =

+
N
I J
c
R J Q r I Q / ) ( / ) (
Aver age maximum gr adient for unit volt age
g
f
=
) (
1
1
I g
N
N
I
f
(b) Due t o image charges. Sur face volt age gr adient is neglect ed.
(8) Corona-incept ion Volt age. = air -densit y fact or .
E
0
=
) / 0308 . 0 1 (
2192
+
c
r
m
kV/m, r .m.s.,
cor ona-incept ion volt age
0
V = , /
0 f
g E kV, r .m.s.
Result s of calculat ion ar e shown in Figs. 4.28(a), (b) (c) for smoot h conduct or s. The designer
can use a r oughness fact or for st r anded conduct or s. A suggest ed value is m = 1.4 so t hat t he
volt ages in Figur es 4.28 must be divided by 1.4.
1. A spher e gap wit h t he spher es having r adii R = 0.5 m has a gap of 0.5 m bet ween t heir
sur faces.
(a) Calculat e t he r equir ed char ges and t heir locat ions t o make t he pot ent ials 100
and 0.
(b) Then calculat e t he volt age gr adient on t he sur face of t he high-volt age spher e.
(c) If t he par t ial br eakdown of air occur s at 30 kV/cm peak, calculat e t he disr upt ive
volt age bet ween t he spher es.
2. A 735-kV line has N = 4, r = 0.0176 m, B = 0.4572 m for t he bundled conduct or of each
phase. The line height and phase spacing in hor izont al configur at ion ar e H = 15, S =
15 m. Calculat e t he maximum sur face volt age gr adient s on t he cent r e phase and
out er phases using Mangoldt for mula. Compar e t hem wit h values given in t able in
Sect ion 4.6.
3. Th e cor on a -i n cept i on gr a di en t for a s moot h con du ct or by Peek' s For mu l a i s
) / 0301 . 1 (
2
30
0
+
r E
s
, kV/cm, r .m.s. For a st r anded conduct or 4 . 1 /
0 0 s r
E E .
Take t he air -densit y fact or 1 . Then find t he % differ ence bet ween E
0r
and t he
gr adient s calculat ed in pr oblem 2. Give your conclusions.
4. A t r ansmission line t r aver ses hills and plains in Nor t her n India. Calculat e E
0s
for a
400-kV line wit h conduct or r adius r = 0.0159 m for t he following set s of elevat ion in
met r es and t emper at ur e in C. (i) 0, 25, (ii) 1000, 15, (iii) 2000, 5, (iv) 3000, 0C. Use
= b
m
(273 + t
0
)/1013 (273 + t ), wher e b
m
= bar omet r ic pr essur e in millibar s. Assume
b
m
= 1013 at sea level and t o dr op by 10 millibar s for ever y 100-met r e incr ease in
elevat ion. t
0
= 20C.
Discuss which gives t he lowest value for E
0s
and how a line should be designed for
such var iat ions.
5. If cor ona-incept ion gr adient is measur ed in a h. v. t est ing labor at or y at an elevat ion
of 1000 met r es and 25C, give cor r ect ion fact or s t o be used when t he equipment is
used at (a) sea level at 35C, and (b) 2000 m elevat ion at 15C. Use conduct or r adius
= r met r e.
6. The out er cylinder of a cage is 2 met r es in diamet er . A single conduct or 4 cm in
diamet er is st r ung concent r ic wit h it and t he ar r angement is 30 m long. Calculat e
(a) t he sur face volt age gr adient (gr adient fact or ) on t he conduct or , (b) t he capacit ance
of t he ar r angement , and (c) t he sur ge impedance.
7. If in pr oblem 6 t he inner conduct or is a 2-conduct or bundle wit h each sub-conduct or
4 cm in diamet er at a bundle spacing of 40 cm, r epeat t he t hr ee par t s. Not eCalculat e
Maxwell's Pot ent ial coefficient s about t he flat sur face obt ained fr om t he cir cle of
inver sion.
Appen d i x t o Ch a pt er 4
Voltage Gradients on the Conductors in the Presence of
Ground Wires on Towers
In sect ion 4.4 t he char ges on t he phase conduct or s wer e calculat ed by neglect ing t he pr esence
of gr ound wir es. These char ges gover n t he volt age gr adient s on t he subconduct or s of t he
bundle. When gr ound wir es ar e not neglect ed, t her e is a slight but not iceable change in volt age
gr adient . However , as will be shown by an example of a single-cir cuit 400-kV hor izont al line
wit h t wo over head gr ound wir es, t he incr ease in gr adient is less t han 1% of what it is when
gr ound wir es ar e neglect ed. We will now discuss t he pr ocedur e for calculat ing t he char ges and
volt age gr adient s on all conduct or s, bot h phase- and gr ound-wir es, t o be able t o decide whet her
or not cor ona-incept ion might t ake place, including on t he gr ound wir es t hemselves. It is
assumed t hat
(a) t h e t h r e e p h a s e vol t a ge s t o gr ou n d a r e , 120 , 0
2 1
V V V V a n d
120 240
3
V V V , r .m.s. values, and
(b) t he volt ages of gr ound wir es ar e all zer o.
Let t her e be
p
n phase conduct or s and
g
n gr ound wir es on a t ower . n
p
= 3 for S/C lines
and 6 for D/C lines, et c., while n
g
= 1 or 2 but not mor e. However , equat ions will be der ived for
t he Maxwell's Pot ent ial Coefficient s for a gener al case, and it s inver se can be evaluat ed on a
Digit al Comput er easily in one st ep. A met hod par t it ioning t he Pot ent ial Coefficient Mat r ix P
int o r ows and columns belonging t o t he phase conduct or s and gr ound wir es can be easily
adopt ed for obt aining t he char ges on t hese conduct or s and t hen evaluat e t he volt age gr adient s.
Let H
i
= aver age height of any conduct or (i = 1, 2, ..., n
p
+ n
g
),
I
ij
= dist ance bet ween conduct or i and image of conduct or j, i j, (i, j = 1,
2, ..., n
p
+ n
g
)
A
ij
= aer ial dist ance bet ween conduct or s i and j, i j,
and r
eq
= equivalent r adius of any conduct or . For a bundle,
r
eq
= R (Nr/R)
1/N
, and for a single conduct or r
eq
= r adius of conduct or .
Pot en t i a l Coef f i ci en t s
P
ii
= j i A I P r H
ij ij ij eq i
), / ( Ln ), / 2 ( Ln . ...(4.101)
Ch a r geVol t a ge R el a t i on :
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
0
0
0
...
.
.
3
2
1
3
2
1
np
g
p
V
V
V
V
n
n
=
0
2
1
e

]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
+ + +
+
ng
g
np
n n n n n n
n n n
n n
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q
P P
P P
P P P
g p g p g p
p p p
g p
1
3
2
1
, 1
1
) ( 1 12 11
... ...
... ...
,
...(4.102)
Her e, Q
1
, Q
2
, ...,
p
n Q , denot e t he t ot al bundle char ges of N sub-conduct or s of t he phase
conduct or s, while
ng g
Q Q ,...,
1
denot e t he t ot a l cha r ge of t he gr ound wir es since t hey a r e
invar iably single conduct or s. But t his is a gener al pr ocedur e and a bundled gr ound conduct or
will pose no special pr oblem.
The char ge coefficient s, , 2 /
0
e Q can be obt ained fr om t he pot ent ial coefficient s easily by
inver t ing t he pot ent ial-coefficient mat r ix and mult iplying by t he volt age mat r ix. Then t he
char ge coefficient for conduct or i will be of t he for m
0
2 / e Q
t
= ] 120 120 0 [
3 2 1
+ + M M M V , ...(4.103)
wher e M
1
, M
2
, M
3
will be combinat ions of element s of t he mat r ix [M] = [P]
1
, and i = 1, 2,
..., n
p
+ n
g
. The r emaining par t of t he pr ocedur e for calculat ing t he char ges on individual
conduct or s will follow equat ions (4.34) t hr ough (4.41) and ext ended t o mor e t han t hr ee conduct or s
on t he t ower . Then t he sur face volt age gr adient s on all conduct or s, including gr ound wir es,
will follow equat ions (4.48), (4.51) and (4.53) t hr ough (4.58) for single conduct or s and bundled
conduct or s.
Me t h od of Ma t r i x P a r t i t i on i n g
The volt age, char ge and pot ent ial coefficient mat r ices can be par t it ioned int o t hose belonging
t o t he phase conduct or s and gr ound wir es in or der t o obt ain t he char ges on all conduct or s, as
follows:
Let [V] = [V
1
, V
2
,..., V
np
| 0, 0,..., 0]
t
= [[V
ph
], [0]]
t
...(4.104)
] 2 / [
0
e Q =
0
2
1
]] [ ], [[
e
Q Q
t g ph
...(4.105)
[P] = ]
]
]
] [ ], [
] [ ], [
gg gp
pg pp
P P
P P
...(4.106)
Then, obviously
[V
ph
] = ) 2 / 1 ]}( ][ [ ] ][ {[
0
e Q P Q P
g pg ph pp
+ ...(4.107)
[0] = ) 2 / 1 ]}( ][ [ ] ][ {[
0
e Q P Q P
g gg ph gp
+ ...(4.108)
] [
2
1
0
g
Q
e
= ), 2 / 1 ]( ][ [ ] [
0
1
e Q P P
ph gp gg

...(4.109)
so t hat [V
ph
] = ) 2 / 1 ]( ]}[ [ ] ][ [ ] {[
0
1
e Q P P P P
ph gp gg pg pp

= [P
r ed
][Q
ph
] (1/2e
0
) ...(4.110)
Ther efor e, t he char ge-coefficient s on t he phase conduct or s ar e
] [
2
1
0
ph
Q
e
= ] ][ [ ] [ ] [
r ed
1
r ed ph ph
V M V P
...(4.111)
wher e [P
red
] and it s inver se [M
r ed
] ar e r educed mat r ices having as many r ows and columns
as t he number of phase conduct or s only, n
P
. Then, t he char ge-coefficient s on t he gr ound wir es
ar e
] [
2
1
0
g
Q
e
= [P
gg
]
1
[P
gp
] [M
r ed
] [V
ph
]
= [M
gg
][V
ph
] ...(4.112)
We not e t hat t her e is a need for inver t ing only t he squar e mat r ix [P
gg
] belonging t o t he
gr ound wir es which will have only one number for a single gr ound-wir e line or at t he most a 2
2 mat r ix. Also t he mat r ix pr oduct ] [ ] [
1
gp gg
P P

occur s t wice so t hat a single calculat ion of t his
pr oduct need be car r ied out .
Having obt ained bot h [Q
ph
] and [Q
g
] fr om t he r educed mat r ices and t he phase volt ages, t he
r est of t he pr oper t ies can be calculat ed in t he usual way. We will illust r at e t he pr ocedur e and
discuss some salient pr oper t ies t hr ough a S/C hor izont al configur at ion 400-kV line wit h t wo
gr ound wir es.
Exa mp le 4.16. A hor izont al 400-kV line of t he UPSEB in India has t he following det ails:
Phase Conduct ors
m 875 . 2 sag
m 8.85 midspan at Height
m 875 . 11 t ower at Height
'
(single circuit, n
p
= 3)
Phase spacing 11.3 m (hor izont al)
Diamet er 3.17 cm, 2 sub-conduct or s at spacing of B = 45.72 cm.
r
eq
= cm 513 . 8 72 . 45 585 . 1 .
Ground Wires Height at t ower 20.875 m. Neglect sag.
(2 gr ound wir es, n
g
= 2) Hor izont al spacing 16 m
Diamet er 9.45 mm = 0.945 cm.
The maximum oper at ing volt age is 420 kV, r .m.s., line-t o-line. Evaluat e t he following:
(1) The 5 5 mat r ix of Maxwell's Pot ent ial coefficient s;
(2) Pa r t it ion t he [P]-mat r ix int o four sub-mat r ices as shown befor e. Wr it e down [P
pp
],
[P
pg
], [P
gp
]and [P
gg
].
(3) Evaluat e t he mat r ix ] 2 / [
0
e Q
ph
for t he char ge-coefficient s of t he 3 phase conduct or s.
(4) Evaluat e t he mat r ix ] 2 / [
0
e Q
g
belonging t o t he gr ound wir es. Not e t hat even t hough
t he pot ent ials of t he gr ound wir es ar e zer o, t her e exist s char ge on t hem.
(5) Calculat e t he sur face volt age gr adient s on t he phase conduct or s.
(6) Calculat e t he same for t he gr ound wir es.
(7) Calculat e t he above sur face volt age gr adient s on all 3 phase conduct or s by neglect ing
t he pr esence of over head gr ound wir es, and compar e t hem wit h t hose when gr ound
wir es ar e pr esent . Give t he % incr ease or change in sur face volt age gr adient s when
t he gr ound wir es ar e pr esent .
(8) Calculat e t he cor ona-incept ion gr adient s on all conduct or s by Peek's for mula t aking
a sur face r oughness fact or of m = 1.3 t o account for st r anding. Assume air densit y
fact or = 1.
Sol u t i on . We will number t he phase conduct or s 1, 2, 3 and t he gr ound wir es 4, 5. The
volt ages ar e, wit h
3 / 420 V
kV, (242.5 kV t o gr ound),
V
1
= 0 , 120 , 120 , 0
5 4 3 2
V V V V V V V
Aver age height of phase conduct or = Minimum height at midspan + sag/3
= 8.85 + 2.875/3 = 9.81 m.
Equivalent r adius of t he t wo-conduct or bundle = 8.51 cm = 0.0851 m.
=
]
]
]
46 . 111 , 6 . 12
6 . 12 , 46 . 111
10
3
] [ ] [
1
gp gg
P P

=
]
]
]
4 . 103 , 3 . 83 , 42
42 , 3 . 83 , 4 . 103
10
3
[P
pg
] [P
gg
]
1
[P
gp
] =
]
]
]
]
]
122 , 123 , 92
123 , 140 , 123
92 , 123 , 122
10
3
[P
red
] =
]
]
]
]
]

32 . 5 , 572 . 0 , 193 . 0
572 . 0 , 3 . 5 , 572 . 0
193 . 0 , 572 . 0 , 32 . 5
] [ ] ][ [ ] [
1
gp gg pg pp
P P P P
[M
red
] = [P
red
]
1
=
]
]
]
]
]
2 . 190 , 5 . 19 , 75 . 4
5 . 19 , 9 . 192 , 5 . 19
75 . 4 , 5 . 19 , 2 . 190
10
3
]
]
]
]
]
0 3
0 2
0 1
2 /
2 /
2 /
e Q
e Q
e Q
= V
j
j
j
]
]
]
]
]
+

+
]
]
]
]
]
866 . 0 5 . 0
866 . 0 5 . 0
0 1
2 . 190 , 5 . 19 , 75 . 4
5 . 19 , 9 . 192 , 5 . 19
75 . 4 , 5 . 19 , 2 . 190
10
3
Magnit udes = [0.20273, 0.2124, 0.20273] 242.5 kV
(4) Ch a r ge Coe ffi ci e n t s of Gr ou n d Wi r e s
]
]
]
0 5
0 4
2 /
2 /
e Q
e Q
=
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
2 . 190 , 5 . 19 , 75 . 4
5 . 19 , 9 . 192 , 5 . 19
75 . 4 , 5 . 19 , 2 . 190
1034 . 0 , 0833 . 0 , 042 . 0
042 . 0 , 0833 . 0 , 1034 . 0
10
3
V
j
j
j
]
]
]
]
]
+

+
866 . 0 5 . 0
866 . 0 5 . 0
0 1
Magnit udes = 10.461 10
3
V
= 2536.8
(5) Su r fa ce Vol t a ge Gr a d i e n t s on P h a s e Con d u ct or s
Out ers:
17 . 3
20273 . 0 5 . 242
(1 + 3.17/45.72) = 16.584 kV/cm
Cent re: 16.584 0.2124/0.20273 = 17.375 kV/cm
(6) Gr ou n d Wi r e s
4725 . 0
10 461 . 10
3
242.5 = 5.37 kV/cm

(7) Wi t h ou t Gr ou n d Wi r e s
[P] =
]
]
]
]
]
44 . 5 , 695 . 0 , 285 . 0
695 . 0 , 44 . 5 , 695 . 0
285 . 0 , 695 . 0 , 44 . 5
,
[M] = [P]
1
=
3
10
187 , 23 , 9 . 6
23 , 7 . 189 , 23
9 . 6 , 23 , 187
]
]
]
]
]

Ma gn i t u d e of Ch a r ge Coe ffi ci e n t s
V e Q V e Q e Q 2127 . 0 2 / , 2025 . 0 2 / 2 /
0 2 0 3 0 1
.
Gradient s : Out er s: 0.2025 242.5 (1 + 3.17/45.72)/3.17 = 16.565 kV/cm
Cent r e : (0.2127/0.2025) 16.565 = 17.4 kV/cm
% changes: Out er s: (16.584 16.565) 100/16.565 = 0.115%
Cent r e : (17.375 17.4) 100/17.4 = 0.144%
(8) Cor on a -i n ce p t i on Gr a d i e n t s
Phase conduct or s : E
op
=
) 585 . 1 / 301 . 0 1 (
3 . 1
4 . 21
+
= 20.4 kV/cm, r .m.s.
Gr ound wir es : E
og
=
) 4725 . 0 / 301 . 0 1 (
3 . 1
4 . 21
+
= 23.67 kV/cm
These a r e a bove t he sur fa ce volt a ge gr a dient s ca lcula t ed ea r lier . Ther efor e, cor ona
incept ion on any of t he five conduct or s has not t aken place. Not e t hat t he sur face volt age
gr adient s on t he phase conduct or s has not been affect ed by t he pr esence of gr ound wir es by
mor e t han 0.15% in t his calculat ion.
5.1 I
2
R LOSS AND CORONA LOSS
In Chapt er 2, t he aver age power -handling capacit y of a 3-phase e.h.v. line and per cent age loss
due t o I
2
R heat ing wer e discussed. Repr esent at ive values ar e given below for compar ison
pur poses.
S yst em k V 400 750 1000 1150
Line Lengt h, km 400 800 400 800 400 800 400 800
3-Phase MW/ circuit 640 320 2860 1430 6000 3000 8640 4320
(P = 0.5 V
2
/xL)
% Power Loss = 50 r/ x 4.98% 2.4% 0.8% 0.6%
kW/ k m Loss, 3-phase 80 20 170 42.5 120 30 130 32.5
When compar ed t o t he I
2
R heat ing loss, t he aver age cor ona losses on sever al lines fr om
345 kV t o 750 kV gave 1 t o 20 kW/km in fair weat her , t he higher values r efer r ing t o higher
volt ages. In foul-weat her , t he losses can go up t o 300 kW/km. Since, however , r ain does not fall
all t hr ough t he year (an aver age is 3 mont hs of pr ecipit at ion in any given localit y) and
pr ecipit at ion does not cover t he ent ir e line lengt h, t he cor ona loss in kW/km cannot be compar ed
t o I
2
R loss dir ect ly. A r easonable est imat e is t he year ly aver age loss which amount s t o r oughly
2 kW/km t o 10 kW/km for 400 km lines, and 20-40 kW/km for 800 km r ange since usually
higher volt ages ar e necessar y for t he longer lines. Ther efor e, cumulat ive annual aver age cor ona
loss amount s only t o 10% of I
2
R loss, on t he assumpt ion of cont inuous full load car r ied. Wit h
load fact or s of 60 t o 70%, t he cor ona loss will be a slight ly higher per cent age. Nonet heless,
dur ing r ainy mont hs, t he gener at ing st at ion has t o supply t he heavy cor ona loss and in some
cases it has been t he exper ience t hat gener at ing st at ions have been unable t o supply full r at ed
load t o t he t r ansmission line. Thus, cor ona loss is a ver y ser ious aspect t o be consider ed in line
design.
When a line is ener gized and no cor ona is pr esent , t he cur r ent is a pur e sine wave and
capacit ive. It leads t he volt age by 90, as shown in Figur e 5.1(a). However , when cor ona is
pr esent , it calls for a loss component and a t ypical wavefor m of t he t ot al cur r ent is as shown in
Figur e 5.1 (b). When t he t wo component s ar e separ at ed, t he r esult ing inphase component has
a wavefor m which is not pur ely sinusoidal, Figur e 5.1 (c). It is st ill a cur r ent at power fr equency,
but only t he fundament al component of t his dist or t ed cur r ent can r esult in power loss.
5
Coron a Ef f ect s -I: Power Los s a n d Au d i bl e Noi s e
Fi g. 5.1 Cor ona cur r ent wa vefor m.
The mecha nism of cor ona gener a t ion a nd it s pr oper t ies ha ve been ver y ext ensively
invest igat ed and t he r eader is r efer r ed t o t he bibliogr aphy at t he end of t he book. Of vit al
impor t ance is t he gener at ion of pulses which causes int er fer ence t o r adio, car r ier communicat ion,
and gives r ise t o TV int er fer ence. These aspect s will be discussed in t he next chapt er . In t his
chapt er , engineer ing aspect s of cor ona loss and audible noise will be descr ibed and dat a useful
for design of lines based on t hese t wo phenomena will be discussed.
5.2 CORONA-LOSS FORMULAE
5.2.1 List of Formulae
Cor ona-loss for mulae wer e init iat ed by F.W. Peek J r . in 1911 der ived empir ically fr om most
difficult and painst aking exper iment al wor k. Since t hen a hor de of for mulae have been der ived
by ot her s, bot h fr om exper iment s and t heor et ical analysis. They all yield t he power loss as a
funct ion of (a) t he cor ona-incept ion volt age, V
o
; (b) t he act ual volt age of conduct or , V; (c) t he
excess volt age (V V
o
) above V
o
; (d) conduct or sur face volt age gr adient , E; (e) cor ona-incept ion
gr adient , E
o
; (f) fr equency, f; (g) conduct or size, d, and number of conduct or s in bundle, N, as
well as line configur at ion; (h) at mospher ic condit ion, chiefly r at e of r ainfall,
,
and (i) conduct or
sur face condit ion.
The available for mulae can be classified as follows: (see Bewley and EHV Refer ence Books
in Bibliogr aphy)
A. T h ose Ba sed on Vol t a ges
(i) Linear relationship : Skilling's for mula (1931):
P
c
V V
o
...(5.1)
(ii) Quadratic relationship
(a) Peek's for mula (1911):
P
c
(V V
o
)
2
...(5.2)
(b) Ryan and Henline for mula (1924):
P
c
V (V V
o
) ...(5.3)
(c) Pet er son' s for mula (1933) :
P
c
V
2
. F (V/V
o
) ...(5.4)
wher e F is an exper iment al fact or .
Ic
v
( ) a
I
c
I v
( ) b
I
L
v
( ) c
Corona Effects-I: Power Loss and Audible Noise 115
(iii) Cubic Relationship
(a) Foust and Menger for mula (1928):
P
c
V
3
...(5.5)
(b) Pr inz's for mula (1940):
P
c
V
2
(V V
o
) ...(5.6)
B. T h ose Ba sed on Vol t a ge Gr a d i en t s
(a) Nigol and Cassan for mula (1961):
P
c
E
2
In (E/E
o
) ...(5.7)
(b) Pr oject EHV for mula (1966):
P
c
V. E
m
, m = 5 ...(5.8)
I n or der t o obt a in cor ona -loss figur es fr om e.h.v. conduct or configur a t ions, out door
exper iment al pr oject s ar e est ablished in count r ies wher e such lines will be st r ung. The r esult ing
measur ed values per t ain t o individual cases which depend on local climat ic condit ions exist ing
at t he pr oject s. It is t her efor e difficult t o make a gener al st at ement concer ning which for mula
or loss figur es fit cor onal losses univer sally. In addit ion t o equat ions (5.1) t o (5.8), t he r eader is
r efer r ed t o t he wor k car r ied out in Ger many at t he Rheinau 400 kV Resear ch Pr oject , in
Fr ance at t he Les Renar dier es Labor at or y, in Russia published in t he CIGRE Pr oceedings fr om
19561966, in J apan at t he CRIEPI, in Sweden at Uppsala, and in Canada by t he IREQ and
Ont ar io Hydr o.
We will her e quot e some for mulas useful for evaluat ing 3-phase cor ona loss in kW/km,
which ar e par t icular ly adopt ed for e.h.v. lines, and some which ar e classic but cannot be used
for e.h.v. lines since t hey apply only t o single conduct or s and not t o bundles. Ther e is no
convincing evidence t hat t he t ot al cor ona loss of a bundled conduct or wit h N conduct or s is N
t imes t hat of a single conduct or .
(1) Nigol and Cassan Formula (Ont ar io Hydr o, Canada).
P
c
= K.f.r
3
. .E
2
. ln (E/E
0
), kW/km, 3-ph ...(5.9)
wher e f = fr equency in Hz, r = conduct or r adius in cm.,
= angular por t ion in r adians of conduct or sur face wher e t he volt age
gr adient exceeds t he cr it ical cor ona-incept ion gr adient ,
E = effect ive sur face gr adient at oper at ing volt age V, kV/cm, r .m.s.
E
0
= cor ona-incept ion gr adient for given weat her and conduct or sur face
condit ion, kV/cm, r .m.s.
and K = a const ant which depends upon weat her and conduct or sur face
condit ion.
Many fact or s ar e not t aken int o account in t his for mula such as t he number of sub-
conduct or s in bundle, et c.
(2) Anderson, Baret sky, McCart hy Formula (Pr oject EHV, USA)
An equat ion for cor ona loss in r ain giving t he excess loss above t he fair -weat her loss in kW/3-
phase km is:
P
c
= P
FW
+ 0.3606 K.V.r
2
.ln (1 + 10
).
N
E
3
1
5
...(5.10)
Her e, P
FW
= t ot al fair -weat her loss in kW/km,
= 1 t o 5 kW/km for 500 kV, and 3 t o 20 kW/km for 700 kV,
K = 5.35 10
10
for 500 t o 700 kV lines,
= 7.04 10
10
for 400 kV lines (based on Rheinau r esult s),
V = conduct or volt age in kV, line-line, r .m.s.,
E = sur face volt age gr adient on t he under side of t he conduct or , kV/cm,
peak,
= r ain r at e in mm/hour ,
r = conduct or r adius in cm,
and N = number of conduct or s in bundle of each phase [The fact or 0.3606 =
1/1.609
3
].
For mulae ar e not available for (a) snow, and (b) hoar fr ost which ar e t ypical of Canadian
and Russian lat it udes. The EHV Pr oject suggest s K = 1.27 10
9
for snow, but t his is a highly
var iable weat her condit ion r anging fr om heavy t o light snow. Also, t he conduct or t emper at ur e
gover ns in a lar ge measur e t he condit ion immediat ely local t o it and it will be vast ly differ ent
fr om gr ound-level obser vat ion of snow.
The value of
t o conver t snowfall int o equivalent r ainfall r at e is given as follows :

Hea vy snow :
= 10% of snowfall r at e;
Medium snow :
= 2.5% of snowfall r at e;
Light snow :
= 0.5% of snowfall r at e.
The chief disadvant age in using for mulae based upon volt age gr adient s is t he lack of
difinit ion by t he aut hor s of t he for mulae r egar ding t he t ype of gr adient t o be used. As point ed
out in Chapt er 4, t her e ar e sever al t ypes of volt age gr adient s on conduct or sur faces in a bundle,
such as nominal smoot h-conduct or gr adient pr esent on a conduct or of t he same out er r adius as
t he line conduct or but wit h a smoot h sur face, or t he gr adient wit h sur face r oughness t aken
int o account , or t he aver age gr adient , or t he aver age maximum gr adient , and so on. It is
t her efor e evident t hat for Indian condit ions, an out door e.h.v. pr oject is t he only way of obt aining
meaningful for mulae or cor ona-loss figur es applicable t o local condit ions.
Lat er on in Sect ion 5.3, we will der ive a for mula based upon char ge volt age r elat ions
dur ing t he pr esence of a cor ona dischar ge.
5.2.2 The Corona Current
The cor ona loss P
c
is expr essed as
P
c
= 3 line-t o-gr ound volt age in-phase component of cur r ent .
Fr om t he pr eviously ment ioned expr essions for P
c
, we obser ve t hat differ ent invest igat or s
have differ ent for mulas for t he cor ona cur r ent . But in r ealit y t he cur r ent is gener at ed by t he
movement of char ge car r ier s inside t he envelope of par t ial dischar ge ar ound t he conduct or . It
should t her efor e be ver y sur pr ising t o a discer ning r eader t hat t he basic mechanism, being t he
same all over t he wor ld, has not been unified int o one for mula for t his phenomenon. We can
obser ve t he expr essions for cur r ent accor ding t o differ ent invest igat or s below.
1. Peek' s Law. F.W. Peek, J r ., was t he for er unner in set t ing an example for ot her s t o
follow by giving an empir ical for mula r elat ing t he loss in wat t s per unit lengt h of conduct or
wit h near ly all var iables affect ing t he loss. For a conduct or of r adius r at a height H above
gr ound,
P
c
= kW/km , ) / 1 ( 2 / 10 16 . 5
2 2 3
V V V H r f
o

...(5.11)
wher e V, V
o
ar e in kV, r .m.s., and r and H ar e in met r es. The volt age gr adient s ar e, at an air
densit y of , for a smoot h conduct or ,
E = V/r ln (2H/r) and E
o
= 21.4 ) / 0301 . 0 1 ( + r ...(5.12)
Exa mp le 5.1. For r = 1 cm, H = 5m, f = 50 Hz, calculat e cor ona loss P
c
accor ding t o
Peek's for mula when E = 1.1 E
o
, and = 1.
Sol u t i on . E
0
= r .ms. kV/cm, 84 . 27 ) 01 . 0 / 0301 . 0 1 ( 4 . 21 = +
E = 0316 . 0 2 / . kV/cm 624 . 30 1 . 1
0
= = H r E
V = 30.624 ln (10/0.01) = 211.4 kV. (line-t o-line volt age
= 211.4
3
= 366 kV)
P
c
= 5.16 10
3
50 0.0316 211.4
2
(1 1/1.1)
2
= 2.954 kW/km
3 kW/km.
The expr ession for t he cor ona-loss cur r ent is
i
c
= P
c
/V = 5.16 10
2
f H r 2 / V(1 V
o
/V )
2
, Amp/km ...(5.13)
For t his example, i
c
= 3000 wat t s/211.4 kV = 14 mA/km.
2. Ryan-Henline Formula
P
c
= 4 fCV(V V
0
).10
6
, kW/km ...(5.14)
Her e C = capacit ance of conduct or t o gr ound, Far ad/m
=
0
2 e /ln (2H/r)
and V, V
0
ar e in kV, r .ms.
We can obser ve t hat t he quant it y (CV) is t he char ge of conduct or per unit lengt h. The
cor ona-loss cur r ent is
i
c
= 4 fC(V V
0
). 10
6
, Amp/km ...(5.15)
Exa mp le 5.2. For t he pr evious example 5.1, comput e t he cor ona loss P
c
and cur r ent i
c
using Ryan-Henline for mulae, equat ions (5.14) and (5.15).
Sol u t i on . P
c
= 4 50 211.4
2
(1 1/1.1) 10
3
/18 ln(1000)
= 6.47 kW/km
i
c
= 6.47/211.4 = 3.06 10
2
Amp/km = 30.6 mA/km
3. Project EHV Formula. Equat ion (5.10).
Exa mp le 5.3. The following dat a for a 750 kV line ar e given. Calculat e t he cor ona loss
per kilomet r e and t he cor ona loss cur r ent .
Rat e of r ainfall
= 5 mm/hr . K = 5.35 10
10
, P
FW
= 5 kW/km
V = 750 kV, line-t o-line. H = 18 m, S = 15 m phase spacing
N = 4 sub-conduct or s each of r = 0.0175 m wit h bundle spacing
B = 0.4572 m. (Bundle r adius R = B/ 2 = 0.3182 m). Use sur face volt age
gr adient on cent r e phase for calculat ion.
Sol u t i on . Fr om Mangoldt For mula, t he gr adient on t he cent r e phase conduct or will be
E = V.[1 + (N 1) r/R]/[N.r . ln {2H/r
eq
1 ) / 2 (
2
+ S H }]
wher e r
eq
= R (N.r/R)
1/N
. Using t he values given,
E = 18.1 kV/cm, r .m.s., = 18.1 2 peak = 25.456
P
c
= 5 + 0.3606 5.35 10
10
750 0.175
2
ln(1 + 50) 12 (25.456)
5
= 5 + 229 = 234 kW/km, 3-phase
The cur r ent is
i
c
= A/km 54 . 0 3 750 / 234 3 / = = V P
c
.
Not e t hat t he incr ease in loss under r ain is near ly 46 t imes t hat under fair weat her .
Compar ing wit h Table on page 127 t he cor ona loss is much higher t han t he I
2
R heat ing loss.
5.3 CHARGE-VOLTAGE (q V ) DIAGRAM AND CORONA LOSS
5.3.1 Increase in Effective Radius of Conductor and Coupling Factors
The par t ial dischar ge of air ar ound a line conduct or is t he pr ocess of cr eat ion and movement of
char ged par t icles and ions in t he vicinit y of a conduct or under t he applied volt age and field. We
shall consider a simplified pict ur e for condit ions occur r ing when fir st t he volt age is passing
t hr ough t he negat ive half-cycle and next t he posit ive half-cycle, as shown in Figur e 5.2.
Fi g. 5.2 Space-char ge dist r ibut ion in cor ona and incr ease in effect ive r adius of conduct or
In Figur e 5.2(a), fr ee elect r ons near t he negat ive conduct or when r epelled can acquir e
sufficient ener gy t o for m an elect r on avalanche. The posit ive ions (a neut r al molecule which
has lost an elect r on) ar e at t r act ed t owar ds t he negat ive conduct or while t he elect r ons dr ift int o
lower fields t o at t ach t hemselves t o neut r al at oms or molecules of Nit r ogen and Oxygen t o
for m negat ive ions. Some r ecombinat ion could also t ake place. The ener gy impar t ed for causing
init ial ionizat ion by collision is supplied by t he elect r ic field. Dur ing t he posit ive half cycle, t he
negat ive ions ar e at t r act ed t owar ds t he conduct or , but because of local condit ions not all ions
dr ift back t o t he conduct or . A space char ge is left behind and t he hyst er esis effect gives r ise t o
t he ener gy loss. Fur t her mor e, because of t he pr esence of char ged par t icles, t he effect ive char ge
+
( ) b
r
r
0
E0
( ) c
Equivalent
Corona Envelope
( ) a
+
+
+
of t he conduct or gr ound elect r ode syst em is incr eased giving r ise t o an incr ease in effect ive
capacit ance. This can be int er pr et ed in an alt er nat ive manner by assuming t hat t he conduct or
diamet er is effect ively incr eased by t he conduct ing channel up t o a cer t ain ext ent wher e t he
elect r ic field int ensit y decr eases t o a value equal t o t hat r equir ed for fur t her ionizat ion, namely,
t he cor ona-incept ion gr adient , Figur e 5.2(c).
Exa mp l e 5.4. A single smoot h conduct or 1 cm in r adius is st r ung 5 met r es above gr ound;
using Peek's for mula for cor ona-incept ion gr adient , find
(a) t he cor ona-incept ion volt age,
(b) t he equivalent r adius of conduct or t o t he out side of t he cor ona envelope at 20%
over volt age. Take . 1 =
Sol u t i on .
(a) E
0
= m. / kV 2784 cm / kV 84 . 27 ) / 0301 . 0 1 ( 4 . 21 = = + r
V
0
= 01 . 0 / 10 ln( 01 . 0 2784 ) / 2 ( ln . .
0
= r H r E )
= 192.3 kV, r .m.s.
(b) Let r
0
= effect ive r adius of t he cor ona envelope
Then, E
0c
= ) / ) 0301 . 0 1 ( 2140
0
r + , and
1.2 192.3 = E
0c
.r
o
.ln (2H/r
o
) giving
230.8 = 2140 (1 + 0.0301/ ). / 10 ( ln . ).
0 0 0
r r r
A t r ial solut ion yields r
0
= 0.0126 m = 1.26 cm.
So far we have consider ed power -fr equency excit at ion and wor ked wit h effect ive or r .m.s.
values of volt age and volt age gr adient . Ther e ar e t wo ot her ver y impor t ant t ypes of vollt age,
namely t he light ning impulse and swit ching sur ge, which give r ise t o int ense cor ona on t he
conduct or s. The r esult ing ener gy loss helps t o at t enuat e t he volt age magnit udes dur ing t r avel
fr om a sour ce point t o ot her point s far away along t he over head line. The r esult ing at t enuat ion
or decr ease in amplit ude, and t he dist or t ion or waveshape will be discussed in det ail in t he next
sect ion. We ment ion her e t hat at power fr equency, t he cor ona-incept ion gr adient and volt age
ar e usually higher by 10 t o 30% of t he oper at ing volt age in fair weat her so t hat a line is not
nor mally designed t o gener at e cor ona. However , local condit ions such as dir t par t icles et c., do
give r ise t o some cor ona. On t he ot her hand, under a light ning st r oke or a swit ching oper at ion,
t he volt age exceeds t wice t he peak value of cor ona-incept ion volt age. Cor ona plumes have been
phot ogr aphed fr om act ual lines which ext end up t o 1.2 met r es fr om t he sur face of t he conduct or .
Ther efor e, t her e is evidence of a ver y lar ge incr ease in effect ive diamet er of a conduct or under
t hese condit ions.
Cor ona -incept ion gr a dient s on conduct or s under impulse condit ions on cylindr ica l
conduct or s above a gr ound plane ar e equal t o t hose under power fr equency but cr est values
have t o be used in Peek's for mula. The incr ease in effect ive r adius will in t ur n change t he
capacit ance of t he conduct or which has an influence on t he volt age coupled t o t he ot her phase-
conduct or s locat ed on t he same t ower . The incr eased coupling fact or on mut ually-coupled
t r avelling waves was r ecognized in t he 1930's and 40's under light ning condit ions. At pr esent ,
swit ching sur ges ar e of gr eat concer n in det er mining insulat ion clear ance bet ween conduct or
and gr ound, and conduct or t o conduct or . We will consider t he incr ease in diamet er and t he
r esult ing coupling fact or s under bot h t ypes of impulses.
Exa mp le 5.5. A single conduct or 2.5 inch in diamet er of a 525-kV line (line-t o-line volt age)
is st r ung 13 m above gr ound. Calculat e (a) t he cor ona-incept ion volt age and (b) t he effect ive
r adius of conduct or at an over volt age of 2.5 p.u. Consider a st r anding fact or m = 1.25 for
r oughness. (c) Calculat e t he capacit ance of conduct or t o gr ound wit h and wit hout cor ona. (d) If
a second conduct or is st r ung 10 m away at t he same height , calculat e t he coupling fact or s in
t he t wo cases. Take . 1 =
Sol u t i on . r = 0.03176 m, H = 13.
(a) E
0r
= 2140 0.8 (1 + 03176 . 0 / 0301 . 0 )
= 2001 kV/m = 20 kV/cm.
V
0
= E
0
.r . ln (2H/r) = 532.73 kV r .m.s., line-t o-gr ound,
= 753.4 kV peak.
At 525 kV, r .m.s., line-t o-line, t her e is no cor ona pr esent .
(b) 2.5 p.u. volt age = 3 / 2 525 5 . 2 = 1071.65 kV, cr est .
Ther efor e, cor ona is pr esent since t he cor ona-onset volt age is 753.4 kV, cr est .
When consider ing t he effect ive r adius, we assume a smoot h sur face for t he envelope
so t hat
1071.65 = 3000 ). / 26 ( ln . ). / 0301 . 0 1 (
0 0 0
r r r +
A t r ial and er r or solut ion yields r
0
= 0.05 met r e. This is an incr ease
in r adius of 0.05 0.03176 = 0.01824 met r e or 57.43%.
(c) C = ). / 2 ( ln / 2
0
r H e
Wit hout cor ona, C = 8.282 nF/km;
Wit h cor ona, C = 8.88 nF/km,
(d) The pot ent ial coefficient mat r ix is
[P] =
= =

1
,
,
] [ ] [ and
,
,
11 21
12 22 1
22 21
12 11
P P
P P
P M
P P
P P
wher e = | [P]| , t he det er minant .
The self-capacit ance is / 2
11 0
P e while t he mut ual capacit ance is . / 2
12
P e
o
The
coupling fact or is K
12
= P
12
/P
11
.
Wit hout cor ona K
12
= ln ) 03176 . 0 / 26 ( ln / ) 10 / 10 26 (
2 2
+
= 1.0245/6.7076 = 0.15274
Wit h cor ona, K
12
= 1.0245/ ln (26/.05) = 0.1638.
This is an incr ease of 7.135%.
For bundled conduct or s, coupling fact or s bet ween 15% t o 25% ar e found in pr act ice. Not e
t hat wit h a swit ching sur ge of 1000 kV cr est , t he second conduct or exper iences a volt age of
near ly 152 kV cr est t o gr ound so t hat t he volt age bet ween t he conduct or s could r each 850 kV
cr est .
5.3.2 Charge-Voltage Diagram with Corona
When cor ona is absent t he capacit ance of a conduct or is based on t he physical r adius of t he
met allic conduct or . The char ge-volt age r elat ion is a st r aight line OA as shown in Figur e 5.3
and C = q
0
/V
0
, wher e V
0
= t he cor ona-incept ion volt age and q
0
t he cor r esponding char ge. However ,
beyond t his volt age t her e is an incr ease in char ge which is mor e r apid t han given by t he slope
C of t he st r aight -line q
0
V
0
r elat ion. This is shown as t he por t ion AB which is near ly st r aight .
When t he volt age is decr eased aft er r eaching a maximum V
m
t her e is a hyst er esis effect and
t he q V r elat ion follows t he pat h BD. The slope of BD almost equals C showing t hat t he space-
char ge cloud near t he conduct or has been absor bed int o t he conduct or and char ges far enough
away fr om t he conduct or ar e not ent ir ely pulled back. The essent ial pr oper t ies of t he q V
diagr am for one half-cycle of an ac volt age or t he unipolar light ning and swit ching impulses can
be obt ained fr om t he t r apezoidal ar ea OABD which r epr esent s t he ener gy loss.
F i g. 5.3 Cha r ge-Volt a ge dia gr a m of cor ona .
Let t he slope of AB equal (1 + K) C wher e K is an exper iment al fact or which lies bet ween
0.6 and 0.8 having an aver age value of 0.7. The maximum char ge cor r espondihg t o V
m
is denot ed
as q
m
. The ar ea of OABD equals ) (
2
1
2
0
2
V V KC
m
as shown below:
Ar ea OABD = (Ar ea DOFB) (Ar ea OAG) Ar ea (GAHF) Ar ea (AHB)
= (Ar ea DOFB) ) ( ) (
2
1
) (
2
1
0 0 0 0 0 0
V V q q V V q V q
m m m

= Ar ea DOFB )} ( {
2
1
0 0
V V q V q
m m m
+ ...(5.16)
Now, BH = , / ) ( ) 1 (
0 0 0 0
V V V q K q q
m m
+ =
J H = , / ) (
0 0 0
V V V q
m

and BF = , / ) ( ) 1 (
0 0 0 0
V V V q K q q
m m
+ + =
DO = BJ = BH J H = . / ) (
0 0 0
V V V Kq
m
...(5.17)
Ar ea DOFB =
0
2
0 0 0 0
/
2
1
/ ) ( ) (
2
1
V V q V V V V Kq V BF DO
m m m m
+ = + ...(5.18)
Ar ea OAG = ). ( Ar ea ;
2
1
0 0 0 0
V V q AGFH V q
m
=
Ar ea AHB =
0
2
0 0 0
2
0
2
0 0 0
/ ) (
2
1
/ ) (
2
1
) )( (
2
1
V V V Kq V V V q V V q q
m m m m
+ = ...(5.19)
qm
q
0
V0 Vm
B
J
H
F
G
A
C
O
D
(1 + ) K C
Ar eas (OAG + AGFH + AHB) = ], ) ( )[ / (
2
1
2
0
2
0 0
V V K V V q
m m
+ ...(5.20)
Finally, Ar ea OABD =
0 0 0 0
/ ) )( ( .
2
1
V V V V V q K
m m
+
= ) (
2
1
2
0
2
V V KC
m
...(5.21)
For a unipolar wavefor m of volt age t he ener gy loss is equal t o equat ion (5.21). For an ac
volt age for one cycle, t he ener gy loss is t wice t his value.
W
ac
=
2
0
2
( V V KC
m
) ...(5.22)
The cor r esponding power loss will be
P
c
= f W
ac
= ) (
2
0
2
V V fKC
m
...(5.23)
If t he maximum volt age is ver y close t o t he cor ona-incept ion volt age V
0
, we can wr it e
), ( 2 ) ( ) (
0 0 0
2
0
2
V V V V V V V V V
m m m m m
= + = so t hat
P
c
= ) ( 2
0
V V KCV f
m m
...(5.24)
wher e all volt ages ar e cr est values. When effect ive values for V
m
and V
0
ar e used.
P
c
= ) ( 4
0
V V V KC f ...(5.25)
This is ver y close t o t he Ryan-Henline for mula, equat ion (5.14) wit h K = 1. For light ning
and swit ching impulses t he ener gy loss is equat ion (5.21) which is W = ) (
2
1
2
0
2
V V KC
m
wher e all
volt ages ar e cr est values.
Exa mp le 5.6. An over head conduct or of 1.6 cm r adius is 10 m above gr ound. The nor mal
volt age is 133 kV r .m.s. t o gr ound (230 kV, line-t o-line). The swit ching sur ge exper ienced is 3.5
p.u. Taking K = 0.7, calculat e t he ener gy loss per km of line. Assume smoot h conduct or .
Sol u t i on . C = ) / 2 ( ln / 2
0
r H e = 7.79 nF/km
E
0
= ) 016 . 0 / 0301 . 0 1 ( 30 + = 37.14 kV/cm, cr est
V
0
= E
0
.r. ln (2H/r) = 423.8 kV, cr est
V
m
= 2 133 5 . 3 = 658.3 kV, cr est
W = 0.5 0.7 7.79 10
9
(658.3
2
423.8
2
) 10
6
J oule/km
= 0.7 kJ /km.
This pr oper t y will be used in der iving at t enuat ion of t r avelling waves caused by light ning
and swit ching in Chapt er 8.
5.4 ATTENUATION OF TRAVELLING WAVES DUE TO CORONA LOSS
A volt age wave incident on a t r ansmission line at an init ial point x = 0 will t r avel wit h a velocit y
v such t hat at a lat er t ime t t he volt age r eaches a point x = vt fr om t he point of incidence, as
shown in Figur e 5.4 In so doing if t he cr est value of volt age is higher t han t he cor ona-disr upt ive
volt a ge for t he conduct or , it loses ener gy while it t r a vels a nd it s a mplit ude decr ea ses
cor r esponding t o t he lower ener gy cont ent . In addit ion t o t he at t enuat ion or decr ease in
amplit ude, t he waveshape also shows dist or t ion. In t his sect ion, we will discuss only at t enuat ion
since dist or t ion must include complet e equat ions of t r avelling waves caused by induct ance and
capacit ance as well as conduct or and gr ound-r et ur n r esist ance. This is dealt wit h in Chapt er 8.
Fi g. 5.4 At t enuat ion of volt age on a t r ansmission line.
The ener gy of t he wave is st or ed in bot h elect r omagnet ic for m and elect r ost at ic for m. The
t ime r at e of loss of st or ed ener gy is equal t o t he power loss due t o cor ona, whose funct ional
r elat ionship wit h volt age has been given in Sect ion 5.2. The t ot al ener gy in a differ ent ial lengt h
dx of t he wave will be.
dw =
2 2
) . (
2
1
) . (
2
1
I dx L V dx C + ...(5.26)
wher e L and C ar e induct ance and capacit ance per unit lengt h of line. For a t r avelling wave,
t he volt age V and cur r ent I ar e r elat ed by t he sur ge impedance Z = , / C L and t he wave
velocit y is v =
LC / 1
Consequent ly, I
2
= V
2
/ Z
2
= V
2
C/L. Thus, equat ion (5.26) becomes.
dw = C.dx.V
2
. ...(5.27)
The r at e of dissipat ion of ener gy, assuming t he capacit ance does not change wit h volt age for
t he pr esent analysis, is
dw/dt = d (CV
2
.dx)/dt = 2CV.dx.dV/dt . ...(5.28)
Now, t he power loss over t he differ ent ial lengt h dx is
P
c
= ). ( / . 2 t hat so , ). ( V f P dt dV CV dx V f
c
= = ...(5.29)
For differ ent funct ional r elat ions P
c
= f(V), equat ion (5.29) can be solved and t he magnit ude of
volt age aft er a t ime of t r avel t (or dist ance x = vt ) can be det er mined. We will illust r at e t he
pr ocedur e for a few t ypical values of f(V), but will consider t he pr oblem lat er on by using
equat ion (5.21) in Chapt er 8.
(a) Linear Relationship
Let f(V) = K
s
(V V
0
). Then, wit h V
i
= init ial volt age, 2 CV dV/dt = K
s
(V V
0
). By separ at ing
var iables and using t he init ial condit ion V = V
i
at t = 0 yields
, ). ( ). (
0 0
/ ) (
0
/
0
V t V
i
V V
i
e V V e V V

= ...(5.30)
wher e = K
s
/2C and V
0
= cor ona-incept ion volt age.
Also, t he volt ages in excess of t he cor ona-incept ion volt age at any t ime t or dist ance x = vt
will be
. ) / ) (
0
/ ) (
0 0
V t V V
i
i
e V V V V

= ...(5.31)
x = vt
Vi
x = 0
dx dx
V
This expr ession yields an indir ect met hod of det er mining = K
s
/2C by exper iment , if
dist or t ion is not t oo gr eat . It r equir es measur ing t he incident wave magnit ude V
i
and t he
magnit ude V aft er a t ime lapse of t or dist ance x = vt at a differ ent point on t he line, whose
cor ona-incept ion volt age V
0
is known. When C is also known, t he const ant K
s
is calculat ed.
Exa mp le 5.7. A volt age wit h magnit ude of 500 kV cr est is incident on a conduct or whose
cor ona-incept ion volt age is 100 kV cr est , and capacit ance C = 10 nF/km. Aft er a lapse of 120
s
(36 km of t r avel at light velocit y) t he measur ed amplit ude is 110 kV. Calculat e and K
s
.
Sol u t i on . V
i
/V
0
= . 400 , 10 , 5
0 0
= = V V V V
i
V
0
= volt s 10 kV 100
5
=
10/400 = ) 10 / 10 120 ( exp ] 100 / ) 110 500 ( [exp
5 6
a

This gives
1 9
sec volt 10 325 . 6 2 /

= = C K
s
.
K
s
= 5 . 126 10 10 10 325 . 6 2
9 9
=

wat t s/km-volt or Amp/km.
(b) Quadratic Formula
(i) Let t he loss be assumed t o var y as
f(V) = K
R
V(V V
0
) ...(5.32)
So t hat
2CV (dV/dt ) = K
R
V(V V
0
).
Wit h V = V
i
at t = 0, int egr at ion gives
] ) 2 / ( [ exp
0
0
t C K
V V
V V
R
i
=
...(5.33)
The volt age in excess of cor ona-incept ion value behaves as if it is at t enuat ed by a r esist ance
of R per unit lengt h as given by t he for mula
] ) 2 / ( [ exp ). ( ) (
0 0
t L R V V V V
i
=
K
R
= . / /
2
Z R L RC =
For t he pr evious example.
K
R
=
. 10 5 . 61
10
400
ln .
10 120
10 2
6
6
9
The unit s ar e wat t s/km-volt

2
.
(ii) If t he loos is assumed t o var y as
f(V) = ) (
2
0
2
V V K
Q
...(5.34)
t hen 2CV (dV/dt ) = . 0 wit h ) (
2
0
2
= = t at V V V V K
i Q
2
0
2
0
2
2
V
V
V
V
i

= exp [ (K
Q
/C)t ]
For t he pr evious example,
K
Q
=
. 10 395
100
100
110
500
ln .
10 120
10 10
6
2
2
2
2
6
9

(iii) Let . ) ( ) (
2
0
V V K V f
P
= Then,
. 0 a t wit h ) ( ) / .( 2
2
0
= = = t V V V V K dt dV CV
i P
This gives
t C K
V V V V
V V V
V V
V V
P
i
i i
) 2 / (
) )( (
) (
ln
0 0
0
0
0
=

...(5.35)
For
9
0
10 10 , kV 110 , kV 500 , kV 100

= = = = C V V V
i
F/km, a nd
6
10 120

= t
sec, t her e r esult s K
p
= 224 10
6
.
(c) Cubic Relation
If f(V) =
3 3
) / ( 2 , . V K dt dV CV V K
c c
=
giving V
i
/V = . ) 2 / ( 1 t V C K
i c
+ ...(5.36)
For t he pr evious example, K
c
= 1.182 10
9
wat t s/km-volt
3
.
5.5 AUDIBLE NOISE: GENERATION AND CHARACTERISTICS
When cor ona is pr esent on t he conduct or s, e.h.v. lines gener at e audible noise which is especially
high dur ing foul weat her . The noise is br oadband, which ext ends fr om ver y low fr equency t o
about 20 kHz. Cor ona dischar ges gener at e posit ive and negat ive ions which ar e alt er nat ely
at t r act ed and r epelled by t he per iodic r ever sal of polar it y of t he ac excit at ion. Their movement
gives r ise t o sound-pr essur e waves at fr equencies of t wice t he power fr equency and it s mult iples,
in addit ion t o t he br oadband spect r um which is t he r esult of r andom mot ions of t he ions, as
shown in Figur e 5.5. The noise has a pur e t one super imposed on t he br oadband noise. Due t o
differ ences in ionic mot ion bet ween ac and dc excit at ions, dc lines exhibit only a br oadband
noise, and fur t her mor e, unlike for ac lines, t he noise gener at ed fr om a dc line is near ly equal
in bot h fair and foul weat her condit ions. Since audible noise (AN) is man-made, it is measur ed
in t he same manner as ot her t ypes of man-made noise such as air cr aft noise, aut omobile
ignit ion noise, t r a nsfor mer hum, et c. We will descr ibe met er s used a nd met hods of AN
measur ement s in a subsequent sect ion 5.7.
Fi g. 5.5 Audible Noise fr equency spect r a fr om ac and dc t r ansmission lines.
Audible noise can become a ser ious pr oblem fr om 'psycho-acoust ics' point of view, leading
t o insanit y due t o loss of sleep at night t o inhabit ant s r esiding close t o an e.h.v. line. This
0 100 200
AN AN dB dB
f
AC Line
f
DC Line
pr oblem came int o focus in t he 1960's wit h t he ener gizat ion of 500 kV lines in t he USA.
Regulat or y bodies have not as yet fixed limit s t o AN fr om power t r ansmission lines since such
r egulat ions do not exist for ot her man-made sour ces of noise. The pr oblem is left as a social one
which has t o be set t led by public opinion. The pr oposed limit s for AN ar e discussed in t he next
sect ion.
5.6 LIMITS FOR AUDIBLE NOISE
Since no legislat ion exist s set t ing limit s for AN for man-made sour ces, power companies and
envir onment alist s have fixed limit s fr om public-r elat ions point of view which power companies
have accept ed fr om a mor al point of view. In doing so, like ot her kinds of int er fer ence, human
beings must be subject ed t o list ening t est s. Such object ive t est s ar e per for med by ever y civic-
minded power ut ilit y or ganizat ion. The fir st such ser ies of t est s per for med fr om a 500-kV line
of t he Bonneville Power Administ r at ion in t he U.S.A. is known as Per r y Cr it er ion. The AN
limit s ar e as follows:
No complaint s : Less than 52.5 dB (A),
Few complaint s : 52.5 dB (A) t o 59 dB (A),
Many complaint s : Gr eat er t han 59 dB (A),
The r efer ence level for audible noise and t he dB r elat ion will be explained lat er . The
not at ion (A) denot es t hat t he noise is measur ed on a met er on a filt er designat ed as A-weight ing
net wor k. Ther e ar e sever al such net wor ks in a met er .
Design of line dimensions at e.h.v. levels is now gover ned mor e by t he need t o limit AN
levels t o t he above values. The select ion of widt h of line cor r idor or r ight -of-way (R-O-W),
wher e t he near est house can be per mit t ed t o be locat ed, if fixed fr om AN limit of 52.5 dB(A),
will be found adequat e fr om ot her point s of view at 1000 t o 1200 kV levels. The design aspect
will be consider ed in Sect ion 5.8. The audible noise gener at ed by a line is a funct ion of t he
following fact or s:
(a) t he sur face volt age gr adient on conduct or s,
(b) t he number of sub-conduct or s in t he bundle,
(c) conduct or diamet er ,
(d) at mospher ic condit ions, and
(e) t he lat er al dist ance (or aer ial dist ance) fr om t he line conduct or s t o t he point wher e
noise is t o be evaluat ed.
The ent ir e phenomenon is st at ist ical in nat ur e, as in all pr oblems r elat ed t o e.h.v. line
designs, because of at mospher ic condit ions.
While t he Per r y cr it er ion is based upon act ual list ening exper iences on t est gr oups of
human beings, and guidelines ar e given for limit s for AN fr om an e.h.v. line at t he locat ion of
inhabit ed places, ot her man-made sour ces of noise do not follow such limit s. A second cr it er ion
for set t ing limit s and which evaluat es t he nuisance value fr om man-made sour ces of AN is
called t he 'Day-Night Equivalent ' level of noise. This is based not only upon t he var iat ion of AN
wit h at mospher ic condit ions but also wit h t he hour s of t he day and night dur ing a 24-hour
per iod. The r eason is t hat a cer t ain noise level which can be t oler at ed dur ing t he waking hour s
of t he day, when ambient noise is high, cannot be t oler at ed dur ing sleeping hour s of t he night
when lit t le or no ambient noises ar e pr esent . This will be elabor at ed upon in Sect ion 5.9.
Accor ding t o t he Day-Night Cr it er ion, a noise level of 55 dB(A) can be t aken as t he limit inst ead
of 52.5 dB(A) accor ding t o t he Per r y Cr it er ion. Fr om a st at ist ical point of view, t hese levels ar e
consider ed t o exist for 50% of t he t ime dur ing pr ecipit at ion hour s. These ar e designat ed as L
50
levels.
5.7 AN MEASUREMENT AND METERS
5.7.1 Decibel Values in AN and Addition of Sources
Audible noise is caused by changes in air pr essur e or ot her t r ansmission medium so t hat it is
descr ibed by Sound Pr essur e Level (SPL). Alexander Gr aham Bell est ablished t he basic unit
for SPL as 20 10
6
Newt on/m
2
or 20 micr o Pascals [2 10
5
micr o bar ]. All decibel values ar e
r efer r ed t o t his basic unit . In t elephone wor k t her e is a flow of cur r ent in a set of head-phones
or r eceiver . Her e t he basic unit s ar e 1 milliwat t acr oss 600 ohms yielding a volt age of 775 mV
and a cur r ent of 1.29 mA. For any ot her SPL, t he decibel value is
SPL(dB) = 10 Log
10
(SPL/20 10
6
) Pascals ...(5.37)
This is also t er med t he 'Acoust ic Power Level', denot ed by PWL, or simply t he audible
noise level, AN.
Exa mp le 5.8. The AN level of one phase of a 3-phase t r ansmission line at a point is 50
dB. Calculat e (a) t he SPL in Pascals; (b) if a second sour ce of noise cont r ibut es 48dB at t he
same locat ion, calculat e t he combined AN level due t o t he t wo sour ces.
Sol u t i on .
(a) 10 Log
10
(SPL
1
/2 10
5
) = 50, which gives
SPL
1
= 2 10
5
10
50/10
= 2 Pascals
(b) Similar ly, SPL
2
= 2 10
5
10
48/10
= 1.262 Pascals
Tot al SPL = SPL
1
+ SPL
2
= 3.262 Pascals.
The decibel value will be
AN = 10 Log
10
(SPL/2 10
5
) = 52.125 dB.
Consider N sour ces whose decibel values, at a given point wher e AN level is t o be evaluat ed,
ar e AN
1
, AN
2
,...., AN
N
. In or der t o add t hese sour ces and evaluat e t he r esult ant SPL and dB
values, t he pr ocedur e is as follows:
The individual sound pr essur e levels ar e
SPL
1
=
10 / AN 6
2
10 / AN 6
2 1
10 10 20 SPL , 10 10 20 =

et c.
The t ot al SPL = SPL
1
+ SPL
2
+ . . . = 2 10
5

=
N
i
i
1
10 / AN
10
...(5.38)
The decibel value of t he combined sound pr essur e level is
AN = 10 Log
10
(SPL/2 10
5
) = 10 Log
10

=
N
i
i
1
AN 1 . 0
10
...(5.39)
Exa mp le 5.9. A 3-phase line yields AN levels fr om individual phases t o be 55 dB, 52 dB,
and 48 dB. Find t he r esult ing AN level of t he line.
Sol u t i on .
5 8 . 4 2 . 5 5 . 5 AN 1 . 0 AN 1 . 0 AN 1 . 0
10 382 . 5 10 10 10 10 10 10
3 2 1
= + + = + +
AN = . dB 31 . 57 ) 10 382 . 5 ( Log 10
5
10
=
5.7.2 Microphones
Inst r ument s for measur ement of audible noise ar e ver y simple in const r uct ion in so far as t heir
pr inciples ar e concer ned. They would confor m t o st andar d specificat ions of each count r y, as for
example, ANSI, ISI or I.E.C., et c. The input end of t he AN measur ing syst em consist s of a
micr ophone as shown in t he block diagr am, Figur e 5.6. Ther e ar e t hr ee t ypes of micr ophones
used in AN measur ement fr om e.h.v. lines and equipment . They ar e (i) air -condenser t ype;
(ii) cer a mic; a nd (iii) elect r et micr ophones. Air condenser micr ophones ar e ver y st able and
exhibit highest fr equency r esponse. Cer amic ones ar e t he most r ugged of t he t hr ee t ypes.
Since AN is pr imar ily a foul-weat her phenomenon, adequat e pr ot ect ion of micr ophone fr om
weat her is necessar y. In addit ion, t he elect r et micr ophone r equir es a polar izat ion volt age so
t hat a power supply (usually bat t er y) will also be exposed t o r ain and must be pr ot ect ed suit ably.
Fi g. 5.6 Block diagr am of AN Measur ing Cir cuit .
Some of t he micr ophones used in AN measur ement fr om e.h.v. lines ar e Gener al Radio
Type 1560-P, or 1971-9601, or Br uel and Kjor t ype 4145 or 4165, and so on. The GR t ype has a
weat her pr ot ect ion. Since AN level for m a t r ansmission line is much lower t han, say, air cr aft
or ignit ion noise, 1" (2.54 cm) diamet er micr ophones ar e used alt hough some have used "
2
1
ones, since t hese ha ve mor e sensit ivit y t ha n 1" micr ophones. Ther efor e, size is not t he
det er mining fact or .
The most impor t ant char act er ist ic of a micr ophone is it s fr equency r esponse. In making
AN measur ement s, it is evident t hat t he angle bet ween t he micr ophone and t he sour ce is not
a lwa ys 90 so t ha t t he gr a zing a ngle det er mines t he fr equency r esponse. Some t ypica l
char act er ist ics ar e as shown in Figur e 5.7.
Fi g. 5.7 Response of micr ophone for gr azing and per pendicular incidence.
MIKE
Pre-Amp II Amp A B C
Weighting
Networks
Output Amp. Meter
Output Amp.
Output
Jack
Gain Control
Calibration
Grazing
Perpendicular
Ideal
4
0
5
d
B
10
2
10
3
10
4
Frequency, Hz
10
4
10
3
10
2
0
Mike Directed
Towards Cond.
Mike Vertical
Ideal
Non-Directional
Frequency, Hz
AN levels ar e st at ist ical in nat ur e and long-t er m measur ement s ar e car r ied out by
pr ot ect ing t he micr ophone fr om r ain, wind, animals, and bir ds. Some t ypes of shelt er s use
wind-scr eens wit h a coat ing of silicone gr ease. Foam r ubber wind-cover s have also been used
which have negligible at t enuat ion effect on t he sound, par t icular ly on t he A-weight ed net wor k
which will be descr ibed below. Ever y wind-cover must also be calibr at ed and manufact ur er s
supply t his dat a. Foam-r ubber soaks up r ain and must be squeezed out per iodically and silicone
gr ease applied.
5.7.3 Weighting Networks
Ther e ar e 5 weight ing net wor ks designat ed as A t o E in Sound Pr essur e Level Met er s. The ' A'
weight ed net wor k has been designed par t icular ly t o have near ly t he same r esponse as t he
human ear , while t he 'C' weight ed net wor k has a flat r esponse up t o 16 kHz. The 'A' net wor k
is also least suscept ible t o wind gust s. It is also pr efer r ed by Labour Relat ions Depar t ment s for
a ssessing t he a dver sit y of noise-cr ea t ed psychologica l a nd physiologica l effect s in noisy
envir onment s such as fact or ies, power st at ions, et c.
Typical fr equency r esponse of t he A, B, C weight ing net wor ks ar e sket ched in Figur e
5.8(a) while 5.8(b) compar es t he r esponses of A, D net wor ks. The A-weight ing net wor k is widely
used for r elat ively nondir ect ional sour ces. Fr om t hese cur ves it is seen t hat t he C-net wor k
pr ovides essent ially flat r esponse fr om 20 Hz t o 10 kHz. The human ear exhibit s such flat
r esponse for sound pr essur e levels up t o 85 dB or mor e. At lower SPL, t he human ear does not
have a flat r esponse wit h fr equency and t he A and B net wor ks ar e pr efer r ed. The A net wor k is
used for SPL up t o 40 dB and t he B for SPL up t o 70 dB. Somet imes, t he A-weight ed net wor k is
known as t he 40 dB net wor k. It is also used for t r ansfor mer noise measur ement s.
Fi g. 5.8 Fr equency r esponses of (a) A, B, C weight ing net wor ks, (b) A, D weight ing net wor ks.
5.7.4 Octave Band and Third Octave Band
It was ment ioned ear lier t hat in addit ion t o t he br oadband noise gener at ed by cor ona, pur e
t ones at double t he power fr equency and it s mult iples exist . These discr et e-fr equency component s
or line spect r a ar e measur ed on oct ave bands by select ive filt er s. Figur e 5.9 shows a schemat ic
diagr am of t he swit ching ar r angement for use wit h a 50-Hz line.
A
B
C
A
B,C
10 10
0 10
10 10
20 20
30 30
40 40
d
B
d
B
10
2
10
2
10
3
10
3
10
4
10
4
Frequency, Hz Frequency, Hz
A
D
D
A
Fi g. 5.9 Oct ave band AN met er cir cuit .
The oct ave band consist s of a cent r e fr equency f
0
. Let f
1
and f
2
be t he upper and lower
fr equencies of t he bands. Then f
0
=
2 1
f f . An oct ave band ext ends fr om t he lower fr equency
f
2
= 2 /
0
f t o t he upper fr equency f
1
=
. 2 0
2 2 f f =
A t hir d-oct ave band ext ends fr om t he lower fr equency f
3
= f
0
/(2)
1/6
= 0.891 f
0
t o an upper
fr equency f
4
= . ) 2 ( 1225 . 1 . ) 2 (
3
3 / 1
0 0
6 / 1
f f f = = The oct ave and t hir d-oct ave band SPL is t he
int egr at ed SPL of all t he fr equency component s in t he band.
Exa mp le 5.10. An oct ave band has a cent r e fr equency of 1000 Hz. (a) Calculat e t he upper
and lower fr equencies of t he band. (b) Calculat e t he same for t hir d-oct ave band.
Sol u t i on . (a) f
0
= 1000. . Hz 707 , H 1414 2
2 0 1
= = = f z f f
(b) f
4
= . H 891 ) 2 /( 1000 , H 1122 ) 2 (
6 / 1
3 0
6 / 1
z f z f = = =
All fr equency component s r adiat ed by a t r ansmission line have t o pr opagat e fr om t he
conduct or t o t he met er and t her efor e int er vening media play an impor t ant r ole, par t icular ly
r eflect ions fr om t he gr ound sur face. The lowest -fr equency oct ave band is most sensit ive t o
such dist ur bances while t he A-weight ed net wor k and higher fr equency oct ave bands give a flat
over all r esponse. Examples ar e shown in Figur e 5.10.
F i g. 5.10 Oct ave band r esponse for line AN.
(a) Fr equency spect r um, (b) Lat er al pr ofile for 100-Hz Oct ave band.
High Pass
A
A
A
Meter
Jack 10 dB Step
Attenuator
Band Selector Switch (Ganged)
INPUT
Low Pass
62.5
4000
62.5 125
125 250
250 500
500 10
3
10 2 10
3 3
210 4 10
3 3
65
60
55
50
45
40
d
B
10
2
10
3
10
4
Frequency, Hz
65
60
55
50
45
40
d
B
10
2
10
3
10
4
Frequency, Hz
100-Hz Octave Band
A-Weighted
1000-Hz Octave
Band
Thus, displacing t he micr ophone even a few met r es can give er r oneous r esult s on a 100-
Hz oct ave band. The cur ve is caused by st anding waves and r eflect ions fr om t he gr ound sur face.
5.8 FORMULAE FOR AUDIBLE NOISE AND USE IN DESIGN
Audible noise fr om a line is subject t o var iat ion wit h at mospher ic condit ion. This means t hat
t her e is no one quant it y or AN level t hat can be consider ed as t he audible noise level of a line.
All designer s accept t wo levelst he L
50
level and t he L
5
level. These ar e defined as follows:
L
50
Level: This is t he AN level as measur ed on t he A-weight ed net wor k which is exceeded 50%
of t he t ime dur ing per iods of r ain, usually ext ending over an ent ir e year .
L
5
Level: Similar t o L
50
, but exceeded only 5% of t he t ot al t ime.
The L
5
level is used for descr ibing t he noise levels in heavy r ain which ar e gener at ed in
ar t ificial r ain t est s. These ar e car r ied out in 'cage t est s' wher e ar t ificial r ain appar at us is used,
as well as fr om shor t out door exper iment al lines equipped wit h such appar at us. Many empir ical
for mulas exist for calculat ing t he AN level of an e.h.v. line [see IEEE Task For ce paper , Oct ober
1982]. However , we will discuss t he use of t he for mula developed by t he B.P.A. of t he USA. It
is applicable for t he following condit ions:
(a) All line geomet r ies wit h bundles having up t o 16 sub-conduct or s.
(b) Sub-conduct or diamet er s in t he r ange 2 cm t o 6.5 cm.
(c) The AN calculat ed is t he L
50
level in r ain.
(d) Tr ansmission volt ages ar e 230 kV t o 1500 kV, 3-phase ac.
Refer r ing t o Figur e 5.11, t he AN level of each phase at t he measur ing point M is, wit h
i = 1, 2, 3,
AN (i) = 120 log
10
E
am
(i) + 55 log
10
d 11.4 log
10
D(i) 115.4, dB(A) (5.40)
F i g. 5.11 Calculat ion of AN level of line by B.P.A. For mula.
It applies for N < 3 sub-conduct or s in t he bundles. For N
3, t he for mula becomes

AN(i) = 120 log
10
E
am
(i) + 55 log
10
d 11.4 log
10
D(i)
+ 26.4 log
10
N 128.4, dB(A) ...(5.41)
Her e, E
am
(i) = aver age maximum sur face volt age gr adient on bundle belonging t o
phase i in kV/cm, r .m.s.
d = diamet er of sub-conduct or in cm.,
N = number of sub-conduct or s in bundle,
and D(i) = aer ial dist ance fr om phase i t o t he locat ion of t he micr ophone in met r es.
1
2
3
D
1
D
2
D
3
M
When all dimensions ar e in met r e unit s, t he above give
N < 3 : AN(i) = 120 log E
m
(i) + 55 log d
m
11.4 log D(i) + 234.6, dB(A) ...(5.42)
N
3 : AN(i) = 120 log E

m
(i) + 55 log d
m
11.4 log D(i)
+ 26.4 log N + 221.6, dB(A) ...(5.43)
Having calculat ed t he AN level of each phase, t he r ule for addit ion of t he t hr ee levels
follows equat ion (5.39),
AN =
) ( dB , 10 log 10
3
1
) ( 1 . 0
10
A
i
i AN
=
...(5.44)
For a double-cir cuit line, t he value of i ext ends fr om 1 t o 6.
We obser ve t hat t he AN level depends on t he following four quant it ies:
(i) t he sur face volt age gr adient on conduct or ,
Fig. 5.14 AN level of 1150 kV line (calculat ed).
(ii) t he conduct or diamet er ,
(iii) t he number of sub-conduct or s in bundle, and
F i g. 5.12 AN level of 400 kV line (calculat ed). F i g. 5.13 AN level of 735 kV line (calculat ed).
56
54
52
50
48
0 1 2 3
d
B
(
A
)
400 kV
L-Type
Horizontal
X/H
0
48
50
52
54
56
58
60
1 2 3
d
B
(
A
)
4 0.0302
735 kV
Hydro-Quebec
Line
X/H
4 0.0403
50
49
48
47
46
45
44
d
B
(
A
)
B.P.A. 1150 kV Line
0 1 2 3
X
44 = 26 H
X/H
(iv) t he aer ial dist ance t o t he point of measur ement fr om t he phase conduct or under
consider at ion. At mospher ic condit ion is included in having pr escr ibed t his as t he L
50
-
level while t he weight ing net wor k is descr ibed by t he not at ion dB(A) on a Sound
Level Met er .
Fig. 5.15 AN level of 1200 kV hor izont al line (calculat ed).
A model for t he gener at ion of AN under r ain has been developed ver y r ecent ly by Kir kham
and Gajda t o which t he r eader is r efer r ed for ver y t hought ful ideas on t he basic mechanisms
involved in AN gener at ion.
L
50
levels of AN fr om sever al r epr esent at ive lines fr om 400 kV t o 1200 kV ar e plot t ed in
Figs. 5.12 t o 5.15, calculat ed accor ding t o t he B.P.A. for mula, equat ions (5.40) t o (5.44). In all
cases, t he aver age maximum gr adient does not differ fr om t he maximum gr adient in t he bundle
by mor e t han 4%, so t hat only t he maximum sur face volt age gr adient is used in t he above
figur es. This is as descr ibed in Chapt er 4.
E
max
= ] / ) 1 ( 1 [
1 1
2
0
R r N
r N e
q
+
...(5.45)
Exa mp le 5.11. A 735 kV line has t he following det ails: N = 4, d = 3.05 cm, B = bundle
spacing = 45.72 cm, height H = 20 m, phase separ at ion S = 14 m in hor izont al configur at ion. By
t he Mangoldt for mula, t he maximum conduct or sur face volt age gr adient s ar e 20kV/cm and
18.4 kV/cm for t he cent r e and out er phases, r espect ively. Calculat e t he SPL or AN in dB(A) at
a dist ance of 30 m along gr ound fr om t he cent r e phase (line cent r e). Assume t hat t he micr ophone
is kept at gr ound level. See Figur e 5.16.
Fig. 5.16 735 kV line configur at ion for Example 5.11.
0 1 2 3
64
62
60
58
56
54
52
50
CANADIAN
1200 kV
6 0.0463
6 0.0508
8 0.0414
8 0.0463
X/H
d
B
(
A
)
30
16
25.6 36 48.33
14 14
1 2 3
20
Sol u t i on .
Phase 1. E
m
= 18.4, D
1
= 25.6
AN
1
= 120 log
10
18.4 + 55 log
10
3.05 11.4 log
10
25.6 + 26.4 log
10
4 128.4
= 120 log 18.4 11.4 log 25.6 85.87
= 151.78 16.05 85.87 = 49.86 dB(A)
Phase 2. E
m
= 20, D
2
= 36
AN
2
= 120 log 20 11.4 log 36 85.87 = 52.5 dB(A)
Phase 3. E
m
= 18.4, D
3
= 48.33
AN
3
= 120 log 18.4 11.4 log 48.33 85.87 = 46.71 dB(A)
Tot al AN = ) ( dB 55 ) 10 15 . 32 ( log 10 ) 10 10 10 ( log 10
4 671 . 4 25 . 5 986 . 4
10
A = = + +
This is wit hin t he r ange of low-complaint r egion accor ding t o t he Per r y Cr it er ion which is
52.5 t o 59 dB(A).
5.9 RELATION BETWEEN SINGLE-PHASE AND 3-PHASE AN LEVELS
Obt aining dat a of AN and ot her quant it ies fr om e.h.v. lines involves gr eat expense in set t ing up
full-scale out door 3-phase exper iment al lines. Most of t he design dat a can be obt ained at less
cost fr om a single-phase out door line or fr om cage exper iment s. The quant it ies of int er est in so
far as int er fer ence fr om e.h.v. lines ar e concer ned ar e AN, Radio Int er fer ecne and Elect r ost at ic
Field at 50 Hz. It is t her efor e wor t h t he effor t t o consider what r elat ion, if any, exist s bet ween
exper iment al r esult s obt ained fr om 1-phase lines and an act ual 3-phase line. If such a r elat ion
can be found, t hen 1-phase lines can be used for gat her ing dat a which can t hen be ext r apolat ed
t o apply t o 3-phase lines. We fir st consider a hor izont al line.
The AN level fr om any phase at t he measur ing point M consist s of a const ant par t and a
var iable par t which can be seen fr om equat ions (5.40) t o (5.43). They ar e wr it t en as, for N 3,
AN
1
= (55 log d + 26.4 log N 128.4) + 120 log E
1
11.4 log D
1
= K +120 log E
1
11.4 log D
1
Similar ly, AN
2
= K + 120 log E
2
11.4 log D
2
and AN
3
= K + 120 log E
1
11.4 log D
3
Let t he cent r e-phase gr adient be wr it t en as E
2
= (1 + m) E
1
and t he r at ios k
2
= D
2
/D
1
and
k
3
= D
3
/D
1
. Then, t ot al AN level of t he 3-phases obt ained aft er combining t he AN levels of t he
3 individual phases is
AN
T
=
=
3
1
) ( AN 1 . 0
10
10 log 10
i
i
=
3 1 1
log 14 . 1 log 14 . 1 log 12 1 . 0
10
10 10 { 10 . 10 [ log 10
D D E K
+
}] 10
) 1 ( log 12 log 14 . 1
2
m D + +
+
= K + 120 log E
1
11.4 log D
1
+ 10 log [1 + k
3
1.14
+ (1 + m)
12
.k
2
1.14
] ...(5.46)
For a single-phase line wit h t he same sur face volt age gr adient E
2
as t he cent r e-phase
conduct or of t he 3-phase configur at ion, and at a dist ance D
2
, t he noise level is
AN
s
= K + 120 log E
1
11.4 log D
1
+ ] ) 1 ( [ log 10
12 14 . 1
2 10
m k +
...(5.47)
Ther efor e, t he differ ence in AN levels of equat ion (5.46) and (5.47) is
AN
T
AN
s
=
12 14 . 1
2
12 14 . 1
2
14 . 1
3
10
) 1 (
) 1 ( 1
log 10
m k
m k k
+
+ + +

...(5.48)
This is t he decibel adder which will conver t t he single-phase AN level t o t hat of a 3-phase
line.
Exa mp le 5.12. Using equat ion (5.46) comput e AN
T
for t he 735 kV line of example 5.11.
Sol u t i on . K = 85.87, 1 + m = 20/18.4 = 1.087.
11.4 log D
1
= 16.05, 120 log E
1
= 151.8, k
2
= 36/25.6 = 1.406,
k
3
= 48.33/25.6 = 1.888
33 . 3 ) 1 ( 1
12 14 . 1
2
14 . 1
3
= + + +

m k k
AN
T
= 85.87 + 151.8 16.05 + 10 log 3.33 = 55.1 dB(A).
Exa mp le 5.13. Using equat ion (5.48). comput e t he decibel adder t o conver t t he single-
phase AN level of t he cent r e phase t o t he t hr ee-phase AN level of examples 5.11 and 5.12.
Sol u t i on .
8054 . 1
8444 . 1
33 . 3
) 1 (
) 1 ( 1
12 14 . 1
2
12 14 . 1
2
14 . 1
3
= =
+
+ + +

m k
m k k
dB adder = 10 log 1.8054 = 2.566.
The AN level of t he cent r e phase was 52.5 dB(A) at 30 m fr om t he conduct or along gr ound.
This will be t he level of a single-phase line wit h t he same sur face volt age gr adient and dist ance
t o t he locat ion of micr ophone.
AN
T
= AN
s
+ dB adder = 52.5 + 2.566 = 55.07 dB(A)
5.10 DAY-NIGHT EQUIVALENT NOISE LEVEL
In pr evious discussions t he AN level of a t r ansmission line has been chosen as t he L
50
va lue or
t he audible noise in decibels on t he A-weight ed net wor k t hat is exceeded for 50% of t he dur at ion
of pr ecipit at ion. This has been assumed t o give an indicat ion of t he nuisance value. However ,
anot her cr it er ion which is act ively followed and applied t o man-made AN sour ces is called t he
Day-Night Equivalent Noise level. This has found accept ance t o air cr aft noise levels, heavy
r oad t r affic noise, ignit ion noise, et c., which has led t o lit igat ion among many aggr ieved par t ies
and t he noise maker s. Accor ding t o t his cr it er ion, cer t ain sound level might be accept able
dur ing day-t ime hour s when ambient noises will be high. But dur ing t he night -t ime hour s t he
same noise level fr om a power line or ot her man-made sour ces could be found object ionable
because of t he absence of ambient noises. The equivalent annoyance dur ing night s is est imat ed
by adding 10 dB(A) t o t he day-t ime AN level, or , in ot her wor ds, by imposing a 10 dB (A)
penalt y.
Consider an L
50
level of a power line t o be AN and t he day-t ime t o last for D hour s. Then,
t he act ual annoyance level for t he ent ir e 24 hour s is comput ed as a day-night equivalent level
as follows:
L
dn
= ) ( dB , } 10 ). 24 ( 10 . {
24
1
log 10
) 10 AN ( 1 . 0 AN 1 . 0
10
A D D
+
+
...(5.49)
This is under t he assumpt ion t hat t he level AN is pr esent t hr oughout t he 24 hour s.
Exa mp le 5.14. The L
50
level of a line is 55 dB(A). The day-light hour s ar e 15 and night -
t ime is 9 hour s in dur at ion. Calculat e t he day-night equivalent and t he decibel adder t o t he day-
t ime AN level.
Sol u t i on . L
dn
=
) ( dB 4 . 61 ) 10 9 10 15 (
24
1
Log 10
5 . 6 5 . 5
10
A =
+
The decibel adder is 61.4 55 = 6.4 dB(A).
An addit ion of 6.4 dB incr eases t he SPL by 4.365 t imes [10 log 4.365 = 6.4]. The nuisance
value of t he line has been incr eased by 6.4 dB(A) by adding 10 dB(A) penalt y for night hour s.
If t he day-night hour s ar e differ ent fr om 15 and 9, a differ ent decibel adder will be necessar y.
The 10 dB(A) penalt y added t o night t ime cont r ibut es 6 t imes t he AN value as t he day-t ime
level, since.
. 6 15 / 90 10 15 / 10 9
5 . 5 5 . 6
= =
In evaluat ing t he nuisance value of AN fr om an e.h.v. line, we ar e only concer ned wit h
t he dur at ion of r ainfall dur ing a day and not t he t ot al day-night hour s or 24 hour s. If r ain is not
pr esent over t he ent ir e 24 hour s but only for a cer t ain per cent age of t he day and night , t hen
t he day-night equivalent value of AN is calculat ed as shown below. Let it be assumed t hat
p
d
= % of dur at ion of r ainfall dur ing t he day t ime,
and p
n
= % of dur at ion of r ainfall dur ing t he night .
Then, L
dn
= ) 100 / )( 24 ( 10 ). 100 / ){( 24 / 1 [( 10
AN 1 . 0
10 n d
p D Dp Log +
}] 10
) 10 AN ( 1 . 0 +
...(5.50)
Exa mp le 5.15. The following dat a ar e given for a line : L
50
= 55 dB(A). D = 15, p
d
= 20, p
n
= 50. Calculat e t he day-night equivalent of AN and t he dB-adder .
Sol u t i on . Dur at ion of r ain is 3 hour s dur ing t he day and 4.5 hour s dur ing t he night .
L
dn
= )] 10 5 . 0 9 10 2 . 0 15 )( 24 / 1 [( Log 10
5 . 6 5 . 5
10
+
= 58 dB(A).
The decibel adder is 3 dB(A).
Now, t he night -t ime cont r ibut ion is 15 t imes t hat dur ing t he day t ime (4.5 10
6. 5
/3 10
5. 5
= 45/3 = 15).
In t he above equat ion (5.50), it was assumed t hat t he L
50
levels for bot h day and night
wer e equal, or in ot her wor ds, t he pr ecipit at ion char act er ist ics wer e t he same. If t his is not t he
case, t hen t he pr oper values must be used which ar e obt ained by keeping ver y car eful r ecor d of
r ainfall r at es and AN levels. Such exper iment s ar e per for med wit h shor t out door exper iment al
lines st r ung over gr ound, or in 'cages'.
5.11 SOME EXAMPLES OF AN LEVELS FROM EHV LINES
It might pr ove infor mat ive t o end t his chapt er wit h dat a on t he per for mance of some e.h.v. line
designs based upon AN limit s fr om all over t he wor ld.
(1) The B.P.A. in t he U.S.A. has fixed 50 dB(A) limit for t he L
50
noise level at 30 m fr om
t he line cent r e in r ain for t heir 1150 kV line oper at ing at 1200 kV.
(2) The A.E.P., U.H.V. Pr oject of t he E.P.R.I., and sever al ot her designs fall ver y close
t o t he above values.
(3) Oper at ing 750 kV lines of t he A.E.P. in U.S.A. gave 55.4 dB(A) at 760 kV. The same
company per for med exper iment s fr om shor t out door line at Apple Gr ove and obt ained
56.5 dB(A) at 775 kV, pr oving t hat shor t -line dat a can be r elied upon t o pr ovide adequat e
design values.
(4) The Hydr o-Quebec company of Canada has given t he following calculat ed AN levels
at 30.5 m fr om t he cent r es of t heir pr oposed line designs.
Volt age, kV 525 735
Conduct or size 2 1.602" 3 1.302" 4 1.382" 4 1.2"
Bundle spacing 18" 18" 18" 18"
Phase spacing 34' 34' 50' 45'
AN Level, dB(A) 57 52 55 58.5
1. Descr ibe t he behaviour of space-char ge effect s inside a cor ona envelope and discuss
why load cur r ent cannot flow in a conduct or inside t his envelope even t hough it is a
conduct ing zone.
2. Der ive t he expr ession ) (
2
1
2
0
2
V V KC P
m c
= for t he ener gy loss fr om t he char ge-volt age
diagr am, Figur e 5.3.
3. It was t heor ized by E.W. Boehne, t he famous elect r ical engineer and pr ofessor at
M.I.T., t hat t he incr ease in effect ive r adius of conduct or and consequent incr ease in
capacit ance was par t ly r esponsible for at t enuat ion of t r avelling waves on conduct or s
due t o light ning. Fr om t he mat er ial given in t his chapt er , discuss why t his t heor y is
valid.
4. A 400 kV line supplies a load of 600 MW over a dist ance of 400 km. It s conduct or s ar e
23.18 cm dia. wit h a r esist ance of 0.03 ohm/km per phase. It car r ies an aver age load
of 400 MW over t he year (66.7% load fact or ).
(a) Calculat e annual ener gy loss of t he line.
(b) If t he aver age cor ona loss is 20 kW/km for t he 3-phases for 2 mont hs of t he year ,
calculat e t he annual ener gy loss due t o cor ona.
(c) Calculat e t he % cor ona ener gy loss as compar ed t o t he I
2
R heat ing loss of t he
line.
5. Descr ibe t he differ ence bet ween a line spect r um and band spect r um for noise. What
is t he differ ence bet ween a pur e t one and br oad-band spect r um?
6. For t he 735-kV line of pr oblem 2 in Chapt er 4, calculat e t he AN level at a dist ance of
15 met r es along gr ound fr om t he out er phase.
7. Using t his as t he AN level of t he line, calculat e t he day-night equivalent if dayt ime is
15 hour s and t he penalt y for night is 8 dB(A) inst ead of t he suggest ed 10 dB(A) in t he
t ext .
6.1 CORONA PULSES: THEIR GENERATION AND PROPERTIES
Ther e ar e in gener al t wo t ypes of cor ona dischar ge fr om t r ansmission-line conduct or s: (i)
Pulseless or Glow Cor ona; (ii) Pulse Type or St r eamer Cor ona. Bot h t hese give r ise t o ener gy
loss, but only t he pulse-t ype of cor ona gives int er fer ence t o r adio br oadcast in t he r ange of 0.5
MHz t o 1.6 MHz. In addit ion t o cor ona gener at ed on line conduct or s, t her e ar e spar k dischar ges
fr om chipped or br oken insulat or s and loose guy wir es which int er fer e wit h TV r ecept ion in t he
80200 MHz r ange. Audible noise has alr eady been discussed in Chapt er 5 which is caused by
r ain dr ops and high humidit y condit ions. Cor ona on conduct or s also causes int er fer ence t o
Car r ier Communicat ion and Signalling in t he fr equency r ange 30 kHz t o 500 kHz.
In t he case of Radio and TV int er fer ence t he pr oblem is one of locat ing t he r eceiver s far
enough fr om t he line in a lat er al dir ect ion such t hat noise gener at ed by t he line is low enough
at t he r eceiver locat ion in or der t o yield a sat isfact or y qualit y of r ecept ion. In t he case of
car r ier int er fer ence, t he pr oblem is one of det er mining t he t r ansmit t er and r eceiver power s t o
combat line-gener at ed noise power .
In t his sect ion we discuss t he mechanism of gener at ion and salient char act er ist ics of only
pulse-t ype cor ona in so far as t hey affect r adio r ecept ion. As in most gas dischar ge phenomena
under high impr essed elect r ic fields, fr ee elect r ons and char ged par t icles (ions) ar e cr eat ed in
space which cont ain ver y few init ial elect r ons. We can t her efor e expect a build up of r esult ing
cur r ent in t he conduct or fr om a zer o value t o a maximum or peak caused by t he avalanche
mechanism and t heir mot ion t owar ds t he pr oper elect r ode. Once t he peak value is r eached
t her e is a fall in cur r ent because of lower ing of elect r ic field due t o t he r elat ively heavy immobile
space char ge cloud which lower s t he velocit y of ions. We can t her efor e expect pulses t o be
gener at ed wit h shor t cr est t imes and r elat ively longer fall t imes. Measur ement s made of single
pulses by t he aut hor in co-axial cylindr ical ar r angement ar e shown in Figur e 6.1 under dc
excit at ion. Similar pulses occur dur ing t he posit ive and negat ive half-cycles under ac excit at ion.
The best equat ions t hat fit t he obser ved wave shapes ar e also given on t he figur es. It will be
assumed t hat posit ve cor ona pulses have t he equat ion
i
+
= ) (
t t
p
e e i k

+
...(6.1)
while negat ive pulses can be best descr ibed by
i
=
t t
p
e t i k

/ 2 / 3
. ...(6.2)
6
Coron a Ef f ect s -II: Ra d i o In t erf eren ce
Corona Effects-II: Radio Interference 139
These equat ions have for med t he basis for calculat ing t he r esponse of bandwidt h-limit ed r adio
r eceiver s (noise met er s), and for for mulat ing mat hemat ical models of t he r adio-noise pr oblem.
In addit ion t o t he waveshape of a single pulse, t heir r epet it ion r at e in a t r ain of pulses is also
impor t ant .
Fi g. 6.1 Single posit ive and negat ive pulses
i
+
=
) / ( 5 . 1
. ); (
t t
p
t t
p
e t i k i e e i k

+

Refer r ing t o Fig. 6.2, when a conduct or is posit ive wit h r espect t o gr ound, an elect r on
avalanche moves r apidly int o t he conduct or leaving t he heavy posit ive-ion char ge cloud close t o
t he conduct or which dr ift s away. The r apid movement of elect r ons and mot ion of posit ive-ions
gives t he st eep fr ont of t he pulse, while t he fur t her dr ift of t he posit ive-ion cloud will for m t he
t ail of t he pulse. It is clear t hat t he pr esence of posit ive char ges near t he posit ive conduct or
lower s t he field t o an ext ent t hat t he induced cur r ent in t he conduct or near ly vanishes. As soon
as t he posit ive-ions have dr ift ed far enough due t o wind or neut r alized by ot her agencies such
as fr ee elect r ons by r ecombinat ion, t he elect r ic field in t he vicinit y of t he conduct or r egains
sufficient ly high value for pulse for mat ion t o r epeat it self. Thus, a t r ain of pulses r esult s fr om
a point in cor ona on t he conduct or . The r epet it ion r at e of pulses is gover ned by fact or s local t o
t he conduct or . It has been obser ved t hat only one pulse usually occur s dur ing a posit ive half
cycle in fair weat her and could incr ease t o about 10 in r ain wher e t he wat er spr ays r esult ing
fr om br eaking r aindr ops under t he applied field cont r ol elect r ical condit ions local t o t he conduct or .
Fi g. 6.2 For mat ion of pulse t r ain fr om posit ive polar it y conduct or .
The sit uat ion when t he conduct or is negat ive wit h r espect t o gr ound is t he r ever se of t hat
descr ibed above. The elect r on avalanche moves away fr om t he conduct or while t he posit ive-ion
cloud moves t owar ds t he negat ively-char ged conduct or . However , since t he heavy posit ive-ions
ar e moving int o pr ogr essively higher elect r ic fields, t heir mot ion is ver y r apid which gives r ise
t o a much shar per pulse t han a posit ive pulse. Similar ly, t he light er elect r ons move r apidly
away fr om t he conduct or and t he elect r ic field near t he conduct or r egains it s or iginal value for
Positive Pulse
Negative Pulse
i
p
i
p
0 100 200 300
2.35 ( i e
p
t 0.0105
e
0.03465t
)
ns
651 . . i t
p
3/2
e
(34.86 + 0.01215) /t t
+
+
( ) a ( ) b ( ) c
Pulse Train
( ) d
Pulse Formation
+ +
+ +
t he next pulse gener at ion quicker t han for t he posit ive case. Ther efor e, negat ive pulses ar e
smaller in amplit ude, have much smaller r ise and fall t imes but much higher r epet it ion r at es
t han posit ive pulses. It must at once be evident t hat all t he pr oper t ies of posit ive and negat ive
pulses ar e r andom in nat ur e and can only be descr ibed t hr ough r andom var iables.
Typical aver age values of pulse pr oper t ies ar e as follows:
Type Time to Time t o 50% Peak Value Repetition Rate
Crest on Tail of Current Pulses per S econd
A.C. D.C.
Posit ive 50 ns 200 ns 100 mA Power Fr eq. 1,000
Negat ive 20 ns 50 ns 10 mA 100 P.F. 10,000
Pulses ar e lar ger as t he diamet er of conduct or incr eases because t he r educt ion in elect r ic
field st r engt h as one moves away fr om t he conduct or is not as st eep as for a smaller conduct or
so t hat condit ions for longer pulse dur at ion ar e mor e favour able. In ver y small wir es, posit ive
pulses can be absent and only a glow cor ona can r esult , alt hough negat ive pulses ar e pr esent
when t hey ar e known as Tr ichel Pulses named aft er t he fir st discover er of t he pulse-t ype
dischar ge. Negat ive pulses ar e ver y r ar ely impor t ant fr om t he point of view of r adio int er fer ence
as will be descr ibed under "Radio Noise Met er Response" t o cor ona pulses in Sect ion 6.2.
Ther efor e, only posit ive polar it y pulses ar e impor t ant because of t heir lar ger amplit udes even
t hough t heir r epet it ion r at e is lower t han negat ive pulses.
6.1.1 Frequency Spectrum
The fr equency spect r um of r adio noise measur ed fr om long lines usually cor r esponds t o t he
Four ier Amplit ude Spect r um (Bode Amplit ude Plot ) of single pulses. These ar e shown in
Figur e 6.3. The Four ier int egr al for a single double-exponent ial pulse is
F (jw) =

to
jwt t t
p
jwt
dt e e e Ki dt e t f
0
. ). ( . ). (
= )] /( 1 ) /( 1 [ jw jw Ki
p
+ +
= ) )( /( ) ( jw jw Ki
p
+ +
Fi g. 6.3 Bode fr equency plot of posit ive and negat ive cor ona pulses.
The amplit ude is
A (w) = ) )( ( / ) .( .
2 2 2 2
w w i K
p
+ + ...(6.4)
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 2 4 6 8 10
Pulse
+ Pulse
Frequency, MHz
d
B
6.2 PROPERTIES OF PULSE TRAINS AND FILTER RESPONSE
Radio Int er fer ence (RI) level is gover ned not only by t he amplit ude and waveshape of a single
pulse but also by t he r epet it ive nat ur e of pulses in a t r ain. On an ac t r ansmission line, as
ment ioned ear lier , posit ive pulses fr om one single point in cor ona occur once in a cycle or at
t he most 2 or 3 pulses ar e gener at ed near t he peak of t he volt age. In r ain, t he number of pulses
in one posit ive half cycle shows an incr ease. Ther efor e, t he number of pulses per second on a
50 Hz line fr om a single point in fair weat her r anges fr om 50 t o 150 and may r each 500 in r ain.
Since t her e exist a ver y lar ge number of point s in cor ona, and t he pulses occur r andomly in
t ime wit hout cor r elat ion, t he fr equency spect r um is band-t ype and not a line spect r um. It is
also found t hat in fair weat her t her e exist s a cer t ain shielding effect when one sour ce in cor ona
does not per mit anot her wit hin about 20 t o 50 cm. This is ver ified by phot ogr aphs t aken at
night when plumes of bluish dischar ges occur at discr et e point s. However , in r ain, t her e is a
cont inuous luminous envelope ar ound a conduct or . It is t her efor e a mat t er of some difficult y in
act ually ascer t aining t he r epet it ion r at e of pulses as seen by t he input end of a noise met er ,
which is eit her a r od ant enna or a loop ant enna. For t unat ely, t his is not as ser ious as it looks,
since t he int egr at ed r esponse of a st andar d noise-met er cir cuit is pr act ically independent of t he
pulse r epet it ion r at e if t he number of pulses per second (pps) is less t han t he bandwidt h fr equency
of t he filt er in t he met er weight ing cir cuit . This is discussed below for a simple case of r ect angular
pulses wit h per iodic r epet it ion. The analysis can be ext ended t o include finally t he act ual case
of r andomly-occur r ing pulse t r ains wit h double-exponent ial shape. But t his is a highly advanced
t opic suit able for exper t s involved in design of noise met er s. [See Begamudr e, Tr ans. Can. Eng.
Inst ., Oct . 1970].
Consider Figur e 6.4 showing r ect angular pulses of amplit ude A and widt h h a vin g a
per iodic t ime T and r epet it ion fr equency f = 1/T pulses per second. When t his is an even
funct ion t he Four ier Ser ies for t his t ype of pulse t r ain cont ains only cosine t er ms. The amplit ude
of any har monic is
F(k) =

0
2
sin
2
4
2 cos
4
T
k
k
A
dt kft A
T
...(6.8)
Fi g. 6.4 (a) Pulse t r ain: Amplit ude A, widt h , per iod T .
(b) Ideal bandwidt h-limit ed filt er wit h cent r e fr equency f
o
and bandwidt h . f
f
f
0
FILTER
( ) b
T T T
PULSES
( ) a
A
The Four ier Ser ies is
F(w) =
,
`
.
|
1
cos
2
sin
2
4
k
kwt
T
k
k
A
...(6.9)
Let such a signal be passed t hr ough an ideal filt er wit h bandwidt h f and st eep cut -off, as
shown in Fig. 6.4(b). Then, t he number of har monics passed will be.
N = . . / T f f f ...(6.10)
If t he met er is t uned t o a cent r e fr equency f
0
= nf, t he out put will cont ain har monic t er ms
fr om .
2
1
t o
2
1
,
`
.
|
+
,
`
.
|
N n N n k The out put of t he filt er is t hen.
]
]
]
]

,
`
.
|
+
+
]
]
]
]

,
`
.
|

f
N
n
N n
A
f
N
n
N n
A
2
2 sin
1
2
4
t o
2
2 sin
1
2
4
2
1
2
1
Cer t ain appr oximat ions can be made t o obt ain a wor kable expr ession when we consider
what happens in an act ual sit uat ion in pr act ice. The t uned fr equency is about f
0
= 1 MHz and
t he r epet it ion fr equency f can be consider ed as f = 1000 pps. The met er bandwidt h is 5 kHz for
ANSI met er s and 9 kHz for CISPR met er s of Eur opean design. Ther efor e.
n = . 1000 10 / 10 /
3 6
0
f f
Since t he bandwidt h is 5 kHz and t he har monics of t he pulse t r ain ar e separ at ed by 1000
Hz, only 5 or 6 har monic component s will pass in t he 5 kHz bandwidt h. For f = 9 kHz, about
9 or 10 har monic component s will pass. Thus, (n N/2) and (n + N/2) r ange fr om 997 t o 1003
and we can appr oximat e bot h t hese wit h a value of 1000 which is f
0
/f. The out put of t he filt er
will t hen be t he sum of har monic t er ms such as
]
]
]

,
`
.
|
+
,
`
.
|

2
2 sin t o
2
2 sin
2
4
0 0
0
f
f
f
f
f
f A
wher e t he pulse widt h is of t he or der of 100 ns = 10
7
.
Now,
,
`
.
|

2
2 2 sin
0
f
f = .
2
2 sin . 2 cos
2
2 cos . 2 sin
0 0

f
f
f
f ...(6.11)
Since , 10 157 10 2500 2
2
2
5 7

f
we can wr it e cos . 0
2
2 sin and 1
2
2
f f
Then, t he out put of t he filt er will be near ly
t f f N
f
f A
0 0
0
2 cos . 2 sin . . .
2
4

...(6.12)
wher e we have int r oduced t he t ime funct ion of equat ion (6.9). The final out put can also be
wr it t en as
t f f
f
f A
0 0
0
2 cos . 2 sin .
2
4

...(6.13)
since , f Nf t he bandwidt h, accor ding t o (6.10).
The out put of t he filt er is a cosine wave at fr equency f
0
, t he t uned fr equency (1 MHz, say),
and is modulat ed by t he amplit ude

0
0
2 sin . .
2
f
f
f A
=

0
0
0
0
2
2 sin
). ).( ( 4 ) 2 (
2
2 sin
. .
2
f
f
f A
f
f
f
A
...(6.14)
For low t uned fr equencies, t he sigma fact or

0
0
2
2 sin
f
f
is near ly 1. Thus, at low fr equencies
f
0
, t he r esponse of t he filt er is near ly flat and r olls off at higher fr equency. The following salient
pr oper t ies can also be not ed fr om equat ion (6.14).
(1) The r esponse of t he filt er is dir ect ly pr opor t ional t o ) (A ar ea of t he pulse.
(2) The r esponse is pr opor t ional t o ) ( f bandwidt h, pr ovided t he number of har monics
passed is ver y low.
(3) The r esponse is pr opor t ional t o t he Si-fact or .
That t he r esponse of t he filt er is flat up t o a cer t ain r epet it ion fr equency of pulses is not
sur pr ising since as t he r epet it ion fr equency incr eases, t he t uned fr equency becomes a lower
or der har monic of t he fundament al fr equency wit h r esult ing higher amplit ude. But t her e is a
cor r esponding r educt ion in t he number of har monics passed in t he bandwidt h of t he filt er
giving an out put which is near ly equal t o t hat obt ained at a lower t uned fr equency. Ther efor e,
changes in r epet it ion fr equency of t he pulses in a t r ain affect t he noise level only t o a small
degr ee.
Since t he amplit ude-dur at ion pr oduct of t he pulse det er mines t he out put , it is evident
t hat a posit ive cor ona pulse yields much higher noise level t han a negat ive cor ona pulse. In
pr act ice, we omit negat ive-cor ona gener at ed r adio int er fer ence.
6.3 LIMITS FOR RADIO INTERFERENCE FIELDS
Radio Int er fer ence (RI) r esult ing fr om a t r ansmission line is a man-made phenomenon and as
such it s r egulat ion should be similar t o ot her man-made sour ces of noise as ment ioned in
Chapt er 5, such as audible noise, aut omobile ignit ion noise, air cr aft noise, int er fer ence fr om
welding equipment , r f hea t ing equipment et c. Some of t hese a r e gover ned by IS 6842.
Legislat ion for fixing limit s t o all t hese noise sour ces is now gaining widespr ead publicit y and
awar eness in public in or der t o pr ot ect t he envir onment fr om all t ypes of pollut ion, including
noise. Int er fer ence t o communicat ion syst ems is descr ibed t hr ough Signal-t o-Noise Rat io
designat ed as S / N Rat io, wit h bot h quant it ies measur ed on t he same weight ing cir cuit of a
suit able st andar d met er . However , it has been t he pr act ice t o designat e t he signal fr om a
br oadcast st at ion in t er ms of t he aver age signal st r engt h called t he Field Int ensit y (FI) set t ing
of t he field-st r engt h met er , while t he int er fer ence signal t o a r adio r eceiver due t o line noise is
measur ed on t he Quasi-Peak (QP) det ect or cir cuit . The differ ence in weight ing cir cuit s will be
discussed lat er on. Ther e ar e pr oposals t o change t his cust om and have bot h signal and noise
measur ed on t he same weight ing cir cuit . This point is ment ioned her e in or der t hat t he r eader
may int er pr et S / N r at ios given by public ut ilit y or ganizat ions in t echnical lit er at ur e or elsewher e
since int er fer ence pr oblems r esult in expensive lit igat ions bet ween cont est ing par t ies.
As ment ioned ear lier , it is t he dut y or r esponsibilit y of a designer t o keep noise level fr om
a line below a limit ing value at t he edge of t he r ight -of-way (R-O-W) of t he line cor r idor . The
value t o be used for t his RI limit is causing consider able discussion and, we shall descr ibe t wo
point s of view cur r ent ly used in t he wor ld. Some count r ies, par t icular ly in Eur ope, have set
definit e limit s for t he RI field fr om power lines, while in nor t h Amer ica only t he minimum
accept able S/N r at io at t he r eceiver locat ion has been r ecommended. We will examine t he
r at ionale of t he t wo point s of view and t he st eps t o be followed in line design.
When a count r y is small in size wit h numer ous t owns wit h each having it s own br oadcast
st at ion and a t r ansmission line r uns close by, it is easy on t he design engineer of t he line if a
definit e RI limit is set and st at ion signal st r engt hs ar e incr eased by incr easing t he t r ansmit t er
power in or der t o yield sat isfact or y qualit y of r adio r ecept ion t o all r eceiver s locat ed along t he
line r out e. The following Table 6.2, gives limit s set by cer t ain Eur opean count r ies.
Ta ble 6.2. RI Li mi t s i n Va r i ou s Cou n t r i es of t h e Wor ld (Loop An t en n a )
Country Distance from Line RI Limit Frequency Remark s
(1) Swit zer land 20 m fr om out er most 200
V/m 500 kHz Dr y weat her

phase (46 dB above 10C
1
V/m)
(2) Poland 20 m fr om out er phase 750
V/m 500 kHz Air humidit y <80%

(57.5 dB)
t
10 kHz Temp. 5C
(3) Czechoslovakia Voltage Distance
k V from line
centre
220 50 m
400 55 40 dB 500 kHz Air humidit y = 70%
750 70 Dr y weat her
(4) U.S.S.R. 100 m fr om out er phase 40 dB 500 kHz For 80% of t he
year limit should
not be exceeded
One immediat e obser vat ion t o make is t hat t her e is no unifor mit y even in a small ar ea
such as Eur ope, Excluding t he U.S.S.R. In count r ies like Fr ance wher e a lar ge r ur al populat ion
exist s, no set RI limit is specified since br oadcast st at ions ar e locat ed far fr om far ming
communit ies who have t o be assur ed sat isfact or y S/N r at io.
In Nor t h Amer ica t he following pr act ice is adopt ed in t he U.S.A. and Canada.
U.S .A. Recommended pr act ice is t o guar ant ee a minimum S/N r at io of 24 dB at t he r eceiver for
br oadcast signals having a minimum st r engt h of 54 dB at t he r eceiver .
Canada. For sat isfact or y r ecept ion, a S/N r at io of 22 dB or bet t er must be pr ovided in fair
weat her in subur ban r egions for st at ions wit h a mean signal st r engt h of 54 dB (500
V/m). In
ur ban r egions, t his limit can be incr eased by 10 dB, and in r ur al ar eas lower ed by 3 dB.
Based on t hese t wo point s of view, namely, (1) set t ing a definit e RI limit , and (2) pr oviding
a minimum S/N r at io at t he r eceiver , t he pr ocedur es r equir ed for line design will be differ ent ,
which ar e out lined her e.
(1) When RI limit in dB or
V/m is specified at a par t icular fr equency and weat her

condit ion, it is only necessar y t o calculat e t he lat er al decr ement or pr ofile of RI. This
is t he at t enuat ion of t he noise signal as one pr oceeds away fr om t he line for an
assumed line configur at ion. (The pr ocedur e for calculat ion of lat er al pr ofile will be
out lined in Sect ion 6.6 and following sect ions). By t aking a lar ge number of alt er nat ive
line designs, a choice can be made of t he most suit able conduct or configur at ion.
'

(2) When line design is based upon S/N r at io, measur ement of br oadcast -st at ion signals
must be car r ied out all along a pr oposed line r out e of all st at ions r eceived. This can
also be calculat ed pr ovided t he st at ion power , fr equency, and dist ance t o t he r eceiver
ar e known. The allowable noise fr om t he line at t hese fr equencies is t hen known
fr om t he S/N r at io value. The R-O-W can be specified at ever y r eceiver locat ion for a
chosen size of conduct or and line configur at ion (line height and phase spacing). The
pr ocedur al difficult ies involved in t his met hod ar e illust r at ed as follows. Consider
t hat at a far ming communit y wher e a fut ur e line may pass near by, t he st at ion field
st r engt hs ar e r ecor ded and a S/N r at io of 24 dB must be allowed. The t able below
shows an example of st at ion st r engt hs and allowable noise at t he st at ion fr equencies.
Frequency of S t at ion 0.5 0.8 1 1.1 1.3 1.52 MHz
Received S ignal S t rengt h 55 60 50 75 57 52 dB
Allowable Noise Level 31 36 26 51 33 28 dB
(signal strength-24 dB)
If we assume t hat cor ona-gener at ed noise has a fr quency spect r um such as shown in
Figur e 6.3 which var ies near ly as
,
5 . 1
f
t hen t he noise level in r ealt ion t o t hat at 1 MHz t aken
as r efer ence can also be t abulat ed. Since t he allowable noise level at 1 MHz is 26 dB, t he
per missible noise at ot her fr equencies ar e det er mined. When t his is done, it will become clear
t hat cer t ain st at ions will not be guar ant eed a minimum S/N r at io of 24 dB, as shown below.
Frequency, MHz 0.5 0.8 1.0 1.1 1.3 1.52 MHz
Corona Noise Adder 9 4 0 1 2 3.6 dB
Allowed Noise 35 30 26 25 24 22.4 dB
S / N Rat io, dB 20 30 24 50 33 29.6 dB
Ther efor e, for t he st at ion br oadcast ing at 0.5 MHz, t he r ecommended minimum S/N r at io
of 24 dB cannot be guar ant eed. The sit uat ion is r epr esent ed pict or ially in Figur e 6.5. This leads
t o t he conclusion t hat at any given r eceiver locat ion, wit h a chosen line design, all st at ions
r eceived cannot be guar ant eed sat isfact or y qualit y of r ecept ion wit h a given widt h of R-O-W. It
is ver y uneconomical t o incr ease t he widt h of R-O-W t o accommodat e all r adio st at ions.
Ther efor e, r egulat or y bodies must also specify t he number of st at ions (or per cent age) r eceived
at a village or t own for which sat isfact or y r ecept ion can be guar ant eed. This may usually be
50% so t hat list ener s have t he choice of t uning int o at least 50% of t he st at ions for which
sat isfact or y r ecept ion is guar ant eed.
Fi g. 6.5 St at ion signal st r engt h (.), 24 dB (), and cor ona-gener at ed noise(). Illust r at ing basis for design
based upon minimum S/N r at io of 24 db.
75
60
45
30
15
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Station Strengths
Corona
Noise

f
1.5
d
B
Frequency, MHz
x (Station Strength 24 dB)
This pr ocess has t o be r epeat ed at all villages and t owns or ot her locat ions such as milit ar y
est ablishment s, et c., along t he pr oposed line r out e and a best compr omise for line design
ar r ived at . Once a definit e RI limit is set at a fixed lat er al dist ance fr om t he line as cont r olled
by t he S/N r at io, which in t he above example was 26 dB at 1 MHz at t he edge of R-O-W, t he line
design follows similar lines as for case (1) wher e t he limit is specified t o st ar t wit h under
legislat ion of t he count r y.
Refer r ing t o Fig 6.5, any X-mar k falling below t he cor ona-gener at ed noise cur ve r epr esent s
a st at ion for which t he minimum S/N r at io of 24 dB cannot be obt ained. Ther efor e, qualit y of
r ecept ion for such a st at ion at t he r eceiver locat ion will be unsat isfact or y.
6.4 FREQUENCY SPECTRUM OF THE RI FIELD OF LINE
The fr equency spect r um of r adio noise r efer s t o t he var iat ion of noise level in V or
V/m (or
t heir dB values r efer r ed t o 1
V or 1
V/m) wit h fr equency of measur ement . The fr equency-

spect r um of a single cor ona pulse of double-exponent ial shape was found in Sect ion 6.1 t o be
A(w) = ) )( ( / ) .( .
2 2 2 2
w w i K
p
+ + ...(6.14)
On a long line, t her e exist a ver y lar ge number of point s in cor ona and a noise met er
locat ed in t he vicinit y of t he line (usually at or near gr ound level) r esponds t o a t r ain of pulses
or iginat ing fr om t hem. The widt h of a single pulse is about 200 ns (0.2 s) while t he separ at ion
of pulses as seen by t he input end of t he met er could be 1
s
or mor e. Ther efor e, it is unusual
for posit ive pulses t o over lap and t he noise is consider ed as impulsive. When pulses over lap,
t he noise is r andom. Measur ement s indicat e t hat fr om a long line, t he RI fr equency spect r um
follows closely.
RI(w) f
1
t o f
1.5
...(6.15)
Thus, at 0.5 MHz t he noise is 6-9 dB higher t han at 1 MHz, while at 2 MHz it is 69 dB
lower . In pr act ice, t hese ar e t he adder s suggest ed t o conver t measur ed noise at any fr equency
t o 1 MHz level. The fr equency spect r um is t her efor e ver y impor t ant in or der t o conver t noise
levels measur ed at one fr equency t o anot her . This happens when power ful st at ion signal
int er fer es wit h noise measur ement s fr om a line so t hat measur ement s have t o be car r ied out
at a fr equency at which no br oadcast st at ion is r adiat ing. The fr equency spect r um fr om cor ona-
gener at ed line noise is near ly fixed in it s char act er ist ic so t hat any deviat ion fr om it as measur ed
on a noise met er is an indicat ion of sour ces ot her t han t he line, which is t er med "backgr ound
noise". In case a st r ong sour ce of noise is pr esent near by, which is usually a fact or y wit h
mot or s t hat ar e spar king or a br oken insulat or on t he t ower , t his can be easily r ecognized since
t hese usually yield high noise levels up t o 30 MHz and t heir fr equency spect r um is r elat ively
flat .
6.5 LATERAL PROFILE OF RI AND MODES OF PROPAGATION
The most impor t ant aspect of line design fr om int er fer ence point of view is t he choice of conduct or
size, number of sub-conduct or s in bundle, line height , and phase spacing. Next in impor t ance is
t he fixing of t he widt h of line cor r idor for pur chase of land for t he r ight -of-way. The lat er al
decr ement of r adio noise measur ed at gr ound level as one moves away fr om t he line has t he
pr ofile sket ched in Fig. 6.6. It exhibit s a char act er ist ic double hump wit hin t he space bet ween
t he conduct or s and t hen decr eases monot onically as t he met er is moved away fr om t he out er
phase. For sat isfact or y r adio r ecept ion, a limit RI
i
is det er mined as explained in t he pr evious
sect ion. No r eceiver should be locat ed wit hin t he dist ance d
0
fr om t he out er phase or d
c
fr om
t he line cent r e. Ther efor e, it becomes essent ial t o measur e or t o be able t o calculat e at design
st ages t he lat er al pr ofile ver y accur at ely fr om a pr oposed line in or der t o advise r egulat or y
bodies on t he locat ion of r eceiver s. In pr act ice, many complaint s ar e hear d fr om t he public who
exper ience int er fer ence t o r adio br oadcast s if t he line is locat ed t oo close t o t heir homest eads
when t he power company r out es an e.h.v. line wr ongly. In such cases, it is t he engineer 's dut y
t o r ecommend r emedies and at t imes appear as wit ness in judicial cour t s t o t est ify on t he fact s
of a case.
Fi g. 6.6 Lat er al pr ofile of RI at gr ound level for fixing widt h of r ight -of-way of line
We will discuss t his lat er al pr ofile in gr eat det ail and dissect it int o sever al component s
which belong t o differ ent modes of pr opagat ion, as discussed in Chapt er 3, for t he r adio-fr equency
ener gy on t he mult i-conduct or line. This is t he basis for det er mining t he expect ed noise pr ofile
fr om a chosen conduct or size and line configur at ion in un-t r ansposed and fully-t r ansposed
condit ion. We consider 6 pr eliminar y cases of char ge dist r ibut ion on t he line conduct or s aft er
which we will combine t hese suit ably for evaluat ing t he t ot al noise level of a line. In all t hese
cases, t he pr oblem is t o calculat e t he field st r engt h at t he locat ion of a noise met er when t he
r-f char ge dist r ibut ion is known. Her e, we consider t he ver t ical component of gr ound-level field
int ensit y which can be r elat ed t o t he hor izont al component of magnet ic field int ensit y by t he
char act er ist ic impedance of fr ee space. We r est r ict our at t ent ion t o hor izont al 3-phase line for
t he pr esent . In ever y case, only t he magnit ude is of concer n.
Case I: S ingle Conduct or above Ground
Consider t he simplest of all cases of a single conduct or car r ying a char ge of q coulombs/
met r e at r adio fr equency above a per fect ly-conduct ing gr ound sur face at height H. Figur e 6.7.
As ment ioned in Chapt er 3, t he effect of gr ound in all such pr oblems is r eplaced by image
char ge- q at dept h H below t he gr ound sur face. It is desir ed t o evaluat e t he ver t ical component
of elect r ic field st r engt h at point M at a lat er al dist ance d fr om t he conduct or on t he gr ound
sur face.
Fi g. 6.7 Single conduct or : (a) Ver t ical component of gr ound-level elect r ic field and (b) Lat er al pr ofile.
x x
RI
RI
dB
d0
S
dc
Ground Level RI Field
H
d
+ q
D
M
E
E
q
E
V
1
0 1 2 3
d/H
(a) (b)
The ver t ical component due t o +q and q will be
E
v
=
2
0
2 2
0
) / ( 1
1
2
2
H d
H e
q
d H
H
e
q
+
...(6.16)
The dimensionless quant it y
}] ) / ( 1 /{ 1 [
2
H d +
is given t he name "Field Fact or ", F. It has a
value of 1 at d = 0 under t he conduct or and decr eases t o 0.1 at d = 3 H or d/H = 3, as shown in
Fig.6.7(b).
Case 2: 3-Phase AC LineCharges (+q, + q, +q)
On a per fect ly-t r ansposed line, t he line-t o-gr ound mode car r ies equal char ges q of t he
same polar it y as descr ibed in Chapt er 3, and shown in Figur e 6.8(a). These ar e obt ained fr om
t he eigen-values and eigen-vect or and t heir pr oper t ies. Following t he pr ocedur e for case 1 of a
single conduct or , t he field fact or for t his case is
F
1a
=
2 2 2 2 2
/ ) ( 1
1
) / ( 1
1
/ ) ( 1
1
) / /(
H s d H d H s d
H e q E
o v
+
+
+
+
+ +
...(6.17)
wher e s = phase spacing and d = t he dist ance t o t he noise met er or r adior eceiver fr om t he line
cent r e.
Fi g. 6 8 Char ge dist r ibut ions at r -f on 3-phase line:
(a) 1st or line-t o-gr ound mode.
(b) 2nd or line-t o-line mode of 1st kind.
(c) 3r d or line-t o-line mode of 2nd kind.
Case 3 : 3-Phase AC LineCharges (+ q, 0, q).
Fr om Fig. 6.8 (b), t he field fact or will be
F
2a
=
2 2 2 2
0
/ ) ( 1
1
/ ) ( 1
1
) / /(
H s d H s d
H e q E
v
+ +
+
...(6.18)
Case 4 : 3-Phase AC LineCharges (+ q, 2q, + q)
The field fact or for t his case fr om Fig. 6.8(c) is
F
3a
=
) / ( 1
2
/ ) ( 1
1
/ ) ( 1
1
) / /(
2 2 2 2 2
0
H d H s d H s d
H e q E
v
+
+
+
+ +
...(6.19)
Case 5: Bipolar DC LineCharges (+ q, + q)
On a bipolar dc line, t he t wo modes of pr opagat ion yield char ge dist r ibut ions (+ q, + q) and
(+ q, q) on t he t wo conduct or s in each mode, as will be explained lat er . Consider ing t he fir st
or line-t o-gr ound mode wit h char ges (+ q, + q), as shown in Fig. 6.9(a). wit h pole spacing P, t he
field fact or is
F
1d
=
2 2 2 2
0
/ ) 5 . 0 ( 1
1
/ ) 5 . 0 ( 1
1
) / ( /
H P d H P d
H e q E
v
+
+
+ +
...(6.20)
d d d
H
+ q + q + q + q + q q + q
s s s s s s
M
( ) a ( ) b ( ) c
0 2q
M
H
M
Case 6 : Bipolar DC LineCharges (+ q, q)
If t he polar it y of one of t he char ges is r ever sed, t he r esult ing field fact or is, see Fig. 6.9(b).
F
2d
=
2 2 2 2
/ ) 5 . 0 ( 1
1
/ ) 5 . 0 ( 1
1
H P d H P d + +
+
...(6.21)
F i g.6.9 Char ge dist r ibut ion in t he 2 modes of bipolar dc line:
(a) line-t o-gr ound mode, (b) line-t o-line mode.
We will plot t hese in or der t o obser ve t heir int er est ing and salient pr oper t ies. Figur e 6.10
shows such plot s of only t he magnit udes of t he field fact or s since a r od ant enna of a noise met er
picks up t hese. For pur poses of illust r at ion we t ake s/H = P/H =1.
Fig. 6.10 Plot of field fact or s for char ge dist r ibut ions of Figur es 6.7 t o 6.9.
For cases 1,2 and 5 wher e t he char ges on t he conduct or s ar e of t he same polar it y, t he
ver t ica l compon en t of elect r ic field decr ea ses fr om a ma ximu m u n der t h e lin e cen t r e
monot onically as t he met er is moved along t he gr ound away fr om t he line. For cases 3 and 6
wit h char ge dist r ibut ions (+ q, 0, q) and (+ q, q), we obser ve t hat field is zer o at t he line
cent r e, r eaches a maximum value and t hen decr eases monot onically. A combinat ion of field
pr ofiles of cases 2 and 3 (or 5 and 6) yield t he char act er ist ic double hump of Figur e 6.6. For case
1 2 3
2.00
1.75
1.50
1.25
1.00
0.75
0.50
0.25
q
+ q
q 2q q
q
q
q
q
0
q
q
q
q
AC
AC
DC
AC
DC
2
5
3
1
4
F
i
e
l
d
F
a
c
t
o
r
s
E
/
(
q
/
t
H
0
x = d/H
0
+ q + q + q q
P P
d d
M M
( ) a ( ) b
4 wit h t he char ge dist r ibut ion (+ q, 2q, + q), t he field commence at a high value under t he line
cent r e, r eaches zer o, and t hen aft er incr easing t o a maximum value decr eases monot onically.
These differ ent t ypes of r-f char ge dist r ibut ions occur when cor ona-gener at ed cur r ent ,
volt age, char ge and power pr opagat e on t he line conduct or s which can be r esolved int o modes
of pr opagat ion. This has alr eady been discussed in Chapt er 3. In t he next sect ions we will give
met hods of calculat ing t he t ot al RI level of a line fr om t he differ ent modal volt ages.
6.6 THE CIGRE FORMULA
The pr oblem of r adio int er fer ence as a cont r olling fact or in design of line conduct or s became
ver y acut e and came t o focus in ear ly 1950's wit h t he planned 500 kV lines. The gr owt h of
t r ansmission lines beyond 345 kV became ver y r apid and RI measur ement s also became ver y
wide-spr ead fr om cage models, out door exper iment al lines and act ual lines in oper at ion. In t he
1960's t he volt age level incr eased t o 735 kV and 765 kV. Based on all RI dat a gat her ed over a
number of year s and fr om lines of var ious configur at ions, t he CIGRE and IEEE evolved an
empir ical for mula r elat ing most impor t ant line and at mospher ic par amet er s wit h t he r adio
noise level. This has come t o be known as t he CIGRE For mula. Ther e ar e about eight empir ical
for mulas available fr om exper ience gained by differ ent count r ies, but we will deal only wit h t he
CIGRE For mula her e. The impor t ant quant it ies involved in t he empir ical for mula ar e:
(1) conduct or r adius, r, or diamet er d = 2r;
(2) maximum sur face volt age gr adient on conduct or , g
m
;
(3) aer ial dist ance fr om conduct or t o t he point wher e RI is t o be evaluat ed, D;
(4) ot her fact or s, such as fr equency and climat ic condit ions.
The basic for mula is, r efer r ing t o Fig. 6.11,
RI
i
(dB) = 30 ) 20 / ( log 33 6 5 . 3
10
+
i m
D d g ...(6.22)
This RI level is fr om conduct or i at an aer ial dist ance D
i
fr om conduct or t o t he point M.
Ther e ar e sever al r est r ict ions on t he use of t his for mula. It applies when
F i g. 6.11 CIGRE for mula for evaluat ing RI.
(a) t he values of g
m
and d ar e in cent imet r e unit s; g
m
in kV/cm, r .m.s.;
(b) t he aer ial dist ance D
i
is in met r es and D
i
> 20 m;
(c) t he fr equency is 0.5 MHz;
(d) t he number of sub-conduct or s N in t he bundle is less t han or equal t o 4. This is t r ue
of lines up t o 765 kV;
(e) t he r at io of bundle spacing B bet ween sub-conduct or s t o t he conduct or diamet er lies
bet ween 12 and 20;
2r
g
m
i
Di
M
( f ) t he weat her condit ion is aver age fair weat her ;
( g ) t he RI level has a disper sion of
t
6 dB.
Exa mp le 6.2. A 400-kV line has conduct or s in hor izont al configur at ion at aver age height
H = 14 m and phase spacing S = 11 m, as shown in Figur e 6.12. The conduct or s of each phase
ar e 2 0.0318 m diamet er at B = 0.4572 m spacing. Calculat e t he RI level of each phase at a
dist ance of 30 m fr om t he out er phases at gr ound level at 0.5 MHz at 420 kV using t he CIGRE
for mula.
Fig. 6.12 Calculat ion of RI level of 400-kV line using CIGRE for mula.
Sol u t i on . The fir st st ep is t o calculat e t he maximum sur face volt age gr adient on t he
t hr ee phases at 420 kV using t he Mangoldt for mula. Calculat ions give g
mc
= 17.3 kV/cm on t he
cent r e phase and g
m0
= 16.2 kV/cm on t he t wo out er phases.
Aerial distances : D
1
= 33 m, D
2
= 43 m, D
3
= 54 m.
RI (1) = 3.5 16.2 + 6 3.18 30 33 log (33/20) = 38.6 dB
RI (2) = 3.5 17.3 + 6 3.18 30 33 log (43/20) = 38.7 dB
RI (3) = 3.5 16.2 + 6 3.18 30 33 log (54/20) = 31.6 dB.
6.6.1 Rules for Addition of RI Levels of 3-phasesS/C Line
Having calculat ed t he RI level due t o each phase at t he measur ing point , t he r ules for evaluat ing
t he t ot al RI level of a 3-phase single-cir cuit line ar e as follows:
(a) If one of t he RI levels is at least 3 dB higher t han t he r est , t hen t his is t he RI level of
t he line.
(b) Ot her wise t he RI level of line is
RI = (aver age of t he t wo highest + 1.5) dB.
(c) At 1 MHz, t he RI level is 6 dB lower .
(d) For evaluat ing t he RI level in r ain, add 17 dB.
Exa mp le 6.3. In t he pr evious example, calculat e t he RI level of t he line at t he measur ing
point at 0.5 MHz and 1 MHz in fair weat her .
Sol u t i on . RI (3) is lower t han t he ot her s by mor e t han 3 dB.
RI
line
=
2
1
(38.6 + 38.7) + 1.5 = 40.15 dB at 0.5 MHz and 34.15 dB at 1 MHz.
Exa mp le 6.4. In t he above example, if t he RI limit is given t o be 40 dB at 1 MHz,
calculat e t he widt h of r ight -of-way of t he line cor r idor .
Sol u t i on . We obser ve t hat at 30 m fr om t he out er phases, t he RI level is 34.15 dB.
Ther efor e, t he value of 40 dB will be obt ained at less t han t his dist ance. We will find t he value
of d
0
wher e RI = 40 dB at 1 MHz by t r ial and er r or .
33 43 54
1 2 3
30
14
11 11
400 kV
M
For t he out er phases, 3.5 16.2 + 6 3.18 30 = 45.78
For t he cent r e phase, 3.5 17.3 + 6 3.18 30 = 49.63.
Assume d
0
= 25, 20, 15 met r es and calculat e t he RI level of line at 1 MHz.
d
0
D
1
D
2
D
3
33 log 33 log 33 log RI(1) RI(2) RI(3)
(D
1
/20) (D
2
/20) (D
3
/20)
25 28.7 38.6 49 5.15 9.43 12.83 40.6 40.2 33
20 24.4 34 44.3 2.85 7.605 11.4 42.9 42 34.4
15 20.5 29.5 39.6 0.354 5.58 9.97 45.4 44 36
The r esult ing RI levels ar e
d
0
= 25, RI = 41.9 at 0.5 MHz, 35.9 dB at 1 MHz
d
0
= 20, RI = 44 at 0.5 MHz, 38 dB at 1 MHz
d
0
= 15, RI = 46.2 at 0.5 MHz, 40.2 dB at 1 MHz
d
0
= 15 met r es at t he edge of R-O-W, and t he widt h of line cor r idor r equir ed is 2(d +s)
= 52 m. Since t he CIGRE for mula has a disper sion of
t
6 dB, fur t her calculat ion may not be
necessar y. Wit h t his disper sion, a widt h of R-O-W giving 46 dB at 1 MHz at t he edge of t he line
cor r idor may be accept able.
6.6.2 Rules for Addition of RI Levels for a D/C Line
E.H.V. lines ar e most ly single-cir cuit (S/C) lines, but wit h t he number of lines on t he incr ease
and availabilit y of land for t he cor r idor incr easingly difficult , double-cir cuit (D/C) and four -
cir cuit 400-kV lines have been designed and commissioned. We will now discuss r ules t hat
apply for adding RI levels of phase conduct or s in a D/C line only. The r eader is r ecommended
for advanced design paper s and r epor t s for 4-cir cuit RI pr oblems since t his depends ent ir ely on
t he possible combinat ions for t he disposit ion of phases on t he 4-cir cuit t ower . (See Sujat ha
Subhash, Ref. 18, under "Ot her J our nals" in t he Bibliogr aphy).
The fir st point t o r emember is t o conver t t he RI levels in dB calculat ed by t he CIGRE
For mula t o micr ovolt /met r e (
V/m) by t he r elat ion.

). 20 / RI (
/
dB
10 RI
m V
...(6.23)
On a D/C line, t her e ar e t wo phase-conduct or s belonging t o each phase. Let RI
A1
and RI
A2
be t he RI values in
V/m at any point M (measur ing point ) on gr ound (or at any convenient
height above it ) due t o phase A which can be evaluat ed individually by t he CIGRE For mula in
dB and conver t ed t o
V/m accor ding t o equat ion (6.23). Then t he r esult ing RI value in
V/m
due t o t he t wo conduct or s of phase A is give as t he quadr at ic addit ion.
RI
A
= V/m , ) RI RI (
2 / 1 2
2
2
1
+
A A
...(6.24a)
Similar ly, RI
B
= . ) RI RI ( RI and ) RI RI (
2 / 1 2
2
2
1
2 / 1 2
2
2
1 C C c B B
+ + ...(6.24b)
These ar e r e-conver t ed t o dB values by t he r elat ion, RI
dB
= 20 log
10
(RI), and ar e t r eat ed
as t he cont r ibut ions fr om t he t hr ee phases. The r ules for adding t hem t o obt ain t he t ot al RI
level of line at t he measur ing point M will follow t he r ules as for a S/C line given befor e in
Sect ion 6.6.1.
The r eason for quadr at ic addit ion is based upon t he pr oper t y t hat t he pulses causing t he
noise fr om any one phase ar e t ime-cor r elat ed fr om it s t wo conduct or s so t hat ener gies or
power s ar e added ar it hmet ically in t he noise met er cir cuit r y. It has been est ablished fr om
suit able exper iment s t hat if t her e ar e N ident ical noise sour ces which ar e cor r elat ed in t ime,
t hat is, t hey occur on t he same conduct or or differ ent conduct or s ener gized by t he same volt age,
t hen t he r esult ing met er r eading in m V / is for N non-ident ical but t ime-cor r elat ed sour ces,
since t his r epr esent s a quant it y t hat is pr opor t ional t o t he ener gy or power (in a unit bandwidt h).
RI(N) =
N
(RI due t o each sour ce act ing individually).
[RI(N)]
2
= N

(RI)
2
, if all sour ces ar e ident ical.
or , = ), RI ... RI RI RI (
2 2
3
2
2
2
1 N
+ + + + ...(6.25)
Exa mp le 6.5. A D/C 400-kV line has t he t hr ee conduct or s of one cir cuit at height s 13 m,
23 m, and 33 m above gr ound, see Fig. 7.9. The hor izont al spacings bet ween conduct or s on t he
tower are 14 m , 16 m and 14 m between phases A
1
C
2
, B
1
B
2
, and C
1
A
2
, r espect ively. The
t wo-conduct or bundles of each phase have conduct or s wit h diamet er s 3.18 cm each at a bundle
spacing of 45.72 cm. At a point on gr ound 15 met r es away fr om t he line cent r e, evaluat e t he
t ot al RI level at 1 MHz in fair weat her at 420 kV. (See p.181).
Sol u t i on . The Maxwell's Pot ent ial Coefficient mat r ix and it s inver se for unt r ansposed
configur at ion ar e as follows.
[P] =
1 1 1 2 2 2
1
1
2
2
2
A B C A B C
B
C
A
B
C
6.652, 1.718, 0.833, 0.678, 1.168, 1.573 A1
1.718, 6.290, 1.276, 0.772, 1.113, 1.168
0.833, 1.276, 5.720, 0.746, 0.772, 0.678
0.678, 0.772, 0.746, 5.720, 1.276, 0.833
1.168, 1.113, 0.772, 1.276, 6.290, 1.718
1.573, 1.168, 0.678, 0.833, 1.718, 6.652
[M] = [P]
1
=
170.9, 36, 10.7, 6.56, 15, 28.3
36, 181.7, 30, 10.7, 15.5, 15
10.7, 30, 187.4, 15.8, 10.7, 6.56
6.56, 10.7, 15.8, 187.4, 30, 10.7
15, 15.5, 10.7, 30, 181.7, 36
28.3, 15, 6.56, 10.7, 36, 170.9
10
3
The volt age mat r ix is, wit h . kV 3 / 420 V
[V] = ], 120 , 120 , 0 , 120 , 120 , 0 / [ V V V V V V
The r esult ing bundle-char ges cazn be expr essed as
] 2 / [
0
e q = ] ][ [ V M .

0 1
2 / e q
A
+ + + 120 . 120 . 0 . [
13 12 11
V M V M V M
] 120 . 120 . 0 .
16 15 14
+ + V M V M V M
= + + + + 120 ). ( 0 ). [
15 12 14 11
V M M V M M
]. 120 ). (
16 13
+ V M M
Accor ding t o equat ion (4.38), it s maximum value will be
0 1
2 / e q
A
=
2
16 13
2
15 12
2
14 11
) ( ) ( ) [( M M M M M M V + + + + +
) )( ( ) )( (
16 13 15 12 15 12 14 11
M M M M M M M M + + + +
2 / 1
14 11 16 13
)] )( ( M M M M + +
=
+ +
2 2 3
) 15 36 ( ) 56 . 6 9 . 170 [( 10
3
420
) 51 )( 56 . 6 9 . 170 ( ) 3 . 28 7 . 10 (
2

2 / 1
] 34 . 164 ). 39 ( ) 39 )( 51 (
= . 827 . 50
E
A1
= (50.827/0.0318) (1 +0.0159/0.2286) = 1710 kV/m
= 17.1 kV/cm = E
C2
.
Similar calculat ions yield
0 1
2 / e q
B
= . 42 . 51 2 /
0 2
e q
B
giving E
B1
= , cm / kV 3 . 17 m / kV 1730 06955 . 1 ) 0318 . 0 / 42 . 51 (
2

B
E
and E
C1
= . kV/cm 52 . 17
2

A
E
The aer ial dist ances t o t he point on gr ound at 15 m fr om line cent r e ar e:
D
A1
= ; m 26 . 15 ) 13 8 ( ; m 66 . 39 ) 33 22 (
2 / 1 2 2
2
2 / 1 2 2
+ +
A
D
D
B1
= ; m 24 ) 23 7 ( ; m 53 . 32 ) 23 23 (
2 / 1 2 2
2
2 / 1 2 2
+ +
B
D
D
C1
= ; m 34 ) 33 8 ( ; m 6 . 25 ) 13 22 (
2 / 1 2 2
2
2 / 1 2 2
+ +
C
D
By applying t he CIGRE for mula, t he following dB values r esult which ar e conver t ed t o
m V/ :
R
A1
= ; m / 36 . 90 dB 12 . 39 ) 20 / 66 . 39 ( Log 33 30 18 . 3 6 1 . 17 5 . 3 V +
R
A2
= ; m / 13 . 331 dB 4 . 50 30 08 . 19 52 . 17 5 . 3 V +
A
RI = MHz. 5 . 0 a t dB, 71 . 50 m / 343 ) 13 . 331 36 . 90 (
2 / 1 2 2
+ V
Similar ly, RI
B1
= , m / 8 . 135 dB 66 . 42 V
and RI
B2
= . m / 4 . 224 dB 47 V
B
RI = . dB 44 . 48 m / 22 . 264 V
RI
C1
= . /m 7 . 116 dB 34 . 41 RI and , /m 3 . 220 dB 86 . 46
2
V V
C

C
RI = . dB 48 /m 3 . 249 V
Finally, t he t ot al RI level of line is
RI
T
=aver age of t he t wo highest + 1.5, dB
=
2
1
(50.71 +48.44 +3) = 51.07 dB at 0.5 MHz
= 45.07 dB at 1 MHz.
The same concept can be ext ended t o any number of cir cuit s on a t ower .
6.7 The RI Excitation Function
Wit h t he advent of volt ages higher t han 750 kV, t he number of subconduct or s used in a bundle
has become mor e t han 4 so t hat t he CIGRE for mula does not apply. Mor eover , ver y lit t le
exper ience of RI levels of 750 kV lines wer e available when t he CIGRE for mula was evolved, as
compar ed t o t he vast exper ience wit h lines for 230 kV, 345 kV, 400 kV and 500 kV. Sever al
at t empt s wer e made since t he 1950's t o evolve a r at ional met hod for pr edict ing t he RI level of
a line at t he design st ages befor e it is act ually built when all t he impor t ant line par amet er s ar e
var ied. These ar e t he conduct or diamet er , number of sub-conduct or s, bundle spacing or bundle
r adius, phase spacing, line height , line configur at ion (hor izont al or delt a), and t he weat her
var iables. The most impor t ant concept r esult ing fr om such an at t empt in r ecent year s is t he
"Excit at ion Funct ion" or t he "Gener at ing Funct ion" of cor ona cur r ent inject ed at a given r adio
fr equency in unit bandwidt h int o t he conduct or . This quant it y is det er mined exper iment ally
fr om measur ement s car r ied out wit h shor t lengt hs of conduct or st r ung inside a cylindr ical or
r ect angular cage, as descr ibed in Chapt er 4, or fr om shor t out door over head exper iment al
lines. It can also be pr edict ed fr om exist ing long-line measur ement s and ext r apolat ed t o ot her
line configur at ions.
Consider Fig. 6.13 which shows a sour ce of cor ona at S locat ed at a dist ance x fr om one
end of a line of lengt h L. Accor ding t o t he met hod using t he Excit at ion Funct ion t o pr edict t he
RI level wit h given dimensions and conduct or geomet r y, t he cor ona sour ce at S on t he conduct or
gener at es an excit at ion funct ion I measur ed in . m / A The line has a sur ge impedance Z
0
so
t hat r -f power gener at ed per unit lengt h of line is
E = I
2
Z
0
...(6.26)
F i g. 6.13 The excit at ion funct ion and it s pr opagat ion on line for RI calculat ion.
Under r ain, a unifor m ener gy or power per unit bandwidt h is gener at ed so t hat in a differ ent ial
lengt h dx, t he power gener at ed is (E.dx). In t his met hod, we calculat e t he RI level under r ain
fir st and deduct 17 dB t o obt ain fair -weat her RI. This power will split equally in t wo dir ect ions
and t r avel along t he line t o r each t he point P at a dist ance (yx) fr om t he sour ce S . In doing so,
it will at t enuat e t o t he value
,
) ( 2 x y a
e

wher e a = at t enuat ion fact or for volt age in Neper s per
unit lengt h. Ther efor e, t he t ot al ener gy r eceived at P due t o all sour ces t o t he left of P will be
E
L
=

y
ay x y a
e
a
E
e dx E
0
2 ) ( 2
) 1 (
4
). . (
2
1
...(6.27)
Similar ly, t he ener gy r eceived at P due t o all sour ces t o it s r ight will be
E
R
=
) 1 (
4
) ( 2 y L a
e
a
E

...(6.28)
L
X
Y
S P
For a line of finit e lengt h, r epeat ed r eflect ions occur fr om t he ends, but for a ver y long
line t hese ar e not of consequence. Also, unless t he point P is locat ed ver y close t o t he ends, t he
exponent ial t er ms can be neglect ed. Ther efor e, t he t ot al r -f ener gy r eceived at P will be
E
p
= E/2a ...(6.29)
which shows t hat all point s on a long line r eceive t he same r -f ener gy when t he cor ona
gener at ion is unifor m.
Exa mp le 6.6. For at t enuat ion fact or s of 6, 1 and 0.17 dB/km, calculat e t he ener gy
r eceived at point P in t er ms of ener gy gener at ed per unit lengt h.
Sol u t i on . The conver sion fact or fr om dB t o Neper s is 8.7. Thus, a = 0.69 N/km for 6 dB/
km, 0.115 N/km for 1 dB/km, and 0.019 N/km for 0.17 dB/km.
P
E = E/2a = 0.7246 ener gy gener at ed per km for a = 6 dB/km
E
P
= 4.348 ener gy gener at ed per km for a = 1 dB/km
and E
P
= 25.575 ener gy gener at ed per km for a = 0.17 dB/km.
Associat ed wit h t he cur r ent inject ed int o t he conduct or per unit lengt h, t her e is a volt age
t o gr ound which is known as t he Radio Influence Volt age (RIV). Then,
E
P
= E/2a = (RIV)
2
/Z
0
...(6.30)
But E = I
2
Z
0
so t hat (RIV) = a IZ 2 /
0
...(6.31)
The gr ound level field depends upon t he conduct or char ge per unit lengt h and t he field
fact or , as shown in Sect ion 6.5. If t he capacit ance of line per unit lengt h is C, t he char ge is
q = C(RIV) = a ICZ 2 /
0
...(6.32)
However , for a n over hea d line, t he velocit y of pr opa ga t ion, ca pa cit a nce, a nd sur ge
impedance ar e r elat ed by
v = 1/C Z
0
...(6.33)
q =
a v I 2 /
...(6.34)
Since t he char ge is found in t er ms of t he excit at ion funct ion, velocit y, and at t enuat ion
fact or , t he r esult ing RI level of line is
RI =
] 2 /[ Fact or Field
0
0
a Hv e IF
H e
q

...(6.35)
Thus, t he quant it ies involved in est imat ing t he RI level of a line at a specific dist ance d
fr om t he line cent r e (or a cor r esponding dist ance fr om t he out er phase) ar e t he following:
(a) t he field fact or F which is a funct ion of t he line geomet r y (H,s,d);
(b) t he line height H;
(c) t he velocit y of pr opagat ion v;
(d) t he at t enuat ion fact or , a; and
(e) t he inject ed cur r ent or t he excit at ion funct ion, I.
The velocit y and at t enuat ion fact or s ar e known eit her by per for ming suit able exper iment s
on exist ing lines, or calculat ed if possible. The field fact or is also calculat ed. However , t he
excit at ion funct ion I can only be det er mined for t he conduct or under consider at ion fr om small-
scale exper iment s using ar t ificial r ain appar at us and cages or out door over head lines.
3-Phase Transmission Line
In or der t o apply t he met hod descr ibed above t o a 3-phase t r ansmission line and calculat e t he
RI level at a specified dist ance, t he pr ocedur e involves r esolving t he r -f quant it ies int o 3 modes
of pr ogagat ion. Let us consider t he line t o be per fect ly t r ansposed t o illust r at e t he pr ocedur e.
The t r ansfor mat ion mat r ix [T] and it s inver se [T]
1
which diagonalize t he impedance mat r ix
wer e found in Chapt er 3 t o be.
]
]
]
]
]

]
]
]
]
]

1 , 2 , 1
3 , 0 , 3
2 , 2 , 2
6
1
] [ and
1 , 3 , 2
2 , 0 , 2
1 , 3 , 2
6
1
] [
1
T T
...(6.36)
For each mode of pr opagat ion, t he char ge on t he conduct or s is
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
) 3 ( 2 ) 3 ( / ) 3 (
) 2 ( 2 ) 2 ( / ) 2 (
) 1 ( 2 ) 1 ( / ) 1 (
) 3 (
) 2 (
) 1 (
a v I
a v I
a v I
q
q
q
...(6.37)
wher e t he quant it ies q, I, v and a belong t o t he mode indicat ed in t he br acket s. The modal
excit at ion funct ion is obt ained fr om t hose of t he phases by t he t r ansfor mat ion
[I]
m
= ph
I T
I
I
I
] [ ] [
) 3 (
) 2 (
) 1 (
1
]
]
]
]
]
...(6.38)
Now, if all t he t hr ee phase conduct or s ar e developing equal int ensit ies of cor ona, t he
excit at ion funct ions will be equal. Let t his be denot ed by I. Then.
[I]
m
=
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]

]
]
]
]
]
0
0
3 /
1 , 2 , 1
3 , 0 , 3
2 , 2 , 2
6
1
) 3 (
) 2 (
) 1 ( I
I
I
I
I
I
I
...(6.39)
This shows t hat only t he fir st or line-t o-gr ound mode has an inject ed cur r ent and t he
r emaining t wo modes ar e not pr esent .
q(1) = . 0 ) 3 ( , 0 ) 2 ( , ) 1 ( 2 ). 1 ( 3 / q q a v I
Figur e 6.14 shows t he modal char ge dist r ibut ions. Conver t ing t his back t o phase quant it ies,
t he r -f char ges on t he t hr ee conduct or s ar e
]
]
]
]
]
3
2
1
q
q
q
=
] ) 1 ( 2 ) 1 ( 3 / [
1
1
1
) 1 (
1
1
1
3
1
0
0
) 1 (
1 , 3 , 2
2 , 0 , 2
1 , 3 , 2
6
1
) 3 (
) 2 (
) 1 (
] [ a v I q
q
q
q
q
T
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]

]
]
]
]
]
...(6.40)
This has t he char ge dist r ibut ion (q, q, q) showing t hat t he t hr ee conduct or char ges ar e
equal and of t he same polar it y. The RI level at t he met er placed on gr ound will now be cont r olled
by t he field fact or s, as shown in Figur e 6.10.
Fig. 6.14 Modal char ge dist r ibut ions on a fully-t r ansposed 3-phase ac line.
Thus, RI
1
=
2 2
/ ) ( 1
1
H s d
H e
q
o
+
RI
2
=
2
0
) / ( 1
1
H d
H e
q
+
...(6.41)
and RI
3
=
2 2
0
/ ) ( 1
1
H s d
H e
q
+ +
The addit ion r ule accor ding t o t he CIGRE for mula can now be applied t o t hese t hr ee RI
levels and the RI level of the line calculated. The quantities to be ascertained are I, v and a
fr om measur ement s. The velocit y and at t enuat ion fact or per t ain t o t his mode of excit at ion
while t he excit at ion funct ion applies t o t he conduct or usually per for med in a cage ar r angement
in single-phase configur at ion at t he cor r ect sur face volt age gr adient t hat exist s on t he over head
line.
Bipolar DC Line
It is int er est ing t o obser ve t he pr oper t ies of modal excit at ion funct ions on a bipolar dc line
and compar e t hese wit h a per fect ly t r ansposed 3-phase ac line.
In Sect ions 6.1 and 6.2 it was ment ioned t hat r adio noise is almost ent ir ely caused by
posit ive cor ona pulses so t hat on a bipolar dc line, only t he posit ive-polar it y conduct or develops
measur able r -f ener gy. Thus, t he excit at ion funct ions will be . ] 0 , [ ] [
t p
I I
+
The t r ansfor mat ion
mat r ix and it s inver se used for diagonalizing t he impedance of a bipolar dc line ar e
[T] =
]
]
]
1 , 1
1 , 1
2
1
] [
1
T ...(6.42)
The excit at ion funct ion in t he t wo modes will be
]
]
]
) 2 (
) 1 (
I
I
= ) 2 / (
1
1
] [ ] [
1
+
]
]
]
I I T
p
...(6.43)
This shows t hat bot h modes cont ain equal amount s of inject ed cur r ent , while we obser ved
t hat on a per fect ly-t r ansposed 3-phase ac line t her e was no ener gy or excit at ion in t wo of t he
modes. All t he ener gy was r et ained in t he fir st or line-t o-gr ound or t he homopolar mode of
pr opagat ion. This is t he essent ial differ ence bet ween t he t wo lines.
The cor r esponding char ge dist r ibut ions in t he t wo modes ar e
[q]
m
= ]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
) 2 ( ). 2 (
) 1 ( ). 1 (
) 2 ( 2 ) 2 ( / ) 2 (
) 1 ( 2 ) 1 ( / ) 1 (
) 2 (
) 1 (
I K
I K
a v I
a v I
q
q
(6.44)
q(1) q(1) q(1)
Ist Mode IInd Mode IIIrd Mode
q(3) = 0 q(2) = 0 q v (1) = I / 3 (I) 2 (I) a
Figur e 6.15 depict s t he modal char ge dist r ibut ions. Conver t ing t his back t o t he char ges
r esiding on t he poles by mult iplying [q]
m
by [T], t her e r esult s.
Fig. 6.15 Modal char ge dist r ibut ions on a bipolar dc line.
[q] =
m
q T
q
q
] ][ [
]
]
]
+
= ]
]
]
+
+
) 2 ( ) 1 (
) 2 ( ) 1 (
2 K K
K K I
...(6.45)
We obser ve t hat even t hough t he negat ive pole is not developing any r -f ener gy it has a
char ge due t o mut ual coupling fr om t he posit ive pole. The RI level at gr ound level can be
calculated at two representative points M
1
, M
2
at t he same lat er al dist ance d fr om t he line
cent r e wit h M
1
closer t o t he posit ive pole and M
2
near er t he negat ive pole, Fig. 6.16.
F i g. 6.16 Conduct or r -f char ge dist r ibut ion on bipolar dc line aft er t r ansfor ming modal char ges by [T ].
At M
1
Due t o posit ive conduct or ,
) ( RI
1
M
+
=
2 2
0
2 2
0
/ ) 2 / ( 1
) 2 ( ) 1 (
2
/ ) 2 / ( 1
1
H P d
K K
H e
I
H P d
H e
q
+
+
+ +
...(6.46)
Due t o t he negat ive conduct or
) ( RI
1
M
=
2 2
0
/ ) 2 / ( 1
) 2 ( ) 1 (
2
H P d
K K
H e
I
+ +
+
...(6.47)
S imilarly at M
2
) ( RI
2
M
+
=
2 2
0
/ ) 2 / ( 1
) 2 ( ) 1 (
2
H P d
K K
H e
I
+ +
+
+
...(6.48)
) ( RI
2
M
=
2 2
0
/ ) 2 / ( 1
) 2 ( ) 1 (
2
H P d
K K
H e
I
+
+
...(6.49)
q(1) = I/ 2 (1) 2 (1) v a + q I v (2) = / 2 (2) 2 (2) a
+
q(1) q(1) q(2) q(2)
q
+ q
M
1
M2
P
d d
H
wher e ) 1 ( K = ) 2 ( 2 ) 2 ( / 1 ) 2 ( and ) 1 ( 2 ) 1 ( / 1 a v K a v ...(6.50)
In gener al, t he velocit ies in t he t wo modes will be differ ent wit h v (1) being about 80%
light velocit y since it involves gr ound r et ur n and v(2) equal t o light velocit y. The at t enuat ion
fact or s a(1) and a(2) will also be differ ent wit h a(1) equal t o about 6 dB/km (0.69 Neper /km) and
a(2) equal t o about 1 dB/km (0.115 Neper /km).
P r oce d u r e for Ob t a i n i n g Exci t a t i on F u n ct i on fr om CI GRE F or mu l a
Since t he pr ocedur e for calculat ing RI level fr om t he excit at ion funct ion par allels t he empir ical
for mula given by t he CIGRE, we will now examine t he r elat ion bet ween t he expr essions given
in equat ions (6.40) for t he char ge and t he r esult ing RI wit h (6.22). For t he char ge given in
(6.40), t he RI level at gr ound will be
RI =
2 2
0
/ 1
1 1
2 3 H d
H e
a v
I
+
...(6.51)
The cor r esponding decibel value is
RI
dB
= ] / ) [( Log 20 ) 2 3 ( Log 20 ) / ( Log 20
2 2 2
10 10 0 10
H H d a H ve I + ...(6.52)
The fir st t er m a H ve I g
0
/ has dimension volt /met r e and t her efor e cor r esponds t o t he
volt age gr adient in t he CIGRE for mula.
]
]
]
]
,
`
.
|

met r e
Volt
met r e - Far ad
Coulomb
met r e - Far ad
Sec - Amp
m
m
Neper
m
F
s
m
) m / Amp (
The ot her quant it ies in equat ion (6.52) ar e dimensionless.
RI
dB
= ) / ( log 40 5 . 22 Log 20
2 2
10 10
H H d g + ...(6.53)
The CIGRE for mula is
RI
dB
=
) 20 / ( Log 33 30 12 5 . 3
2 2
H d r g
m
+
...(6.54)
By calculat ing t he RI level for a given conduct or using t he CIGRE for mula and equat ing it
t o equat ion (6.53), t he value of g can be det er mined and t her eby t he excit at ion funct ion I, as
shown by an example.
Exa mp l e 6.7 In example 6.2, t he RI level at 30 m fr om out er phase due t o t he cent r e
phase was calculat ed as 38.7 dB when H = 14 m, r = 1.59 cm, g
m
= 17.3 kV/cm and d = 41m. (a)
Ca l cu l a t e t h e va l u e of g i n equ a t i on (6. 53) by equ a t i n g (6. 54) wi t h i t . (b) Ta k i n g
v = 2.5 10
8
m/s a nd a =0.69 10
3
Neper /m, calculat e t he excit at ion funct ion and it s dB
value above 1 . m / A
Sol u t i on . 38.7 = 1 . 42 ) ( Log 20 14 / 14 41 Log 40 5 . 22 ) ( Log 20
2 2

,
`
.
|
+ g g
(a) g = ant ilog 4.04 = 1.0965 10
4
volt /met r e = 10.965 kV/m
(b) I =
. m / A 984 . 8 10 69 . 0 14 10 842 . 8 10 5 . 2 10 0965 . 1
3 12 8 4
0

a H gve
I
dB
= . m / A 1 above dB 07 . 19 984 . 8 Log 20
10

Thus, t he RI level is 19.63 dB higher t han t he dB value of t he excit at ion funct ion. The
decibel adder t o conver t t he excit at ion funct ion t o t he RI level is t her efor e 19.63 dB for t his
example.
6.8 MEASUREMENT OF RI, RIV, AND EXCITATION FUNCTION
The int er efer ence t o AM br oadcast in t he fr equency r ange 0.5 MHz t o 1.6 MHz is measur ed in
t er ms of t he t hr ee quant it ies : Radio Int er fer ence Field Int ensit y (RIFI or RI), t he Radio Influence
Volt age (RIV), and mor e r ecent ly t hr ough t he Excit at ion Funct ion. Their unit s ar e mV/m, mV,
and mA/
m
or t he decibel values above t heir r efer ence values of 1 unit ). m / A , V , m / V (
The nuisance value for r adio r ecept ion is gover ned by a quant it y or level which is near ly equal
t o t he peak value of t he quant it y and t er med t he Quasi Peak. A block diagr am of a r adio noise
met er is shown in Fig. 6.17. The input t o t he met er is at r adio fr equency (r -f) which is amplified
and fed t o a mixer . The r est of t he cir cuit wor ks exact ly t he same as a highly sensit ive super -
het er odyne r adio r eceiver , However , at t he IF out put st age, a filt er wit h 5 kHz or 9 kHz
bandwidth is present whose output is detected by the diode D. It s out put char ges a capacit ance
C t hr ough a low r esist ance R
c
such t hat t he char ging t ime const ant T
c
= R
c
C = 1 ms. A second
r esist ance R
d
is in par allel wit h C which is ar r anged t o give a t ime const ant T
d
= R
d
C = 600 ms
in ANSI met er s and 160 ms in CISPR or Eur opean st andar d met er s. Field t est s have shown
t hat t her e is not consider able differ ence in t he out put when compar ing bot h t ime const ant s for
line-gener at ed cor ona noise. The volt age acr oss t he capacit or can eit her be r ead as a cur r ent
t hr ough t he dischar ge r esist or R
d
or a micr o-volt met er connect ed acr oss it .
Fig. 6.17 Block diagr am of Radio Noise Met er .
For r adiat ed int er fer ence measur ement RI, t he fr ont end of t he met er is fit t ed wit h eit her
a r od ant enna of 0.5 t o 2 met r es in lengt h or a loop ant enna of t his size of side. For conduct ed
measur ement s, t he int er fer ing volt age RIV is fed t hr ough a jack. The input impedance of t he
met er is 50 ohms:
The following for mulas due t o Nigol apply t o t he var ious set t ings of t he noise met er for
r epet it ive pulses:
Peak Value: V
p
=
f A . . . 2
...(6.55)
Quasi Peak: V
qp
= KV
P
...(6.56)
Average: V
av
=
0
. . . 2 f A ...(6.57)
R.M.S . Value: V
rms
= f f A . . . . 2
0
...(6.58)
wher e, A = amplit ude of r epet it ive pulses,
= pulse dur at ion,
f = bandwidt h of met er ,
0
f = r epet it ion fr equency of pulses, < , f
and K = a const ant 0.9 0.95.
Relat ions can be found among t hese four quant it ies if necessar y.
R. F.
f
A
V
D R
C
R
d
C
I. F.
Amplifiers
RI
L.O. Filter
f
Conduct ed RIV is measur ed by a cir cuit shown schemat ically in Fig. 6.18. The object
under t est , which could be an insulat or st r ing wit h guar d r ings, is ener gized by a high volt age
sour ce at power fr equency or impulse. A filt er is int er posed such t hat any r -f ener gy pr oduced
by par t ial dischar ge in t he t est object is pr event ed fr om flowing int o t he sour ce and all r -f
ener gy goes t o t he measur ing cir cuit . This consist s of a dischar ge-fr ee h.v. coupling capacit or of
about 500 t o 2000 pF in ser ies at t he gr ound level wit h a small induct ance L. At 50 Hz, t he
coupling capacit or has a r eact ance of 6.36 Megohms t o 1.59 Megohms. The value of L is chosen
such t hat t he volt age dr op is not mor e t han 5 volt s so t hat t he measur ing equipment does not
exper ience a high power -fr equency volt age.
Let V = applied power fr equency volt age fr om line t o gr ound,
V
L
= volt age acr oss L,
X
c
= r eact ance of coupling capacit or
and X
L
= f L 2 = r eact ance of induct or .
Then, V
L
= V LC f X VX X X X V
c c L L c L
. 4 /
~
) /( .
2 2
...(6.59)
Fig. 6.18 Cir cuit for measur ing Radio Influence Volt age (RIV).
Exa mp le 6.8. A t est object for 400 kV is under going an RIV t est . The coupling capacit or
has 1000 pF and t he volt age acr oss t he measur ing syst em is t o be 1 volt . Calculat e t he value of
induct ance r equir ed if
V = kV 5 . 243 kV 3 / 420
Sol u t i on . L = V C f V f X
c L L
2 2
4 / 2 /
L = . mH 8 . 41 ) 10 5 . 242 10 50 4 /( 1
3 9 2 2

[At 50 Hz, X
L
= ]. Megohm 185 . 3 , ohm 1 . 13 2
c
X fL
At r adio fr equencies, t he induct ance pr esent s a ver y high impedance while t he coupling
capacit or has ver y low r eact ance. The capacit or is t uned at a fixed fr equency, usually 1 MHz,
wit h an r -f choke, L
0
. Ther e is a ser ies R
g
t o gr ound. This r -f volt age is fed t o t he noise met er
t hr ough a lengt h of cable of 50 ohm char act er ist ic impedance t er minat ed in a 50 ohm r esist ance
at t he input end of t he met er .
Source
L
C
H.V. Lead
Noise
Meter
Cable
R
c
PG
Test
Object
R
c
R
g
C
c
L
0
L
0. F 1
NM
The value of L
0
is obt ained fr om t he equat ion.
f =
c c
C f L C L
2 2
0 0
4 / 1 or 2 / 1 ...(6.60)
wher e f = measur ing fr equency.
Exa mp le 6.9. In t he above example wit h C
c
= 1000 pF, calculat e
(a) t he value of L
0
t o t une t he cir cuit t o 1 MHz,
(b) t he r eact ance of L = 41.8 mH at 1 MHz and
(c) t hat of t he coupling capacit or C
c
. Check wit h r eact ance of L
0
.
Sol u t i on .
(a) L
0
= . H 33 . 25 10 10 4 / 1
9 12 2

(b) X
L
= . kilohms 64 . 262 10 8 . 41 10 2
3 6

(c) X
c
= . ohms 159 10 10 2 / 1
9 6

X
L0
= . ohms 159 10 33 . 25 10 2
6 6

The r-f volt age developed acr oss R
g
is fed t o t he noise met er . Since t r ansmission lines
have a char act er ist ic impedance in t he r ange 300 t o 600 ohms, st andar d specificat ions st ipulat ed
t hat t he r -f volt age must be measur ed acr oss 600 ohms. Thus, R
g
is in t he neighbour hood of 600
ohms. However , it was obvious t hat t his could not be done since t he pr esence of cable will
lower t he impedance t o gr ound. In ear lier days of RIV measur ement at lower volt ages (230 kV
equipment ) t he noise met er was dir ect ly connect ed acr oss R
g
and it s input end was open. The
oper at or sat r ight under neat h t he pedest al suppor t ing t he coupling capacit or in or der t o r ead
t he met er or used a pair of binocular s fr om a dist ance. But wit h incr ease in t est volt age, t he
need for maint aining a safe dist ance necessit at es a cable of 10m t o 20m. Wit h it s sur ge
impedance R
c
conect ed acr oss R
g
, which has a higher value, t he combined par allel impedance
is lower t han R
c
. No coaxial cables ar e manufact ur ed for high sur ge impedance, so t hat st andar d
specificat ions allow RIV t o be measur ed acr oss 150 ohm r esist ance made up of R
g
and R
c
in
par allel. It is clear t hat t he measur ing cable must have R
c
gr eat er t han 150 ohms. The highest
impedance cable has R
c
= 175 ohms on t he mar ket . The value of R
g
can be select ed such t hat
) /(
g c g c
R R R R + = 150 ohms
giving R
g
= 150 R
c
/(R
c
150) ...(6.61)
For R
c
= 175 ohms, R
g
= 6 R
c
= 1050 ohms.
The met er r eading is t hen mult iplied by a fact or of 4 in or der t o give t he RIV measur ed
acr oss 600 ohms, or by a fact or of 2 for 300 ohms sur ge impedance.
6.9 MEASUREMENT OF EXCITATION FUNCTION
The cor ona gener at ing funct ion or t he excit at ion funct ion caused by inject ed cur r ent at r adio
fr equencies fr om a cor ona dischar ge is measur ed on shor t lengt hs of conduct or st r ung inside
"cages" as discussed ear lier . The design of cages has been cover ed in gr eat det ail in Chapt er 4,
Some examples of measur ing r adio noise and inject ed cur r ent ar e shown in Fig. 6.19. In ever y
case t he measur ed quant it y is RIV at a fixed fr equency and t he excit at ion funct ion calculat ed as
descr ibed lat er . The filt er pr ovides an at t enuat ion of at least 25 dB so t hat t he RI cur r ent is
solely due t o cor ona on conduct or . The conduct or is t er minat ed in a capacit ance C
c
a t one end
in ser ies wit h r esist ances R
1
and R
c
, while t he ot her end is left open. The conduct or is st r ung
wit h st r ain insulat or at bot h ends which can be consider ed t o offer a ver y high impedance at 1
MHz so t hat t her e is an open-t er minat ion. But t his must be checked exper iment ally in sit u.
The coupling capacit or has negligible r eact ance at r -f so t hat t he t er minat ion at t he measur ing
end is near ly equal t o (R
1
+ R
c
), wher e R
c
= sur ge impedance of t he cable t o t he noise met er .
The r esist ance R
c
is also equal t o t he input impedance of t he noise met er .
Fig. 6.19 Cage set ups for measur ing excit at ion funct ion wit h measur ing cir cuit .
The excit at ion funct ion is calculat ed as follows:
Let J = RI cur r ent inject ed in , m / A
C = capacit ance of conduct or in cage, Far ad/met r e,
R = out er r adius of cage,
r
eq
= equivalent r adius of bundle.
Then, t he excit at ion funct ion is
I = m / A , / . 2
0
C J e ...(6.62)
The inject ed cur r ent in t er ms of measur ed RIV is
J = G R R R R
m c m c
/ ) RIV )( ( 2 + ...(6.63)
wher e + ) /(
m c m c
R R R R r esist ance of R
c
and met er in par allel,
RIV = measur ed noise r eading on met er in , V
and G = an amplificat ion fact or caused by addit ion of t he unifor mly dist r ibut ed
r -f cur r ent s gener at ed on t he conduct or .
The t est is nor mally car r ied out under r ain condit ions fr om ar t ificial r ain appar at us so
t hat cor ona is gener at ed unifor mly along t he conduct or . For a line t er minat ed at one end in it s
sur ge impedance wit h t he ot her end open, t he amplificat ion fact or is, for a conduct or lengt h L.
G = ]
]
]
+
]
]
]
v
fL
f
v L
dx x
v
f
L
4
sin
8 2
.
2
cos
0
2
...(6.64)
wher e v = velocit y of pr opagat ion
and f = fr equency of measur ement .
Since R
c
= R
m
, t her e r esult s
I =
. m / A ), RIV .(
4 2
0
G R C
e
c
...(6.65)
CONDUCTOR
CAGE
Source
NM
C
c
R
( ) a
F
NM
Coax Cable
Source
Filter
CONDUCTOR
L
CAGE
C
c
R
1
R
c
( ) b
This value of excit at ion funct ion has been used in Sect ion 6.7 for evaluat ing t he RI level of
a long line.
6.10 DESIGN OF FILTER
When cor ona is gener at ed on t he bundle-conduct or inside t he cage or on a t est object dur ing
RIV measur ement s, t he ener gy in t he pulses will be divided bet ween t he measur ing cir cuit and
t he sour ce t r ansfor mer . The t r ansfor mer can be assumed t o offer a pur e capacit ive r eact ance
consist ing of t he h.v. bushing and t he winding induct ance at t he fr equency of r -f measur ement ,
usually 1 MHz. Fig. 6.20 shows a simple R-L filt er , for which t he at t enuat ion fact or is
A = |V
i
/ V
0
| =
2 / 1 2 2 2 2 2
] ) 1 [(
t f t f
C R w C L w + ...(6.66)
This is obt ained by simple volt age division which is
V
i
/V
0
= )] 1 /( /[ )] 1 /( ) [(
2 2
t t t t t t f f
C L w jwL C L w jwL L jw R + + ...(6.67)
wh er e
t
C f w , 2 t r a n s for mer ca pa ci t a n ce, L
t
= t r a n s for mer i n du ct a n ce, a n d
R
f
, L
f
= filt er r esist ance and induct ance.
Let t he upper a nd lower fr equencies of mea sur ement be f
2
and f
1
, a nd t he desir ed
at t enuat ions A
2
and A
1
. The decibel values ar e
D
2
= . log 20 and log 20
1 10 1 2 10
A D A
Th en t h e fol l owi n g equ a t i on s h ol d fr om wh i ch we ca n ca l cu l a t e t h e pr odu ct s
. and
t f t f
C R Y C L X When t he t r ansfor mer capacit ance is known, t he values of filt er element s
ar e fixed.
2
2
2 2
2
2 2
2
) 1 ( A Y w X w + ...(6.68)
2
1
2 2
1
2 2
1
) 1 ( A Y w X w + ...(6.69)
Then,
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
2
2 2
1
2
2
/ ) 1 ( / ) 1 ( ) ( w A w A X w w ...(6.70)
Fig. 6.20 Line filt er for blocking cor ona ener gy fr om ent er ing sour ce t r a nsfor mer .
and
2
2
2 2
2
2
2
2
/ ] ) 1 ( [ w X w A Y ...(6.71a)
or ,
2
1
2 2
1
2
1
2
/ ] ) 1 ( [ w X w A Y ...(6.71b)
The Q of t he filt er at any fr equency is,
. / 2 / 2 Y fX R L f Q
f f
...(6.72)
V
0
CORONA ON
CONDUCTOR
MC V
0
C
t
L
t
L
f
R
f
Exa mp le 6.10. Design a filt er t o give 40 dB at t enuat ion at 1 MHz and 25 dB at 0.4 MHz.
Calculat e Q of filt er at 1 MHz.
Sol u t i on . Let w
2
= , 100 , 10 4 . 0 2 , 10 2
2
6
1
6
A w
A
1
= . 78 . 17 10
25 . 1
12 2 2 12 2 2 2 2 2 12 2
10 16 . 0 4 / ) 1 78 . 17 ( 10 4 / ) 1 100 ( ) 4 . 0 1 ( 10 4 X
This gives X =
12
10 76 . 5

t f
C L
Then, Y
2
=
12 2 2 12 12 2 2
10 4 / ] ) 10 76 . 5 10 4 1 ( 100 [

giving Y = . 10 1 . 16
6
t f
C R

Q = . MHz 1 at 248 . 2 / 2 / 2 Y X f R L f
f f
Exa mp le 6.11. The limit ing fr equencies for AM br oadcast ar e 0.5 MHz and 1.6 MHz.
Design filt er element s L
f
and R
f
and find Q at 1 MHz for giving 40 dB at 1.6 MHz and 25 dB at
0.5 MHz.
Sol u t i on . Using equat ions (6.68) t o (6.71), t her e r esult
X =
6 12
10 222 . 5 and 10 852 . 0

t f t f
C R Y C L
Q = . MHz 1 at 025 . 1
If t he t r ansfor mer capacit ance is 1000 pF = 10
9
Far ad, t he values ar e L
f
= 0.852 mH and
R
f
= 5.222 kilohms.
The most impor t ant point t o obser ve is t hat even t hough t he filt er element s ar e in ser ies
wit h t he sour ce t r ansfor mer and conduct or in t he cage at t he high volt age, t hey must be
designed for t he full wor king volt age. This is a ver y expensive it em in t he exper iment al set -up.
6.11 TELEVISION INTERFERENCE (TVI)
Television (TV) a nd Fr equency Modula t ion (FM) br oa dca st a nd r ecept ion nor ma lly cover
fr equencies in t he r ange 25 t o 100 MHz. The audio por t ion of TV is fr equency modulat ed and is
gener ally insensit ive t o noise gener at ed by power lines, equipment and har dwar e at high volt age
gr adient s, and spar ks. This is also t r ue of video synchr onizing cir cuit s. The only par t sensit ive
t o noise is t he AM car r ier -signal pr ocessing cir cuit which is dist ur bed dur ing t he sweep of t he
elect r on beam acr oss t he TV pict ur e-t ube scr een. We will br iefly discuss t he effect s t his has on
t he qualit y of TV r ecept ion and t he t ypes of noise which affect it . No effor t is made t o descr ibe
t echnical aspect s of TV t r ansmission and r ecept ion her e and t he r eader should consult lit er at ur e
of excellent qualit y and vast ext ent exist ing on TV engineer ing.
Int er fer ence t o TV r ecept ion fr om e.h.v. power lines came int o focus in lat e 1960's and
ear ly 1970's wit h t he ener gizat ion of 500 kV lines, in a manner similar t o audible noise. At t hat
t ime t he pr imar y cause of TVI was r ecognized as cor ona dischar ges fr om wat er dr ops on t he
single and bundled conduct or s, t he for mer yielding higher dist ur bance t han t he lat t er . The
dist ur bance on t he TV scr een was obser ved as bands or st r eaks dr ift ing acr oss it . Pr ior t o t his
obser vat ion, r esident ial dwellings wer e locat ed at least 60 met r es fr om t he cent r e of a power
line which was based on RI limit at ions, but r esult ed in TVI dur ing heavy r ain condit ions. The
noise level was 3 V/m (9.54 dB) at 75 MHz in fair weat her but incr eased t o 30 V/m (29.54 dB)
in foul weat her when at t he same t ime t he RI level was measur ed as 1800 V/m (65.1 dB).
Wet -snow condit ions gave maximum TVI. These obser vat ions pr ompt ed ser ious at t ent ion t o be
given t o TVI and t he nat ur e of dischar ges emanat ing fr om e.h.v. power lines causing t his
int er fer ence. The pr oblem of int er fer ence t o B & W and colour TV had, of cour se, been alr eady
under invest igat ion fr om man-made sour ces since a long t ime pr ior t o t his.
It was soon r ecognized t hat allowable noise should be set 5 V/m(14 dB) wher e t he TV
signal had a st r engt h of 40 dB higher (100 : 1 r at io for signal t o noise). For sat isfact or y r ecept ion,
t he signal st r engt h is specified as a minimum of 225 V/m(47 dB) which is per mit t ed in r ur al
ar eas and much higher in ur ban ar eas close t o TV t r ansmit t er s. In foul weat her , measur ed
noise at 75 MHz can be 5 V/m(14 dB) even at 150 met r es fr om t he line which is consider ed
sat isfact or y for TV r ecept ion in r ur al ar eas wher e t he signal st r engt h can be as low as 225 V/
m. At 60 met r es fr om t he line, t he noise is about 30 V/m (29.54 dB) which would t hen r equir e
69.54 dB (3000 V/m). A measur ed value of 2500 V/m(68 dB) was seen t o give t oler ably good
r ecept ion. In fair weat her , t hese limit s exist and line noise is obser ved not t o dist ur b TV
r ecept ion even under t he line,. Thus TVI is of gr eat concer n only in foul weat her fr om a line,
but as will be explained lat er , micr o-dischar ges fr om line har dwar e can be a nuisance even in
fair weat her . These must be locat ed and cor r ect ed by pr oper maint enance if complaint s ar e not
t o be for t hcoming. We shall now br iefly enumer at e t he t ypes of dischar ges fr om an e.h.v. line
t hat cause TVI and t he t ypes of possible TVI obser ved in pr act ice. Wit h t he enor mous popular it y
t hat TV has achieved in r ecent year s even in r ur al India, t he pr oblem of TVI is as impor t ant as
in ot her count r ies wher e TV has been used in far ming communit ies not only for ent er t ainment
but also for gat her ing infor mat ion for t heir ever yday life, so t hat TVI should be t r eat ed ser iously
by r egulat ing bodies and envir onment alist s.
Ther e ar e t hr ee t ypes of noise sour ces fr om an e.h.v. power t r ansmission line which ar e
of concer n. These a r e:
(a) Ult r a cor ona on t hin wir es or sliver s or shar p edges and point s;
(b) Cor ona on conduct or s;
(c) Spar king fr om cr acked insulat or s, and acr oss small gaps such as loose connect ions
bet ween line har dwar e component s, which ar e especially t r oublesome dur ing wind
condit ions.
Ult r a cor ona is a phenomenon t hat is r ecognized t o occur at volt age gr adient s much in
excess of nor mal cor ona incept ion and is a var iet y of glow cor ona. Nor mally, glow cor ona of t he
luminous t ype does not exhibit pulse-t ype pr oper t y but a s t he volt a ge gr a dient exceeds
22 kV/cm, r .m.s., pulse-t ype dischar ge commences dur ing t he negat ive half-cycle of power -
fr equency excit at ion. The r esult ing noise is ver y similar t o t hat gener at ed by cor ona on a wet
conduct or dur ing t he negat ive half-cycle. It was ment ioned in Sect ions 6.1 and 6.2 t hat t his was
not of concer n for Radio Int er fer ence because t hese amplit udes and t ime dur at ions of negat ive
pulses when pr ocessed t hr ough t he 5 kHz bandwidt h of t he Quasi-Peak cir cuit of a Radio Noise
met er r esult ed in insignificant level of noise as compar ed t o posit ive cor ona noise. However ,
t he fr equency spect r um of negat ive pulses exhibit s a mor e const ant or flat t ype t han t hat of
posit ive pulses and t his is ser ious fr om TVI point of view. Figur e 6.21 shows r elat ive amplit ude
plot s of t he fr equency spect r a of four t ypes of dischar ges fr om lines, wher e it can be obser ved
t hat posit ive cor ona noise decr eases at t he r at e of 35 dB per decade incr ease in fr equency while
negat ive noise shows a decr ease of only 20 dB decr ease per decade. The gap-t ype noise is near ly
flat upt o 100 MHz which is of concer n for TVI.
F i g. 6.21 Rela t ive fr equency spect r a of coor dina t ed RIV fr om four t ypes of
dischar ge sour ces in foul weat her fr om e.h.v, lines causing TVI. (i ) Posit ive
st r eamer s; (i i ) Gap-t ype dischar ge; (i i i) Negat ive st r eamer s; and (i v) Negat ive glow
noise (ult r a cor ona).
Negat ive pulses occur in lar ge bunches dur ing t he negat ive half-cycle of power -fr equency
volt age above t he cor ona t hr eshold volt age or volt age gr adient . The spacing bet ween pulses is
as low as 10 t o 20
, s
so t hat somet imes t he pulses over lap each ot her giving t he char act er ist ics
of r andom noise, Fig. 6.22. In compar ison, posit ive pulses occur less fr equent ly on t he posit ive
half cycles and can be consider ed t o yield impulsive noise. For gap-t ype noise, t he pulse r epet it ion
r at e is lower t han for negat ive t ype cor ona and t he pulse separ at ion is also lar ger . These
char act er ist ics gover n t he t ype of dist ur bance t o pict ur e qualit y on t he TV scr een. Also, or gap-
t ype posit ive pulses, t he amplit ude has been obser ved t o be higher even t han t he signal st r engt h
by as much as 20 dB so t hat t he Signal/Noise r at io is act ually negat ive by 30 dB. This occur s
under heavy r ain condit ions. The r esult ing dist ur bed pat t er n exhibit s st r eaks wit h a black
head and a long whit e t ail like a comet in t he sky, as shown in Fig. 6.23 (a). Spar king fr om loose
har dwar e wher e t he insulat or s might suppor t light conduct or s gives r ise t o st r eaks t hat cover
only a par t of t he scr een as shown in Fig. 6.23 (b). However , negat ive cor ona gives a t ype of
dist ur bance t o t he pict ur e familiar ly known as 'snow'. Since t he pulses occur only dur ing par t
of a negat ive half cycle, only a par t of t he pict ur e exper iences t his t ype of blur r ing when it is
Fig. 6.22 Typical pulse act ivit y dur ing posit ive and negat ive half-cycles of power -fr equency volt age on
lines in cor ona. (Not e: The pulse amplit udes ar e magnified 10
4
t o 10
5
t imes for t he sa ke of
clar it y. The peak value of excit at ion volt age is in t he r ange of 350 t o 700 kV while t he pulse
amplit udes may be less t han 10 volt s acr oss 600 ohms).
Positive pulses
Positive corona threshold
Power frequency
voltage
Negative corona
threshold
Negative pulses
20 ms
0 10
0.1 1.0 10 100
100
80
60
40
20
0
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e
d
B
l
e
v
e
l
Frequency, MHz
Negative streamers
Negative glow
Positive streamers
Gap noise
Fig. 6.23 Typical pat t er ns of Television Int er fer ence (TVI),
(a) Due t o posit ive gap-t ype noise. Noise level is higher t han car r ier signal st r engt h
by about 20 dB.
(b) Due t o spa r king a t loose ha r dwa r e.
r ealized t hat a nor mal TV scr een has 525 lines sweeping acr oss it in t wo fr ames at near ly 50
t imes a second. This cor r esponds near ly t o power -fr equency volt age also. Ther efor e, negat ive
pulses occur r ing dur ing only a par t of a power -fr equency cycle will cause blur r ing at t he middle
of t he scr een fr om a single phase and near ly complet ely fr om t he t hr ee phases. Obser vat ions
made by G.W. J uet t e at t he E.H.V. Pr oject have r evealed t he following t ypes of behaviour for
TVI, (Ref. 115, IEEE in Bibliogr aphy):
(a) When S/N r at io is 0 dB, about 50% of scr een has dense whit e bands fr om a single-
phase noise sour ce;
(b) If t he S/N r at io is mor e favour able, at 20 dB, t he band separ at es int o balck and whit e
spot s;
(c) At S/N r at io of 20 dB, t he spot s become smaller and show a lar ger separ at ion;
(d) At 30 dB S/N r at io, t he separ at ion is even mor e and main pict ur e assumes mor e
br ight ness but is not yet clear ;
(e) At 40 dB, ver y few spot s ar e visible and t her e is no snow. This appear s t o be t he
t hr eshold for noise nuisance;
( f ) At 50 dB, t he pict ur e is ver y clear and noise effect is not visible.
Wor ks of Gia o Tr inh a nd J or da n, a nd r ecent ly by t he t ea m of Ar a i, Miguchi a nd
J anischewskyj have emphasized t he need for car eful invest igat ion int o t he fr equency spect r um
of differ ent modes of cor ona and t r ansit ion fr om st r eamer t o spar k dischar ges in or der t o
assess t heir effect on TV int er fer ence so t hat r emedial measur es may be t aken. (See Refer ences
114 and 119, IEEE in Bibliogr aphy).
1. Descr ibe t he mechanism of for mat ion of a posit ive cor ona pulse t r ain.
2. The posit ive and negat ive cor ona pulses can be assumed t o be squar e pulses of
amplit udes 100 mA and 10 mA r espect ively. Their widt hs ar e 200 ns and 100 ns
r espect ively. Their r epet it ion r at es ar e 1000 pps and 10,000 pps. The bandwidt h of a
filt er is 5 kHz. Using equat ion (6.15) calculat e t he r at io of out put of t he filt er for t he
t wo pulse t r ains at a t uned fr equency f
0
= 1 MHz.
( ) a ( ) b
3. At a t own near which a pr oposed e.h.v. line will r un, t he measur ed r adio-st at ion field
st r engt hs ar e as follows:
Frequency of
S t at ion 0.5 0.75 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 MHz
Received S ignal
S t rengt h 50 60 75 70 65 52 80 75 60 dB
Take t he cor ona noise fr om a line t o var y as f
1.5
, and t he minimum S/N r at io t o be 22
dB. If t he st at ion at 1 MHz is t o be r eceived wit h t his qualit y of r ecept ion, det er mine
which of t he st at ions will have a S/N r at io lower t han t he minimum allowable S/N
r at io of 22 dB.
4. Calculat e and plot t he field fact or s for t he 3 modes of pr opagat ion for a line wit h H =
15 m, S = 12 m as t he dist ance fr om t he line cent r e is var ied fr om 0 t o 3 H.
5. The height s of conduct or s of a bipolar dc line ar e H = 18 m and t he pole spacing P =
12 m. Calculat e and plot t he field fact or s for t his line for t he t wo modes of pr opagat ion
as t he dist ance d fr om line cent r e is var ied fr om 0 t o 3 H.
6. A 750-kV line in hor izont al configur at ion has H = 18 m and phase spacing S = 15 m.
The conduct or s ar e 4 0.03 met r e diamet er wit h bundle spacing of 0.4572 met r e.
Using Mangoldt 's For mula and t he CIGRE for mula, comput e t he RI level at 15 met r es
at gr ound level fr om t he out er phase at 1 MHz in aver age fair weat her . Is t he widt h
of cor r idor of 60 met r es sufficient fr om t he RI point of view ?
7. Design a filt er wit h ser ies R-L element s for a cage measur ement t o give an at t enuat ion
of 40 dB at 1 MHz and 30 dB at 0.5 MHz. (a) If t he t r ansfor mer bushing has a capacit ance
C
t
= 500 pF, calculat e t he values of R
f
and L
f
r equir ed. (b) What ar e at t enuat ions
offer ed by t his filt er at 1.5 MHz and 0.8 MHz ?
8. Why does line-gener at ed cor ona noise not int er fer e wit h TV r ecept ion or FM r adio
r ecept ion ? What causes int er fer ence at t hese fr equencies ?
9. (a) Ver ify t he fr equency spect r um for posit ive and negat ive pulses of Table 6.1 under
t he assumpt ion t hat bot h have double-exponent ial waveshape wit h and values
given t her e. Assume equal amplit udes for bot h. (b) Plot t he values as shown in Fig.
6.3, but t aking (log f) as t he abscissa and t he dB values as or dinat e. (c) Repeat when
t he peak values ar e in t he r at io 10/1.
7.1 ELECTRIC SHOCK AND THRESHOLD CURRENTS
Elect r ost at ic effect s fr om over head e.h.v. lines ar e caused by t he ext r emely high volt age while
elect r omagnet ic effect s ar e due t o line loading cur r ent and shor t -cir cuit cur r ent s. Hazar ds
exist due t o bot h causes of var ious degr ee. These ar e, for example, pot ent ial dr op in t he ear t h's
sur face due t o high fault cur r ent s, dir ect flashover fr om line conduct or s t o human beings or
animals. Elect r ost at ic fields cause damage t o human life, plant s, animals, and met allic object s
such as fences and bur ied pipe lines. Under cer t ain adver se cir cumst ances t hese give r ise t o
shock cur r ent s of var ious int ensit ies.
Shock cur r ent s can be classified as follows:
(a) Primary S hock Current s. These cause dir ect physiological har m when t he cur r ent
exceeds about 6-10 mA. The nor mal r esist ance of t he human body is about 2-3 kilohms so t hat
about 25 volt s may be necessar y t o pr oduce pr imar y shock cur r ent s. The danger her e ar ises
due t o vent r icular fibr illat ion which affect s t he main pumping chamber s of t he hear t . This
r esult s in immediat e ar r est of blood cir culat ion. Loss of life may be due t o (a) ar r est of blood
cir culat ion when cur r ent flows t hr ough t he hear t , (b) per manent r espir at or y ar r est when cur r ent
flows in t he br ain, and (c) asphyxia due t o flow of cur r ent acr oss t he chest pr event ing muscle
cont r act ion.
The 'elect r ocut ion equat ion' is i
2
t = K
2
, wher e K = 165 for a body weight of 50 kg, i is in
mA and t is in seconds. On a pr obabilit y basis deat h due t o fibr illat ion condit ion occur s in 0.5%
of cases. The pr imar y shock cur r ent r equir ed var ies dir ect ly as t he body weight . For i = 10 mA,
t he cur r ent must flow for a t ime int er val of 272 seconds befor e deat h occur s in a 50 kg human
being.
(b) S econdary S hock Current s. These cannot cause dir ect physiological har m but may
pr oduce adver se r eact ions. They can be st eady st at e 50 Hz or it s har monics or t r ansient in
nat ur e. The lat t er occur when a human being comes int o cont act wit h a capacit ively char ged
body such as a par ked vehicle under a line. St eady st at e cur r ent s up t o 1 mA cause a slight
t ingle on t he finger s. Cur r ent s fr om 1 t o 6 mA ar e classed as, 'let go' cur r ent s. At t his level, a
human being has cont r ol of muscles t o let t he conduct or go as soon as a t ingling sensat ion
occur s. For a 50% pr obabilit y t hat t he let -t o cur r ent may incr ease t o pr imar y shock cur r ent ,
t he limit for men is 16 mA and for women 10 mA. At 0.5% pr obabilit y, t he cur r ent s ar e 9 mA for
men, 6 mA for women, and 4.5 mA for childr en.
7
El ect ros t a t i c a n d Ma gn et i c Fi el d s
of EHV Li n es
Electrostatic and Magnetic Fields of EHV Lines 173
A human body has an aver age capacit ance of 250 pF when st anding on an insulat ed plat for m
of 0.3 m above gr ound (1 ft .). In or der t o r each t he let -go cur r ent value, t his will r equir e 1000 t o
2000 volt s. Human beings t ouching par ked vehicles under t he line may exper ience t hese t r ansient
cur r ent s, t he lar ger t he vehicle t he mor e char ge it will acquir e and gr eat er is t he danger .
Const r uct ion cr ews ar e subject t o hazar ds of elect r ost at ic induct ion when er ect ing new
lines adjacent t o ener gized lines. An ungr ounded conduct or of about 100 met r es in lengt h can
pr oduce shock cur r ent s when a man t ouches it . But gr ounding bot h ends of t he conduct or
br ings t he hazar d of lar ge cur r ent flow. A movable gr ound mat is gener ally necessar y t o pr ot ect
men and machines. When st r inging one cir cuit on a double-cir cuit t ower which alr eady has an
ener gized cir cuit is anot her hazar d and t he men must use a pr oper gr ound. Accident s occur
when placing or r emoving gr ounds and gloves must be wor n. Hot -line t echniques ar e not
discussed her e.
7.2 CAPACITANCE OF LONG OBJECT
Elect r ost at ic induct ion t o adjacent lines such as t elephone lines can be det er mined by Maxwell's
Pot ent ia l Coefficient s a nd t heir inver ses. If gr ound r esist a nce a nd induct a nce a r e t o be
consider ed, Car son's for mulas given in Chapt er 3 ar e used. However , for a long object such as
a lor r y or vehicle par ked par allel t o a line under it , an empir ical for mula for it s
Fi g. 7.1 Calculat ion of capacit ance of long object locat ed near an e.h.v. line.
capacit ance due t o Comsa and Ren is given her e. The object is r eplaced by an equivalent
cylinder of diamet er D and height h above gr ound as shown below. Figur e 7.1 gives t he act ual
dimensions of t he object wher e a = lengt h of object , b = widt h, v = height , t = height of t yr es.
Then, h = t + v 0.5 b, and D = b. Ot her dimensions of line ar e shown on t he figur e. The
capacit ance of t he vehicle, including end effect s, is
C =
2 1
. C C a + ...(7.1)
wher e C
1
= m / pF , ) / ln(
4
ln .
4
ln ) / ( ln 2
0 ]
]
]
+
,
`
.
|
,
`
.
|
A I
D
h
d
H
A I e ...(7.2)
and C
2
= 31. b, pF due t o end effect s. ...(7.3)
Object
d
b
Line
Ground
H
I
A
a
t
v
L
Exa mp le 7.1. The following det ails of a t r uck par ked par allel t o a line ar e given. Find it s
capacit ance. Lengt h a = 8 m, height of body v = 3m, widt h b = 3m, t = 1.5 m. Height of line
conduct or H = 13m, dia. of conduct or = 0.0406m, dist ance of par king L = 6m.
Sol u t i on . h = , 66 . 11 , 1 . 17 , 3 , 3 5 . 0 + A I b D b v t
C
1
=
]
]
]
66 . 11
1 . 17
ln
3
12
ln
0406 .
52
ln ) 66 . 11 / 1 . 17 ln(
18
10
9
= 2.065 pF/met r e lengt h of t r uck.
C
2
= 31 b = 93 pF.
C = 8 2.065 + 93 =109.5 pF.
Not e t hat t he edge effect is consider able.
7.3 CALCULATION OF ELECTROSTATIC FIELD OF A.C. LINES
7.3.1 Power-Frequency Charge of Conductors
In Chapt er 4, we descr ibed t he met hod of calculat ing t he elect r ost at ic char ges on t he phase
conduct or s fr om line dimensions and volt age. For n phases, t his is, see Fig. 7.2, wit h q = t ot al
bundle char ge and V = line t o gr ound volt age.
] [
2
1
0
q
e
=
] ][ [ ] [ ] [
1
V M V P
...(7.4)
wher e [q] =
t n
q q q q ] ,..., , , [
3 2 1
...(7.5)
[V] =
t n
V V V V ] ,..., , , [
3 2 1
[P] = n n mat r ix of Maxwell's Pot ent ial coefficient s wit h
P
ii
= j i A I P r H
ij ij ij eq t
), / ln( and ) / 2 ln( ...(7.6)
Fi g. 7.2 n-phase line configur at ion for char ge calculat ion.
N
R
1
2
3
2r
H
j
H
i
H
i
H
j
I
ij
A
ij
i
j
I
Her e, H
i
= height of conduct or i above gr ound = , sag
1
3
+
min
H
I
ij
= dist ance bet ween conduct or i above gr ound and t he image of conduct or
j below gr ound, , j i
A
ij
= aer ial dist ance bet ween conduct or s i and , , j i j
eq
r =

N
R r N R
/ 1
) / . (
equivalent bundle r adius,
R = bundle r adius ), / ( sin 2 / N B
N = number of sub-conduct or s in bundle,
r = r adius of each sub-conduct or ,
and i, j = 1, 2, 3,..., n.
Since t he line volt ages ar e sinusoidally var ying wit h t ime at power fr equency, t he bundle
char ges q
1
t o q
n
will also var y sinusoidally. Consequent ly, t he induced elect r ost at ic field in t he
vicinit y of t he line also var ies at power fr equency and phasor algebr a can be used t o combine
sever al component s in or der t o yield t he amplit ude of t he r equir ed field, namely, t he hor izont al,
ver t ical or t ot al vect or s.
7.3.2 Electrostatic Field of Single-Circuit 3-Phase Line
Let us consider fir st a 3-phase line wit h 3 bundles on a t ower and excit ed by t he volt ages.
[V] = ] ) 120 ( sin ), 120 ( sin ), [sin( + + + + wt wt wt V
m
...(7.7)
Select an or igin O for a coor dinat e syst em at any convenient locat ion. In gener al, t his
may be locat ed on gr ound under t he middle phase in a
Fi g. 7.3 Calculat ion of e.s. field component s near t he line.
symmet r ical ar r angement . The coor dinat es of t he line conduct or s ar e ) , (
i i
y x . A point ) , ( y x A
is shown wher e t he hor izont al, ver t ical, and t ot al e.s. field component s ar e r equir ed t o be
evaluat ed, as shown in Fig. 7.3. The field vect or at A due t o t he char ge of t he aer ial conduct or
is wit h
2
i
D = , ) ( ) (
2 2
i i
y y x x +
c
E = ) / 1 )( 2 / (
0 i i
D e q ...(7.8)
Y
X
x
x
i
y
i
q
i
D
i
i
D
i
E'
ci
E'
vi
E'
hi
E
hi
E
vi
E
ci A x, y ( )
q
i
'

It s hor izont al and ver t ical component s ar e
h
E =
2
0
/ ) )( 2 / ( cos
i i i c
D x x e q E ...(7.9)
and
v
E =
2
0
/ ) )( 2 / ( sin
i i i c
D y y e q E ...(7.10)
Similar ly, due t o image char ge of conduct or
'
c
E = ) / 1 )( 2 / (
0
'
i i
D e q
wher e
2
) (
'
i
D = , ) ( ) (
2 2
i i
y y x x + +
'
h
E =
2
0
) /( ) )( 2 / (
'
i i i
D x x e q
'
v
E =
2
0
) /( ) )( 2 / (
'
i i i
D y y e q + ...(7.11)
We obser ve t hat t he field component s of
c
E and ' E
c
ar e in opposit e dir ect ions. Ther efor e,
t he t ot al hor izont al and ver t ical component s at A due t o bot h char ges ar e
hi
E = ] ) /( 1 / 1 )[ )( 2 / (
2 2
0
'
i i i i
D D x x e q ...(7.12)
vi
E = ] ) /( ) ( / ) )[( 2 / (
2 2
0
'
i i i i i
D y y D y y e q + ...(7.13)
Consequent ly, due t o all n phases, t he sum of hor izont al and ver t ical component s of e.s.
field at t he point ) , ( y x A will be
hn
E =

n
i
vi vn
n
i
hi
E E E
1 1
and ,
...(7.14)
The t ot al elect r ic field at A is
in
E =
2 / 1 2 2
) (
vn hn
E E + ...(7.15)
We can wr it e t hese out explicit ly for a 3-phase line.
Let J
i
= ] ) /( 1 / 1 [ ) (
2 2 '
i i i
D D x x ...(7.16)
and K
i
=
2 2
) /( ) ( / ) (
'
i i i i
D y y D y y + ...(7.17)
The bundle char ges ar e calculat ed fr om equat ions (7.4), (7.5), and (7.6), so t hat fr om
equat ions (7.12), (7.13), (7.16) and (7.17) t her e r esult s.
1 h
E = ) 120 ( sin ) ( sin [ . ) 2 / (
12 11 1 1 0 1
+ + + wt M wt M J V J e q
m
+ )] 120 ( sin
13
+ + wt M
2 h
E = ) 120 ( sin ) ( sin [ . ) 2 / (
22 21 2 2 0 2
m
)] 120 ( sin
23
+ + + wt M
3 h
E = )] 120 ( sin ) ( sin [ . ) 2 / (
32 31 3 3 0 3
m
)] 120 ( sin
33
+ + + wt M
The t ot al hor izont al component is, adding ver t ically,
hn
E = ) ( sin ) . . . [(
31 3 21 2 11 1
+ + + wt M J M J M J V
m
) 120 ( sin ) . . . (
32 3 22 2 12 1
+ + + + wt M J M J M J
)] 120 ( sin ) . . . (
33 3 23 2 13 1
+ + + + + wt M J M J M J
'

= ) 120 ( sin . ) ( sin . [
2 1
+ + + wt J wt J V
h h m
)] 120 ( sin
3
+ + + wt J
h
and in phasor for m,
hn
E = ] 120 120 [
3
0
2 1
+ + +
h h h m
J J J V ...(7.18)
This is a simple addit ion of t hr ee phasor s of amplit udes
3 2 1
, ,
h h h
J J J inclined at 120 t o
each ot her . Resolving t hem int o hor izont al and ver t ical component s (r eal and j par t s wit h
=
0), we obt ain
r eal par t =
3 2 1
5 . 0 5 . 0
h h h
J J J
and imaginar y par t =
3 2
866 . 0 866 . 0 0
h h
J J + ...(7.19)
Consequent ly, t he amplit ude of elect r ic field is
hn
E
=
m h h h h h
V J J J J J
2 / 1 2
2 3
2
3 2 1
] ) ( 75 . 0 ) 5 . 0 5 . 0 [( +
=
m h h h h h h h h h
C J J J J J J J J J . ) (
2 / 1
1 3 3 2 2 1
2
3
2
2
2
1
+ +
= . .
m h
V J
The r .m.s. value of t he t ot al hor izont al component at A (x, y) due t o all 3 phases will be
hn
E
= V J E
h hn
. 2 /
...(7.20)
wher e V = r .m.s. value of line t o gr ound volt age.
In a similar manner , t he r .m.s. value of t oal ver t ical component of field at A due t o all 3
phases is
vn
E =
2 / 1
1 3 3 2 2 1
2
3
2
2
2
1
) ( .
v v v v v v v v v v
K K K K K K K K K V V K + + ...(7.21)
wher e
1 v
K =
31 3 21 2 11 1
. . . M K M K M K + +
2 v
K =
32 3 22 2 12 1
. . . M K M K M K + + ...(7.22)
and
3 v
K =
33 3 23 2 13 1
. . . M K M K M K + +
wher e t he values of
3 2 1
, , K K K ar e obt ained fr om equat ion (7.17) for K
i
wit h i = 1, 2, 3.
Exa mp le 7.2. Comput e t he r .m.s. values of gr ound-level elect r ost at ic field of a 400-kV
line at it s maximum oper at ing volt age of 420 kV (line-t o-line) given t he following det ails. Single
cir cuit hor izont al configur at ion. H = 13 m, S = 12 m, conduct or 2 3.18 cm diamet er , B = 45.72
cm. Var y t he hor izont al dist ance along gr ound fr om t he line cent r e fr om 0 t o 3 H. See Fig. 7.4.
Sol u t i on . At t he gr ound level, t he hor izont al component of e.s. field is zer o ever ywher e
since t he gr ound sur face is assumed t o be an equipot ent ial. Also, for ever y point on gr ound, t he
dist ances fr om aer ial conduct or and it s image ar e such t hat
i
D and
'
i
D ar e equal.
S t ep 1.
ii
P =
N
eq ij ij ij eq
R r N R r A I P r H
/ 1
) / . ( ), / ln( ), / 2 ln(
N = 2, R = B/2.Then t he [P] and [M] mat r ices ar e
[P] =
and
64 . 5 , 87 . 0 , 39 . 0
87 . 0 , 64 . 5 , 87 . 0
39 . 0 , 87 . 0 , 64 . 5
]
]
]
]
]
'
'

1
] [ ] [

P M
=
3
10
8 . 172 , 6 . 25 , 8
6 . 25 , 2 . 176 , 6 . 25
8 , 6 . 25 , 8 . 172
]
]
]
]
]

S t ep 2. Coor dinat es of conduct or s wit h or igin placed on gr ound under t he cent r e-phase,
see Fig. 7.4, ar e 0 . 13 , 12 , 0 , 12
3 2 1 3 2 1
+ y y y y x x x on gr ound.
S t ep 3. At a point A(x, 0) along gr ound, fr om equat ion (7.17),
K
1
=
] ) 13 ( ) 12 /[( 13 ] ) 13 ( ) 12 /[( 13
2 2 2 2
+ + + + + x x
=
]. 169 ) 12 /[( 26
2
+ + x
Fi g. 7.4 Det ails of 400 kV line for evaluat ion of gr ound-level e.s. field at point A.
Similar ly,
2
K = ]. 169 ) 12 /[( 26 and ) 169 /( 26
2
3
2
+ + x K x
S t ep 4.
1 v
K =
31 3 21 2 11 1
M K M K M K + +
=
169 ) 12 (
208 . 0
169
666 . 0
169 ) 12 (
493 . 4
2 2 2
+
+
+
+
+ +
x x x
2 v
K =
32 3 22 2 12 1
M K M K M K + +
=
169 ) 12 (
666 . 0
169
58 . 4
169 ) 12 (
666 . 0
2 2 2
+
+
+
+ + x x x
3 v
K =
33 3 23 2 13 1
M K M K M K + +
=
169 ) 12 (
493 . 4
169
666 . 0
169 ) 12 (
208 . 0
2 2 2
+
+
+
+ + x x x
S t ep 5.
v
K =
2 / 1
1 3 3 2 2 1
2
3
2
2
2
1
) (
v v v v v v v v v
K K K K K K K K K + +
S t ep 6.
v
E = . met r e / kV 3 / 420 .
v
K
A comput er pr ogr amme wr it t en for x var ying fr om 0 t o 3 H = 39 m fr om t he line cent r e
has given t he following r esult s, which ar e also plot t ed in Fig. 7.5.
12 12
13
1 2 3
Y
X
A x ( , 0)
Fi g. 7.5 Pr ofile of E.S. field of 400 kV line at gr ound level.
H x /
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
m / kV ,
v
E 3.214 3.182 3.11 3.06 3.11 3.29 3.60 3.96
H x /
0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
v
E 4.3 4.55 4.69 4.694 4.576 4.136 4.08 3.76
H x /
1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.2 2.6 3.0
v
E 3.42 3.1 2.78 2.494 2.23 1.785 1.16 0.783
Fi g. 7.6 E.S. field pr ofile of 750 kV line (calculat ed).
We obser ve t hat t he maximum value of gr ound-level field does not occur at t he line
cent r e but at ). m 3 . 14 ( 1 . 1 / x H x Ther e is a double hump in t he gr aph. Fur t her examples
for 750 kV, 1000 kV and 1200 kV lines ar e shown in Figs. 7.6 t o 7.8 using t ypical dimensions. In
all cases, t he pr esence of over head gr ound wir es has been neglect ed. In a digit al comput er
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
H = 13 m
H = 15 m
N = 2
S = 12
d = 3.18 cm
B = 45.72 cm
kV/m
y = 0
y = 0
400 kV
Horizontal
5
4
3
2
1
x/H
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
x/H
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
kV/m
y = 4
y = 4
y = 0 y = 0
765 kV Line 735 kV Line
H = 18 H = 18 m
S = 15 m
d = 3 cm
B = 45.72 cm
N = 4
S = 15
d = 3.5 cm
B = 45.72 cm
N = 4
pr ogr amme t hey can be included but t heir effect is negligible. The fields at y = 4 m above
gr ound ar e also shown which a t r uck might exper ience.
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
1050 kV
Horizontal line
H = 21 m
S = 18 m
d = 3 cm
R = 0.6 m
N = 6
y = 0
y = 4
kV/m
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
1200 kV
Horizontal line
H = 24 m
S = 21 m
d = 4.63 cm
R = 0.6 m
N = 8
kV/m
7.3.3 Electrostatic Field of Double-Circuit 3-phase A.C. Line
On a D/C line t her e ar e 6 conduct or s on a t ower , neglect ing gr ound wir es above t he line
conduct or s. [Some pr oposals for using shielding wir es under t he line conduct or s ar e made, but
such pr oblems will not be discussed in t his book]. The e.s. field will depend on t he phase
configur at ion of t he t wo cir cuit s and for illust r at ing t he pr ocedur e, t he ar r angement shown in
Fig. 7.9 will be used. The posit ions occupied by t he phases ar e number ed 1 t o 6 and it is evident
t hat (a) conduct or s 1 and 4 have t he volt age ), ( sin + wt V
m
(b) conduct or s 2 and 5 have volt ages
) 120 ( sin + wt V
m
and (c) conduct or s 3 and 6 have volt ages ). 120 ( sin + + wt V
m
F i g.7.9 Configur at ion of a double-cir cuit (D/C) line.
Consequent ly, t he hor izont al and ver t ical component s of e.s. field will consist of 6 quant it ies
as follows:
1 h
E =
) ( ) ( sin ) [( .
2
15 12 14 11 1 1
0
1
M M wt M M J V J
e
q
m
+ + + +
)] 120 ( sin ) ( ) 120 ( sin

16 13
+ + + + + wt M M wt ...(7.23)
M
6 h
E =
) ( ) ( sin ) [( .
2
65 62 64 61 6 6
0
6
M M wt M M J V J
e
q
m
+ + + +
)] 120 ( sin ) ( ) 120 ( sin

66 63
+ + + + + wt M M wt ...(7.24)
wher e t he Maxwell's Pot ent ial coefficient mat r ix [P] and it s inver se [M] ar e now of or der 6 6,
and t he J
i
values ar e given fr om equat ion (7.16) by using i = 1, 2, ..., 6 in t ur n. Once again, t he
t ot al hor izont al component of e.s. field at ) , ( y x A is of t he for m
E
ht
= V
m
[J
h1
sin

) 120 ( sin ) (
2
+ + + wt J wt
h
)] 120 sin( .
3
+ + + wt J
h
and in phasor for m
ht
E = ) 120 120 (
3 2 1
+ + +
h h h m
J J J V ...(7.25)
The quant it ies , , ,
3 2 1 h h h
J J J ar e obt ained by adding equat ions (7.23) t o (7.24) ver t ically
and collect ing t he coefficient s of sin ). 120 ( sin and ) 120 ( sin ), ( + + + + wt wt wt This is of
t he same for m as equat ion (7.19).
Similar ly, t he t ot al ver t ical component of e.s. field can be obt ained by using equat ion
(7.17) for calculat ing K
1
t o K
6
. Then,
vt
E = V K
v
.
1
2
3 4
5
6
A
B
C A'
B'
C'
wher e
v
K =
2 / 1
1 3 3 2 2 1
2
3
2
2
2
1
)
v v v v v v v v v
K K K K K K K K K + +
wit h
1 v
K = ) ( ) ( ) (
34 31 3 24 21 2 14 11 1
M M K M M K M M K + + + + +
) ( ) ( ) (
66 61 6 54 51 5 44 41 4
M M K M M K M M K + + + + + + ...(7.27)
M
3 v
K = ) ( ) ( ) (
36 33 3 26 23 2 16 13 1
M M K M M K M M K + + + + +
) ( ) ( ) (
66 63 6 56 53 5 46 43 4
M M K M M K M M K + + + + + + ...(7.28)
The t ot al e.s. field at ever y point ) , ( y x A will be
t
E =
2 / 1 2 2
] [
vt ht
E E + ...(7.29)
7.3.4 Six-Phase A.C. Line
A r ecent advancement in medium-volt age lines is t he use of high phase or der lines wit h mor e
t han 3 phases on t he same t ower . We will complet e t he pr oblem of e.s. field calculat ion wit h a
6-phase line wher e t he volt ages ar e now.
and 240 , 180 , 120 , 60 , 0
5 4 3 2 1

m m m m m
V V V V V V V V V V
. 300
6

m
V V Thus, V
1
and V
4
ar e in phase opposit ion, which is also t r ue of V
2
and V
5
, and V
3
and V
6
. The ar r angement of phase posit ions is shown in Fig. 7.10. It is clear t hat t he Maxwell's
Pot ent ial coefficient mat r ix [P] and it s inver se [M] ar e t he same as for a double-cir cuit 3-phase
line of the previous section. The values of J
i
and K
i
ar e also t he same as wer e obt ained fr om
equat ions (7.16) and (7.17), for i = 1, 2, ..., 6.
F i g. 7.10 Det ails of 6-phase line.
Equat ions ar e now wr it t en down for t he hor izont al and ver t ical component s of t he e.s.
field at a point ) , ( y x A due t o t he six volt ages as follows:
1 h
E =
) 60 ( sin ) ( sin [ .
2
.
12 11 1
0
1
+ + +
wt M wt M V J
e
q
J
m
) 180 ( sin ) 120 ( sin
14 13
+ + + + wt M wt M
)] 300 sin( ) 240 ( sin
16 15
+ + + + wt M wt M
= ) 60 ( sin ) ( ) ( sin ) [( .
15 12 14 11 1
+ + + wt M M wt M M J V
m
)] 120 ( sin ) (
16 13
+ + wt M M ...(7.30)
1
2
3 4
5
6
V 0
V 60
V 120 V 180
V 240
V 300
Similar ly for t he r emaining 5 conduct or s. For conduct or 6,
E
h6
= ) 60 ( sin ) ( ) ( sin ) [( .
65 62 64 61 6
+ + + wt M M wt M M J V
m
)] 120 ( sin ) (
66 63
+ + wt M M ...(7.31)
The t ot al hor izont al component of e.s. field at ) , ( y x A will be of t he for m
ht
E =
6 5 4 3 2 1 h h h h h h
E E E E E E + + + + +
= )] 120 ( sin ) 60 ( sin ) ( sin [
3 2 1
+ + + + + wt J wt J wt J V
h h h m
= ) 120 60 0 (
3 2 1
+ +
h h h m
J J J V ...(7.32)
It s amplit ude is obt ained by separ at ing t he r eal par t and j-par t and t aking t he r esult ing
vect r oial sum.
The r eal par t is )] ( 5 . 0 [
3 2 1 h h h
J J J + and t he j-par t is 0.866 ). (
3 2 h h
J J + The amplit ude is
J
h
=
2 / 1 2
3 2
2
3 2 1
] ) ( 75 . 0 )} ( 5 . 0 [{
h h h h h
J J J J J + + +
=
2 / 1
1 3 3 2 2 1
2
3
2
2
2
1
) (
h h h h h h h h h
J J J J J J J J J + + + + ...(7.33)
The t ot al hor izont al component of e.s. field at t he point A(x, y) has t he cor r esponding
r .m.s. value.
E
h
= 2 / wher e , .
m h
V V V J ...(7.34)
Similar ly, t he t ot al ver t ical component at A(x, y) is
E
v
= K
v
.V ...(7.35)
wher e
v
K =
2 / 1
1 3 3 2 2 1
2
3
2
2
2
1
) (
v v v v v v v v v
K K K K K K K K K + + + + ...(7.36)
1 v
K = ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
44 41 4 34 31 3 24 21 2 14 11 1
M M K M M K M M K M M K + + +
) ( ) (
64 61 6 54 51 5
M M K K K K + +
2 v
K = ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
45 42 4 36 32 3 25 22 2 15 12 1
) ( ) (
65 62 6 55 52 5
M M K M M K + +
and
3 v
K = ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
46 43 4 36 33 3 26 23 2 16 13 1
) ( ) (
66 63 6 56 53 5
M M K M M K + +
The quant it ies K
1
t o K
6
ar e calculat ed fr om equat ion (7.17).
7.4 EFFECT OF HIGH E.S. FIELD ON HUMANS, ANIMALS, AND PLANTS
In sect ion 7.1, a discussion of elect r ic shock was sket ched. The use of e.h.v. lines is incr easing
da nger of t he high e.s. field t o (a) huma n beings, (b) a n ima ls , (c) pla nt life, (d) vehicles,
(e) fences, and (f) bur ied pipe lines under and near t hese lines. It is clear fr om sect ion 7.2 t hat
when an object is locat ed under or near a line, t he field is dist ur bed, t he degr ee of dist or t ion
depending upon t he size of t he object . It is a mat t er of some diffficult y t o calculat e t he
char act er ist ics of t he dist or t ed field, but measur ement s and exper ience indicat e t hat t he effect
of t he dist or t ed field can be r elat ed t o t he magnit ude of t he undist or t ed field. A case-by-case
st udy must be made if gr eat accur acy is needed t o obser ve t he effect of t he dist or t ed field. The
limit s for t he undist or t ed field will be discussed her e in r elat ion t o t he danger it poses.
(a) Human Beings
The effect of high e.s. field on human beings has been st udied t o a much gr eat er ext ent
t han on any ot her animals or object s because of it s gr ave and shocking effect s which has
r esult ed in loss of life. A far mer ploughing his field by a t r act or and having an umbr ella over his
head for shade will be char ged by cor ona r esult ing fr om point ed spikes. The vehicle is also
char ged when it is st opped under a t r ansmission line t r aver sing his field. When he get s off t he
vehicle and t ouches a gr ounded object , he will dischar ge himself t hr ough his body which is a
pur e r esist ance of about 2000 ohms. The dischar ge cur r ent when mor e t han t he let -go cur r ent
can cause a shock and damage t o br ain.
It has been ascer t ained exper iment ally t hat t he limit for t he undist ur bed field is 15 kV/m,
r .m.s., for human beings t o exper ience possible shock. An e.h.v. or u.h.v. line must be designed
such t hat t his limit is not exceeded. The minimum clear ance of a line is t he most impor t ant
gover ning fact or . As an example, t he B.P.A. of t he U.S.A. have select ed t he maximum e.s. field
gr adient t o be 9 kV/m at 1200 kV for t heir 1150 kV line and in or der t o do so used a minimum
clear ance at midspan of 23.2 m wher eas t hey could have select ed 17.2 m based on clear ance
r equir ed for swit ching-sur ge insulat ion r ecommended by t he Nat ional Elect r ical Safet y Council.
(b) Animals
Exper iment s car r ied out in cages under e.h.v. lines have shown t hat pigeons and hens ar e
affect ed by high e.s. field at about 30 kV/m. They ar e unable t o pick up gr ain because of chat t er ing
of t heir beaks which will affect t heir gr owt h. Ot her animals get a char ge on t heir bodies and
when t hey pr oceed t o a wat er t r ough t o dr ink wat er , a spar k usually jumps fr om t heir nose t o
t he gr ounded pipe or t r ough.
(c) Plant Life
Plant s such as wheat , r ice, sugar cane, et c., suffer t he following t ypes of damage. At a field
st r engt h of 20 kV/m (r .m.s.), t he shar p edges of t he st alk give cor ona dischar ges so t hat damage
occur s t o t he upper por t ion of t he gr ain-bear ing par t s. However , t he ent ir e plant does not
suffer dam age. At 30 kV/m , the by-products of corona, nam ely ozone and N
2
O become int ense.
The r esist ance heat ing due t o incr eased cur r ent pr event s full gr owt h of t he plant and gr ain.
Thus, 20 kV/m can be consider ed as t he limit and again t he safe value for a human being
gover ns line design.
(d) Vehicles
Vehicles par ked under a line or dr iving t hr ough acquir e elect r ost at ic char ge if t heir t yr es
a r e ma de of insula t ing ma t er ia l. If pa r king lot s a r e loca t ed under a line, t he minimum
r ecommended safe clear ance is 17 m for 345 kV and 20 m for 400 kV lines. Tr ucks and lor r ies
will r equir e an ext r a 3 m clear ance. The danger lies in a human being at t empt ing t o open t he
door and get t ing a shock t her eby.
(e) Ot hers
Fences, bur ied cables, and pipe lines ar e impor t ant pieces of equipment t o r equir e car eful
layout . Met allic fences par allel t o a line must be gr ounded pr efer ably ever y 75 m. Pipelines
longer t han 3 km and lar ger t han 15 cm in diamet er ar e r ecommended t o be bur ied at least 30
m lat er ally fr om t he line cent r e t o avoid danger ous eddy cur r ent s t hat could cause cor r osion.
Sail boat s, r ain gut t er s and insulat ed walls of near by houses ar e also subject s of pot ent ial
danger . The danger of ozone emanat ion and har m done t o sensit ive t issues of a human being at
high elect r ic fields can also be included in t he cat egor y of damage t o human beings living near
e.h.v. lines.
7.5 METERS AND MEASUREMENT OF ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
The pr inciple on which a met er for measur ing t he e.s. field of an e.h.v. line is based is ver y
simple. It consist s of t wo conduct ing plat es insulat ed fr om each ot her which will exper ience a
pot ent ial differ ence when placed in t he field. This can be measur ed on a volt met er or an ammet er
t hr ough a cur r ent flow. Ther e exist 3 configur at ions for t he elect r odes in met er s used in pr act ice:
(1) Dipole, (2) Spher ical Dipole, and (3) Par allel Plat es. The dimensions and ot her det ails ar e
given in t he following t abular for m. Also see Fig. 7.11.
F i g. 7.11 Measur ement of E.S. field. (a) Dipole. (b) Spher ical dipole. (c) Par allel plat es.
Ta b le 7.1 Me t e r s for E.S. F i e ld Me a su r e me n t
(1) Electrode S hape Dipole S pherical Dipole Parallel Plates
(2) Major Dimensions Effect ive lengt h, l Radius, r Dist ance, d,
Sur face ar ea, A
(3) Open-circuit Voltage E.l. E.d
(as volt age sour ce)
(4) S hort-circuit Current E we r
0
2
3 AE we
0
(as cur r ent sour ce) ) 3 (
2
0
r e C ) / (
0
d A e C
The for mula for t he spher ical dipole, which consist s of t wo hemispher es insulat ed fr om
each ot her , is ver y accur at e and has been r ecommended as a st andar d. The t wo insulat ed
hemispher es ar e connect ed by a micr o-ammet er whose scale is calibr at ed in t er ms of kV/m of
t he elect r ic field. On t he ot her hand, t he par allel plat e met er is ver y easy t o fabr icat e. A small
digit al volt met er can be used by at t aching a copper -clad pr int ed-cir cuit boar d wit h it s insulat ed
side placed on t op of t he casing. The input t o t he met er is t aken fr om t he t op copper -clad side
and t he casing.
The pr ocedur e for measur ement consist s of at t aching t he met er t o a long (2 m) insulat ed
r od and placing it in t he field at t he desir ed height . The inser t ion of t he met er and r od as well
as t he human-body should not dist or t t he field.
The met er s must be fir st calibr at ed in a high volt age labor at or y. One pr ocedur e is t o
suspend t wo hor izont al plane par allel elect r odes wit h const ant separ at ion. A suggest ed t ype is
6 m 6 m wir e mesh elect r odes separ at ed by 1 m. These will be accur at e t o wit hin 5%. The
met er is placed in t he cent r e of t his par allel-plat e ar r angement and a known volt age is gr adually
applied unt il about 100 kV/m is r eached. The following applicat ion r ules may be followed:
1. The inst r ument should be capable of measur ing at least t he ver t ical component of
elect r ic field. Up t o a height of 3 or 4 m above gr ound, t he hor izont al component is
ver y small and t he t ot al 50 Hz field is near ly t he same as it s ver t ical component .
A
r
(b)
SPHERICAL DIPOLE
A
d
(c)
PARALLEL PLATES
(a)
DIPOLE
l
2. If t he inst r ument is not held in hand, it should be mount ed at about 2 m above
gr ound.
3. It should be bat t er y power ed in case a power supply for t he elect r onic cir cuit r y is
necessar y.
4. The r .m.s. value is pr efer ably measur ed by a full-wave r ect ifier cir cuit and suit ably
calibr at ed.
5. Analogue indicat ion may be pr efer able t o digit al r epr esent at ion as it dist ur bs t he
field.
6. The inst r ument may have full-scale r eadings of 3, 10, 30, and 100 kV/m or ot her
suit able r anges for legible r eading.
7. It should be designed for out door use and por t able. A pole at least 2 m long must go
wit h t he inst r ument if hand-held.
7.6 ELECTROSTATIC INDUCTION ON UNENERGIZED CIRCUIT OF A D/C
LINE
We shall end t his chapt er wit h some discussion of elect r ost at ic and elect r omagnet ic induct ion
fr om ener gized lines int o ot her cir cuit s. This is a ver y specialized t opic useful for line cr ew,
t elephone line int er fer ence et c. and cannot be discussed at ver y gr eat lengt h. EHV lines must
be pr ovided wit h wide enough r ight -of-way so t hat ot her low-volt age lines ar e locat ed far enough,
or when t hey cr oss t he cr ossing must be at r ight angles.
Consider Fig. 7.12 in which a double-cir cuit line configur at ion is shown wit h 3 conduct or s
en er gized by a t h r ee-ph a s e s ys t em of volt a ges ) 120 sin( , sin
2 1
wt V V wt V V
m m
a n d
V
3
). 120 ( sin + wt V
m
The ot her cir cuit consist ing of conduct or s 4, 5 and 6 is not ener gized.
We will calculat e t he volt age on t hese conduct or s due t o elect r ost at ic induct ion which a line-
man may exper ience. Now,
4
V =
) / ( ln
2
) / ( ln
2
) / ( ln
2
34 34
0
3
24 24
0
2
14 14
0
1
A I
e
q
A I
e
q
A I
e
q
...(7.37)
= 34
0
3
24
0
2
14
0
1
2 2 2
P
e
q
P
e
q
P
e
q
F i g. 7.12 D/C line: One line ener gized and t he ot her unener gized t o illust r at e induct ion.
1
2
3 6
5
4
V wt m sin
V wt
m
sin ( 120)
V wt m sin ( + 120)
V4
V5
V6
The char ge coefficient s
3 2 1
, , q q q ar e obt ained fr om t he applied volt ages.
) 2 / 1 ]( ][ [ ) 2 / 1 (
, ,
, ,
, ,
0 0
3
2
1
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
3
2
1
e q P e
q
q
q
P P P
P P P
P P P
V
V
V

]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
...(7.38)
so t hat ] ][ [ ] 2 / [
0
V M e q ...(7.39)
4
V = )] 120 ( sin ) 120 ( sin sin [ .
13 12 11 14
+ + + wt M wt M wt M P V
m
)] 120 ( sin ) 120 ( sin sin [
23 22 21 24
+ + + + wt M wt M wt M P V
m
)] 120 ( sin ) 120 ( sin sin [
33 32 31 34
+ + + + wt M wt M wt M P V
m
= wt M P M P M P V
m
sin ) [(
31 34 21 24 11 14
+ +
) 120 ( sin ) (
32 34 22 24 12 14
+ + + wt M P M P M P
)] 120 ( sin ) (
33 34 23 24 13 14
+ + + + wt M P M P M P
= )] 120 ( sin ) 120 ( sin sin [
3 2 1
+ + + wt wt wt V
m
...(7.40)
In phasor for m,
4
V = r .m.s. ], 120 120 0 [
3 2 1
+ + V ...(7.41)
4
V =
2 / 1
1 3 3 2 2 1
2
3
2
2
2
1
) ( + + V ...(7.42)
Similar ly,
5
V =
2 / 1
4 6 6 5 5 4
2
6
2
5
2
4
) ( + + V ...(7.43)
and
6
V =
2 / 1
7 9 9 8 8 7
2
9
2
8
2
7
) ( + + V ...(7.44)

'
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
33 36 23 26 13 16 9
32 36 22 26 12 16 8
31 36 21 26 11 16 7
33 35 23 25 13 15 6
32 35 22 25 12 15 5
31 35 21 25 11 15 4
33 34 23 24 13 14 3
32 34 22 24 12 14 2
31 34 21 24 11 14 1
M P M P M P
M P M P M P
M P M P M P
M P M P M P
M P M P M P
M P M P M P
M P M P M P
M P M P M P
M P M P M P
...(7.45)
wher e
and
Exa mp le 7.3. A 230-kV D/C line has t he dimensions shown in Figur e 7.13. The phase
conduct or is a single Dr ake 1.108 inch (0.028 m) diamet er . Calulat e t he volt ages induced in
conduct or s of cir cuit 2 when cir cuit 1 is ener gized assuming (a) no t r ansposit ion, and (b) full
t r ansposit ion.
Fig. 7.13 D/C 230-kV line dimensions.
Sol u t i on . The Maxwell's Pot ent ial coefficient s for t he ener gized cir cuit ar e as follows:
P
11
= ln (36/0.014) = 7.852, P
22
= ln (28/0.014) = 7.6,
P
33
= ln (20/0.014) = 7.264
P
12
= ln (32.02/4.19) = 2.0335, P
13
= ln (28/8) =1.253,
P
23
= ln (24.03/4.19) = 1.747.
[P]
u
= ;
264 . 7 , 747 . 1 , 253 . 1
747 . 1 , 6 . 7 , 0335 . 2
, 253 . 1 , 0335 . 2 , 852 . 7
]
]
]
]
]
[M]
ut
=
]
]
]
]
]
14755 . , 0297 . , 0159 .

0297 . , 1474 . , 0334 .
0159 . , 0334 . , 1385 . 0
] [
1
ut
P
P
14
= ln (36.77/7.5) =1.59, P
24
= ln (33.175/9.62) = 1.238,
P
34
= ln (29/10.97) = 0.972
P
15
= P
24
= 1.238, P
25
= ln (29.73/10) = 1.09,
P
35
= ln (25.55/9.62) = 0.9765
P
16
= P
34
= 0.972, P
26
= P
35
= 0.9765,
P
36
= ln(21.36/7.5) = 1.0466.
These values give, fr om equat ions (7.42) t o (7.45), wit h , 3 / 230 V
1
= 0.1634,
2
= 0.1005,
3
= 0.0813, V
4
= 9.76 kV.
4
= 0.1196,
5
= 0.09035,
6
= 0.092, V
5
= 3.9 kV.
7
= 0.0854,
8
= 0.0804,
9
= 0.11, V
6
= 3.65 kV.
For t he complet ely t r ansposed line, t he induced volt age is t he aver age of t hese t hr ee
volt ages which amount s t o . kV 77 . 5 ) 65 . 3 9 . 3 76 . 9 (
3
1
+ +
1
2
3 6
5
4
7.5
10
10
7.5
4
4
7.7 INDUCED VOLTAGE IN INSULATED GROUND WIRES
Nor mally, in all high volt age and e.h.v. lines which use over head gr ound wir es for light ning
pr ot ect ion, it is usual t o t ie t hem fir mly t o t he t ower t op so t hat t hey ar e gr ounded dir ect ly and
ar e at gr ound pot ent ial which is consider ed as zer o. Consequent ly, only t he phase conduct or s
exper ience a volt age wit h r espect t o gr ound. However , in r ecent year s, t he shield wir es st r ung
above t he phase conduct or s ar e being insulat ed fr om t he t ower st r uct ur e in or der t o ut ilize
t hem for t he following pur poses:
(a) To ser ve as conduct ing wir es for car r ier communicat ion and pr ot ect ion. This is also
being t aken over by fibr e-opt ic links.
(b) To t a p power a t power fr equency a t a volt a ge lower t ha n t he power -fr equency
t r ansmission volt age in or der t o feed r ur al loads along t he line r out e.
In or der also t o ser ve t he pr imar y pur pose of shielding against light ning, t he insulat or s
on which t he "gr ound" wir es ar e mount ed should be pr ovided wit h a spar k gap which flashes
over at t he high light ning volt age. We will now discuss t his pr oblem of induced volt age on
insulat ed gr ound wir es due t o t he power -fr equency volt age car r ied by t he phase conduct or s,
assuming t hat t he volt ages of t he shield wir es ar e float ing. The shield wir es ar e made fr om
ACSR inst ead of galvanized st eel in or der t o r educe bot h t he ser ies r esist ance and induct ance.
At fir st , t he bundle char ge on t he t hr ee phase conduct or s (for a S/C line) ar e calculat ed at
power fr equency in t he usual manner fr om equat ion (7.4) or (7.38). Then, by using equat ions
(7.37) t o (7.42) and designat ing t he insulat ed shield wir es as 4,5,..., t he volt age induced in t hem
can be calculat ed. For example, in a 400-kV line wit h t wo insulat ed shield wir es, calculat ion
yields an induced volt age of about 8.6% of t he line-t o-gr ound volt age of t he phase condut or s
which amount s t o r oughly 21 kV, r .m.s., at 420 kV exccit at ion of t he t hr ee phases, or about 20
kV for 400 kV. This is shown in t he following example.
Exa mp l e 7.4. A 400-kV hor izont al configur at ion S/C line of t he UPSEB t ype has t he
det ails given in Example 4.16 in Chapt er 4. The salient dimensions ar e as follows:
P h a s e con d u ct or s : Aver age height 9.81 met r es;
Phase spacings 11.3 met r es;
Conduct or 2 3.18 cm diamet er at bundle
spacing of 45.72 cm.
Gr ou n d wi r e s : Height above gr ound 20.875 met r es. Neglect sag.
Hor izont al spacing 16 met r es. Two number s.
Calculat e t he volt age induced in t he insulat ed gr ound wir es as a per cent age of power -
fr equency volt age of t he phase conduct or s using t he line-t o-gr ound value.
So l u t i o n . The equiva lent bundle r a dius is . m 0815 . 0 ) . (
2 / 1
B r r
eq
The Ma xwell' s
Pot ent ial Coefficient s ar e as follows:
Self P
11
= P
22
= P
33
= ln (2 9.81/0.0815) = 5.44;
Mut ualOut er t o inner : P
12
= P
23
= 0.695;
Out er t o out er : P
13
= 0.285.
By inver t ing mat r ix [P] and evaluat ing t he char ge coefficient s, t her e r esult for t he phase
conduct or s, wit h V = phase-t o-gr ound volt age,
0 1
2 / e q =

120 10 9 . 6 120 10 23 0 10 187
3 3 3
V V V
0 2
2 / e q = +

120 10 23 120 10 7 . 189 0 10 23
3 3 3
V V V
0 3
2 / e q = +

120 10 187 120 10 23 0 10 9 . 6
3 3 3
V V V
Since t he gr ound wir es insulat ed fr om t he t ower ar e locat ed symmet r ically wit h r espect
t o t he phase conduct or s, t he volt ages induced in bot h will be equal. Designat ing any one of
t hem as No. 4, t he mut al pot ent ial coefficient s bet ween t his wir e and t he t hr ee phase conduct or s
ar e calculat ed as follows:
I ma ge d i s t a n ce s : Ae r i a l d i s t a n ce s :
I
14
=
2 / 1 2 2
] 3 . 3 ) 81 . 9 875 . 20 [( + +
A
14
=
. 5466 . 11 ] 065 . 11 3 . 3 [
2 / 1 2 2
+
= 30.864 met r es;
I
24
= ; m 71 . 31 ] 8 685 . 30 [
2 / 1 2 2
+ A
24
=
; 654 . 13 ] 065 . 11 8 [
2 / 1 2 2
+
I
34
= ; m 25 . 36 ] 3 . 19 685 . 30 [
2 / 1 2 2
+ A
34
= . m 247 . 22 ] 065 . 11 3 . 19 [
2 / 1 2 2
+
P
14
= . 4822 . 0 : 8426 . 0 ; 9832 . 0 ) 5466 . 11 / 864 . 30 ( ln
34 24
P P
Then, V
4
=
34 0 3 24 0 2 14 0 1
). 2 / ( ). 2 / ( ). 2 / ( P e q P e q P e q + +
= V ] 120 065 . 0 120 126 . 0 0 1638 . 0 [ + +
V
4
/V =
126 . 0 1638 . 0 065 . 0 126 . 0 1638 . 0 (
2 2 2
+ +
2 / 1
) 1638 . 0 065 . 0 065 . 0 126 . 0
=
%. 634 . 8 08634 . 0 ) 039476 . 0 046931 . 0 (
2 / 1

At V = 420 kV, line-t o-line = , kV 3 / 420 line-t o-gr ound,
V
4
= 0.08634 242.49 = 20.94 kV t o gr ound 21 kV, r .m.s.
At 400 kV, V
4
= 20 kV t o gr ound
The insulat or suppor t ing t he over head shield wir es must be r at ed for t his volt age class.
7.8 MAGNETIC FIELD EFFECTS
An over head line gener at es an elect r ost at ic field in it s vicinit y because of t he volt age at which
it is ener gized and t he char ge in it s conduct or s t r apped in it s capacit ance net wor k. In addit ion,
t he line gener at es a magnet ic field in it s vicinit y due t o t he load cur r ent flowing in t he conduct or s.
The int ensit y of t he magnet ic field is pr opor t ional t o t he cur r ent s so t hat it var ies wit h t he load
condit ion. However , in e.h.v. lines, t he load fact or seldom if ever is lower t han 75% so t hat t he
load cur r ent st ays above 75% r at ed value most of t he t ime. In calculat ing t he magnet ic field, we
will assume t hat t he cur r ent flowing is t he r at ed full-load cur r ent . The following Table gives
t he values of r at ed cur r ent for e.h.v. lines based upon t he det ails of Table 2 in Chapt er II.
Nominal kV Reactance Length Load, MW 3ph Cond. Current, Amps.
400 0.327 400 km 612 883
ohm/km 600 408 588
a t 50 Hz 800 306 441
500 0.3 400 1040 1200
600 695 800
800 520 600
750 0.272 600 1720 1327
800 1290 995
1000 1032 796
These values ar e based on t he following assumpt ions:
(a) Equal volt age magnit udes at bot h ends;
(b) Power angle of 30 based on st abilit y consider at ions;
(c) ; ); . /( sin
3
E E E x L E E P
r s r s ph

(d) I = . 3 / 3 / sin
3
E P Lx E
ph

7.9 MAGNETIC FIELD OF 3-PHASE LINES
7.9.1 Single Circuit Horizontal Configuration
Most e.h.v. t r a nsmission lines consist of one 3-pha se cir cuit on a t ower wit h hor izont a l
configur at ion of t he 3 phases. In Chapt er 3, we have discussed t he met hod of calculat ion of t he
induct ance mat r ix of a mult i-conduct or line fr om t he Maxwell Pot ent ial Coefficient mat r ix.
Based on Maxwell's met hod of images, we will now calculat e t he magnet ic field gener at ed at
any point in space in t he vicinit y of t he 3-phase line. In most applicat ions, t he field int ensit y at
gr ound level is t he most impor t ant quant it y. But t he equat ions der ived will be ver y gener al.
Fig. 7.14 F i g. 7.15
Figur e 7.14 shows t he 3 over head conduct or s and t he gr ound sur face r eplaced by image
conduct or s below t he gr ound sur face. This assumes t hat t he gr ound sur face is a flux line. The
or igin of a coor dinat e syst em is placed on t he gr ound under neat h t he cent r e-phase. The
conduct or s ar e at height h above gr ound and t he phase separ at ion is s.
At t he point P (x, y), t he component s of magnet ic field ar e as follows:
(a) Due t o t he conduct or cur r ent , fr om Fig. 7.15:
H
c
= , 2 /
c
D I ...(7.46)
wher e D
c
=
2 2
) ( ) ( h y s x +
...(7.47)
Assume t he dir ect ion of I
c
t o be out of t he paper . Then t he dir ect ion of H-field is count er -
clockwise at P as shown. It s hor izont al and ver t ical component s ar e :
(i) Hor . comp. :
2 2
) ( ) (
2
1
2
cos
h y s x
h y I
D
h y
D
I
H
c c
c
c c
+
...(7.48)
a b c
s
y
x
I
a
Ia Ib Ic
Ib Ic
h
h
s
I
i
= I
c
c
i
Dc
Di
I + c
H
c
Hi
y
x
Px y ( , )
(ii) Ver t . comp.:
2 2
) ( ) (
2
1
2
sin
h y s x
s x I
D
s x
D
I
H
c c
c
c c
+
...(7.49)
(b) Due t o t he image cur r ent :
H
i
=
2 2
) ( ) ( wher e ,
1
2
h y s x D
D
I
i
i
c
+ +
...(7.50)
This is dir ect ed in t he clockwise sense as shown in Figur e 7.15, since t he cur r ent in t he
image conduct or is assumed t o flow int o t he paper , opposit e t o t he dir ect ion of cur r ent in t he
act ual over head conduct or . The hor izont al and ver t ical component s of t his magnet ic field will
be:
(iii) Hor . comp.:
2 2
) ( ) (
2
1
2
cos
h y s x
h y I
D
h y
D
I
H
c
i i
c
i i
+ +
+
...(7.51)
(iv) Ver t . comp.:
2 2
) ( ) (
2
1
2
sin
h y s x
s x I
D
s x
D
I
H
c
i i
c
i i
+ +
...(7.52)
Fr om t he figur e we obser ve t hat t he hor izont al and ver t ical component s of H
c
ar e dir ect ed
in t he opposit e sense t o t hose due t o H
i
. Ther efor e, t he t ot al hor izont al and ver t ical component s
of t he H-field at point P(x, y) due t o t he conduct or cur r ent I
c
and image cur r ent
I
i
= I
c
will be r eadily seen t o be:
H
h
=
]
]
]
+ +
+ +
+
+
2 2 2 2
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( 2
cos cos
h y s x
h y
h y s x
h y I
H H
c
i i c c
Amp/met r e. ...(7.53)
H
v
=
]
]
]
+ +
+
2 2 2 2
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( 2
sin sin
h y s x
s x
h y s x
s x I
H H
c
i i c c
Amp/met r e. ...(7.54)
The cor r esponding flux densit ies ar e:
B
h
= , , and ,
0 0
Tesla H B H
v v h
...(7.55)
wher e
0
=
7
10 4

Henr y/met r e.
Following t he above pr ocedur e, we can ext end t he equat ions t o calculat e t he magnet ic
field at P(x, y) due t o t he combined effect of all 3 conduct or -cur r ent s. Let t he t hr ee cur r ent s be:
I
a
= Amps. 120 and , 120 , 0 + I I I I I
c b
Then: H
ht
= ]
]
]
+ +
+ + +
+
2 2 2 2
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( 2 h y s x
h y
h y s x
h y I
a
]
]
]
+ +
+
+
2 2 2 2
) ( ) ( 2 h y x
h y
h y x
h y I
b
]
]
]
+ +
+
+
2 2 2 2
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( 2 h y s x
h y
h y s x
h y I
c
, Amp/met r e. ...(7.56)
H
vt
= ]
]
]
+ + +
+
+ +
+
2 2 2 2
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( 2 h y s x
s x
h y s x
s x I
a
]
]
]
+ +
+
+
2 2 2 2
) ( ) ( 2 h y x
x
h y x
x I
b
]
]
]
+ +
+
2 2 2 2
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( 2 h y s x
s x
h y s x
s x I
c
, Amp/met r e. ...(7.57)
In par t icular , on t he gr ound sur face wher e animals and human beings live, t he magnet ic-
field component s at a dist ance x fr om t he line cent r e will be, wit h y = 0:
H
ht
=
2 2 2 2 2 2
) (
2
2
2
2
) (
2
2
h s x
h I
h x
h I
h s x
h I
c b a
+
+
+
+
+ +
...(7.58)
H
vt
=
. 0 0
2
0
2 ) ( ) ( 2
2 2 2 2

+
]
]
]
+ +
+
+ +
+
c b a
I I
h s x
s x
h s x
s x I
...(7.59)
Since we have assumed t he gr ound sur face t o be a flux line, t he ver t ical component of H
due t o any phase-cur r ent is zer o, and t he magnet ic field at t he gr ound sur face is ent ir ely in t he
hor izont al dir ect ion.
Ma gn i t u d e s of H
ht
a n d H
vt
. In equat ions (7.56) and (7.57), t he t hr ee phase-cur r ent s I
a
, I
b
and I
c
ar e phasor s wit h gener ally equal magnit udes I and having a phase differ ence of 120 wit h
r espect t o each ot her . They can be wr it t en as:
I
a
= and ); 866 . 0 5 . 0 ( 120 ); 0 1 ( 0 j I I I j I I
b
+
I
c
= ). 866 . 0 5 . 0 ( 120 j I I + +
It is convenient t o abbr eviat e t he six geomet r ic fact or s fr om equat ions (7.56) and (7.57),
t hus:
Hor i zon t a l comp on e n t s :
K
a
=
2 2 2 2
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( h y s x
h y
h y s x
h y
+ +
+ + +
+
...(7.60)
K
b
=
2 2 2 2
) ( ) ( h y x
h y
h y x
h y
+
+ +
+
...(7.61)
K
c
=
2 2 2 2
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( h y s x
h y
h y s x
h y
+
+ +
+
...(7.62)
Ve r t i ca l comp on e n t s :
J
a
=
2 2 2 2
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( h y s x
s x
h y s x
s x
+ + +
+
+ +
+
...(7.63)
J
b
=
2 2 2 2
) ( ) ( h y x
x
h y x
x
+ +
+
...(7.64)
J
c
=
2 2 2 2
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( h y s x
s x
h y s x
s x
+ +
...(7.65)
Then, equat ions (7.56) and (7.57) may be wr it t en in phasor for ms as follows:
H
ht
=
[ ] ) 866 . 0 5 . 0 ( ) 866 . 0 5 . 0 (
2
j K j K K
I
c b a
+ + +
= { [ ] ) ( 866 . 0 ) ( 5 . 0
2
b c c b a
K K j K K K
I
+ +
...(7.66)
The magnit ude
ht
H will t hen be obt ained as:
ht
H =
{ [ ]
2 / 1
2 2
) ( 75 . 0 ) ( 5 . 0
2
b c c b a
K K K K K
I
+ +
=
, ) (
2
2 / 1 2 2 2
a c c b b a c b a
K K K K K K K K K
I
+ +
Amp/met r e ...(7.67)
Similar ly, t he magnit ude
vt
H will be:
vt
H =
, ) (
2
2 / 1 2 2 2
a c c b b a c b a
J J J J J J J J J
I
+ +
Amp/met r e ...(7.68)
The cor r esponding values of flux densit y will be:
ht
B = . Tesla , and
0 0 vt vt ht
H B H ...(7.69)
Exa mp l e 7.5 The det ails of a hor izont al 750-kV line ar e as follows:
Vol t a ge : 750 kV, line-t o-line; Loa d : 1900 MW, 3-phase.
Cu r r e n t : 1.4626 kilo Amps in each phase.
Li n e h e i gh t : 18 met r es; P h a s e s p a ci n g: 15 m.
Calculat e and plot t he B-field int ensit y at gr ound level fr om t he
Line cent r e (x/h = 0) t o a dist ance of x/h = 10.
Sol u t i on . Figur e 7.16 shows t he r esult . Not e t hat t he scale is expanded for x/h = 6 t o 10
because of t he low values of flux densit y. The figur e is symmet r ical about t he line cent r e and
only one half is shown. The maximum value of flux densit y of 215 milli Gauss (0.215 Gauss =
21.5
Tesla) occur s at x/h = 1.1.

Fig. 7.16
6 7 8 9 10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
x h /
x h / =
0 to 6
x h / = 6 10
1
2
3
4
5
0
50
100
150
200
250 mG mG
7.9.2 Double-Circuit Vertical Configuration of 3-Phase Line
Figur e 7.17 shows a double-cir cuit (D/C) 3-phase t r ansmission line wit h a height t o t he middle
phase of h. In t his figur e, t he 6 conduct or s ar e shown as dist r ibut ed unifor mly on a cir cle of
r adius R. This may not always be t he case in pr act ice, but it is not difficult t o use t he act ual
disposit on of conduct or s in a ny given ca se for eva lua t ing t he ma gnet ic field. The pha se
configur at ions can be of t wo t ypes: (i) abc - cba, and (ii) abc - abc. Of t he t wo t he for mer is mor e
comonly encount er ed. It is left as an exer cise at t he end of t he chapt er for t he r eader t o
evaluat e t he magnet ic field for t he lat t er case of abc - abc. Each has it s own advant ages and
disadvant ages, especially on what is known as "low-r eact ance" configur at ion. The lower t he
line r eact ance, t he lar ger will be t he power car r ied by t he line. But we will not ent er int o a
discussion of t his t opic her e.
Fig. 7.17
Using Figur e 7.17 for t he geomet r y of t he phase-conduct or s and phase-configur at ion abc -
cba, we now wr it e down t he magnet ic-field component s at a point P (x, y) in a manner similar
t o t he single-cir cuit hor izont al line of Figs. 7.14 and 7.15.
Wit h t he or igin placed on gr ound sur face under neat h t he line cent r e and t he posit ions of
t he phase-conduct or s shown as 1 t o 6, t he coor dinat es of t he 6 conduct or s will be as follows:
Conductor 1: x
1
= ,
2
1
R y
1
=

,
2
3
R h + Cur r ent = I
a
;
Conduct or 2: x
2
= R, y
2
=

h, Cur r ent = I
b
;
Conduct or 3: x
3
= ,
2
1
R y
3
=

,
2
3
R h Cur r ent = I
c
; ...(7.70)
Conduct or 4: x
4
= ,
2
1
R y
4
=

,
2
3
R h Cur r ent = I
a
;
Conduct or 5: x
5
= R, y
5
=

h, Cur r ent = I
b
;
Conduct or 6: x
6
= ,
2
1
R y
6
=

,
2
3
R h + Cur r ent = I
c
;
Refer r ing t o Fig. 7.18 and following ear lier analysis, we can wr it e down t he values of
hor izont al and ver t ical component s of H-field due t o t he cur r ent I
n
in conduct or n and it s image
1
2
6
3 4
5
a
b
c a
b
c
R
x
6 m
y
15 m h
cur r ent I
n
. The values of n r ange fr om 1 t o 6 for t he indicat ed posit ions of t he phase conduct or s.
Conduct or n has t he coor dinat es ). , (
n n
y x C
Fig. 7.18
Magnet ic Fields: See Fig. 7.18.
Due t o t he conduct or cur r ent , H
c
=
c
n
D
I 1
2
...(7.71)
wher e
2
c
D = . ) ( ) (
2 2
n n
y y x x + ...(7.72)
It s hor izont al component is
c c
H sin = 2
2
c
n n
D
y y I
...(7.73)
The ver t ical component is +
c c
H cos = 2
2
c
n n
D
x x I
...(7.74)
Due t o t he image cur r ent , H
i
=
i
n
D
I 1
2
...(7.75)
wher e
2
i
D = . ) ( ) (
2 2
n n
y y x x + + ...(7.76)
It s hor izont al component is
i i
H + cos = 2
2
i
n n
D
y y I +
...(7.77)
The ver t ical component is
i i
H sin =
2
2
i
n n
D
x x I
...(7.78)
The t ot al hor izont al component will be:
h
H =
]
]
]
]
2 2
2
c
n
i
n n
D
y y
D
y y I
...(7.79)
H
c
Hi
i
Di
In
In
yn
y
n
ycn
D
c
c
(xn,yn)
P x y ( , )
x
and t ot al ver t ical component is
v
H =
]
]
]
]
2 2
2
i
n
c
n n
D
x x
D
x x I
...(7.80)
Combining t he effect of all 6 conduct or s, we can wr it e down:
H
ht
=
+ +
+
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2
y y x x
y y
x x y y
y y I
a
]
]
]
]
+
+ +
+
+
2
4
2
4
4
2
4
2
4
4
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( y y x x
y y
x x y y
y y
+
( )
+ +
+
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
) ( ) ( ) (
2
y y x x
y y
y y x x
y y I
b
]
]
]
]
+
+ +
+
+
2
5
2
5
5
2
5
2
5
5
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( y y x x
y y
y y x x
y y
+
+ +
+
2
3
2
3
3
2
3
2
3
3
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2
y y x x
y y
y y x x
y y I
c
]
]
]
]
+
+ +
+
+
2
6
2
6
6
2
6
2
6
6
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( y y x x
y y
y y x x
y y
...(7.81)
=
) (
2
) (
2
) (
2
6 3 5 2 4 1
K K
I
K K
I
K K
I
c b a
+
+ +
+ +
...(7.82)
=
.
2 2 2
c
c
b
b
a
a
K
I
K
I
K
I
...(7.83)
ht
H =
2 / 1 2 2 2
) (
2
a c c b b a c b a
K K K K K K K K K
I
+ +
...(7.84)
Similar ly, t he t ot al ver t ical component of t he H-field will be:
vt
H =
+ +
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2
y y x x
x x
y y x x
x x I
a
]
]
]
]
+ +
+
2
4
2
4
4
2
4
2
4
4
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( y y x x
x x
y y x x
x x
+
+ +
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2
y y x x
x x
y y x x
x x I
b
]
]
]
]
+ +
+
2
5
2
5
5
2
5
2
5
5
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( y y x x
x x
y y x x
x x
+
+ +
2
3
2
3
3
2
3
2
3
3
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2
y y x x
x x
y y x x
x x I
c
]
]
]
]
+ +
+
2
6
2
6
6
2
6
2
6
6
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( y y x x
x x
y y x x
x x
...(7.85)
=
) (
2
) (
2
) (
2
6 3 5 2 4 1
J J
I
J J
I
J J
I
c b a
+
+ +
+ +
...(7.86)
= c
c
b
b
a
a
J
I
J
I
J
I
+
2 2 2
...(7.87)
vt
H =
2 / 1 2 2 2
) (
2
a c c b b a c b a
J J J J J J J J J
I
+ +
...(7.88)
Gr ound-level Field: Y = 0. D
c
= D
i
.
For t his case, equat ions (7.81) and (7.85) ar e as follows:
K
a
= 2
4
2
4
4
2
1
2
1
1
) (
2
) (
2
y x x
y
y x x
y
+
+
+
...(7.89)
K
b
= 2
5
2
5
5
2
2
2
2
2
) (
2
) (
2
y x x
y
y x x
y
+
+
+
...(7.90)
K
c
= 2
6
2
6
6
2
3
2
3
3
) (
2
) (
2
y x x
y
y x x
y
+
+
+
...(7.91)
J
a
= . befor e as 0 . 0
vt c b
H J J
We not ice t hat K
a
, K
b
, K
c
as well as J
a
, J
b
, J
c
in equat ions (7.82), (7.83), (7.86) and (7.87)
have been wr it t en as t he sum of t wo t er ms:
K
a
= ; , ,
6 3 5 2 4 1
K K K K K K K K
c b
+ + + ...(7.92)
J
a
= . , ,
6 3 5 2 4 1
J J J J J J J J
c b
+ + + ...(7.93)
One advant age in wr it ing like t his is t hat lat er on when we evaluat e t he magnet ic field of
a 6-phase line, t her e will be 6 conduct or s. Their cur r ent s will be diplaced by 60 and it will
pr ove easy t o evaluat e t he r esult ing field. The values of x
1
t o x
6
and y
1
t o y
6
ar e given in
equat ion (7.70).
Exa mp le 7.6. Figur e 7.17 shows t he det ails of a D/C 3-phase line. The line height t o t he
middle phases is 15 met r es while t he 6 conduct or s ar e dist r ibut ed unifor mly on a cir cle of
r adius 6 m. The t ot al 3-phase load is 240 MW at 230 kV, line-t o-line, giving a cur r ent of 300
Amps in each conduct or .
Calculat e and plot t he magnit ude of flux densit y near t he line along t he gr ound sur face
only, as t he dist ance fr om line cent r e is var ied fr om x = 0 t o x = 5 h = 75 met r es.
Sol u t i on . At gr ound level,
vt
H =
vt
B = 0. Only t he hor izont al component sur vives.
The values of x
1
t o x
6
and y
1
t o y
6
ar e given in equat ions (7.70), wher e h = 15 m and R = 6 m.
Figur e 7.19 Shows t he r esult s of comput at ion of t he gr ound-level flux densit y. It has a
maximum (r .m.s.) value of B = 40 mG at x/h = 0.4 and decr eases or at t enuat es r apidly t o near ly
zer o at x/h = 4, or , x = 60 m fr om line cent r e.
Fig. 7.19
7.10 MAGNETIC FIELD OF A 6-PHASE LINE
In Fig. 7.17, let it be assumed t hat t he cur r ent s in conduct or s 1 t o 6 ar e as follows:
I
1
= ), 866 . 0 5 . 0 ( 60 , 0
2
j I I I I
I
3
= , 180 ), 866 . 0 5 . 0 ( 120
1 4
I I I I j I I
I
5
= , ) 866 . 0 5 . 0 ( 240
2
I j I I + ...(7.94)
I
6
= . ) 866 . 0 5 . 0 ( 60 300
3
I j I I I +
Then, it is easy t o obser ve t hat
ht
H = 6
6
5
5
4
4
3
3
2
2
1
1
2 2 2 2 2 2
K
I
K
I
K
I
K
I
K
I
K
I
...(7.95)
=
[
4 3 2 1
) 866 . 0 5 . 0 ( ) 866 . 0 5 . 0 (
2
K j K j K K
I
+ +
] ) 866 . 0 5 . 0 ( ) 866 . 0 5 . 0 (
6 5
j K j K + + + + ...(7.96)
=
[ ] ) ( 866 . 0 )} ( 5 . 0 {
2
6 5 3 2 6 5 3 2 4 1
K K K K j K K K K K K
I
+ + + + +
...(7.97)
The magnit ude of t he hor izont al component is
ht
H =
{ [
2
6 5 3 2 4 1
) ( 5 . 0
2
K K K K K K
I
+ +
] , ) ( 75 . 0
2 / 1
2
6 5 3 2
K K K K + +
Amp/met r e. ...(7.98)
The values of K
1
t o K
6
can be obt ained fr om equat ion (7.81).
Similar ly, t he magnit ude of t he ver t ical component of magnet ic field is:
vt
H =
{ [
2
6 5 3 2 4 1
) ( 5 . 0
2
J J J J J J
I
+ +
] , ) ( 75 . 0
2 / 1
2
6 5 3 2
J J J J + +
Amp/met r e ...(7.99)
0 1 2 3 4
x h /
mG
50
0
wher e t he values of J
1
t o J
6
ar e obt ained fr om equat ion (7.85).
The cor r esponding flux densit ies ar e:
ht
B = , and ,
0 0 vt vt ht
H B H Tesla. ...(7.100)
Exa mp le 7.7. Assume t hat a 138-kV 6-phase line wit h conduct or -conduct or volt age (and
conduct or -t ower ) volt age being equal t o 138 kV. The conduct or s occupy t he same posit ions as
for t he 3-phase D/C line consider ed in Example 7.6 ear lier . The load is also near ly equal and t he
conduct or -cur r ent is 300 Amper es.
Calculat e and plot t he hor izont al component of
ht
B at gr ound level only.
Fig. 7.20
Sol u t i on . Figur e 7.20 shows t he r esult of calculat ing
ht
B fr om equat ion (7.98) and (7.100)
at gr ound level, y = 0.
We obser ve t hat t he maximum value of
ht
B at gr ound level is 92 mG which is higher
t han for an equivalent 3-phase D/C line shown in Fig. 7.19.
7.11 EFFECT OF POWER-FREQUENCY MAGNETIC FIELDS ON HUMAN
HEALTH
Magnet ic fields ar e basically ener gy r eser voir s wit h an ener gy densit y of e = , / J oules , 2 /
3
0
2
m B
wher e B is in Tesla and
7
0
10 4

Henr y/met r e. This ener gy is known t o influence t issues
in t he human body in ever yday act ivit ies. Some of t he effect s ar e known t o be beneficial such as
being used medically for healing br oken bones, but most ar e har mful and pose healt h hazar ds
among which have been count ed cancer of many t ypes. These cancer s ar e: leukemia or blood
cancer , lymphoma which weakens t he immune syst em of t he body t o cancer ous condit ions,
ner vous disor der s leading t o br ain damage such as alt zheimer disease, br east cancer in bot h
female and male species, and sever al ot her danger ous condit ions t oo numer ous t o enumer at e
100
50
0
mG
0 1 2 3 4 5
x h /
her e. The magnet ic r adiat ion at low fr equency emanat ing fr om Video Display Ter minals such
as ar e used by secr et ar ies in banks, offices and so on is suspect ed t o cause not only skin r ash,
eye pr oblems, t issue cancer but mor e impor t ant ly ar e known t o give r ise t o spont aneous abor t ions
in pr egnant women oper at or s t her eby for cing an end t o pr egnancy. The st udy of healt h hazar ds
associat ed wit h power -fr equency (50 and 60 Hz) magnet ic fields has gained wor ld-wide impor t ance
in medical, biological, physics and engineer ing fields and is t he subject of int ensive st udy,
including t he magnet ic-field r adiat ion fr om e.h.v. lines and dist r ibut ion lines. We will only
descr ibe and discuss a few basic fact s and mechanisms t hat give r ise t o healt h hazar ds associat ed
wit h magnet ic fields.
It is also believed but not pr oved wit h cer t aint y t hat t he power -fr equency magnet ic field
induces a volt age in t he t issue which in t ur n yields a cur r ent flow due t o t he elect r ical
conduct ivit y of t he t issue (about 0.1 t o 0.2 Siemen/met r e). Some wor ker s discount t his t heor y
because t he cell walls ar e made fr om pr ot eins which act as insulat ion bar r ier s t o t he cur r ent
flow. Mor eover , t he ener gy fed by t his mechanism is consider ed t oo low, below even t he t her mal
or J ohnson noise of t he ions in t he cell at t he body t emper at ur e (37C or 310K). Ther efor e,
ot her mechanisms ar e sought for t o explain t he influence of magnet ic fields on cancer -pr oducing
condit ions.
Some int er na t iona l or ga niza t ions such a s t he Wor ld Hea lt h Or ga niza t ion (WHO),
Int er nat ional Radiat ion Pr ot ect ion Associat ion (IRPA) as also ot her nat ional or ganizat ions of
differ ent count r ies have given guidelines for limit ing t he magnet ic field in homes or in occupat ions
such as line wor ker s. In homes wher e childr en and adult s live and t he elect r ical wir ing car r ies
power -fr equency cur r ent , t he r esult ing magnet ic field exper ienced cont inuously has been
suspect ed t o cause cancer ous condit ions in t he occupant s. This obser vat ion was published in
medical, biological and elect r ical lit er at ur e for t he fir st t ime in Nor t h Amer ica in 1979 by t wo
scient ist s in Denver Cit y, Color ado St at e, U.S.A. Their names ar e Nancy Wer t heimer and
Edwar d Leeper , t he for mer a psychiat r ist wit h t he Denver Depar t ment of Public Healt h and
t he lat t er a physicist . Pr ior t o t hat dat e in 1966, t wo Russian scient ist s had published t heir
r epor t on t heir findings t hat elect r icians wor king wit h elect r ical dist r ibut ion lines bot h
males and females exper ienced br east cancer . They suspect ed t he magnet ic field of t he
cur r ent -car r ying lines t o be t he pr imar y cause and advised t he gover nment t o limit t he exposur e
of wor ker s t o t he magnet ic field. The r esult ing Russian guidelines ar e as follows.
Exposur e Hour s 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
B-Field, Gauss 754 616 503 402 314 251 201 176
(The r eader should conver t t he Gauss values given above t o Amper e/met r e).
Since t hen many int er nat ional and nat ional or ganizat ions have suggest ed t he same limit s.
This is known as an "occupat ional hazar d".
For t he gener al public t he exposur e is about 1 t o 2 hour se per day in public places wher e
near by dist r ibut ion lines can give r ise t o exposur e t o magnet ic fields. Also, in many count r ies,
schools and shopping cent r es ar e locat ed near high-volt age t r ansmission lines and have been
suspect ed as causing cancer ous condit ions in t he school-childr en and shop-wor ker s. Ther e ar e
many such inst ances of magnet ic fields at power fr equency being associat ed, along wit h ot her
causes, wit h cancer -pr oducing cir cumst ances.
Accor ding t o t he WHO and IRPA Guidelines, any cancer ous or ot her int er nal healt h defect s
inside t he body can only be diagonozed by obser ving condit ions on t he sur face of t he body or by
ot her diagnost ic examinat ions. Based on exper ience gained all over t he wor ld, t hey have r elat ed
t he measur ed cur r ent densit y on t he sur face of t he body or or gan wit h t he following healt h
hazar ds:
Su r fa ce Cu r r en t
Densit y, mA/m
2
Health Effects
<1 Absence of any est ablished effect s.
1 10 Minor biological effect s r epor t ed.
10 100 Well-est ablished effect s:
(a) Visual defect s (called Magnet o-Phosphene effect );
(b) Possible ner vous-syst em defect s.
100 1000 Changes in cent r al ner vous-syst em excit abilit y
(onset of br ain damage) est ablished; St imulat ions t hr esholds;
Possible healt h hazar ds.
> 1000 Ext r a syst oles; Vent r icular fibr illat ion (hear t condit ion); Definit e
healt h hazar ds.
(Not e:
2
mA/m 10 (
=
). 1A/c
2
The sur face cur r ent densit y measur ed on a cylindr ical or gan of r adius r and elect r ical
conduct ivit y is r elat ed t o t he flux densit y at a fr equency f as follows:
J
r ms
=
2
r ms
Amp/m , rB f ...(7.101)
wher e J
r ms
= r ms value of cur r ent densit y,
B
r ms
= r ms value of flux densit y in Tesla,
f = fr equency, Hz,
= elect r ical conduct ivit y of t he t issue, Siemens/met r e,
and r = r adius of t he cylinder , met r e.
This is der ived as follows:
The flux densit y is . 2 wher e , sin 2 ) ( f t B t B
rms
It induces a volt age in t he cylinder
of r adius r equal t o , 2 2 / dB
r ms
2 2 2
B fr dt r v volt s. On t he sur face, t he r esult ing volt age
gr adient is . 2 2 /
r ms
frB r v e This gives an r ms value of sur face cur r ent densit y equal t o
. Amp/m ,
2
r ms r ms r ms
rB f e J
Exa mp le 7.8. For a cur r ent densit y of 1 mA/m
2
= 10
4
A/m
2
, wit h f = 50 Hz and = 0.2 S/m,
calculat e t he values of B
r ms
r equir ed t o est ablish t his cur r ent densit y on cylinder s wit h r = 10
inches (Tor so), 5 inches (hear t and head), 2.5 inches (ar m), 1.0 inch, 0.5 inch and 0.25 inch
(fingers).
Sol u t i on . Fr om equat ion ,
1
. ) / ( ), 101 . 7 (
r ms r ms
r
f J B Tesla. (1 Tesla = 10,000 Gauss =
10
4
Gauss).
r , i n ch es 10 5 2.5 1.0 0.5 0.25
B
r ms
, Ga u s s 1.25 2.5 5 12.5 25 50
The WHO and IRPA Guidelines r ecommend t hat for elect r ical wor ker s a cur r ent densit y
of 5 mA/m
2
should not be exceeded on t he sur face of t he t or so wit h a r adius of 10 inches = 25
cm. For t he gener al public, t he limit of cur r ent densit y on t he t or so is 1 mA/m
2
. At 1mA/m
2
,
t her e is no onset of any visible healt h defect , while at 5 mA/m
2
t her e is just a chance of some
defect but t he wor ker s ar e in gener al pr ot ect ed by a suit able unifor m. Thus, t he flux-densit y
limit s ar e about 5 Gauss for elect r ical wor ker s and 1 Gauss for t he gener al public.
Ther e ar e consider at ions gover ning t he limit ing value of flux desnsit y ot her t han sur face
cur r ent densit y as pr oposed by t he WHO and IRPA Guidelines. But t hese ar e highly specialized
t opics and will not be discussed her e.
1. What is t he effect of high elect r ost at ic fields on human beings under a line? Why does
a nor mal human being not exper ience a shock when walking under neat h a line? Why
do bir ds sur vive even t hough t hey come int o cont act wit h e.h.v. lines ?
2. Descr ibe t he differ ence bet ween pr imar y shock cur r ent and secondar y shock cur r ent .
What is t he meaning of 'let -go' cur r ent ?
3. A 400-kV hor izont al line has 2 conduct or s of 3.18 cm diamet er in a bundle wit h B =
0.4572 met r e spacing. The line height and phase spacing ar e H = 15 m and S = 12 m.
A D/C 230-kV line r uns par allel t o it wit h it s cent r e 25 met r es fr om t he cent r e of t he
400 kV line. The height s of t he conduct or s ar e 18, 14, and 10 met r es wit h equal
hor izont al spacings of 10 met r es bet ween conduct or s. Calculat e t he volt ages induced
in t he 3 conduct or s closest t o t he 400-kV line if t he volt age is 420 kV, line-t o-line.
Assume bot h lines t o be fully t r ansposed.
4. A 1150 kV line has conduct or s at height s 26 m and 44 m wit h 24 m spacing bet ween
t he lowest conduct or s. Each phase is equipped wit h 8 46 mm diamet er conduct or on
a cir cle of 1.2 met r e diamet er . At 1200 kV, calculat e t he e.s. field at gr ound level at
dist ances fr om t he line cent r e d =0, 13, 26, 39, and 52 met r es.
5. A double-cir cuit 400kV line has conduct or s displaced 8 m fr om line cent r e. The
height s of conduct or s ar e 13, 23, 33 m above gr ound. A neighbour ing D/C 220-kV line
has one cir cuit at 10 m hor izont al separ at ion fr om t he near est cir cuit of t he 400-kV
line. It s conduct or s ar e 10, 14, 18 m above gr ound. The conduct or s of t he 400kV line
ar e 2 3.18 cm dia wit h 45.72 cm spacing. Calculat e: (a) The volt age induced in t he 3
conduct or s of one 400kV cir cuit when t he ot her cir cuit is ener gized at 420kV. [28.4,
9.85, 7.23 kV]. (b) The volt age induced in t he conduct or s of t he near est 220kV cir cuit
when only one of t he (closest ) 400kV cir cuit s is ener gized at 420kV, [12,77, 13.72,
14.25 kV]. (c) Repeat (b) when bot h 400kV cir cuit s ar e ener gized at 420kV. Assume
phase volt ages (a, b, c; c, b, a) for t he t wo cir cuit s for t he t op, middle, and bot t om
conduct or s. (The Maxwell's Pot ent ial coefficient Mat r ix for 400kV line is now 6 6).
[21.5, 15.2, 14.74 kV].
(d) Compar e cases (a), (b), and (c), and give your comment s on t he volt ages exper ienced
by a lineman.
6. Repea t wor ked exa mpl e 7. 5 for t h e 750-kV h or i zon t a l l i n e wh en 50% s er i es
compensat ion is used and plot t he lat er al pr ofile of t he magnet ic field on Fig. 7.16.
7. Repeat wor ked example 7.6 when t he phase configur at ion is abc abc. Compar e t he
int ensit y of r esult ing magnet ic field and super impose on it t he r esult of Example 7.6,
Fig. 7.19. Which configur at ion r esult s in mor e favour able cir cumst ances as far as
lower magnet ic field near t he line?
8. A 3phase 230 kV D/C line has t he dimensions shown, wit h all dimensions in met r es.
The phase configur at ion is abc cba wit h cur r ent s as follows: 0 300
6 1
I I
Amps; . 120 300 ; 120 300
4 3 5 2
+ I I I I The or igin of coor dinat e syst em
is at gr ound level under t he line cent r e as shown. Evaluat e t he following:
Fig. 7.21
(a) Wr it e down t he coor dinat es of t he 6 conduct or s : ). , ( t o ) , (
6 6 1 1
y x y x
(b) Calculat e and plot t he int ensit y of t he B-field along gr ound for x = 0 t o x = 5 h,
wher e h = 10 met r es.
(c) Give t he value of x at which t he maximum B-field occur s.
9. A 6-phase t r ansmission line has t he same dimensions as t he 3-phase 230 kV D/C line
of pr oblem 8. It s conduct or s car r y t he same cur r ent of 300 Amps. Assume t he cur r ent s
to be: I
1
= 3000 Amps; I
2
= 300 60; I
3
= 300 120;
I
4
= 300 180; I
5
= 300 240; and I
6
= 300 300.
Calculat e t he int ensit y of t he B-field along gr ound only for x/h = 0 t o 5. Take t he
or igin of t he coor dinat e syst em on gr ound under t he line cent r e. Plot t he values on
t he same figur e as in Pr oblem 8 of t he 230kV D/C line.
10. Conver t t he B-values given in t he t able in Sect ion 7.11 t o H-values.
x
y
Pr-
Gr.
h = 10 m
4
2
5
4 1
3
6
4
7.5
10
7.5
11. (a) Using a limit ing ener gy value of S = 5 x 10
3
J oule/kg per year of cont inuous
exposur e t o a magnet ic field, calculat e t he r .m.s. value of t he B-field at 50 Hz t hat
should not be exceeded. Take t issue densit y of
. / kg 2000 / gm 2
3
m cc
(b) Der ive t he for mula , / . / 2823 . 0
r ms
f S B Tesla, wher e = t issue densit y in
kg/m
3
, and f = fr equency.
[Hint : Let ; sin 2 ) (
r ms
t B t B Ener gy densit y , 2 /
2
o
B e J ou l e/m
3
; If t issue
volume = V and weight = W, t hen t he ener gy/kg = ); / )( 2 / (
2
W V B
o
Aver age ener gy
per cycle ). 2 /(
2
r ms

o
B Then calculat e ener gy in 1 year which should be equat ed t o
S J oule/kg.]
8.1 TRAVELLING WAVES AND STANDING WAVES AT POWER
FREQUENCY
On an elect r ical t r ansmission line, t he volt ages, cur r ent s, power and ener gy flow fr om t he
sour ce t o a load locat ed at a dist ance L, pr opagat ing as elect r o-magnet ic waves wit h a finit e
velocit y. Hence, it t akes a shor t t ime for t he load t o r eceive t he power . This gives r ise t o t he
concept of a wave t r avelling on t he line which has dist r ibut ed line par amet er s r, l, g, c per unit
lengt h. The cur r ent flow is gover ned mainly by t he load impedance, t he line-char ging cur r ent
at power fr equency and t he volt age. If t he load impedance is not mat ched wit h t he line
impedance, which will be explained lat er on, some of t he ener gy t r ansmit t ed by t he sour ce is
not absor bed by t he load and is r eflect ed back t o t he sour ce which is a wast eful pr ocedur e.
However , since t he load can var y fr om no load (infinit e impedance) t o r at ed value, t he load
impedance is not equal t o t he line impedance always; t her efor e, t her e always exist t r ansmit t ed
waves fr om t he sour ce and r eflect ed waves fr om t he load end. At ever y point on t he int er vening
line, t hese t wo waves ar e pr esent and t he r esult ing volt age or cur r ent is equal t o t he sum of
t he t r ansmit t ed and r eflect ed quant it ies. The polar it y of volt age is t he same for bot h but t he
dir ect ions of cur r ent ar e opposit e so t hat t he r at io of volt age t o cur r ent will be posit ive for t he
t r ansmit t ed wave and negat ive for t he r eflect ed wave. These can be explained mat hemat ically
and have gr eat significance for det er mining t he char act er ist ics of load flow along a dist r ibut ed-
par amet er line.
The same phenomenon can be visualized t hr ough st anding waves. For example, consider
an open-ended line on which t he volt age must exist wit h maximum amplit ude at t he open end
while it must equal t he sour ce volt age at t he sending end which may have a differ ent amplit ude
and phase. For 50 Hz, at light velocit y of 300 10
3
km/sec, t he wavelengt h is 6000 km, so t hat
a line of lengt h L cor r esponds t o an angle of (L 360/6000). Wit h a load cur r ent pr esent , an
addit ional volt age caused by t he volt age dr op in t he char act er ist ic impedance is also pr esent
which will st and on t he line. These concept s will be explained in det ail by fir st consider ing a
loss-less line (r = g = 0) and t hen for a gener al case of a line wit h losses pr esent .
8
Th eory of Tra vel l i n g Wa ves a n d S t a n d i n g
Wa ves
Theory of Travelling Waves and Standing Waves 207
8.1.1 Differential Equations and Their Solutions
Consider a sect ion of line x in lengt h sit uat ed at a dist ance x fr om t he load end. The line
lengt h is L and has dist r ibut ed ser ies induct ance l and shunt capacit ance c per unit lengt h,
which ar e calculat ed as discussed in Chapt er 3. The induct ance is (
x l .
) and capacit ance ( x c . )
of t he differ ent ial lengt h x . The volt ages on t he t wo sides of l ar e ) (
x x
V V + and V
x
, while
t he cur r ent s on t he t wo sides of c ar e (I
x
+ I
x
) and I
x
. Fr om Figur e 8.1 t he following equat ions
can be wr it t en down:
Fi g. 8.1 Tr ansmission line wit h dist r ibut ed induct ance and capacit ance.
x x x
V V V + ) ( =
x x
I x jwl V ) . ( ...(8.1)
and
x x x
I I I + ) ( =
x x
V x jwc I ) . ( ...(8.2)
By making x infinit esimal, t he changes in volt age and cur r ent along t he line ar e expr essed
as differ ent ial equat ions t hus:
dx dV
x
/ = z. I
x
and dI
x
/dx = y. V
x
...(8.3)
wher e z = jwl and y = jwc, t he ser ies impedance and shunt capacit ive admit t ance at power
fr equency. Since all quant it ies ar e var ying sinusoidally in t ime at fr equency f = w/2, t he t ime-
dependence is not wr it t en, but is implicit .
By differ ent iat ing (8.3) wit h r espect t o x and subst it ut ing t he expr essions for dV
x
/ dx and
dI
x
/dx, we obt ain independent differ ent ial equat ions for V
x
and I
x
as follows:
2 2
/dx V d
x
= z. y. V
x
= p
2
V
x
...(8.4)
and
2 2
/dx I d
x
=
x x
I p I y z
2
. . ...(8.5)
wher e y z p . = / 2 / j v jw l c jw ...(8.6)
which is t he pr opagat ion const ant , v = velocit y of pr opagat ion, and = wavelengt h.
Equat ion (8.4) and (8.5) ar e wave equat ions wit h solut ions
V
x
=
px px
e B e A

+ ...(8.7)
and I
x
=
) .( / ) / 1 (
px px
x
e B e A
z
p
dx dV z

,
`
.
|
=
) (
px px
e B e A
z
y

...(8.8)
Ix
V
R
I
R
x
x
x x
l.
c .
(a)
V V
x x
+
l x.I
x
I
x
+ I
x
I
x
x
I
x
V
x
V
x
(b) (c)
c .
The t wo const ant s A and B ar e not funct ions of x but could be possible funct ions of t since
all volt ages and cur r ent s ar e var ying sinusoidally in t ime. Two boundar y condit ions ar e now
necessar y t o det er mine A and B. We will assume t hat at x = 0, t he volt age and cur r ent ar e V
R
and I
R.
Then, A + B = V
R
and A B = Z
0
I
R
, wher e Z
0
= c l y z / / = t he char act er ist ic
impedance of t he line.
Then, V
x
=

+ +
/ 2
0
/ 2
0
) (
2
1
) (
2
1
x j
R R
x j
R R
e I Z V e I Z V ...(8.9)
and I
x
=

+
/ 2
0
/ 2
0
) / (
2
1
) / (
2
1
x j
R R
x j
R R
e I Z V e I Z V ...(8.10)
We can also wr it e t hem as
V
x
= ) / 2 sin( ) / 2 cos( .
0
+ x I jZ x V
R R
...(8.11)
and I
x
= ) / 2 sin( ). / ( ) / 2 cos( .
0
+ x Z V j x I
R R
...(8.12)
Now, bot h V
R
and I
R
ar e phasor s at power fr equency and can be wr it t en as V
R
=
) (
.
+ jwt
R
e V ,
and )] [( exp .
L R R
jwt I I + wher e
L
= int er nal angle of t he load impedance Z
L
L
.
We can int er pr et t he above equat ions (8.11) and (8.12) in t er ms of st anding waves as
follows:
(1) The volt age V
x
at any point x on t he line fr om t he load end consist s of t wo par t s: V
R
cos ) / 2 ( x and jZ
0
I
R
sin ) / 2 ( x . The t er m ) / 2 cos( x V
R
has t he value V
R
at x = 0
(t he load end), and st ands on t he line as a cosine wave of decr easing amplit ude as x
incr eases t owar ds t he sending or sour ce end. At x = L, it has t he value ) / 2 cos( . L V
R
.
This is also equal t o t he no-load volt age when I
R
= 0. Figur e 8.2(a) shows t hese
volt ages. The second t er m in equat ion (8.11) is a volt age cont r ibut ed by t he load
cur r ent which is zer o at x = 0 and Z
0
I
R
sin ) / 2 ( L at t he sour ce end x = L, and adds
vect or ially at r ight angles t o I
R
as shown in Figur e 8.2 (c).
Fi g. 8.2. St anding waves of (a) volt age, and (b) cur r ent a t power fr equency.
V L
R
cos 2 / I L
R
cos 2 /
jZ L 0 sin 2 / IR
V
R
cos 2 / L
VR
I
R
V
R
I
R
L
L L
L
L
Z
0
I L
R
sin 2 /
VR
0
sin 2 / L
VR
0
sin 2 / L j
2
L
I
R
cos
IR
V
R

( ) a ( ) b ( ) c
(2) Th e cu r r en t in equ a t ion (8.12) a lso con sist s of t wo pa r t s. I
R
cos ) / 2 ( x a n d
) / 2 sin( ) / (
0
x Z V j
R
. At no load, I
R
= 0 and t he cur r ent supplied by t he sour ce is
) / (
0
Z V j
R
sin ) / 2 ( L which is a pur e char ging cur r ent leading V
R
by 90. These ar e
shown in Fig. 8.2(b) and t he vect or diagr am of 8.2(c).
A second int er pr et at ion of equat ions (8.9) and (8.10) which are equivalent t o (8.11) and (8.12)
is t hr ough t he t r avelling wave concept . The fir st t er m in (8.9) is
) / (
0
) (
2
1
v x t jw
R R
e I Z V
+
+ aft er
int r oducing t he t ime var iat ion. At x = 0, t he volt age is (V
R
+ Z
0
I
R
)/2 which incr eases as x does,
i.e., as we move t owar ds t he sour ce. The phase of t he wave is
) / ( v x t jw
e
+
. For a const ant value of
(t + x/v), t he velocit y is dx/dt = v. This is a wave t hat t r avels fr om t he sour ce t o t he load and
t her efor e is called t he for war d t r avelling wave. The second t er m is
2
1

) / (
0
) (
v x t jw
R R
e I Z V

wit h
t he phase velocit y dx/dt = + v, which is a for war d wave fr om t he load t o t he sour ce or a backwar d
wave fr om t he sour ce t o t he load.
The cur r ent also consist s of for war d and backwar d t r avelling component s. However , for
t he backwar d waves, t he r at io of volt age component and cur r ent component is (Z
0
) is seen by
t he equat ions (8.9) and (8.10) in which t he backwar d cur r ent has a negat ive sign befor e it .
8.2 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND SOLUTIONS FOR GENERAL CASE
In Sect ion 8.1, t he behaviour of elect r ical quant it ies at power fr equencies on a dist r ibut ed-
par amet er line was descr ibed t hr ough t r avelling-wave and st anding-wave concept s. The t ime
var iat ion of all volt ages and cur r ent s was sinusoidal at a fixed fr equency. In t he r emaining
por t ions of t his chapt er , t he pr oper t ies and behaviour of t r ansmission lines under any t ype of
excit at ion will be discussed. These can be applied specifically for light ning impulses and swit ching
sur ges. Also, differ ent t ypes of lines will be analyzed which ar e all cat egor ized by t he four
funda ment a l dist r ibut ed pa r a met er s, na mely, ser ies r esist a nce, ser ies induct a nce, shunt
capacit ance and shunt conduct ance. Depending upon t he nat ur e of t he t r ansmit t ing medium
(line and gr ound) and t he nat ur e of t he engineer ing r esult s r equir ed, some of t hese four
par amet er s can be used in differ ent combinat ions wit h due r egar d t o t heir impor t ance for t he
pr oblem at hand. For example, for an over head line, omission of shunt conduct ance g i s
per missible when cor ona losses ar e neglect ed. We shall develop t he gener al differ ent ial equat ions
for volt age and cur r ent by fir st consider ing all four quant it ies (r, l, g, c) t hr ough t he met hod of
Laplace Tr ansfor ms, st udying t he solut ion and int er pr et ing t hem for differ ent cases when one
or t he ot her par amet er out of t he four loses it s significance. As wit h all differ ent ial equat ions
and t heir solut ions, boundar y condit ions in space and init ial or final condit ions in t ime play a
vit al r ole.
8.2.1 General Method of Laplace Transforms
Accor ding t o t he met hod of Laplace Tr ansfor m, t he gener al ser ies impedance oper at or per unit
lengt h of line is z(s) = r + ls, and t he shunt admit t ance oper at or per unit lengt h is y(s) = g + cs,
wher e s = t he Laplace-Tr ansfor m oper at or .
Consider a line of lengt h L ener gized by a sour ce whose t ime funct ion is e(t ) and Laplace
Tr ansfor m E(s), as shown in Fig. 8.3. Let t he line be t er minat ed in a gener al impedance Z
t
(s).
We will neglect any lumped ser ies impedance of t he sour ce for t he pr esent but include it lat er
on. Also, x = 0 at t he t er minal end as in Sect ion 8.1.2. Let t he Laplace Tr ansfor ms of volt age
and cur r ent at any point x be V(x, s) and I(x, s).
Fi g. 8.3 Dist r ibut ed-par amet er t r ansmission line wit h sour ce E(s) and t er minat ing impedance Z
t
(s).
Then, t he following t wo basic differ ent ial equat ions will hold as for t he st eady-st at e
excit at ion discussed ear lier :
x s x V / ) , ( = ) , ( ). ( . / ) , ( and ) , ( ). ( s x V s y x s x I s x I s z ...(8.13)
For simplicit y in wr it ing, we may omit s in all t er ms but only r emember t hat we ar e
discussing t he pr oper t ies of t he Laplace-Tr ansfor ms of all quant it ies. The solut ions for volt age
and cur r ent in equat ion (8.13) will be
V(x) =
px px
e B e A

+ . .
...(8.14)
and I(x) =
) ).( / (
px px
Be Ae z p

...(8.15)
wher e again, p = t he pr opagat ion const ant = y z. ...(8.16)
Also,
0
/ ) / ( Y z y z p and
0
/ ) / ( Z y z p z , t he char act er ist ic or sur ge impedance.
For t his pr oblem, t he boundar y condit ions ar e:
(1) At x = L, V(L) = sour ce volt age = E(s); and
(2) At x = 0, V(0) = Z
t
. I(0). Using t hem in (8.14) and (8.15) yields
A = ] ) ( ) /[( ) ( ) (
0 0 0
pL
t
pL
t t
e Z Z e Z Z s E Z Z

+ + + ...(8.17)
and B = ) /( ) (
0 0
Z Z A Z Z
t t
+ ...(8.18)
V(x) = ) (
sinh ) / ( cosh
sinh ) / ( cosh
0
0
s E
pL Z Z pL
px Z Z px
t
t
+
+
...(8.19)
and I(x) =
) (
sinh ) / ( cosh
cosh ) / ( sinh
.
1
0
0
s E
pL Z Z pL
px Z Z px
z
y
x
V
z
t
t
+
+
...(8.20)
These ar e t he gener al equat ions for volt age V and cur r ent I at any point x on t he line in
oper at ional for ms which can be applied t o par t icular cases as discussed below.
Line Terminat ions
For t hr ee impor t ant cases of t er minat ion of an open-cir cuit , a shor t cir cuit and Z
t
= Z
0
,
t he special expr essions of equat ions (8.19) and (8.20) can be wr it t en.
Case 1. Open Circuit. Z
t
=

'
pL s E px z y s x I
pL s E px s x V
oc
oc
cosh / ) ( . sinh . / ) , (
cosh / ) ( . cosh ) , (
...(8.21)
V
x
V
0
L
0
I
x
e t ( )
Zt
E s ( )
L
x
S
r, l, g, c
Case 2. S hort-Circuit . Z
t
= 0
'
pL s E px z y s x I
pL s E px s x V
sc
sc
sinh / ) ( . cosh / ) , (
sinh / ) ( . sinh ) , (
...(8.22)
Case 3. Mat ched Line. Z
t
= Z
0
'
+ +
+ +
) sinh /(cosh ) ( ). sinh (cosh / ) , (
) sinh /(cosh ) ( ). sinh (cosh ) , (
pL pL s E px px z y s x I
pL pL s E px px s x V
m
m
...(8.23)
The r at io of volt age t o cur r ent at ever y point on t he line is
Z
0
= y z / .
0
/ [ Y z y = .] / 1 ) /( ) (
0
Z ls r cs g + +
S ource of Excit at ion
The t ime-domain solut ion of all t hese oper at ional expr essions ar e obt ained t hr ough t heir
Inver se Laplace Tr ansfor ms. This is possible only if t he nat ur e of sour ce of excit at ion and it s
Laplace Tr ansfor m ar e known. Thr ee t ypes of excit at ion ar e impor t ant :
(1) S t ep Funct ion. e(t ) =V ; E(s) = V/s, wher e V = magnit ude of st ep
(2) Double-Exponential Function. St andar d waveshapes of light ning impulse and swit ching
impulse used for t est ing line and equipment have a shape which is t he differ ence bet ween t wo
exponent ials. Thus e(t ) = E
0

) (
t t
e e

wher e E
0
, and depend on t he t imings of impor t ant
quant it ies of t he wave and t he peak or cr est value. The Laplace Tr ansfor m is
E(s) = ) )( /( ) (
0
+ + s s E ...(8.24)
(3) S i nusoi dal Exci t at i on. When a sour ce a t power fr equency suddenly ener gises a
t r ansmission line t hr ough a cir cuit br eaker , consider ing only a single-phase at pr esent , at any
point on t he volt age wave, t he t ime funct ion is e(t ) = V
m
sin ) ( + wt , wher e f w 2 , f = t he
power fr equency, and = angle fr om a zer o of t he wave at which t he cir cuit br eaker closes on
t he posit ively-gr owing por t ion of t he sine wave. It s Laplace Tr ansfor m is
E(s) = ) /( ) sin . cos . (
2 2
w s s w V
m
+ + ...(8.25)
Propagat ion Fact or. For t he gener al case, t he pr opagat ion fact or is
p = ) )( ( . cs g ls r y z + + ...(8.16)
In t he sect ions t o follow, we will consider par t icular cases for t he value of p, by omit t ing
one or t he ot her of t he four quant it ies, or consider ing all four of t hem.
Voltage at Open-End. Befor e t aking up a det ailed discussion of t he t heor y and pr oper t ies
of t he volt age and cur r ent , we might r emar k her e t hat for t he volt age at t he open end, equat ion
(8.21) gives
V(0, s) =
) /( ) ( . 2 cosh / ) (
pL pL
e e s E pL s E

+
=
...) )( ( 2
5 3
+
pL pL pL
e e e s E
...(8.26)
Under a pr oper choice of p t his t ur ns out t o be a t r ain of t r avelling waves r eflect ing fr om
t he open end and t he sour ce, as will be discussed lat er . Equat ion (8.26) also gives st anding
waves consist ing of an infinit e number of t er ms of fundament al fr equency and all it s har monics.
8.2.2 The Open-Circuited Line: Open-End Voltage
This is a simple case t o st ar t wit h t o illust r at e t he pr ocedur e for obt aining t r avelling waves and
st anding waves. At t he same t ime, it is a ver y impor t ant case fr om t he st andpoint of designing
insulat ion r equir ed for t he line and equipment since it gives t he wor st or highest magnit ude of
over -volt age under swit ching-sur ge condit ions when a long line is ener gized by a sinusoidal
sour ce at it s peak value. It also applies t o ener gizing a line suddenly by light ning. The st ep
r esponse is fir st consider ed since by t he Met hod of Convolut ion, it is somet imes convenient t o
obt ain t he r esponse t o ot her t ypes of excit at ion by using t he Digit al Comput er (see any book on
Oper at ional Calculus).
Travelling-Wave Concept: S tep Response
Case 1. Fir st omit all losses so t hat r = g = 0. Then,
p = v s l c s / ...(8.27)
wher e v = t he velocit y of e.m. wave pr opagat ion.
V
0
(s) =
s e e V e e s V
v sL v sL v sL v sL
/ ...) ( 2 ) ( / 2
/ 3 / / /
+ +

...(8.28)
Now, by t he t ime-shift ing t heor em, t he inver se t r ansfor m of
s e V
v ksL
/ . 2
/
= 2V. U(t kL/v) ...(8.29)
wher e U(t kL.v) = 0 for t < kL/v
= 1 for t > kL/v.
We obser ve t hat t he t ime funct ion of open-end volt age obt ained fr om equat ions (8.28) and
(8.29) will be
) (
0
t V = ) / 5 ( ) / 3 ( ) / ( [ 2 v L t U v L t U v L t U V + ...] ...(8.30)
This r epr esent s an infinit e t r ain of t r avelling waves. Let L/v = T, t he t ime of t r avel of t he
wave fr om t he sour ce t o t he open end. Then, t he following sequence of volt ages is obt ained at
t he open end.
t T 2T 3T 4T 5T 6T 7T 8T 9T...
V
0
2V 2V 0 0 2V 2V 0 0 2V...
A plot of t he open-end volt age is shown in Fig. 8.4(a) fr om which it is obser ved t hat
(1) t he volt age r eaches a maximum value of t wice t he magnit ude of t he input st ep,
(2) it alt er nat es bet ween 2V and 0, and
(3) t he per iodic t ime is 4T, giving a fr equency of f
0
= 1/4T.
Fi g. 8.4 St ep r esponse of t r ansmission line. (a) Losses neglect ed. (b) Losses and at t enuat ion included
2V
V
0
01 T 3T 5T 7T
t
( ) a
2
1
0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
t T /
( ) b
P.U. VOLTAGE = 0.8 a
Since all losses have been omit t ed, at t enuat ion is absent and t he amplit ude bet ween
successive maxima does not decr ease. The open-end volt age can never st abilize it self t o a value
equal t o t he excit at ion volt age.
Case 2. Omit g
For t his case, p = . or ) (
2 2
rcs lcs p cs ls r + +
Then, p
2
= l c r l r s l c 4 / ) 2 / ( ) (
2 2 2
+ ...(8.31)
The la st t er m (r
2
c/4l) is usually negligible compar ed t o t he fir st . For example, consider
r = 1 ohm/km, l = 1.1 mH/km and c = 10 nF/km. Then, r
2
c/4l = 2.25 10
6
. Ther efor e, we t a ke
p = s/v + r/2lv = s/v + , wh er e = r/2lv = at t enuat ion const ant in Neper s per unit lengt h.
Now, equat ion (8.26) becomes, wit h E(s) = V/s for st ep,
V
0
(s) = s e e e V s e e V
pL pL pL pL pL
/ ...) ( 2 ) /( 2
5 3
+ +

= ...) . . . )( / 2 (
/ 5 5 / 3 3 /
+
v sL L v sL L v sL L
e e e e e e s V ...(8.32)
The t ime r esponse cont ains t he at t enuat ion fact or exp ) ( L k and t he t ime shift fact or exp
( ksL/v) = exp (kTs). The inver se t r ansfor m of any gener al t er m is 2V.exp ) / ( ). ( v k L t U L k .
Let a = exp ) ( L , t he at t enuat ion over one line lengt h which t he wave suffer s. Then t he open
end volt age of (8.32) becomes, in t he t ime domain,
V
0
(t ) = )...] 5 ( . ) 3 ( . ) ( . [ 2
5 3
T t U a T t U a T t U a V + ...(8.33)
Wit h t he ar r ival of each successive wave at int er vals of 2T = 2L/v, t he maximum value
also decr eases while t he minimum value incr eases, as sket ched in Fig. 8.4 (b) for a = 0.96 and
0.8. The volt age finally set t les down t o t he value V, t he st ep, in pr act ice aft er a finit e t ime. But
t heor et ically, it t akes infinit e t ime, and because we have neglect ed t he t er m (r
2
c/4l), t he final
value is a lit t le less t han V as shown below. The values of at t enuat ion fact or chosen above (0.96
and 0.8) ar e t ypical for a line when only t he conduct or r esist ance is r esponsible for ener gy loss
of t he wave and when a value of 1 ohm/km for gr ound-r et ur n r esist ance is also t aken int o
account . (For a = 0.96, see next page).
Fi g. 8.5 The Bewley Lat t ice Diagr am.
S E
0
2T
T
t
V
0
4T
3T
6T
5T
7T
1 a
a
a
2
a
2 a
3
a
3
a
4
a
4 a
5
a
5
a
6
a
6
a
7
a
7
2a
2a a 2
3
2 2 a a + a
3 5
2
2(a a + a a
3 5 7
)
The following t abular for m gives a convenient way of keeping t r ack of t he open-end volt age
and Fig. 8.5 shows a gr aphical sket ch which is due t o Bewley. It is known as t he Bewley Lat t ice
Diagr am. Not e t he syst emat ic met hod employed in finding t he volt age aft er any number of
r eflect ions.
Time t/ T V
0
(t) a = 0.96 a = 08
1 V
1
= 2V.a 1.92 V 1.6 V
2 V
2
= 2V.a
3 V
3
= 2V(a a
3
) = V
1
a
2
V
1
0.15 V 0.576 V
4 V
4
= V
3
5 V
5
= 2V(a a
3
+ a
5
) = V
1
a
2
V
3
1.78 V 1.23 V
6 V
6
= V
5
7 V
7
= 2V(a a
3
+ a
5
a
7
) = V
1
a
2
V
5
0.28 V 0.81 V
8 V
8
= V
7
9 V
9
= 2V(a a
3
+ a
5
a
7
+ a
9
) = V
1
a
2
V
7
1.66 V 1.08 V
10 V
10
= V
9
N V
N
= V
1
a
2
V
N 2
N + 1 V
N +1
= V
N
Accor ding t o t his pr ocedur e, t he final value is
V =
) 1 /( 2 ...) 1 ( 2
2 6 4 2
a Va a a a Va + + +
...(8.34)
Exa mp le 8.1. For a = 0.96 and 0.8, find t he final value of open-end volt age and t he %
er r or caused by omit t ing t he t er m (r
2
c/4l) in equat ion (8.31)
Sol u t i on . (a) a = 0.96,
V = 0.9992 V, er r or = 0.08%.
(b) a = 0.8,
V = 0.9756 V, er r or = 2.44%.
8.2.3 The Bewley Lattice Diagram
Befor e we consider anot her for m for p, let us discuss t he Lat t ice Diagr am for keeping account
of t he infinit e number of r eflect ions on a line when suddenly ener gized by a sour ce. A hor izont al
line is dr awn t o r epr esent t he line and t wo ver t ical lines at t he ends on which equal int er vals of
t ime T ar e mar ked as shown. The diagr am begins at t he t op left cor ner at t he sour ce and
pr oceeds along t he line OT. The at t enuat ion a is also shown for one t r avel. At t he open end, t he
wave r eflect s complet ely as a. To t he r ight is mar ked 2a which is t he volt age at t he open end
aft er one t r avel t ime. Ar r ows show t he pr ogr ess of t he wave. At T, t he wave r eflect s and
r eaches t he sour ce at t ime 2T wit h an amplit ude a
2
, and since t he sour ce volt age has t o r emain
const ant at + 1, t he wave ar r iving at t he sour ce is r eflect ed negat ively and shown as a
2
. When
t his r eaches t he open end at t ime 3T, it has t he value ( a
3
). Again, at t he end, t his wave
doubles and a r eflect ion ( a
3
) t r avels back t o t he sour ce. The t ot al volt age at t he open end is
now (a + a a
3
a
3
) = 2(a a
3
) which is t he sum of all volt ages mar ked on t he inclined lines up
t o t ime 3T. Pr oceeding in t his manner , we obser ve t hat in or der t o keep t he sour ce volt age at
+ 1, cont inued r eflect ions have t o t ake place wit h negat ive signs at t he sour ce and posit ive
signs at t he open end.
8.2.4 r/l = g/c =
If t he above condit ion is sat isfied, t hen
p = v s c g s l r s lc cs g ls r / ) ( )] / )( / [( ) )( (
2 / 1
+ + + + +
= s/v + r/lv. ...(8.35)
The st ep r esponse is t he same as befor e in Sect ion 8.2.2 and Fig. 8.4(b), but t he at t enuat ion
fact or is now b = exp (L/v) = exp ( 2L/v) = a
2
. The volt age at t enuat es mor e r apidly t han
when g = 0.
Exa mp le 8.2. For a = 0.96 and 0.8, find t he r esult ing at t enuat ion fact or when r/l = g/c,
assuming line lengt h L t o be equal in bot h cases. Also calculat e t he maximum values of t he
sur ge in t he t wo cases in p.u.
Sol u t i on . (1) a =
L
e

= 0.96 b = a
2
= 0.9216
Maximum value of sur ge is t he fir st peak = 1.8432 p.u.
(2) a = e
L
= 0.8. b = a
2
= 0.64.
Fir st peak = 1.28 p.u.
The r elat ion r/l = g/c is also known as t he dist or t ionless condit ion in which any waveshape
of volt age applied at one end will t r avel wit hout dist or t ion of waveshape but will be at t enuat ed.
The r elat ion is ver y useful in t elephone and t elegr aph wor k wher e ar t ificial loading coils ar e
used t o incr ease t he value of induct ance in cable t r ansmission for which g and c ar e high while
l is low.
The case of including all four par amet er s (r, l, g, c) in t he pr opagat ion const ant p leads t o
complicat ed expr essions for t he Inver se Laplace Tr ansfor m involving Bessel Funct ions but , as
will be shown in t he next sect ion, will yield easier solut ions when t he st anding wave concept is
r esor t ed t o.
8.3 STANDING WAVES AND NATURAL FREQUENCIES
In t his met hod, t he inver se Laplace Tr ansfor m is evaluat ed by t he Met hod of Residues and
inst ead of an infinit e number of r eflect ions caused by bot h ends, we obt ain t he solut ion as t he
sum of an infinit e number of fr equencies which consist of a fundament al fr equency and it s
har monics. The infinit e ser ies of t er ms can be t r uncat ed aft er any suit able number of har monics
t o yield engineer ing r esult s. We will fir st show t hat t he met hod yields t he same r esult as t he
t r avelling-wave concept for a simple case, and t hen pr oceed wit h t he St anding-wave Met hod for
mor e complicat ed cases for p = . ) )( ( cs g ls r + +
8.3.1 Case 1Losses Neglected r = g = 0
The Laplace Tr ansfor m of t he open-end volt age, equat ion (8.26), can be wr it t en as (wit h r = g =
0), for a st ep input ,
V
0
= V/s. cosh pL = V/s. cosh (s
L l c
) ...(8.36)
The locat ions of t he poles of t he expr ession wher e t he denominat or becomes zer o ar e fir st
det er mined. Then t he r esidues at t hese poles ar e evaluat ed as descr ibed below, and t he t ime
r esponse of t he open-end volt age is t he sum of r esidues at all t he poles.
Locat ion of Poles. The denominat or is zer o whenever s = 0 and 0 cosh L l c s . Now,
cosh j = cos which is zer o whenever 0 , 2 / ) 1 2 ( + t n n , 1, 2,... Thus, t her e ar e an infinit e
number of poles wher e ) cosh( L l c s becomes zer o. They ar e locat ed at
Ls l c
= 2 / ) 1 2 ( + t n j .
s = 2 / ) 1 2 ( and 2 / ) 1 2 ( + t t + t n j pL jw cL l n j
n
...(8.37)
wher e w
n
= T n L v n cL l n 2 / ) 1 2 ( 2 / ) 1 2 ( 2 / ) 1 2 ( + + + ...(8.38)
upon using t he pr oper t y t hat l c v / 1 and T = L/v. We also obser ve t hat (lL) and (cL) ar e
t he t ot al induct ance and capacit ance of t he line of lengt h L, and
0
2 4 / 2 2 / f T T , wit h f
0
=
fundament al fr equency. This was t he same as was obt ained in t he t r avelling-wave concept .
Residues
In or der t o calculat e t he r esidue at a simple pole, we r emove t he pole fr om t he denominat or ,
mult iply by e
st
and evaluat e t he value of t he r esult ing expr ession at t he value of s given at t he
pole.
(1) At s = 0:
Residue =
V
Ls lc
e V
s
st
0
) cosh(
.
, t he input st ep.
(2) At t he infinit e number of poles, t he pr ocedur e is t o t ake t he der ivat ive of (cosh pL)
wit h r espect t o s and evaluat e t he value of t he r esult ing expr ession at each value of s at which
cosh pL = 0. Thus, t he r esidues at t he poles of (cosh pL) ar e found by t he oper at ion
) ( + n
V =
2 / ) 1 2 (
) (cosh
+
n j pL
jw s
st
n
pL
ds
d
e
s
V
...(8.39)
Now,
ds
d
cos h pL L l c Ls l c L l c Ls l c sinh . ) . sinh( . . . Bu t a t , 2 / ) 1 2 ( + n j pL
n
j n j pL ) 1 ( 2 / ) 1 2 sin( sinh +
.
V(n+) =
+
) 1 2 /( ) ( exp 2 . . ) 1 (
. . ) 1 (
) exp(
. n t jw V
L lc j
t jw
jw
V
n
n
n
n
n
...(8.40)
upon using equat ion (8.38).
Similar ly, at s = jw
n
, t he r esidue will be t he complex conjugat e of equat ion (8.40). Now
using
+

cos 2
j j
e e
, t he sum of all r esidues and t her efor e t he t ime r esponse is
) (
0
t V =
]
]
]
]
+
+

0
.
2
) 1 2 (
cos .
) 1 2 (
4
. ) 1 ( 1
n
n
t
lc L
n
n
V ...(8.41)
The fir st or fundament al fr equency for n = 0 is f
0
= 1/4L l c = 1/4T and it s amplit ude is
) / 4 ( . Let l c L t 2 / . Then equat ion (8.41) can be wr it t en as
V
0
(t ) =
]
]
]
,
`
.
|
+
... 5 cos
5
1
3 cos
3
1
cos
4
1 V ...(8.42)
Now, t he Four ier ser ies of a r ect angular wave of amplit ude V is
,
`
.
|
+
... 5 cos
5
1
3 cos
3
1
cos
4V
.
Ther efor e, t he open-end volt age r esponse for a st ep input when line losses ar e neglect ed
is t he sum of t he st ep input and a r ect angular wave of amplit ude V and fundament al fr equency
f
0
= 1/4T. This is t he same as equat ion (8.30) and Fig. 8.4(a). Ther efor e, t he t r avelling-wave
concept and st anding-wave met hod yield t he same r esult .
8.3.2 General Case (r, l, g, c)
Inst ead of der iving t he open-end volt age r esponse for ever y combinat ion of (r, l, g, c), we will
develop equat ions when all four par amet er s ar e consider ed in t he pr opagat ion const ant , and
t hen apply t he r esult ing equat ion for par t icular cases. Now,
p = ) )( ( cs g ls r + +
The poles of (cosh pL) ar e locat ed as befor e when pL = j(2n + 1)/2, n = 0, 1, 2, ..., . The
values of s at t hese poles will be obt ained by solving t he quadr at ic equat ion
(r + ls) (g + cs)L
2
= (2n + 1)
2
2
/4 ...(8.43)
This gives s =
2
2
2
2
4
1
4
) 1 2 (
2
1
,
`
.
|
+
+ + t
,
`
.
|
+
c
g
l
r
lc L
n
lc
rg
j
c
g
l
r
...(8.44)
or s = a jw
n
wher e a = ) / / (
2
1
c g l r + ...(8.45)
and
2
n
w = lc L n c g l r lc rg
2 2 2 2
4 / ) 1 2 ( ) / / (
4
1
/ + + + ...(8.46)
Now pL
ds
d
cosh = L. sinh (pL). (dp/ds)
wher e sinh pL = j ( 1)
n
at t he pole, and
ds
dp
=
n
jw a s
cs g ls r
gl rc lcs
+
+ +
+ +
) )( (
) ( 2
2
1
=
L n j
gl rc jw a lc
n
2 / ) 1 2 (
). ( ) ( 2
2
1
+
+ + +
...(8.47)
n
jw a s
pL
ds
d
+
cosh
= j( 1)
n
. 2L
2
lc w
n
/(2n + 1) ...(8.48)
Thus, t he r esidues at t he poles s = 0, s = a + jw
n
, s = a jw
n
ar e found t o be
(1) At s = rg L V
cs g ls r L
Ve
V
s
st
cosh /
) )( ( cosh
. 0
0
0

+ +
...(8.49)
(2) At s = a + jw
n
.
V(n + ) =
V
ja w
e
lcw L
n e
ds pL d s
e V
n
t jw
n
at n
jw a s
st
n
n
+
+
+
2
2
) 1 2 ( . ) 1 (
) / cosh . (
.
...(8.50)
(3) At s = a jw
n
.
V(n ) =
V
ja w
e
w lc L
n e
n
t jw
n
at n
n
. .
2
) 1 2 ( ) 1 (
2
+

...(8.51)
The sum of all r esidues and t her efor e t he open-end volt age for st ep input will be, wit h
t an = a/ w
n
,
V
0
(t ) =
]
]
]
]

+
+
0
2 2 2
) cos( .
. . .
. ) 1 2 ( ) 1 (
cosh
1
n
n
n n
at n
t w
w a w lc L
e n
rg L
V ...(8.52)
Particular cases
(1) Wh en r = g = 0, t h e l os s l es s con di t i on , a = 0, = 0, cos h 1 rg L , a n d
4 / ) 1 2 ( /
2 2 2 2
+ n cw L
n
. The r esult ing open-end volt age r educes t o equat ion (8.41).
(2) When g = 0, a = r/2l, w
n
=
2 / 1 2 2 2 2
] ) 2 / ( 4 / ) 1 2 [( l r lc L n +
.
cosh lc L n w a rg L
n
2 / ) 1 2 ( . 1
2 2
+ +
(3) When r/l = g/c, t he dist or t ionless condit ion, r/l = g/c = b.
a = lc L n w c g l r lc rg l r c g l r
n
2 / ) 1 2 ( , 0 ) / / (
4
1
/ , / ) / / (
2
1
2
+ + + .
The nat ur al fr equency becomes equal t o t hat when losses ar e omit t ed, equat ions (8.38).
All har monics have same at t enuat ion.
At t he velocit y of light , for differ ent lengt hs of line L, t he following values of fundament al
fr equencies and t r avel t ime ar e found fr om t he expr essions T = L/300 ms, wit h L in km and f
0
= 1/4T.
L, km 100 200 300 400 500 750 1000
T, ms 0.333 0.667 1.0 1.333 1.667 2.5 3.333
f
0
, Hz 750 375 250 187.5 150 100 75
These fr equencies ar e impor t ant for calculat ing gr ound-r et ur n r esist ance and induct ance
accor ding t o Car son's For mulae.
8.4 OPEN-ENDED LINE: DOUBLE-EXPONENTIAL RESPONSE
The r esponse of an open-ended line when ener gized by a st ep input was descr ibed in Sect ion 8.3
wher e t he Laplace Tr ansfor m of t he st ep was E(s) = V/s. In consider ing light ning and swit ching
sur ges, t he excit at ion funct ion is double exponent ial wit h t he equat ion, as shown in Fig. 8.6(a),
e(t ) = ) (
0
t t
e e E

...(8.53)
It s Laplace Tr ansfor m is
E(s) = ) )( /( ) ( )] ( / 1 ) /( 1 [
0 0
+ + + + s s E s s E ...(8.54)
Now, t he oper at ional expr ession of t he open-end volt age is
V
0
(s) = pL s s E pL s E cosh ) )( /( ) ( cosh / ) (
0
+ + ...(8.55)
wher e p = , ) )( ( cs g ls r + + as befor e,
The poles of (8.55) ar e locat ed at s =
n
jw a t and , , , wher e by equat ions (8.45) and
(8.46),
a = . / 4 / ) 1 2 ( and ) / / (
2
1
2 2 2 2
a lc rg lc L n w c g l r
n
+ + +
Fi g. 8.6 (a) Double-exponent ia l wa ve: e(t ) = E
0
(e
t
e
t
)
(b) Sine wave of excit at ion swit ched at any point on t he wave.
Residues
(1) At s =
) )( ( cosh ). (
) (
) ( .
0

c g l r L
e E
V
t
...(8.56)
(2) At s =
) )( ( cosh ) (
) (
) ( .
0

c g l r L
e E
V
t
...(8.57)
(3) At s = a + jw
n
.
n
jw a s
pL
ds
d
+
| cosh
= + ) 1 2 /( 2 . ) 1 (
2
n lcw L j
n
n
...(8.58)
V(n + ) =
n n n
t jw a
lcw L j jw a jw a
n e E
n
. 2 ) )( (
) 1 2 .( ). (
2
) (
0
+ +
+
+
...(8.59)
dt
Vp
v = E e e 0

( )
t t
t
( ) a
/2 3/2
v V wt = cos ( + )
m

V
m
t = 0
( ) b
(4) At s = a jw
n
. V(n ) = complex conjugat e of V(n + ).
The sum of all r esidues will become
V
0
(t ) =
) )( ( cosh ) )( ( cosh
0 0

c g l r L
e E
c g l r L
e E
t t
) cos(
1 ) 1 2 )( ( ) 1 (
2 2
0
2
0 n n
n n
n n
at n
t w
B A
w lc L
e n
E +
+
+
...(8.60)
wher e A
n
=
n n n
w a B w a a ) 2 ( , ) )( (
2
+ ...(8.61)
and
n
t an =
n n
B A / .
Equat ion (8.60) can be wr it t en out explicit ly for var ious combinat ions of r, l, g, c such as
discussed befor e. These ar e:
(1) Lossless line : r = g = 0.
(2) Neglect g. g = 0.
(3) Dist or t ionless line. r/l = g/c.
(4) All four par amet er s consider ed. Equat ion (8.60).
8.5 OPEN-ENDED LINE: RESPONSE TO SINUSOIDAL EXCITATION
When a sine-wave of excit at ion sour ce is suddenly swit ched on t o an open-ended line, at an
angle aft er a posit ive peak, it s t ime funct ion is e(t ) = V
m
cos

) ( + wt , wher e w = 2f and f =
power fr equency. It s Laplace-Tr ansfor m is
E(s) = ) ( / ) sin . cos . (
2 2
w s w s V
m
+ ...(8.62)
The r esult ing open-end volt age becomes
V
0
(s) = pL w s w s V
m
cosh ). /( ) sin . cos . (
2 2
+ ...(8.63)
The poles ar e now locat ed at
n
jw a jw s t t , , wit h a and w
n
obt ained fr om equat ions
(8.45) and (8.46). The r esidue at each pole is evaluat ed as befor e and t he r esult ing open-end
volt age is as follows:
Let J =
2 2 2
) ( , ) ( L lg rc w K L lc w rg +
a =
2 / 1 2 2 2 2
] / / ) 1 2 [( ), / / (
2
1
a lc rg lc L n w c g l r
n
+ + +
p
1
=
5 . 0 2 2
1
5 . 0 2 2
) ( 5 . 0 , ) ( 5 . 0 J K J q J K J + + +
F =
, / t an , sin . sinh , cos . cosh
1 1 1 1
F G q p G q p
p
2
=
2 2 2
n
w w a +
.
Then, V
0
(t ) =
+
+
+
+
+
0
2 2 2
2
2 2 / 1 2 2
) 4 (
) 1 2 ( ) 1 (
] [
) cos( .
n n n
at n
m
m
w a p lcw L
e n
V
G F
wt V
} sin ) 2 ( cos ) 2 ( { [cos
2
2
2
2
t w w p a t w a p w
n n n n
+
)] sin . 2 cos . .( sin
2
t w aw t w p w
n n n
+ ...(8.64)
It consist s of a st eady-st at e r esponse t er m, and t he t r ansient r esponse wit h an infinit e
number of fr equency component s which decay wit h t he t ime const ant
a / 1
.
8.6 LINE ENERGIZATION WITH TRAPPED-CHARGE VOLTAGE
Hit her t o, we have been consider ing a line wit h no init ial volt age t r apped in it at t he t ime of
per for ming t he swit ching or excit at ion oper at ion wit h a volt age sour ce such as t he st ep, double-
exponent ial or sinusoidal. When some equipment is connect ed bet ween line and gr ound, such
as a shunt -compensat ing r eact or or a power t r ansfor mer or an induct ive pot ent ial t r ansfor mer
or dur ing r ain, t he t r apped char ge is dr ained t o gr ound in about half-cycle (10 ms on 50 Hz
base). Ther efor e, when a swit ching oper at ion is per for med, t he line is "dead". But t her e ar e
many sit uat ions wher e t he line is r e-ener gized aft er a de-ener gizat ion oper at ion wit h a volt age
t r apped in it . This volt age in a 3-phase line has a value equal t o t he peak value of volt age wit h
sinusoidal excit at ion or ver y near t he peak. The r esult ing open-end volt age is higher t han
when t r apped char ge is neglect ed. The r esponse or behaviour of t he open-end volt age when
t her e is an init ial volt age V
t
will now be discussed.
The basic differ ent ial equat ions for t he line, Fig. 8.7, ar e
x V
x
/ =
x x x
V t c g x I I t l r ) / . ( / and , ) / . ( + + ...(8.65)
As befor e, let z =r + ls and y = g + cs. Then t aking t he Laplace
Fi g. 8.7 Dist r ibut ed-par amet er line wit h all four par amet er s (r, l , g, c).
Tr ansfor ms wit h t he condit ions t hat at t = 0, i = 0 and v = V
t
, t he t r apped volt age, t her e
r esult s for t he Laplace-Tr ansfor m of volt age at any point x,
t x x
zcV s V p x s V + ) ( / ) (
2 2 2
= 0 ...(8.66)
The compliment ar y funct ion is obt ained wit h V
t
= 0 which is
px px
xc
Be Ae V

+ . The
par t icular int egr al will be (cV
t
/y), and t he complet e solut ion is
V
x
(s) = y cV Be Ae
t
px px
/ + +

...(8.67)
This can be ver ified by subst it ut ing in equat ion (8.66).
r l
g c
i , v
x x
The boundar y condit ions ar e (1) at x = L, V
L
= E(s) and (2) at x = 0,
0 0
I Z V
t
. Then, A and
B have t he values, wit h p z y z Z / /
0
, t he char act er ist ic impedance,
A = D Z Z pL Z y c V D s E Z Z
t t t
/ ) ) exp( )( / ( / ) ( ) (
0 0 0
+ + ...(8.68)
and B = D Z Z pL Z y c V D s E Z Z
t t t
/ ) ) exp( )( / ( / ) ( ) (
0 0 0
+ ...(8.69)
wit h D = ) ( exp ) ( ) ( exp ) (
0 0
pL Z Z pL Z Z
t t
+ + ...(8.70)
When V
t
=0, t hese equat ions r educe t o equat ions (8.17) and (8.18). The cur r ent ,
even wit h t r apped char ge, is
I
x
= )) ( exp ) ( exp .( / ). / 1 (
0
px B px A Y x V z
x
...(8.71)
which is t he same as equat ion (8.15).
Combining equat ions (8.68), (8.69) and (8.67), since A and B also cont ain t he t r apped-
volt age t er m,
V
x
=
y
c V
pL Z Z pL
px Z Z px
s E
t
t
t
+
+
sinh ) / ( cosh
sinh ) / ( cosh
). (
0
0
pL Z Z pL
px Z Z pL px
t
t
sinh ) / ( cosh
sinh ) / ))( ( exp 1 ( cosh
0
0
+
+
...(8.72)
For an open-ended line, 0 /
0

t
Z Z , and t he volt age at any point x on t he line fr om t he
open end is
V
x0
= E(s).cosh px/cosh pL (V
t
c/y) cosh px/ cosh pL ...(8.73)
In par t icular , at t he open end,
V
0
= pL c g s V pL s E
t
cosh ) / /( cosh / ) ( + ...(8.74)
When V
t
= 0 t his r educes t o equat ion (8.26) which we have been dealing wit h in pr evious
sect ions. The inver se t r ansfor ms of t he fir st t er m E(s)/cosh pL in equat ion (8.74) have alr eady
been obt ained for st ep, double-exponent ial and sinusoidal excit at ions, which ar e equat ions
(8.52), (8.60) and (8.64). To t hese will be added t he r esponse due t o t he t r apped char ge, t he
second t er m in (8.74).
The poles ar e now at s = g/c, and s = a jw
n
, wit h a and w
n
given by equat ions (8.45) and
(8.46).
(1) At t he simple pole s = g/c, t he r esidue is
V
1
= ] ) / ( exp[ . | ) )( ( cosh / .
/
t c g V cs g ls r L e V
t c g s
st
t
+ +

...(8.75)
(2) The r esidue at s = a + jw
n
is
V(n + ) =
) / (
) ( exp
.
2
) 1 2 ).( ( exp ) 1 (
2
c g a j w
t jw
w lc L
n at V
n
n
n
t
n
+
+
...(8.76)
(3) At t he pole s = a jw
n
, t he r esidue is equal t o t he complex conjugat e of V(n + ), t hus
V(n ) = [V(n + )]*.
The sum of all r esidues and t he r esult ing cont r ibut ion t o t he open-end volt age due t o t he
t r apped volt age finally becomes

+
+

0
2 / 1 2 2 2
) cos(
} ) / ( { . .
) 1 2 ).( ( exp
. ) 1 ( ] ) / ( exp[ .
n
n
n n
n
t t
t w
c g a w w lc L
n at
V t c g V
...(8.77)
wher e t an
=
n
w c g a / ) / ( ...(8.78)
Bot h t er ms decay wit h t heir own t ime const ant s. Not e t hat when g = 0, t he t r apped-
char ge volt age is always pr esent in t he open-end volt age in spit e of a line r esist ance r being
pr esent .
8.7 CORONA LOSS AND EFFECTIVE SHUNT CONDUCTANCE
When sur ges pr opagat e on t r ansmission lines t hey suffer at t enuat ion or decr ease in amplit ude
due t o ener gy lost in t he conduct or r esist ance, gr ound r esist ance, and cor ona. This is par t icular ly
beneficial in t he case of light ning and swit ching sur ges. In t he pr evious discussions, a shunt
conduct ance g has been included which r epr esent s t he cor ona loss element . We will now der ive
an appr oximat e expr ession for t his quant it y assuming t he volt age t o be of t he double-exponent ial
for m. It was shown in Chapt er 5 t hat for unidir ect ional sur ges t he cor ona loss in J oules per
unit lengt h is given by t he expr ession
W
e
= ) (
2
1
2
0
2
V V KC
m
...(8.79)
wher e C = capacit ance of conduct or per unit lengt h, K = t he incr ease in capacit ance when
cor ona is pr esent , V
m
= peak value of volt age at t ained and V
0
= cor ona-incept ion volt age, peak
value.
This was obt ained fr om t he q-V r elat ion appr oximat ed t o a t r apezoidal for m, Fig. 5.3.
Let t he waveshape of t he double-exponent ial be
e(t ) = ) (
0
t t
e e E

...(8.80)
wher e E
0
, and depend on t he t imings of fr ont and 50% value on t ail, and t he cr est
volt age. Typical values of
0
, , E ar e given below:

m
V E /
0
Light ning Impulse 1.2/50 s 14.5 10
3
2.45 10
6
1.035
Swit ching Sur ge 250/2500 s 320 12 10
3
1.13
Denot ing by g
e
"effect ive conduct ance" per unit lengt h t he differ ent ial ener gy loss is (g
e
.e
2
.dt )
per unit lengt h, and t he t ot al ener gy loss in t he full wave is *
W
e
=

0 0
2
0
2 2
0
2
.
2
) ( . . . E g dt e e E g dt e g
e
t t
e e
...(8.81)
* In pr act ice t he limit s of int egr at ion ar e not 0 and but t he t imes when t he volt age equals cor ona-
incept ion and ext inct ion values. These depend on t he peak of sur ge. This can be wor ked out on a case-by-
ca se ba sis.
Equat ing t his t o ) (
2
1
2
0
2
V V KC
m
, t he effect ive conduct ance per unit lengt h is
g
e
=
2
0
2
0
2
/ ) .( )} /( { E V V KC
m
...(8.82)
In pr act ice, t he cr est value of volt age V
m
for bot h light ning and swit ching sur ges is 2.5 t o
3 t imes t he cr est value of cor ona-incept ion volt age V
0
, and E
0
is appr oximat ely equal t o V
m
.
Ther efor e t he fact or
2
0
2
0
2
/ ) ( E V V
m
is near ly unit y. An appr oximat ion for g
e
will t hen be
C g KC g
e e
/ and ) /( = ) /( K ...(8.83)
The value of K is about 0.7.
Exa mp le 8.3. A 400 kV line has C = 10 nF/km. For light ning and swit ching sur ge t ype of
volt age, calculat e t he effect ive conduct ance per unit lengt h assuming 1 / ) (
2
0
2
0
2
E V V
m
.
Sol u t i on .
(a) For light ning : g
e
= ) /( KC
= 14.5 2.45 0.7 10
5
/2.436 = 102 mho/km
(b) For swit ching : g
e
= (320 12 0.7/11.68) 10
8
= 2.3 mho/km
Exa mp le 8.4. A 300 km line is t o be r epr esent ed by a model consist ing of 12 sect ions for
t he above 400-kV line. Find t he values of r esist ances t o be connect ed in shunt for each sect ion.
Sol u t i on . Let line lengt h be L and number of sect ions be N. Then each -sect ion is
equivalent t o a lengt h of line of (L/N) km. The t ot al conduct ance is G
e
= g
e
L/N mhos and t he
cor r esponding r esist ance is R
e
= N/g
e
L.
(a) For lightning-impulse : R
e
= 12/(102 10
6
300) = 392 ohms
(b) For swit ching-surge: R
e
= 12/(2.3 10
6
300) = 17.4 kilohms
Not e t hat because of t he lower r esist ance t o be connect ed in shunt for t he light ning case,
t he volt age loses ener gy fast er t han for t he swit ching sur ge and t he wave at t enuat ion is higher .
In gener al, light ning sur ges at t enuat e t o 50% value of t he incident sur ge in only 10 km wher eas
it may only be 80% for swit ching sur ges aft er a t r avel of even as far as 400 km.
8.8 THE METHOD OF FOURIER TRANSFORMS
The met hod of Four ier Tr ansfor ms when applied t o pr opagat ion char act er ist ics of light ning
and swit ching sur ges is compar at ively of r ecent or igin and because of t he availabilit y of power ful
Digit al Comput er s offer s a ver y useful t ool for evaluat ing t r ansient per for mance of syst ems,
especially when dist r ibut ed par amet er lines occur in combinat ion wit h lumped syst em element s.
These ar e in t he for m of ser ies sour ce impedance, r esist or s in cir cuit br eaker s, shunt r eact or s
for line compensat ion, t r ansfor mer s, bus bar s, bushing capacit ances, and ent ir e sub-st at ions at
t he r eceiving end.
In pr evious sect ions, a solut ion for volt age at t he open end of a line was der ived in closed
for m by bot h t he t r avelling-wave and st anding-wave met hods using t he t ime-shift ing t heor em
and r esidues by using t he Laplace Tr ansfor m. The Four ier Tr ansfor m par allels t he Laplace
Tr ansfor m wit h (1) t he subst it ut ion of s = a + jw in all quant it ies in t heir oper at ional for m,
(2) separ at ing r eal and j-par t s in t he r esult ing expr ession for a volt age or cur r ent under
invest igat ion, and (3) finally calculat ing t he Inver se Four ier Tr ansfor m (IFT) by per for ming an
indicat ed numer ical int egr at ion, pr efer ably using t he Digit al Comput er . We will illust r at e t he
met hod for obt aining t he open-end volt age consider ed befor e and t hen ext end it t o include
ot her t ypes of line t er minat ion and ser ies and shunt impedances. Specific cases useful for
design of insulat ion of lines will be t aken up in chapt er 10 on Swit ching Sur ges.
The open-end volt age was found t o be, equat ion (8.26),
V
0
(s) = E(s)/cosh pL wher e p = f(r, l, g, c)
For a st ep input , E(s) = V/s, and in gener al p = . ) )( ( cs g ls r + + Subst it ut e s = a + jw.
Then,
) (
0
jw a V + = )} ( )}{ ( { cosh ). /( jw a c g jw a l r L jw a V + + + + + ...(8.84)
We can separ at e t he r eal and j-par t s easily. Let cosh pL be wr it t en as t he complex number
(M + jN). Then,
V
0
= )} ( ) /{( ) )( /( wM aN j wN aM V jN M jw a V + + + +
= jQ P
wM aN wN aM
wM aN j wN aM
V +
+ +
+
2 2
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
. ...(8.85)
The r eal and j-par t s of t he r equir ed open-end volt age ar e
P = D wM aN V Q D wN aM V / ) ( and , / ) ( + ...(8.86)
wher e D =
2 2
) ( ) ( wM aN wN aM + + , t he denominat or ...(8.87)
The inver se t r ansfor m is t hen given by t he int egr al
V
0
(t ) =
+
0
0
1
, . . cos . .
2
)] ( [ dw wt e P jw a V F
f
at
...(8.88)
wher e
f
is called t he "sigma fact or " which helps in conver gence of t he int egr al. In a
pr act ical sit uat ion, because of t he upper limit s being 0 and , division by zer o occur s. In or der
t o obviat e t his, a lower limit for w = W
i
is assumed (could be a value of 10) and t he int egr at ion
is t er minat ed at a final value w = W
F
. The sigma fact or is t hen wr it t en as
f
= ) / /( ) / sin(
F F
W w W w ...(8.89)
and t he desir ed int egr al becomes
V
0
(t ) =
F
i
W
W
F
F
at
dw
W w
W w
wt P
e
.
) / (
) / sin(
. cos .
2
...(8.90)
The j-par t could also be used and is t hen wr it t en as
V
0
(t ) =
F
i
W
W
F
F at
dw
W w
W w
wt Q e .
) / (
) / sin(
. sin .
2
...(8.91)
The numer ical int egr at ion can be car r ied out by ut ilizing any of t he sever al met hods
available in books on Numer ical Met hods, such as (a) t he t r apezoidal r ule, (b) Simpson's Rule,
(c) Gauss's met hod, and finally by t he applicat ion of (d) t he Fast -Four ier Tr ansfor m. These ar e
consider ed beyond t he scope of t his book.
Ther e ar e sever al fact or s which ar e now discussed on t he choice of values for sever al
quantities such as a, W
i
and W
F
, which ar e ver y cr it ical fr om t he point of view of applicat ion of
t his met hod. Fir st , t he values of M and N ar e found as follows:
Let
pL = jn m jw a c g jw a l r L + + + + + )} ( )}{ ( { ...(8.92)
Then,
2
) ( jn m +
= J + jK wher e ...(8.93)
and
'
+ + +
+ +
} ) ( ) {(
} ) )( {(
2
2 2
lw ca g cw la r L K
w lc ca g la r L J
...(8.94)
m
2
n
2
= J and 2 mn = K wit h K > 0 ...(8.95)
Solving for m and n in t er ms of J and K, t her e a r e
m =
2 / 1
2 2
2 / 1
2 2
(
2
1
) (
2
1
]
]
]
+
]
]
]
+ + J K J n and J K J
...(8.96)
Then, cosh (m + jn) = cosh m. cos n + j sinh m sin n = M + jN or
M = cosh m.cos n and N = sinh m.sin n ...(8.97)
The use of t he Four ier -Tr ansfor m Met hod for ver y fast -r ising input volt ages such as t he
st ep funct ion is ver y impor t ant and any choice of values for a, W
i
and W
F
used for t his t ype of
excit at ion will hold for ot her t ypes. Fr om exper ience, t he following r ules ar e for mulat ed which
should be t r ied out for each case and t he final values chosen:
(1) The choice of t he conver ging fact or "a" which is t he r eal par t of t he Four ier -Tr ansfor m
oper a t or s = (a + jw) is ver y cr ucial. If T
f
= final value of t ime up t o which t he r esponse
is t o be evaluat ed, t hen a r ule is t o choose (a T
f
) = 1 t o 4. For example, for a swit ching-
sur ge st udy car r ied out t o one cycle on 50 Hz base, t hat is 20 ms, t he value of a = 50
t o 200. If t he calculat ion is t o pr oceed up t o 40 ms, t wo cycles, t hen choose a = 50 t o
200 for t he fir st 20 ms, and 25 t o 100 for t he next 20 ms.
(2) The choice of final value of w = W
F
at which t he int egr at ion of (8.90) or (8.91) is t o be
t r uncat ed is gover ned by t he r ise t ime of t he phenomenon. The shor t est r ise t ime
occur s for a st ep funct ion (t heor et ically zer o) and W
F
may be as lar ge as 10
6
, but for
ot her wave-shapes it may be 10
5
.
(3) The choice of int er val ( w ) depends on t he accur acy r equir ed. The number of or dinat es
chosen for int egr at ion is w W W N
i F
/ ) (
0
. This can be 500 t o 1000 so t hat t he
choice of W
F
will det er mine t he fr equency st ep t o be used.
Chapt er 10 will descr ibe some calculat ions using t his met hod.
8.9 REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF TRAVELLING WAVES
The met hods descr ibed ear lier can be ver y usefully applied t o simple but impor t ant syst em
configur at ions and t he Four ier Tr ansfor m met hod can handle ent ir e syst ems given sufficient
comput er t ime. In may sit uat ions, sever al component s ar e connect ed in ser ies and a wave
t r avelling on one of t hese pr opagat es in a differ ent component wit h a differ ent value. This is
caused by t he discont inuit y at t he junct ion which gives r ise t o r eflect ed and r efr act ed (or
t r ansmit t ed) waves. They ar e descr ibed by r eflect ion and r efr act ion fact or s which ar e der ived
as follows:
The volt age and cur r ent at any point on a line was found t o be, equat ions (8.19) and (8.20),
and Fig. 8.3,
V =
) (
sinh ) / ( cosh
sinh ) / ( cosh
0
0
s E
pl Z Z pL
px Z Z px
t
t
+
+
...(8.19)
I = ) (
sinh ) / ( cosh
cosh ) / ( sinh 1
0
0
0
s E
pL Z Z pL
px Z Z px
Z
t
t
+
+
...(8.20)
These r esult ed fr om t he gener al solut ions, equat ions (8.14) and (8.15),
V(x) = ) (
1
) ( and
0
px px px px
Be Ae
Z
x I Be Ae

+
The volt age and cur r ent consist of t wo par t s:
V(x) =
2
0
1
0
2 1 2 1
1 1
) ( and , V
Z
V
Z
I I x I V V + + ...(8.98)
We count ed x = 0 fr om t he t er minal, Fig. 8.3, (at t he impedance Z
t
) while x = L at t he
sour ce end. The t er m e
px
incr eases as we move fr om Z
t
t o t he sour ce which is an unnat ur al
condit ion. But t he concept of a wave decr easing in magnit ude as one moves fr om t he sour ce
end int o t he line is a nat ur al behaviour of any phenomenon in nat ur e. Consequent ly, t his is a
for war d t r avelling wave fr om t he sour ce. When losses ar e neglect ed, v l c p / 1 wher e v =
velocit y of e.m. pr opagat ion. The cur r ent also consist s of t wo par t s: (1)
0 1 0 1
/ / Z V Z Ae I
px

which is t he for wa r d-t r a velling component . The r a t io of volt a ge t o cur r ent is + Z
0
, t he
char act er ist ic impedance of line. (2)
0 2 0 2
/ / Z V Z Be I
px

, which is t he backwar d-t r avelling
component fr om t he t er minal end t o t he sour ce. The r at io of volt age t o cur r ent is ( Z
0
).
Let us r e-wr it e t he expr ession in (8.19) as
V =
) (
) / 1 ( ) / 1 (
) / 1 ( ) / 1 (
0 0
0 0
s E
Z Z e Z Z e
Z Z e Z Z e
t
pL
t
pL
t
px
t
px
+ +
+ +
...(8.99)
At x = 0, t he sur ge is incident on Z
t
wher e t he incident volt age has t he magnit ude
(1 + Z
0
/Z
t
) E(s)/D, wher e D = t he denominat or of equat ion (8.99).
The t ot al volt age acr oss Z
t
is
V =
r i
V V +
wher e V
i
= t he incident volt age and V
r
= r eflect ed volt age. The volt age V is also called t he
r efr act ed volt age or t r ansmit t ed volt age. At t he junct ion of line and Z
t
, fr om equat ion (8.99), we
have t he r elat ion
K
r
=

,
`
.
|
t Coefficien
Reflect ion
/ 1
/ 1
Volt age Incident
Volt age Reflect ed
0
0
0
0
Z Z
Z Z
Z Z
Z Z
t
t
t
t
...(8.100)
The r efr act ion or t r ansmission coefficient is defined as
K
t
=
junct ion at Volt age Incident
junct ion at Volt age Tot al
=
) /( 2
/ 1
) / 1 ( ) / Z (1
0
0
0 0
Z Z Z
Z Z
Z Z Z
t t
t
t t
+
+
+ +
...(8.101)
We also not e t hat
K
t
=
r
K + 1 ...(8.102)
Similar ly, for t he cur r ent . The t ot al cur r ent can be wr it t en at x = 0, or at t he junct ion of
line and Z
t
, as
r i
pL
t
pL
t
t t
I I s E
e Z Z e Z Z
Z Z Z Z
Z
I +
+ +
+ +
) (
) / 1 ( ) / 1 (
) 1 / ( ) / 1 ( 1
0 0
0 0
0
...(8.103)
The r at io of r eflect ed component of cur r ent t o t he incident cur r ent at t he junct ion, or t he
r eflect ion coefficient , is
i r r
I I J / = ) 1 / /( ) 1 / (
0 0
+
t t
Z Z Z Z
=
r t t
K Z Z Z Z + ) /( ) (
0 0
...(8.104)
while t he t r ansmission coefficient is
i t
I I J / =
t t t t t
K Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z ) / ( ) /( 2 ) / 1 /( ) / 2 (
0 0 0 0 0
+ + ...(8.105)
The r eflect ion coefficient s for volt age and cur r ent , K
r
and J
r
, ar e of opposit e sign since
t hey ar e backwar d t r avelling component s. The r efr act ion coefficient s for volt age and cur r ent
ar e of t he same sign.
These coefficient s ar e usually der ived in a simpler manner (wit hout pr oving t he r elat ions
bet ween incident , r eflect ed and r efr act ed waves) as follows:
Consider t he equat ions
wher e
'

+ +
r r i i t t t
r i t r i t
I Z V I Z V I Z V
I I I V V V
0 0
and , ,
and
...(8.106)
Then,
t t
I Z =
0 0 0
/ giving Z I Z I I I Z I Z
t t r i r i
...(8.107)
Since
r i
I I + = I
t
, we obt ain
2I
i
=
i t t i t t t
I J Z Z I Z I I Z Z + + ) / 2 giving ) / 1 (
0 0 0
...(8.108)
and 2I
r
=
t r t t i r t t
I J Z Z Z Z I I I Z Z + ) /( ) ( giving ) / 1 (
0 0 0
...(8.109)
Similar ly,
t t
Z V / = . and ) / ( or / ) (
0 0 t r i t t r i r i
V V V V Z Z V V Z V V +
These yield V
t
=
i t i t t
V K V Z Z Z + )] /( 2 [
0
...(8.110)
and V
r
=
i r t t i i t i t
V K Z Z Z Z V V K V V + ) /( ) ( ) 1 (
0 0
...(8.111)
These coefficient s can be used ver y effect ively in or der t o find junct ion volt ages in simple
cases which ar e exper ienced in pr act ice. Let us consider cer t ain special cases.
Case Z
t
K
t
K
r
J
t
J
r
(1) Open cir cuit + 2 + 1 0 1
(2) Shor t cir cuit 0 0 1 + 2 + 1
(3) Mat ched Z
0
+ 1 0 + 1 0
(4) Two out going lines Z
0
/2 + 2/3 1/3 + 4/3 + 1/3
(5) n out going lines Z
0
/n 2/(n + 1)
) 1 (
) 1 (
+

n
n
) 1 (
2
+ n
n
) 1 (
) 1 (
+
n
n
Exa mp le 8.5. An over head line wit h Z
0
= 400 ohms cont inues int o a cable wit h Z
c
= 100
ohms. A sur ge wit h a cr est value of 1000 kV is coming t owar ds t he junct ion fr om t he over head
line. Calculat e t he volt age in t he cable.
Sol u t i on . K
t
= 2Z
c
/(Z
c
+ Z
0
) = 200/500 = 0.4.
Ther efor e, cable volt age = 400 kV, cr est .
Exa mp le 8.6. In t he above example, t he end of t he cable is connect ed t o a t r ansfor mer
whose impedance is pr act ically infinit e t o a sur ge, when t he bushing capacit ance is omit t ed.
Calculat e t he t r ansfor mer volt age.
Sol u t i on . When t he 400 kV volt age r eaches t he junct ion of cable and t r ansfor mer , it
r eflect s posit ively wit h K
r
= + 1 and K
t
= + 2.
Ther efor e
Tr ansfor mer volt age = 800 kV.
Exa mp le 8.7. A 750-kV t r ansmission line has a sur ge impedance of 275 ohms and t he
t r ansfor mer t o be connect ed t o it has a sur ge impedance of 1100 ohms for it s h.v. winding. The
lengt h of winding is 5 km and it s far end is connect ed t o a zer o r esist ance gr ound. A sur ge of
2400 kV is coming in t he line which is t o be limit ed t o 1725 kV at t he t r ansfor mer bushing by
using a shor t cable. (a) Calculat e t he sur ge impedance and volt age r at ing of t he cable t o be
int er posed bet ween line and t r ansfor mer . (b) Calculat e t he volt age at t he h.v. t er minal of t he
winding as soon as t he fir st r eflect ion ar r ives fr om t he gr ounded end. See Fig. 8.8.
Fi g. 8.8 Cir cuit diagr am for Example 8.7.
Sol u t i on . If V
i
= incident volt age fr om line, V
c
= volt age at junct ion of line and cable, and
V
t
volt age of t r ansfor mer h.v. winding at t he junct ion of cable and t r ansfor mer , t hen:
V
c
= ) 275 /( 2400 2 ) /( 2 .
1
+ +
c c c c i
Z Z Z Z Z V .
36 Ohms = 2.25 r
275 Ohms
1 0 Ohms 0 1
J
cl
J
ct
5 km
1km, 5 s
Similar ly,
V
t
= ) 1100 /( 2200 ) /( 2 .
c c c t t c
Z V Z Z Z V + +
Thus we obt ain wit h all sur ge impedances in kilohms.
1725 = )] 1 . 1 )( 275 . 0 /[( 2400 4 . 4
c c c
Z Z Z + +
giving
2
c
Z 4.74674 Z
c
+ 0.3025 = 0.
This yields t he mor e r easonable value of Z
c
= 64.6 ohms. (The ot her value is 4682 ohms).
Wit h t his cable, t he volt ages at t he t wo ends of t he cable ar e V
c
= 913 kV at t he junct ion of line
and 1725 kV at t he junct ion of t r ansfor mer . Ther efor e, t he impulse volt age level of cable will be
chosen as 1725 kV, t he same as t he t r ansfor mer .
(b) The r eflect ion at zer o-r esist ance gr ound of t he t r ansfor mer winding is t ot al and negat ive.
Ther efor e, t he t r ansfor mer t er minal volt age should dr op suddenly fr om 1725 kV t o zer o, but
because of t he cable t he junct ion volt age falls by (2Z
c
/(Z
c
+ Z
t
)) ( 1725) = 191.4 kV. Ther efor e,
t he junct ion volt age is (1725 191.4) = 1533.6 kV.
8.10 TRANSIENT RESPONSE OF SYSTEMS WITH SERIES AND SHUNT
LUMPED PARAMETERS AND DISTRIBUTED LINES
Up t o Sect ion 8.8 we consider ed t he equat ions and solut ions of a t r ansmission line only when
ener gized by t he differ ent t ypes of sour ces. In pr act ice, lumped element s ar e connect ed t o
lines. In t his sect ion we will consider t he development of equat ions suit able for solut ion based
on t r ansfor m met hods or finit e differ ence met hods using t he Digit al Comput er . The act ual
pr ocedur e for solut ion is left t o Chapt er 10 wher e some examples will be given.
Fi g. 8.9 Tr ansmission syst em wit h sour ce, ser ies impedance, shunt impedance,
dist r ibut ed-par amet er line, and t er minat ing impedance.
Figur e 8.9 shows a gener al single-line diagr am of a sour ce E(s) ener gizing t he line wit h
dist r ibut ed-par amet er s (r, l, g, c per unit lengt h). Ther e is an impedance Z
s
in bet ween t he
sour ce and line which nor mally is composed of t he t r ansient r eact ance x' of t he synchr onous
machine and any r esist ance t hat can be included in t he cir cuit br eaker dur ing t he swit ching
oper a t ion. A shunt impeda nce Z
sh
is a lso in t he cir cuit which ca n r epr esent t he shunt -
compensa t ing r ea ct or . The line is t er mina t ed wit h a n impeda nce Z
t
wh ich con sist s of a
t r a nsfor mer , shunt r ea ct or , or a n ent ir e subst a t ion. For t he pr esent , only single-pha se
r epr esent at ion is used which we can ext end t o a complet e 3-phase syst em as will be done in
Chapt er 10.
Let z = r + ls and y = g + cs as befor e ...(8.112)
s
I
s
I
e
I
0
Zt( ) s Zsh Ve
V0 E s ( ) e t ( )
I r, l, g, c
Then, at any point x fr om t he t er minat ion Z
t
, t he equat ions ar e
x V /
= yV x I zI / and ...(8.113)
'
) )( / ( and
solut ions wit h
px px
px px
e B e A z p I
e B e A V
...(8.114)
The boundar y condit ions ar e : (1) at x = L, V = V
e
, t he volt age at t he line ent r ance, and (2)
at x = 0, V(0) = I(0). Z
t
. Using
Z
0
= , / / p z y z
we obt ained t he solut ions, equat ions (8.19) and (8.20) for t he volt age and cur r ent at any
point on t he line as follows;
V(x) = e
t
t
V
pL Z Z pL
px Z Z px
.
sinh ) / ( cosh
sinh ) / ( cosh
0
0
+
+
...(8.115)
and I(x) = e
t
t
V
pL Z Z pL
px Z Z px
Z
.
sinh ) / ( cosh
cosh ) / ( sinh
.
1
0
0
0
+
+
...(8.116)
At t he end of t he line, x = 0, t he volt age and cur r ent ar e
V(0) = ] sinh ) / ( /[cosh
0
pL Z Z pL V
t e
+ ...(8.117)
and I(0) = V(0)/Z
t
...(8.118)
At t he ent r ance t o t he line, x = L, t hey a r e
V(L) =
e
t
t
e
V
pL Z Z pL
pL Z Z pL
Z
L I V .
sinh ) / ( cosh
cosh ) / ( sinh
.
1
) ( and
0
0
0
+
+
...(8.119)
Ther efor e, if t he volt age V
e
is found in t er ms of t he known excit at ion volt age of sour ce
(st ep, double exponent ial, or sinusoidal) t hen all quant it ies in equat ions (8.115) t o (8.119) ar e
det er mined in oper at ional for m. By using t he Four ier Tr ansfor m met hod, t he t ime var iat ion
can be r ealized.
Refer r ing t o Fig. 8.9, t he following equat ions can be wr it t en down:
I
sh
=
s s e sh s sh e
I Z s E V L I I I Z V + ) ( ), ( , / ...(8.120)
V
e
= E(s) Z
s
(I
sh
+ I(L))
=
e
t
t s
e
sh
s
V
pL Z Z pL
pL Z Z pL
Z
Z
V
Z
Z
s E
sinh ) / ( cosh
cosh ) / ( sinh
) (
0
0
0
+
+
...(8.121)
Solving for V
e
, t he volt age at t he line ent r ance, we obt ain
V
e
=
pL Z Z pL
pL Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z pL Z Z Z Z
s E
t
s t sh s t t s sh s
sinh ) / ( cosh
sinh ) / / / ( cosh ) / / 1 (
) (
0
0 0 0
+
+ + + + +
...(8.122)
When Z
s
= 0 and Z
sh
= , t he ent r ance volt age equals t he sour ce volt age E(s).
8.11 PRINCIPLES OF TRAVELLING-WAVE PROTECTION OF E.H.V. LINES
In keeping wit h t he pr ogr ess achieved in all fields wit h t he use of t he Digit al Comput er , t he
Micr opr ocessor , fibr e-opt ical links, and high-speed communicat ion, and advances made in cir cuit
br eaker s which could oper at e in one cycle inst ead of t wo and half cycles in e.h.v. syst em pr ot ect ion
dur ing single-pole and t hr ee-pole clear ing, r elaying speeds have also been incr eased in or der t o
make t he br eaker s oper at e ver y quickly in or der t o pr eser ve or impr ove syst em st abilit y. One
such scheme t hat has been developed since 1978 is t he r elaying and pr ot ect ion of EHV/UHV
lines based on t he pr inciple of t r avelling waves which ar e gener at ed by t he fault it self and
which t r avel t o t he r elaying point s at t he speed of e.m. wave pr opagat ion. Ther e ar e sever al
ingenuous schemes which ut ilize t hese waves and t he r eader is r efer r ed t o t he vast amount of
t echnical paper s for t he det ails of soft war e and har dwar e. (See r efer ences 98110 under IEEE
and 5153 under "Ot her J our nals" for impor t ant ideas). We shall only set for t h t he pr inciples of
t r avelling waves, especially t he wave solut ions of D'Alember t and t hose of Ber ger on.
Figur e 8.10 shows a sour ce connect ed t o a dist r ibut ed-par amet er line wit h induct ance l
per unit lengt h and capacit ance c per unit lengt h. We neglect any line r esist ance and shunt
conduct ance for t he pr esent . Taking x = 0 at t he sour ce, at any dist ance x and t ime t , t he
following equat ions can be wr it t en down:
,
`
.
|
+ dx
x
v
v v .
=
t
v
c dx
x
i
i i
t
dx l
i

,
`
.
|
. . and . . ...(8.123)
giving
x
v
=
t
v
c
x
i
t
i
l
. and , .
...(8.124)
Fr om t hese t wo equat ions, by defining g =
l c / 1
, we obt ain t he wave equat ion for volt age
t o be
2
2
2
x
v
g
=
2
2
t
v
...(8.125)
F i g. 8.10 Dist r ibut ed-par amet er line for der ivat ion of gover ning
equat ions for volt age and cur r ent .
The solut ion t o t his equat ions as given by D'Alember t is
v(x, t ) = ) ( ) (
2 1
gt x F gt x F + + ...(8.126)
The r eader can ver ify t hat t his solut ion sat isfies equat ion (8.125).
Similar ly, i(x, t ) = ) ( ) (
2 1
gt x G gt x G + + ...(8.127)
i
dx
l. dx
V + dx
v
x
V
V
i
i + dx
v
x
c.dx
x
E
s
In equat ions (8.126) and (8.127), t he funct ions F
1
t o G
2
ar e quit e ar bit r ar y whose values
can be det er mined fr om given boundar y and init ial condit ions. The funct ions F
1
(x gt ) and
G
1
(x gt ) r epr esent waves t r avelling in t he for war d dir ect ion fr om t he sour ce, since for any
given const ant values of t hese funct ions, as t ime is incr eased, t hat const ant value will be found
at a far t her dist ance, i.e., t he wave is t r avelling away fr om t he sour ce. On t he ot her hand, t he
funct ions F
2
(x + gt ) and G
2
(x + gt ) ar e t r avelling t owar ds t he sour ce or in t he backwar d dir ect ion.
The velocit ies in t he t wo cases ar e (+ g) for t he for war d wave and ( g) for t he backwar d wave.
Rever t ing back t o equat ion (8.124), let t ing
) (
1
gt x F
'
=
) (
) (
) ( and ) (
) (
1 1 1
gt x G
gt x d
d
gt x G gt x F
gt x d
d
'
,
we obt ain
) (
1
gt x F
'
= ) ( . ) ( ) . (
1 0 1
gt x G Z gt x G g l
' '
...(8.128)
wher e Z
0
=
2 / 1
) / ( c l
= sur ge impedance of line ...(8.129)
It is clear t hat ) (
1
gt x G = ) ( ) / 1 (
1 0
gt x F Z ...(8.130)
The r at io of volt age t o cur r ent in t he for war d-t r avelling waves is (+ Z
0
). In a similar
manner , t he r at io of volt age t o cur r ent in t he backwar d-t r avelling waves is ( Z
0
), since
) (
2
gt x F
'
+ = ), ( ) . (
2
gt x G g l
'
+ fr om equat ion (8.124).
Ther efor e, we can wr it e t he expr essions for t he volt age and cur r ent as

'
+
+
+ +
) ( ) ( . , or
), ( ) / ( ) ( ) / ( and
) ( ) (
2 1 0
2
2 / 1
1
2 / 1
2 1
gt x F gt x F i Z
gt x F l c gt x F l c i
gt x F gt x F v
...(8.131)
These ar e t he D'Alember t solut ions for t he wave equat ions. Now, in or der t o separ at e t he
for war d and backwar d t r avelling component s, which is ext r emely impor t ant for r elaying and
pr ot ect ion pur poses, we use Ber ger on's t echnique, namely,
and
'
+
+
. wave backwar d t he )], , ( . ) , ( [
2
1
) (
, wave for war d t he )], , ( . ) , ( [
2
1
) (
0 2
0 1
t x i Z t x v gt x F
t x i Z t x v gt x F
...(8.132)
When a fault occur s on t he line, as shown in Fig. 8.11, t her e r esult changes in volt age and
cur r ent at t he fault ed point and waves ar e init iat ed which t r avel and ar e super imposed on t he
power -fr equency component s of volt age and cur r ent exist ing pr ior t o occur r ence of fault . For
example, if t he fault is a single-phase-t o-gr ound fault and t he fault impedance is zer o, t he
ent ir e power -fr equency volt age collapses at t his point and a wave wit h a magnit ude equal and
opposit e t o t he power -fr equency volt age at t he inst ant of fault occur r ence t r avels t owar ds t he
t wo ends of line which const it ut e for war d waves fr om t he fault ed point . Thus equat ion (8.132)
for F
1
(x gt ) will be used which will be sensed at t he r elaying point s as a volt age t hr ough a
pot ent ial t r ansfor mer (eit her induct ive p.t . or a c.v.t .) and a cur r ent t r ansfor mer . The t wo
out put s can be suit ably combined by mult iplying or amplifying t he cur r ent by Z
0
and t he r elay
can be made t o gener at e a pulse t o init iat e t he t r ip-coil mechanism of t he cir cuit br eaker . This
F i g. 8.11 Line-t o-gr ound fault on a syst em wit h mult iple gener at ion t o
illust r at e init iat ion of t r avelling waves.
is shown schemat ically in Fig. 8.12. The ent ir e phenomenon of occur r ence of fault , sensing t he
t r avelling wave and feeding t he t r ip-coil cur r ent pulse for t he cir cuit br eaker can be made t o be
complet ed wit hin half-cycle, i.e., wit hin 10 ms for 50 Hz and 8.33 ms for 60-Hz syst ems. If t he
br eaker oper at ing mechanism t akes anot her half-cycle, t he fault is t hen clear ed in one cycle.
F i g. 8.12 Fault volt age and cur r ent sensing syst em for t r avelling-wave pr ot ect ion.
R
F
= fault r esist ance. F
1
, G
1
: Fault -init iat ed t r avelling waves of volt age and cur r ent .
(For war d-t r avelling component s).
Cer t ain difficult ies ar ise in t his simple scheme because of t he pr esence of t he gener at ing
st at ion being t he r elaying point while t he shor t -cir cuit cur r ent cont ains a dc offset . These must
be eliminat ed by filt er ing and only t he high-fr equency component s of t he t r avelling wave must
be used. Since t his r epr esent s a t ype of noise signal, some schemes use cor r elat ion t echniques
and Four ier Tr ansfor ms, incor por at ed in soft war e in a comput er or micr opr ocessor at t he
sensing point . Most differ ences bet ween differ ent pr ot ect ion schemes ar e based on dir ect ional
sensing of t he fault in or der t o ascer t ain t hat t he r elay oper at es only for fault s in t he pr ot ect ed
zone and not for a fault beyond it s zone. For det ails of design and oper at ion of pr ot ect ive
schemes based on t r avelling waves, see t he excellent paper s list ed in bibliogr aphy.
1. A t r ansmission line is 300 km long and open at t he far end. The at t enuat ion of sur ge
is 0.9 over one lengt h of t r avel at light velocit y. It is ener gized by (a) a st ep of 1000
kV, and (b) a sine wave of 325 kV peak when t he wave is passing t hr ough it s peak.
Calculat e and plot t he open-end volt age up t o 20 ms.
2. For t he st ep input in pr oblem 1, dr aw t he Bewley Lat t ice Diagr am. Calculat e t he
final value of open-end volt age.
x
g1
x
g2
Gen-1 Gen-2
G
F
x
g1 x
g2
Gen.1 Gen.2
P.T. P.T.
G x gt
1
( )
F x gt ( )
1
RF
C.T.
3. A t r ansmission line has l = 1 mH/km and c = 11.11 nF/km. The conduct or plus gr ound
r esist a nce a mount s t o 0.4 ohm/km. Ta king only a single-pha se r epr esent a t ion,
calculat e (a) t he velocit y of pr opagat ion, (b) t he sur ge impedance, (c) t he at t enuat ion
fact or for 400 km in Neper s and dB, (d) t he maximum value of open-end volt age.
4. The above line is t er minat ed in a load of 500 ohms r esist ance. Calculat e t he r eflect ion
and r efr act ion fact or s at t he load.
5. Der ive equat ions (8.19) t hr ough (8.23).
6. Ver ify t hat (8.67) is a solut ion (8.66).
7. A t r ansfor mer whose winding has a sur ge impedance of 1000 ohms is t o be connect ed
t o an over head line wit h Z
0
= 400 ohms. The light ning sur ge has a peak value of 1500
kV coming in t he line while t he t r ansfor mer volt age is t o be limit ed t o 800 kV, peak.
Suggest an alt er nat ive t o a light ning ar r est er by using a cable t o connect t he line t o
t he t r ansfor mer . Det er mine it s sur ge impedance and volt age r at ing.
9.1 LIGHTNING STROKES TO LINES
Light ning is a major sour ce of danger and damage t o e.h.v. t r ansmission lines, r esult ing in loss
of t r ansmission up t o a few hour s t o complet e dest r uct ion of a line. This ent ails a lot of expense
t o power ut ilit ies and consumer s. Light ning-pr ot ect ion met hods ar e based on sound scient ific
and engineer ing pr inciples and pr act ice; however , ext ensive damages do occur in power syst ems
in spit e of t his. Thus, no t r ansmission line design can be consider ed light ning-pr oof, nor do
designer s aim for t his goal. Line out ages, or a line being t aken out of ser vice for a shor t t ime,
and line designs against t hese ar e based on st at ist ical pr ocedur es. An accept able design is t o
allow a cer t ain number N
t
out ages per year per 100 km of line, or ot her t ime dur at ions and
ot her line lengt hs. The possibilit y of an out age depends on so many fact or s which ar e st at ist ical
in nat ur e t hat a wor st case design is neit her pr act ical nor economical.
It is evident t hat t he number of st r okes cont act ing a t ower or gr ound wir e along t he span
can only depend on t he number of t hunder st or m days in a year called t he 'ker aunic level' or
also called 'isoker aunic level', and denot ed by I
kl
. On t he basis of a vast amount of exper ience
fr om all over t he wor ld, it is est imat ed t hat t he number of light ning st r okes occur r ing over 1
sq. km. per year at any locat ion is fair ly well given by
n
s
= st r okes t o ear t h/km
2
year = (0.15 t o 0.2)I
kl
...(9.1)
The act ual fact or must t her efor e be det er mined fr om obser vat ional dat a in any given
r egion. Also, fr om exper ience, t he ar ea int er cept ed by a line wit h it s met allic st r uct ur es is
t aken t o be pr opor t ional t o
(a) (height of t ower , h
t
+ 2 height of gr ound wir e at mid span, h
g
) and
(b) t he dist ance s
g
bet ween gr ound wir es if t her e is mor e t han 1 gr ound wir e on t he
t ower . Combining a ll t hese fa ct or s, it is est ima t ed t ha t t he number of st r okes
int er cept ed by 100 km of line per year is given by
N
s
= (0.15 t o 0.2) I
kl
{0.0133 (h
t
+ 2 h
g
) + 0.1 s
g
} ...(9.2)
wit h h
g
, h
g
and s
g
in met r es.
Exa mp le 9.1. A r egion has 100 t hunder st or m days in a year . A line wit h a single gr ound
wir e has t ower height h
t
= 30m wit h gr ound line height at midspan h
g
= 24m. Calculat e t he
pr obable number of st r okes cont act ing 100 km of line per year anywher e on t he line.
Sol u t i on . s
g
= 0 for 1 gr ound wir e.
Ther efor e N
s
= (0.15 t o 0.2) 100 0.0133 (30 + 48)
= 15.6 t o 20.8
9
Li gh t n i n g a n d Li gh t n i n g Prot ect i on
Lightning and Lightning Protection 237
Exa mp le 9.2. If t he above line is pr ot ect ed by 2 gr ound wir es wit h s
g
= 12m, and ot her
dimensions r emain same, calculat e N
s
.
Sol u t i on . N
s
= (0.15 t o 0.2) 100 {0.0133 78 + 1.2} = 33.6 t o 44.8.
We obser ve t hat pr oviding 2 gr ound wir es has near ly doubled t he number of st r okes
cont act ing t he line. A lar ger ar ea of t he line is t aking par t in at t r act ing st r okes t o t he line
har dwar e which ot her wise would have cont act ed gr ound. However , t he bet t er shielding pr ovided
by 2 gr ound wir es will gener ally keep t he r isk of line out age lower t han wit h only 1 gr ound wir e
by r educing t he possibilit y of a line conduct or being hit by light ning. It is t he job of t he line
designer t o see t hat pr oper shielding pr ocedur e is adopt ed such t hat all st r okes cont act t he
t ower and gr ound wir e, and none t o t he line conduct or s. This is based on pr obabilist ic aspect s.
For lines wit h longer spans, t he number of st r okes cont act ing t he gr ound wir es bet ween
t ower s is higher t han a line wit h shor t er spans. Since e.h.v. lines have higher t ower height s,
higher gr ound wir e height s at midspan, lar ger separ at ion bet ween gr ound wir es and in addit ion
longer spans t han lower volt age lines, t he mechanism of an over volt age being developed when
gr ound wir es ar e hit assumes mor e pr ominence. It is t her efor e essent ial t o have a knowledge
of t he number of st r okes out of N
s
which will cont act t he t ower and t he r est t o t he gr ound
wir es. This is necessar y because at t he t ower , t he light ning st r oke is gr ounded immediat ely
t hr ough a low r esist ance and t he insulat or volt age is consequent ly lower as compar ed t o a
st r oke hit t ing t he gr ound wir e away fr om t he t ower . This makes t he insulat or volt age r ise
near ly t o (st r oke cur r ent gr ound wir e sur ge impedance).
Befor e we t ake up a discussion of t he pr oblem of design r equir ement s of line insulat ion
based upon light ning volt age and cur r ent , we shall br iefly examine t he mechanism of a light ning
st r oke when it r eaches t he vicinit y of t he t r ansmission line wit h it s met allic t ower s, gr ound
wir es, and phase conduct or s.
9.2 LIGHTNING-STROKE MECHANISM
As t r ansmission volt ages incr eased in 1950 aft er t he second wor ld war t o 345 kV and higher ,
t ower height and bulk incr eased which was r eflect ed in mor e flashover s t han wer e exper ienced
by t he ear lier 132 kV and 230 kV lines. The old out age for mulas developed for t hese lower
volt age lines wer e found t o yield lower out ages t han exper ience indicat ed. This necessit at ed a
cr it ical examinat ion of t he light ning mechanism as it per t ains t o condit ions when cont act ing
t he line. In addit ion t o t he t ower height , t he widt h and br eadt h also incr eased because of wider
phase spacing and incr eased weight of har dwar e t he t ower had t o suppor t as well as t he t ension.
Back flashover mechanism became impor t ant in which t he t ower t op pot ent ial at t he locat ion
of out er phases incr eased t o such a high value as t o cause an insulat or flashover due t o high
pr edischar ge cur r ent s induced by high fields at t he point ed t ip of t he cr oss-ar m. Due t o t r avelling-
wave effect s inside t he long fr amewor k of t he t ower it self, t he t ower -t op pot ent ial is high and it
t akes t ime for all r eflect ions t o die down sufficient ly t o consider t he t ower as acquir ing gr ound
pot ent ial even t hough it is gr ounded well at t he t ower foot ing.
Pr ior t o t hese ver y ser ious obser vat ions, all descr ipt ion of light ning mechanism began
and ended wit h under st anding t he for mat ion of cloud-char ge cent r es, t he physics of pr opagat ion
of leader s and st r eamer s fr om t he cloud down t o ear t h and t he r et ur n st r oke. This is of limit ed
use for e.h.v. line designs alt hough t he physics of t hese mechanisms might find t heir own
academic or ot her uses. But t he advent of t all t ower s changed t his emphasis and we will
commence t he discussion wit h t he mor e impor t ant phenomenon of pr e-dischar ge cur r ent s
caused by t he gr ound plane being elevat ed t o t he met allic par t s of t he t r ansmission line at t he
t ower s, and at t he same t ime t he infinit ely flat gr ound sur face being r eplaced by met allic par t s
of smaller cur vat ur es yielding ver y high st r ess concent r at ions which t he light ning st r oke looks
fr om a bove.
Fi g. 9.1 Mechanism of light ning st r oke t o t ower .
(a) Cha nnel a nd cor ona descending fr om cloud.
(b) Pr e-discha r ge cur r ent fr om t ower meet ing t he cor e.
(c) Ret ur n st r oke.
(d) Build-up of insulat or volt age.
It is now accept ed t hat t her e ar e pr e-dischar ge cur r ent s t hr ough t he t ower flowing fr om
gr ound which ar e due t o t he flow of char ges of opposit e polar it y t o t hat coming down in t he
light ning st r oke t o cont act a t ower or a gr ound wir e. The exper iment al wor k has t aken a ver y
long t ime commencing wit h Schonland, Komelkov, Br uce, Golde, McEachr on, Gr iscom, and
finally by Wagner and Hileman in r ecent year s. The downwar d pr opagat ing st r oke usually has
a channel of about 1 t o 3 mm diamet er , but is accompanied by a ver y lar ge cor ona sheat h which
can be consider ed cylindr ical up t o t he channel t ip and hemispher ical ahead of it , as depict ed in
Fig. 9.1 (a). The leader fr om t he cloud appr oaches in st eps and as it near s t he ear t h t he st eps
become shor t er in lengt h and t he velocit y incr eases t o about 300 km/sec (1/1000-t h of light
velocit y). The act ual values var y over wide limit s, but t his is cr ucial for t he st r oke cur r ent . All
pr obabilist ic aspect s of st r oke cur r ent magnit udes depend on t he vagar ies of t his velocit y. The
pot ent ial of t he channel at t he commencement of t he pr e-dischar ge cur r ent is of t he or der of 50
MV wit h r espect t o ear t h. At t he high elect r ic fields pr esent , a cor ona dischar ge develops at t he
t ip of t he t ower and t his also pr opagat es upwar ds t o meet t he down-coming leader and it s
cor ona envelope, Fig. 9.1 (b). They meet at height s r anging fr om 60 t o 100 met r es above ear t h.
The aver age pot ent ial gr adient in t he cor ona sheat h is 50 10
3
/(60 t o 100) = 833 t o 500 kV/m =
8.33 t o 5 kV/cm or an aver age of 6 kV/cm which is necessar y for br eakdown of moist air .
The char ge along t he st r oke has been est imat ed as about 5C/cm t o give t his volt age
gr adient , and t he velocit y of t he upwar d channel at t he inst ant and aft er cont act wit h t he
downwar d leader is of t he or der of 10% light velocit y. The for mat ion of fr ont t ime of t he cur r ent
wave-for m and t he cr est value depend on t hese fact or s. The st r oke cur r ent is t hen i = qv = 5
10
6
0.1 3 10
10
= 15,000 Amper es. If t he velocit y is higher , say 30% light velocit y, t he
cur r ent incr eases t o 45,000 Amper es. The fr ont t ime of t he st r oke is about (60 t o 100 m)/3 10
7
= 2 t o 3.333 s, at 10% light velocit y. It is now clear how t he st at ist ical var iat ions obser ved in
light ning-st r oke cur r ent s and t heir wavefr ont s can be explained since t hey depend ent ir ely on
t he char ge cont ent , velocit y, et c.
Z
m
Z
g
e
g
e
i
i
c
e
c
i
c
Z
c
i
g
i
g
Tower Return
Stroke
( ) a ( ) b ( ) d ( ) c
Channel
Core
Pre-
Discharge
Current
When a st r oke cont act s a t ower , t he volt age st r ess exper ienced by t he insulat or is found
as follows: If Z
c
and Z
g
, Figur e 9.1(d), ar e t he sur ge impedances of t he line conduct or and
gr ound wir e, and Z
m
t he mut ual impedance bet ween t hem, t hen t he gr ound wir e and line-
conduct or pot ent ials ar e
e
g
=
c c g m c c m g g
i Z i Z e i Z i Z + + and ...(9.3)
wher e i
g
and i
c
ar e cur r ent s flowing fr om each side in t he t wo conduct or s. The conduct or
volt age is t hen
e
c
=
c m f c g f c g m c g g m
i Z K Z e K i Z Z Z e Z Z ) ( . ) / ( ) / (
2
+ +
=
c c c m f g f
i Z Z Z K e K ) / 1 ( . + ...(9.4)
wher e K
f
= coupling fact or bet ween gr ound wir e and conduct or for a volt age applied t o t he
gr ound wir e.
If t he sur ge impedances ar e equal, Z
g
= Z
c
, t hen
e
c
=
c c f g f
i Z K e K ) 1 (
2
+
The volt age acr oss t he insulat or st r ing is
e
i
=
c c c m f g f c g
i Z Z Z K e K e e ) / . 1 ( ) 1 ( ...(9.5)
The second t er m is caused by t he pr esence of pr e-dischar ge cur r ent cont r ibut ed by t he
line conduct or , and if t his can be ar t ificially incr eased, t he insulat or volt age is lower ed. We
obser ve t hat i
c
= 0.5 i
pd
, wher e i
pd
= t he pr e-dischar ge cur r ent flowing in t he conduct or . The
second t er m gives an effect ive impedance of
Z
e
= ) / 1 (
2
1
c m f c
Z Z K Z ...(9.6)
The r educt ion in insulat or volt age in some designs by pr oviding long pipes along t he
conduct or up t o 4 met r es on each side has been est imat ed t o lower t he insulat or volt age by
15%, and t he pr e-dischar ge cur r ent measur ed fr om labor at or y exper iment s is about 1000
Amper es.
S troke Contacting Midspan , Fig. 9.2 (a).
In t his case,
e
g
=
c c g m c c m g g
i Z i Z e i Z i Z + + and , ...(9.7)
Also,
c g
i i + = ,
2
1
s
I wher e I
s
= st r oke cur r ent ...(9.8)
I
s
= ) /( ) 2 ( 2 ) /( ) ( 2
m g c m g c m g c g
Z Z i Z Z Z Z Z e e + + ...(9.9)
Exa mp le 9.3. Taking an insulat or volt age of 8000 kV, sur ge impedances Z
g
= 500, Z
c
=
300, and Z
m
= 150 ohms, and t he pr e-dischar ge cur r ent i
c
= 15000 Amper es, calculat e t he st r oke
cur r ent .
Sol u t i on . I
s
= 2 8 10
6
/350 + 2 15000 500/350
= 46,000 + 21,400 = 67,400 Amper es
We obser ve t hat t he pr e-dischar ge cur r ent has been r esponsible for cont r ibut ing almost
33% t o t he int ense st r oke cur r ent . Phot ogr aphs t aken in labor at or ies on conduct or -t o-conduct or
gaps and on out door lines have shown t he int ense sheat h of cor ona exist ing bet ween t he
conduct or s inside which st r ea mer s a r e obser ved t o pr opa ga t e giving r ise t o such high
pr edischar ge cur r ent s, as shown in Fig. 9.2 (b).
Fi g. 9.2 St r oke t o midspan, (a) conduct or a nd st r oke configur a t ion
(b) pr e-dischar ge cur r ent and cor ona sheat hs bet ween gr ound wir e and pha se conduct or .
9.3 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF THE LIGHTNING PROTECTION PROBLEM
This sect ion is a pr eliminar y t o subsequent mat er ial and will discuss t he gener al pr inciples
which affect t he number of t r ipout s per 100 km per year . This will give an idea t o a designer on
t he t ype of infor mat ion t hat is r equir ed t o be gat her ed, and for a r esear ch wor ker on what
t ypes of obser vat ions must be car r ied out in a light ning invest igat ion. Any wor k of t his kind
and t he infor mat ion obt ained is done over a long per iod of t ime, and cont inuously dur ing days
of t hunder st or m act ivit y in any r egion. Much labor at or y invest igat ion can be car r ied out dur ing
t he r emaining por t ion of t he year inside t he labor at or y using impulse gener at or s. These will be
cover ed in Chapt er 13.
Since t he light ning-pr ot ect ion pr oblem is based on st at ist ical pr ocedur es, we shall fir st
out line t he pr ocedur e her e.
I st S t ep. A knowledge of t he number of st r okes cont act ing 100 km of line per year is
essent ial as given by equat ion (9.2). This will depend upon (a) t he isoker aunic level I
kl
which
needs field obser vat ion along t he line r out e, (b) t he t ower height h
t
, gr ound wir e height h
g
at
midspan and t he separ at ion bet ween gr ound wir es, s
g
. Thus, assumpt ions must be made for
(b) for alt er nat e designs. Since a st r oke can cont act anywher e on a line, t he fr act ion t hat might
hit a t ower t op has t o be ascer t ained. For pr eliminar y est imat es, a st r oke cont act ing a gr ound
wir e wit hin
4
1
span fr om t he t ower and t hose t hat hit t he t ower dir ect ly ar e consider ed as
st r okes t o a t ower . Fr om obser vat ions, t his is est imat ed as 0.6 N
s
. The r emaining fr act ion
cont act ing t he middle
2
1
span can be assumed t o cause danger t o t he clear ance bet ween gr ound
wir e and phase conduct or .
IInd S t ep. The st r okes cont act ing a t ower , Fig. 9.3, will see an impedance t o gr ound
gover ned by (a) t he t ower -foot ing r esist ance R
tf
, (b) t he sur ge impedance of t he gr ound wir e, Z
g
,
(c) t he coupling t o line conduct or s, K
f
, a nd (d) t he sur ge impedance Z
s
of t he light ning st r oke
channel it self. This is about 400 ohms.
Let n
g
= number of gr ound wir es. Neglect ing r eflect ions up and down t he t ower which will
not be impor t ant aft er 4 r eflect ions, or about 0.5 s for a 40-m t ower height , and t he coupling t o
t he phase conduct or , t he t ower -t op pot ent ial is appr oximat ely.
Z
m
Zg
I
s
ig i
g
ic ic
Z
c
( ) a
Ground Wire
Phase Conductor
( ) b
V
t
= ) / 1 / 2 / 1 /(
s g g if s
Z Z n R I + + ...(9.10)
wher e t he denominat or is t he t ot al admit t ance, and I
s
= st r oke cur r ent deliver ed t o a
zer o-impedance gr ound.
Fi g. 9.3 Impedance pr esent ed t o light ning st r oke at t ower .
Exa mp le 9.4. A t ower has a 40-ohm foot ing r esist ance and t wo gr ound wir es each wit h Z
g
= 500 ohms. The light ning st r oke sur ge impedance is Z
s
= 400 ohm. For I
s
= 50 kA, cr est ,
calculat e t he t ower t op pot ent ial (a) consider ing all impedances, (b) neglect ing t he gr ound wir e
and st r oke sur ge impedances, and (c) consider ing only one gr ound wir e and st r oke sur ge
impedance.
Sol u t i on .
(a) Z
e
= 1/(1/R
tf
+ 4/Z
g
+ 1/Z
s
) = 28.2 ohms
Ther efor e t ower t op pot ent ial V
t
= 28.2 50 = 1410 kV, cr est .
(b) Z
e
= R
tf
= 40 ohms, V
t
= 2000 kV, cr est
(c) Z
e
= 1/(1/R
tf
+ 2/Z
g
+ 1/Z
s
) = 31.75 ohms
Ther efor e V
t
= 31.75 50 = 1587.3 kV, cr est .
IIIrd S tep. A knowledge of t ower -foot ing r esist ance is t her efor e essent ial and met hods for
calculat ion of t his quant it y for var ious t ypes of foot ing ar r angement s such as dr iven r ods,
hor izont ally bur ied wir es called count er poises, et c., will be given in a lat er sect ion.
IVt h S t ep. When t he t ower -t op exper iences t he a bove volt a ge, t he insula t or st r ings
suppor t ing t he conduct or s will exper ience a maximum volt age of
V
i
=
m f t
E K V + ) 1 ( ...(9.11)
wher e E
m
= cr est value of line-t o-gr ound power -fr equency volt age,
and K
f
= coupling fact or bet ween gr ound wir e(s) and t he phase conduct or .
The coupling fact or can be calculat ed fr om t he capacit ance mat r ix of t he mult i-conduct or
syst em as shown in chapt er 5, even when cor ona is pr esent . The capacit ance mat r ix is calculat ed
fr om Maxwell's Pot ent ial coefficient mat r ix, [c] =
1
0
] [ 2

P e as shown in chapt er 3. A value for
K
f
= 0.2 t o 0.3 is an aver age. Equat ion (9.11) is based on wor st case and one must evaluat e t he
pr obabilit y t hat at t he inst ant t he st r oke hit s t he t ower t op t he power -fr equency volt age is
passing t hr ough it s peak value but of opposit e sign t o t he polar it y of t he light ning volt age at
t ower t op. The t r ip-out r at e will depend on t his obser ved pr obabilit y, which is again a field
invest igat ion on an ener gized line in t he r egion under consider at ion.
R
tf
Zg Z
g
ng
Zs
I
s
Exa mp le 9.5. A 735-kV line 3 / 2 735 ( = 600 kV, cr est , line-t o-gr ound) has a coupling
fact or bet ween line and gr ound conduct or s K
f
= 0.2. The t ower -foot ing r esist ance is 40 ohms.
Using V
t
= 2000 kV cr est for 50 kA light ning-st r oke cur r ent , find t he volt age exper ienced by t he
insulat or st r ing.
Sol u t i on . V
i
= 2000 (1 0.2) + 600 = 1600 + 600 = 2200 kV. We obser ve t hat t he power
fr equency volt age is 600/2200 = 0.2727 or 27.27% of t he insulat or volt age for t his example. If
t he st r oke cur r ent had been 100 kA, t he r educt ion due t o coupling t o t he phase conduct or will
be 800 kV wher eas t he power -fr equency volt age incr eases t he insulat or volt age t o an ext ent of
600 kV, cr est . Thus, t her e always exist count er -balancing effect s in such a game.
Vt h S t ep. When t he volt age V
i
acr oss t he insulat or has been est imat ed, we now enquir e if
t his will exceed t he flashover volt age of t he st r ing. For no flashover , V
i
must equal t he wit hst and
volt age of t he st r ing. Ther efor e, flashover and wit hst and volt ages of insulat or st r ings when
subject ed t o light ning impulses must be available fr om labor at or y st udies under all t ypes of
at mospher ic condit ions. Unt il r eflect ions ar r ive fr om t he low t ower foot ing r esist ances at adjacent
t ower s t o t he t ower hit by light ning, t he insulat or will be subject ed t o t he full light ning volt age.
For span lengt h of 300 met r es, a r eflect ion ar r ives aft er 2 s. Thus, it is essent ial t o have t he
2-s flashover dat a.
For st andar d 0 1
4
3
5 " (14.6 cm 25.4 cm) discs t he aver age 2 s 50% flashover values
ar e 125 kV per disc under dr y condit ions and 80 kV under r ain. It is evident t hat t he light ning
volt age must be kept below t he impulse wit hst and volt age by a suit able mar gin, usually 10%.
VIth S tep. The volt age exper ienced by t he insulat or is a funct ion of t he cr est value of
light ning-st r oke cur r ent feeding int o a zer o-r esist ance gr ound. Ther efor e, t he pr obabilit y t hat
t his cr est value of cur r ent will be achieved in t he r egion wher e t he t r ansmission line will r un
must be known in or der t o calculat e t he number of t r ip-out s. This is a ver y ext ensive invest igat ion
and some examples of st r oke cur r ent s and t heir st at ist ical occur r ence will be discussed in a
lat er sect ion. Fr om a lar ge amount of dat a available in published lit er at ur e, t he aut hor has
found t hat t he following expr ession is valid for cr est cur r ent s fr om 25 t o 70 kA wit h I
c
in
kiloamper es;
p
i
= 1.175 0.015 I
c
...(9.12)
wher e p
i
= pr obabilit y (fr act ion) of st r okes having a cur r ent of cr est value I
c
kiloamper es.
This will also depend upon t he isoker aunik level I
kl
, so t hat a designer and r esear ch wor ker
must obt ain all t he dat a for t heir r egion.
VIIt h S t ep. We can now calculat e t he number of t imes in a year per 100 km of line which
will give a volt age in excess of t he flashover volt age of t he insulat or . This is
N
t
= p
i
.p
t
.N
S
...(9.13)
wher e p
i
= pr obabilit y t hat t he cr est value of light ning st r oke cur r ent yielding t he flashover
volt age of insulat or will be found,
p
t
= t he fr act ion of st r okes N
S
which will cont act t he t ower .
N
S
= number of st r okes cont act ing t he line per year per 100 km lengt h,
and N
t
= pr obable number of t r ipout s for t hose st r okes cont act ing t he t ower .
To t his must be added t he number of st r okes among N
S
t hat cause midspan flashover .
Exa mp le 9.6. A 400-kV hor izont al line has 22 discs in t he insulat or and t wo gr ound wir es
spaced 15 met r es apar t at 20 m height at mid-span and 26 m at t he t ower . The t ower -foot ing
r esist ance is 40 ohms. The sur ge impedances ar e: Gr ound wir e: 500 ohms, st r oke: 400 ohms.
Assume 60% of st r okes t o cont act wit hin
4
1
span of line fr om t he t ower and at t he t ower t op.
The coupling fact or bet ween gr ound and phase conduct or is 0.2 and t he fact or in N
S
is 0.2. The
isoker aunik level is 60 t hunder st or m days per year . Calculat e t he number of t r ipout s per year
per 100 km of line. See Fig. 9.3.
Sol u t i on .
(1) Fr om equat ion (9.2),
N
S
= 0.2 60 {0.0133 (26 + 2 20) + 0.1 15}
= 29.6 st r okes/100 km-year .
V
t
= I
s
/(1/R
tf
+ 4/Z
g
+ 1/Z
s
) = 28.2 I
s
, kV, wit h t he st r oke cur r ent I
s
in kA.
V
i
= (1 0.2) V
t
+ 400
3 / 2
= 22.56 I
s
+ 326, kV, cr est
(4) Flashover volt age of 22 discs = 22 125 = 2750 kV in fair weat her . In r ain, flashover
volt age = 1760 kV.
(5) Ther efor e 2750 = 22.56 I
s
+ 326, which gives t he st r oke cur r ent t o be
I
s
= (2750 326)/22.56 = 107.4 kA.
In r ainy weat her , I
s
= (1760 326)/22.56 = 63.6 kA.
(6) The pr obabilit y of r eaching t hese cr est cur r ent s ar e:
In rain : p
i
= 1.175 0.015 63.6 = 0.221.
In fair weather: The value of 107.4 kA is beyond t he r ange of equat ion (9.12). But
fr om Fig. 9.5, it is p
i
= 0.04.
(7) Using values under r ainy condit ions, t he number of pr obable t r ipout s is, fr om equat ion
(9.13),
N
t
= 0.22 0.6 29.6 = 3.925 per 100 km/year
Using dr y-weat her values,
N
t
= 0.04 0.6 29.6 = 0.7 per 100 km/year
We shall now discuss all t he fact or s involved in t he est imat ion of t r ipout s in some det ail in
t he following sect ions.
9.4 TOWER-FOOTING RESISTANCE
The t ower -foot ing r esist ance R
tf
will depend on (a) t he t ype of elect r ode configur at ion employed,
and (b) t he soil r esist ivit y. The most common t ypes of elect r ode shapes ar e (1) t he hemispher e,
(2) long slender r ods of about 2 t o 5 cm diamet er and 10 t o 15 met r es in lengt h dr iven ver t ically
down int o t he soil and connect ed t o t ower legs, and (3) bur ied hor izont al wir es called t he
'count er poise' of 50 t o 150 met r es in lengt h in soil wher e ver t ical r ods cannot be dr iven. In all
cases, sufficient ar ea must be exposed bet ween t he elect r ode and soil in or der for t he cur r ent t o
spr ead over a lar ge ar ea.
Soil r esist ivit ies,
s
, have t he following r anges:
S ea Wat er Moist S oil Loose S oil and Clay Rock
10
0
10
1
10
2
> 10
3
ohm-met r e
The elect r ode shapes and t heir dimensions ar e shown in Fig. 9.4 and t he for mulae for
r esist ances of var ious t ypes of elect r odes ar e given in t he following t able.
Electrode S hape Resistance
(1) Hemispher e, R R
s
2 /
(2) Ver t ical dr iven r od

,
`
.
|
1
4
ln
2
, or ), / 2 ln(
2 a
l
l
a l
l
s s
(r adius a, lengt h 2l) (Rudenber g) =
) Dwight ( ) / 472 . 1 ln(
2
a l
l
s
.
(3) Hor izont al wir e. ]
]
]
) / 2 ln(
) / ln(
1 ). / 2 ln(
2 a l
y l
a l
l
s
(r adius a, lengt h 2l, dept h y) ) / 2 ln( ) 2 / (
2
ay l l
s

Fi g. 9.4 Tower -foot ing elect r odes. Hemispher e, dr iven r od a nd bur ied count er poise.
Exa mp le 9.7. It is necessar y t o obt ain a t ower -foot ing r esist ance of 20 ohms in a soil of
r esist ivit y
s
= 100 ohm-m using t he t hr ee differ ent t ypes of elect r odes shown above. Take a =
1.25 cm for r ods and count er poises and a dept h y = 0.5 m for t he count er poise. Calculat e t he
r equir ed dimensions.
Sol u t i on .
(1) Hemisphere. R = met r e 8 . 0 20 2 / 100 2 /
tf s
R
(2) Vert ical Driven Rod. The equat ion t o be solved for l is
ln (2l/0.0125) = 2l 20/100 = 0.4l.
Tr ial and er r or gives l = 5.4 met r es.
(3) Horizont al Count erpoise. The equat ion is
ln (2l
2
/0.0125 0.5) = ln (320l
2
) = 0.4l.
This gives l = 8 met r es.
In t he case of dr iven r ods and count er poises, t he r esist ance is dist r ibut ed along t heir
lengt hs and t he cur r ent ent er ing t hem will exhibit t r avelling-wave effect wit h t he r esult t hat
R
s
Hemisphere
s
2a
Vertical Driven Rod
2l
s
2l
y
2a
Horizontal
Buried Wire
Counterpoise
init ially t he sur ge cur r ent will see t he sur ge impedance but aft er a few r eflect ions t he r esist ance
assumes t he values given above. Usually 4 r eflect ions ar e sufficient t o change t he r esist ance
fr om t he sur ge impedance t o t he st eady value.
9.5 INSULATOR FLASHOVER AND WITHSTAND VOLTAGES
Under posit ive polar it y light ning impulses, a st andar d " " 10
4
3
5 disc (14.6 cm 25.4 cm) shows
a highly linear char act er ist ic bet ween spar k-over volt age and number of discs. In fair or dr y
weat her condit ions, t hey can be expr essed by t he following values:
Time t o Breakdown, s 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
kV/ disc, crest 188 150 125 110 105 97.5 92.5
1.20/50 s wave, kV/ disc = 87.5 kV cr est
Power Frequency. In fair weat her t he flashover volt age is 75 kV/disc, cr est value, or 53
kV/disc, r .m.s. value. A st andar d disc has leakage dist ance of 31.8 cm (12.5 inches) over it s
sur face. The usual cr eepage st r engt h used is 1 kV/cm of leakage dist ance, r .m.s. value.
S trings in Parallel. When light ning hit s a line, many insulat or s ar e st r essed in par allel. It
has been found in pr act ice fr om out door exper iment s t hat under light ning-t ype of volt age wit h
ext r emely small wave-fr ont (1 2s), t his point is not impor t ant as it definit ely is under longer
sur ges such as t he swit ching sur ge. Ther efor e, single-st r ing values for volt age can be used for
flashover and wit hst and st r engt h.
Conduct or-conduct or Flashover. Under posit ive light ning wave t he following empir ical
r elat ion based upon exper iment al wor k can be t aken:
Flashover volt age V
cc
= 590 kV/met r e, cr est
9.6 PROBABILITY OF OCCURRENCE OF LIGHTNING STROKE
CURRENTS
The pr obabilit y or t he fr act ion of st r okes r eaching t he gr ound whose magnit ude is above a given
ant icipat ed value must be ascer t ained for t he r egion in which t he line will be r un. Such exper iment s
use 'magnet ic links' connect ed near t ower t ops and conduct or s whose magnet izat ion int ensit y
will depend upon t he cr est value of cur r ent . A t ypical pr obabilit y cur ve is pr esent ed in Fig. 9.5.
Fi g. 9.5 Pr obabilit y of occur r ence of st r oke-cur r ent magnit udes.
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 kA
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Peak Impulse Current
Probability
9.7 LIGHTNING ARRESTERS AND PROTECTIVE CHARACTERISTICS
Light ning ar r est er s, also called 'sur ge absor ber s' because t hey ar e also meant for swit ching-
sur ge pr ot ect ion, pr ot ect pr imar ily major equipment such as t r ansfor mer s, r ot at ing machines,
shunt r eact or s, and even ent ir e subst at ions. Less expensive pr ot ect ive devices such as r od gaps
can be used for pr ot ect ion of t r ansfor mer and cir cuit -br eaker bushings and open cont act s.
When subst at ions have t o be pr ot ect ed, t hey ar e locat ed at t he ent r ance of t he incoming and
out going lines. Moder n sur ge absor ber s for e.h.v. levels ar e designed t o offer pr ot ect ion t o
equipment and lines for bot h light ning over volt ages and cur r ent s as well as swit ching sur ge
over -volt ages wher e t he ener gy involved is much higher . Their char act er ist ics will be descr ibed
lat er . Ar r est er s ar e of t hr ee impor t ant t ypes and classified accor ding t o t heir int er nal st r uct ur e.
They ar e
(1) Gap t ype ar r est er wit hout cur r ent -limit ing funct ions;
(2) Gap t ype ar r est er wit h cur r ent -limit ing capabilit y; and
(3) Gapless met al oxide var ist or s.
The fir st is commonly known by t r ade names such as Thyr it e, Magnavalve, Aut ovalve,
Miur it e, et c., each one being associat ed wit h it s manufact ur er . The non-linear r esist ance mat er ial
is usually sint er ed Silicon-Car bide (SiC) and is designed t o dissipat e t he ener gy in shor t dur at ion
light ning-st r oke cur r ent and t he cur r ent at power fr equency t hat will follow t his cur r ent when
t he ser ies gap conduct s. The cur r ent is finally int er r upt ed at a power -fr equency zer o. The
second, or t he cur r ent -limit ing gap t ype, is of Nor t h-Amer ican and Eur opean design in which a
magnet ic act ion on t he ar c bet ween t he gap cr eat es a lengt hening of t he ar c wit h consequent
lar ge r esist ance capable of limit ing t he cur r ent . In such a design, t he power -fr equency cur r ent
can be ext inguished pr ior t o r eaching a cur r ent zer o. Such an ar r est er can per for m swit ching-
sur ge dut y also. The non-linear r esist ance is st ill SiC. The last one, t he gapless MOV, is of
r ecent or igin, having been pat ent ed only in 1968 by a J apanese fir m for low-volt age low-cur r ent
elect r onic cir cuit ar y but now is sufficient ly well developed t o handle e.h.v. r equir ement s.
Prot ect ive Rat io. The most impor t ant pr oper t y of a sur ge absor ber is t he 'pr ot ect ive r at io'
which is defined as
N
p
=
value R.M.S. Volt age, fr equency - Power Ar r est er Rat ed
Equipment Pr ot ect ed of Level Insulat ion Impulse Peak
Typical examples of light ning ar r est er pr ot ect ive r at ios ar e given in Table 9.1.
The select ion of an ar r est er wit h a specified volt age r at ing is gover ned by t he value of
'ear t hing coefficient ' or t he 'ear t h-fault fact or '. These ar e defined as follows and ar e based on a
single line t o gr ound fault condit on.
EC =
locat ion ar r est er at volt age line - t o - Line
locat ion ar r est er at volt age phase healt hy of Value RMS
...(9.14)
The ear t h-fault fact or , EFF = EC 3 ...(9.15)
and uses t he line-t o-gr ound volt age in t he denominat or of equat ion (9.14). The Indian st andar ds
and t he I.E.C. use t he EFF but ar r est er s ar e st ill known by t he ear t hing coefficient value.
Thus, on a 400-kV line wit h a maximum oper at ing volt age of 420 kV, an 80% ar r est er has a
r at ing of 336 kV, r .m.s. wit h EC = 0.8 and EFF = 3 8 . 0 .
Under a single line t o gr ound fault , t he volt age of t he fault ed phase is zer o at t he fault
while t he volt ages of t he r emaining t wo healt hy phases will r ise above nor mal wor king volt age.
The light ning ar r est er must wit hst and t his higher volt age wit hout spar kover of t he ser ies gap
nor conduct cur r ent in a gapless ar r est er . The calculat ion of ear t hing coefficient is discussed in
sect ion 9.8. In Table 9.1, column 5 shows values of EC used in var ious count r ies which have
r anged fr om a low value of 0.72 in t he U.S.A. wit h solidly-ear t hed neut r als of equipment t o a
high of 1.0 in Finland using isolat ed-neut r al syst em (t uned coil).
Discharge Current. The second impor t ant quant it y for t he ar r est er select ion is t he light ning-
t ype impulse cur r ent which t he ar r est er mat er ial has t o dischar ge wit hout damage t o it self.
Repr esent at ive values of st andar d 8/20 s sur ge cur r ent s t aken fr om IS 3070 (Par t I) 1974
ar e given below:
Crest 8/ 20 s current , Amps 5000 10000 15000 20000
S yst em volt age, kV up t o 230 345400 500 750 (735765)
Prot ect ive Level. The t hir d impor t ant char act er ist ic of an ar r est er is t he pr ot ect ive level
offer ed by it t o t he connect ed equipment . Having select ed t he ar r est er r at ing based on t he
syst em ear t hing coefficient for a bus fault , t he manufact ur er of t he ar r est er s can pr ovide a
r esist ance mat er ial which has a specified I-V char act er ist ic. In ideal cases, t he volt age acr oss
t he ar r est er mat er ial should be const ant for all cur r ent values which flow t hr ough it . In a gap-
t ype ar r est er t her e is t he addit ional quant it y, t he spar kover volt age. When t he gap spar ks
over , t he light ning cur r ent is dr ained t o gr ound t hr ough t he ar r est er mat er ial. This will hold
an IR-volt age which depends on t he non-linear r esist ance char act er ist ic of t he SiC mat er ial.
The pr ot ect ive level offer ed by a light ning ar r est er is t he higher of t he following t wo volt age
values:
(1) Spar kover volt age of t he ser ies gap under a st andar d 1.2/50 s impulse; or
(2) Residual volt age (t he IR-dr op) when dischar ging t he specified t est impulse cur r ent of
8/20s waveshape. For gapless ar r est er s only it em (2) applies.
Wit h t he const ant impr ovement s t aking place in ar r est er mat er ial and volt age-cont r ol
(gr ading) cir cuit s incor por at ed in t he ar r est er chamber , t he above t wo values ar e made near ly
equal. Table 9.2 gives r epr esent at ive values. In older t ypes (befor e 1970) t he 250/2500 s
swit ching-sur ge spar k-over volt age was t aken as 83% of t he shor t -dur at ion st eep-fr ont light ning-
impulse br eakdown. But in moder n ar r est er s, t he t wo ar e made near ly equal by pr oper volt age
cont r ol cir cuit r y.
Ta ble 9.2 Li gh t n i n g Ar r est er Sp a r k over Di sch a r ge Volt a ge Ch a r a ct er i st i cs
S ystem Maximum Arrester Rating, 1.2/ 50s Discharge S witching S urge
Continuous Oper- kV, RMS S parkover Voltage, kV. S parkover kV,
ating Voltage, kV kV, crest 8/ 20s, kA crest
362 258 (72%) 625 585 610
276 (76%) 670 625 10 650
312 (86%) 770 705 735
550 372 (68%) 895 905 870
396 (72%) 955 965 15 925
420 (76%) 1010 1020 980
800 540 (67.5%) 1300 1390 1200
576 (72%) 1400 1500 20 1285
612 (76%) 1465 1580 1370
When cur r ent -limit ing gap-t ype ar r est er s wer e not used, t he power -follow cur r ent flowing
due t o 50 Hz volt age when t he gap has spar ked over had t o wait unt il a cur r ent zer o, in or der
t hat t he cur r ent t hr ough t he ar r est er r esist or mat er ial could be int er r upt ed, as it does in a
cir cuit br eaker . However , in moder n cur r ent -limit ing ar r est er s, t he ar c can be elongat ed t o
any desir ed ext ent in a suit ably-designed ar cing chamber t o int er r upt t he cur r ent ver y quickly
wit hout wait ing for a cur r ent zer o. This r educes t he ener gy dissipat ed by t he SiC mat er ial and
t he per for mance is impr oved consider ably even under swit ching-sur ge condit ions when t he
ener gy dischar ged by a long t r ansmission line could be consider able.
The lower t he pr ot ect ive level offer ed by t he ar r est er , it is evident t hat lower can be t he
insulat ion level of t he equipment it pr ot ect s. This will br ing down t he cost of major equipment
such as t r ansfor mer s. Examples ar e alr eady pr ovided in Table 9.1. Accor ding t o IS 2026 : Par t
III (1981) examples of equipment insulat ion levels ar e given in Table 9.3 below:
Ta ble 9.3 Li gh t n i n g Ar r est er P r ot ect i ve Levels a n d Equ i p men t I n su la t i on
(Tr ansfor mer s)
Nominal Highest Rated S witching Rated Lightning L.A.
System Equipment Impulse withstand Impulse Withstand Protective
kV, RMS Voltage, kV (Phase-Neutral) Voltage, kV crest Level,
RMS kV, crest kV, crest
275 300 750 850 a nd 950
850 950 a nd 1050
345 362 850 950 a nd 1050 625-770
950 1050 a nd 1175
400 420 950 1050 a nd 1175
1050 1175, 1300 a nd 1425
500 525 1050 1175, 1300 a nd 1425 895-1010
1175 1425 a nd 1550 1010
750 765 1425 1550 a nd 1800 1300-1465
1550 1800 a nd 1950
The ideas discussed above can be r epr esent ed pict or ially as shown in Figur e 9.6.
Fi g. 9.6 Pict or ial r epr esent at ion of ar r est er volt age r at ing, ear t hing coefficient C
e
over volt age
under light ning and swit ching impulses, pr ot ect ive level of ar r est er , and mar gins.
P.U.
0
1
2
3
4
1.2/50 s
250/2500 s
Withstand
V = Ce V a m 3
V , L N m
System Voltages
Lightning
Switching
Margins
V
p
Vq
Arrester Characteristics
V
C
V
a
e
m
= Arrester Rating
= Earthing Coefficient
= Rated Peak
V
p
= Protective Level
9.8 DYNAMIC VOLTAGE RISE AND ARRESTER RATING
The select ion of ar r est er volt age r at ing was shown t o depend upon t he volt age r ise of t he
healt hy phases at t he ar r est er locat ion when a single line t o gr ound fault t akes place. Thr ee
cases ar e shown in Fig. 9.7: (1) t he isolat ed-neut r al syst em wit h a bus fault on phase C, (2) t he
solidly-gr ounded-neut r al syst em wit h a bus-fault ; and (3) a gener al syst em wit h a fault beyond
connect ed equipment .
Fi g. 9.7 Syst em configur at ions. (a) Isolat ed neut r al, (b) Solidly gr ounded, and
(c) Gener al configur at ion for illust r at ing dynamic volt age r ise under 1-phase t o gr ound fault .
For t he isolat ed-neut r al syst em, t he volt age of t he healt hy phases t o gr ound will r ise t o
line-t o-line volt age. Thus, Ear t hing coefficient EC = Healt hy Phase Volt age/line-line volt age =
1.0. The cor r esponding ear t h fault fact or EFF =
3
.
For t he solidly-ear t hed syst em, t he healt hy phases do not exper ience any r ise in volt age
fr om t he nor mal oper at ing condit ion. Ther efor e, EC = 3 / 1 and EFF = 1.
Fi g. 9.8 Connect ion of sequence net wor ks a nd ca lcula t ion of a r r est er
r at ing under dynamic volt age r ise.
For t he gener al syst em, t he ear t hing coefficient lies bet ween 3 / 1 and 1. The value is
der ived in t er ms of t he r at io of zer o-sequence impedance Z
0
t o t he posit ive-sequence impedance
V0
V
1
V2
E
0
= 0
E E
1
=
E2 = 0
I0
I
1
I2
I
Z0
Z1
Z2
a a a
b b b
c c c
+
+ +
Ea
Ec Eb
( ) a ( ) b ( ) c
Z
1
up t o t he fault . When single line t o gr ound fault occur s, accor ding t o symmet r ical-component
t heor y, t he t hr ee sequence net wor ks ar e connect ed in ser ies, as shown in Fig. 9.8. Only t he
posit ive-sequence net wor k cont ains a dr iving volt age E. The cur r ent is
I = ) ( /
2 1 0
Z Z Z E + + ...(9.16)
The t hr ee sequence volt ages at t he fault ar e
V
0
= ) / / 1 /(
0 2 0 1 0 0
Z Z Z Z E IZ E + + ...(9.17)
V
1
= ) / / 1 /(
1 2 1 0 1 1
Z Z Z Z E E IZ E + + ...(9.18)
and V
2
= ) / / 1 /(
2 1 2 0 2 2
Z Z Z Z E IZ E + + ...(9.19)
For st at ic equipment such as lines and t r ansfor mer s, Z
1
= Z
2
. Let , up t o t he fault ,
m = Z
0
/Z
1
= zer o-sequence impedance/posit ive-sequence impedance.
Then, V
0
/E = ) 2 /( ) 1 ( / ), 2 /(
1
+ + + m m E V m m
and V
2
/E = 1/(m + 2) ...(9.20)
The healt hy phase volt age such as V
b
is wit h a = 120 1 ,
E
V
b
=
E
aV V a V + +
1
2
0
=
2
) 866 . 0 5 . ( ) 1 )( 866 . 0 5 . 0 (
+
+ + +
m
j m j m
and it s p.u. value is
E
V
b
=
2
1
3
2
+
+ +
m
m m
, when m is r eal quant it y. ...(9.21)
This will apply when R
0
/x
0
= R
1
/x
1
, wher e R and x ar e t he r esist ance and r eact ance
component s of Z. The ear t hing coefficient is t her efor e
EC =
, 0 ,
2
1
3
2
+
+ +
m
m
m m
E
V
b
When m var ies fr om 1 t o , t he ear t hing coefficient and ear t h fault fact or s have t he
following values.
m = Z
0
/Z
1
1 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 5 7.5 10
EC 0.578 0.66 0.7 0.721 0.744 0.764 0.795 0.849 0.88 1
EFF 1 1.14 1.20 1.25 1.29 1.323 1.38 1.47 1.52
3
9.9 OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHTNING ARRESTERS
In t his sect ion we will descr ibe t he t hr ee t ypes of ar r est er s used in e.h.v. syst ems in det ail.
These ar e (1) t he gap-t ype SiC ar r est er , (2) t he cur r ent -limit ing gap-t ype SiC ar r est er , and (3)
t he gapless met al oxide var ist or or t he zinc-oxide (ZnO) ar r est er .
9.9.1 Gap Type SiC Arresters
In bot h t he non cur r ent -limit ing and cur r ent -limit ing t ypes, t he mat er ial is sint er ed Silicon
Car bide which is made for a volt age r at ing of 6 kV, r .m.s., per disc. As many discs as ar e
necessar y for t he ar r est er r at ed volt age ar e st acked in ser ies and pr ovided wit h volt age-gr ading
cir cuit s. These may consist of high volt age r esist or s, capacit or s, or a combinat ion of bot h. The
I-V char act er ist ics of bot h t ypes ar e shown in Fig. 9.9. They funct ion in t wo st ages: (a) Upon
occur r ence of an over volt age, t he gaps spar kover and pr ovide a low-impedance pat h t o gr ound.
(b) The ser ies r esist or r educes power -fr equency follow cur r ent so t hat t he ar c acr oss t he gap is
able t o r e-seal eit her befor e or at t he following volt age and cur r ent zer o. In t he magnet ically-
blown-out sur ge ar r est er , Fig. 9.9(b), t he ar c is lengt hened so t hat t he r esult ing back e.m.f.
helps t o r educe t he power follow cur r ent . The ener gy loading is about 7 kJ /kV dur ing limit ing
swit ching sur ges wit h a pr ot ect ion level of 2.2 p.u. being at t ained.
Fi g. 9.9 I-V char act er ist ics of (a) gap-t ype non cur r ent -limit ing t ype, (b) gap-t ype cur r ent -limit ing t ype,
ar r est er s. (c) Time lag of br eakdown of ser ies gap wit h volt age-gr ading cir cuit s.
The r esist ance of a valve element is non-linear wit h 8.5 kV cr est ) 2 6 ( for 1250 Amper es
and only 12 kV cr est for 10,000 Amper es sur ge cur r ent . These values give an I-V r elat ions.
V = 2604 I
0.166
(or
6
V I ) ...(9.21)
wher e V and I ar e in volt s and amper es. The r esult ing r esist ance is
R =
834 . 0
2604 /

I I V ohms. ...(9.22)
Ideally, if t he mat er ial is t o hold a const ant value of volt age at all cur r ent s, t he r esist ance
of t he mat er ial must var y as
1
.

I K R
id id
. This is near ly fulfilled in Met al Oxide Var ist or s,
but not in a SiC ar r est er .
In a non cur r ent -limit ing ar r est er , t he gap br eaks down on t he incidence of a light ning
over volt age, which is set at a power -fr equency volt age of 1.5 t o 2.0 p. u. and at a light ning
volt age equal t o t he pr ot ect ive level. In addit ion t o t he light ning cur r ent of st andar d wave-
shape of 8/20 s, t he mat er ial conduct s t he power -follow cur r ent wit h a ver y lar ge dissipat ion of
heat in t he r esist or . In addit ion, under a swit ching sur ge dischar ge, cur r ent s ar e high and t he
dur at ion can be as much as 2000 s. Ther efor e, light ning ar r est er s ar e subject ed t o 3 t ypes of
t est s:
(1) The power -fr equency flashover of t he gap. This should not t ake place for 1 minut e at
less t han 1.5 p. u. volt age [Wit h an ear t hing coefficient of 0.8 say, t he ar r est er r at ed
volt age is 0.8
3
= 1.3856 t imes t he maximum line-t o-neut r al oper at ing volt age].
V
VS
VN
I
Normal Gap
Type SiC
( ) a
V
VS
VN
I
Current Limiting Gap
Type SiC
( ) b
Time to Sparkover
( ) c
1 10 10
2
10
3
s
2
V V
A N
/
(2) An 8/20 s st andar d light ning impulse cur r ent t est . The r esult ing volt age must not
exceed t he pr ot ect ive level offer ed by t he ar r est er at r at ed cur r ent s of 5, 10, 15 or 20
kiloamper es, cr est . The pr ot ect ive level is given in Table 9.3.
(3) A long-dur at ion cur r ent t est of 100-150 Amper es of 1000 s dur at ion. This simulat es
swit ching-sur ge dut y when a line is ener gized fr om a sour ce.
By using a suit ably-designed gr ading net wor k t o cont r ol t he dist r ibut ion of volt age amongst
t he ser ies-connect ed gaps, t he volt age-t ime char act er ist ic of t he ar r est er is cont r olled much
bet t er t han wit hout t hem as shown in Figue 9.9(c).
9.9.2 The Gapless Metal Oxide Arrester
Recent advances in solid-st at e physics in elect r onics have been applied t o develop a mat er ial
which is ideal for sur ge ar r est er . SiC r esist or s have a char act er ist ic I = KV
, wit h = 4 t o 6.
This is not high enough for ar r est er s wit hout spar k gaps. A cer amic mat er ial based on oxides of
Zn, Bi, and Co has > 20 and can handle a ver y lar ge cur r ent r ange. The I-V char act er ist ic is
near ly ideal wit h a const ant pr ot ect ive level fr om a few milliamper es t o t housands of amper es
over a 5 decade r ange. The base mat er ial is ZnO (n-mat er ial) gr ains sint er ed in a flux of var ious
insulat ing oxides such as Bi
2
O
3
. Ot her const it uent s ar e CoO, MnO and Cr
2
O
3
. These cha nge
ener gy levels and hence t he conduct ion and insulat ing pr oper t ies. These oxides coat t he high-
conduct ivit y ZnO gr ains wit h a t hin insulat ing layer of 100-200
o
A as shown in Fig. 9.10. The
r esult ing I-V char act er ist ic is near ly
50 35
V I
.
Exa mp le 9.8. Two ar r est er mat er ials have t he char act er ist ics
6
V I and
40
V I . For
cur r ent var iat ions fr om 10 Amper es t o 100,000 Amps., det er mine t he r at io of volt ages at t hese
cur r ent s.
Sol u t i on . (a) 10 =
6
2
5 6
1
10 and KV KV
645 . 4 10 ) 10 ( /
667 . 0 6 / 1 4
1 2
V V
(b) 10 =
40
2
5 40
1
10 and KV KV
V
2
/V
1
= (10
4
)
1/40
= 10
0. 1
= 1.26.
Fig. 9.10 Int er nal st r uct ur e and ext er nal I-V char act er ist ics of ZnO gapless ar r est er .
Compar ison wit h SiC ar r est er .
Ther efor e, higher t he index of V, t he less is t he r ise in volt age and mor e it appr oaches t he
ideal. A compar ison of gap-t ype SiC ar r est er and gapless ZnO ar r est er is shown in Fig. 9.10(c).
ZnO ar r est er s ar e usually made in discs of 80 mm diamet er and 32 mm t hickness. At t he
V
Vp
ZnO
SiC
I
( ) c ( ) Ideal b ( ) Real a
ZnO grain
Contacts
Current
Loads
Intermediate
Insulation Layer
r efer ence volt age t he cur r ent conduct ed is only 5 mA at about 150C. At lower t emper at ur es
(60C) it is well below 1 mA. Thus, even t hough t he mat er ial is always connect ed in t he cir cuit ,
it conduct s negligible amount of cur r ent . This is because of t he insulat ing oxides sur r ounding
t he ZnO. When an over volt age occur s, t he ener gy band levels change and t he cur r ent will r ise
by a cont inuous t r ansit ion fr om insulat ing t o conduct ion st at e. At t he t er minat ion of t he volt age
t r ansient , eit her light ning or swit ching, t he cur r ent is r educed and t her e is no power -follow
cur r ent . The r at ed volt age or t he r efer ence volt age is cont r olled by t he ear t hing coefficient EC.
The advant ages of ZnO t echnology ar e evident ly t heir simple const r uct ion, absence of
spar k gaps which gives a shock t o t he syst em when t he gap br eaks down. But t he disadvant ages
ar e a cont inuous flow of power fr equency cur r ent wit h t he t heor et ical possibilit y of t her mal
r unaway pr esent in all solid-st at e mat er ials. The ear lier ar r est er s demonst r at ed inst abilit y
effect s wit h wat t s loss under nor mal volt age incr easing wit h t ime and wit h t he number of
dischar ges. But moder n development s have eliminat ed t his danger pr act ically complet ely. In
or der t o pr ove t he r eliabilit y, a line-dischar ge t est is specified and t he t emper at ur e of t he
mat er ial must r egain it s nor mal value aft er t wo or t hr ee quick dischar ges in succession. The
absence of spar k gaps also eliminat es t he need for volt age-gr ading syst em which in t ur n
eliminat es t he volt /t ime-lag pr oper t y pr esent in gap-t ype ar r est er s.
9.10 INSULATION COORDINATION BASED ON LIGHTNING
Insulat ion coor dinat ion consist s of select ing insulat ion of var ious lines and equipment t hat
have t o be int er connect ed int o a syst em for desir ed oper at ional r equir ement . The syst em must
be r eliable and economical. The I.E.C. and Indian st andar ds (or ot her st andar ds) have only
r ecommended cer t ain values or pr oposed levels for coor dinat ing insulat ion. But as t r ansmission
volt ages and equipment insulat ion levels var y at e.h.v. levels, and t her e exist mor e t han one
insulat ion level for major equipment , as can be seen fr om Tables 9.1, 9.2, and 9.3, t he designer
has t o wor k out t he best solut ion for his syst em. Thus, in high light ning-pr one ar eas or in
syst ems wit h heavy swit ching-sur ge condit ions, t he select ion of insulat ion levels will be differ ent
fr om ar eas wit h lit t le or no light ning and wit h shor t er lines. Nor mally, insulat ion syst ems ar e
designed in a syst em for no flashover s, or if flashover s cannot be pr event ed such flashover s
should be r est r ict ed t o places wher e damage is not done, such as air gaps or in gap-t ype ar r est er s.
The flash-over should not dist ur b nor mal syst em oper at ion and must occur in r esealable
insulat ion st r uct ur es. The over volt ages t hat can cause damage ar e due t o ext er nal or igin,
namely light ning, and oper at ion of t he syst em it self which ar e at power fr equency, ear t h fault s,
and swit ching oper at ions. We will consider her e t he insulat ion co-or dinat ion pr inciples based
on light ning. These insulat ion levels ar e known as Basic Impulse Insulat ion Levels or BIL.
Those based on swit ching-sur ge r equir ement s ar e known as Swit ching Impulse Levels or SIL.
The light ning ar r est er is t he foundat ion of pr ot ect ion in e.h.v. r anges, which is select ed
for bot h light ning and swit ching-sur ge dut y. It is usually of t he magnet ic blow-out (cur r ent -
limit ing) gap t ype, or in r ecent year s t he gapless ZnO t ype. For at mospher ic over volt age, t he
dut y or t ask of t he ar r est er is t o limit t hese over volt ages t o t he pr ot ect ive level V
p
given in
column 6 of Table 9.1. This is t he peak value of impulse volt age as det er mined by t he higher of
t he 1.2/50 s spar k-over value of t he gap or r esidual volt age for st andar d 8/20 s sur ge cur r ent
in t he 10 kA t o 20 kA r ange. The lat t er applies t o gapless t ype while bot h t he volt ages apply t o
gap t ype ar r est er s. The light ning cur r ent passing t hr ough t he ar r est er mat er ial is calculat ed
as follows.
Consider a t r avelling wave of volt age V
w
, cr est , which is accompanied by a cur r ent wave I
w
on a line wit h sur ge impedance Z, Fig. 9.11. They st r ike an ar r est er whose dut y is t o hold t he
volt age acr oss it const ant at t he pr ot ect ive level V
p
. Now, by using Thevenin's t heor em, wit h
t he ar r est er t er minals open, t he incident t r avelling wave will give a volt age 2V
w
due t o t ot al
r eflect ion. The Thevenin impedance looking t hr ough t he open ar r est er t er minals is equal t o
t he sur ge impedance Z of t he line.
Fig. 9.11 Calculat ion of ar r est er cur r ent .
Fig. 9.12 Spher e-t o-plane and r od-t o-plane pr ot ect ive gaps for insulat ion
coor dinat ion of equipment .
Ther efor e, wit h t he ar r est er connect ed, t he cur r ent t hr ough it will be
I
a
= (2V
w
V
p
)/Z ...(9.23)
The maximum value t he t r avelling-wave volt age V
w
can r each is t he flashover volt age of
t he line insulat ion. Also, it is assumed t hat V
p
st ays fair ly const ant at all cur r ent values dischar ged
by t he ar r est er .
Exa mp le 9.9. For a 750 kV line, t ake V
w
= 3000 kV, cr est , t r avelling on t he line and V
p
=
1700 kV. The line sur ge impedance is Z = 300 ohms. Calculat e and discuss (a) t he cur r ent
flowing in t he line befor e r eaching t he ar r est er , (b) t he cur r ent t hr ough t he ar r est er , and
(c) t he value of ar r est er r esist ance for t his condit ion and ver ify t he r eflect ion and r efr act ion
coefficient s giving r ise t o t he volt age and cur r ent condit ions.
Sol u t i on .
(a) I
w
= Z V
w
/ = 3000/300 = 10 kiloamper es.
(b) I
a
= Z V V
p w
/ ) 2 ( = (6000 1700)/300 = 14.33 kA.
(c) The r eflect ed cur r ent in t he line is + 4.33 kA.
This gives r ise t o a r eflect ed volt age of 4.33 300 = 1300 kV. Under t hese condit ions,
t he ar r est er r esist ance is
R
a
= V
p
/I
a
= 1700 kV/14.33 kA 120 ohms. (118.6 ohms).
VW, IW
Vp
I
a
Z
R
g
Wit h t he line sur ge impedance Z = 300 ohms, t he following r eflect ion and r efr act ion
coefficient s ar e found.
(1) Volt age r eflect ion fact or : K
r
=
7
3
300 120
300 120

+
Z R
Z R
a
a
Reflect ed volt age V
r
= K
r
. V
w
= 3 3000/7 = 1300 kV.
(2) Volt age r efr act ion fact or : K
t
= 2R
a
/(R
a
+ Z) = 1 + K
r
= +4/7.
J unct ion volt age at ar r est er , V
p
= K
t
V
w
= 1700 kV.
(3) Cur r ent r eflect ion fact or : J
r
= (Z R
a
)/(Z + R
a
) = K
r
= + 3/7.
Reflect ed cur r ent I
r
= J
r
I
w
= + 4.33 kA
(4) Cur r ent t r ansmission fact or : J
t
= 2Z/(Z + R
a
) = + 10/7
Ar r est er dischar ge cur r ent I
a
= J
t
I
w
= 14.33 kA.
This example shows t hat for such a 750 kV line an ar r est er r at ed for 15 kA would be
necessary. U sually a 750-kV line will be equipped with about 35 standard " " 10
4
3
5 insulat or
discs whose wit hst and value is about 3000 kV.
The pr ot ect ive r at io can be calculat ed if t he r at ed volt age of t he ar r est er is known fr om
t he syst em condit ions.
Exa mp le 9.10. For t he above example , if an 80% ar r est er is used, calculat e t he pr ot ect ive
r at io N
p
= V
p
/V
a
.
Sol u t i on . For r at ed line-t o-line volt age of 750 kV, ar r est er r at ing is
V
a
= 0.8 750 = 600 kV (R.M.S.).
Pr ot ect ive r at io N
p
= 1700/600 = 2.83.
Volt age Across Equipment Prot ect ed by Arrest er
In t he ideal case, t he ar r est er must be locat ed adjacent t o t he equipment which is usually
a lar ge t r ansfor mer or shunt r eact or . In pr act ice, however , t her e may be a lengt h of t he line
bet ween t he t wo ext ending t o 20 t o 40 met r es. This r esult s in a slight ly higher volt age acr oss
t he equipment due t o r epeat ed r eflect ions. The high induct ance of a t r ansfor mer or r eact or
r epr esent s near ly an open-cir cuit t o a sur ge. The excess volt age exper ienced is given by an
empir ical equat ion and depends on t he line lengt h and t he r at e of r ise of t he volt age, t hus:
V
= (dV
w
/dt ). (l/150)kV, ...(9.24)
wher e l = lengt h of line in met r es
and dV
w
/dt = st eepness of wave fr ont in kV/ s of t he incoming wave. This can be
t aken as appr oximat ely 500 kV/s for lines wit h over head gr ound wir es
and 1000 kV/s when a line conduct or is hit . (A line wit hout ear t h
wir es).
Exa mp le 9.11. A t r ansfor mer is connect ed by a lengt h of 20 met r es of line t o an ar r est er .
The r at e of r ise of volt age is 700 kV/ s. The ar r est er volt age is 1700 kV. Calculat e t he volt age
acr oss t he t r ansfor mer .
Sol u t i on .
V
= (700) (20/150) = 93 kV.
Tr ansfor mer volt age = 1793 kV, impulse cr est .
Not e t hat fr om Table 9.3, for 750 kV syst em volt age, t he t r ansfor mer light ning-impulse
wit hst and volt ages have levels r anging fr om 1550 t o 1950 kV.
The t r ansfor mer insulat ion level is kept higher t han t he ar r est er pr ot ect ive level by a
safe mar gin as shown by column 8 of Table 9.1. The I.E.C. suggest s a value of 1.2 V
p
as t he
equipment insulat ion level. This is t he pr ot ect ive r at io C
p
= V
s
/V
p
, wher e V
s
= volt age level of
st at ion equipment insulat ion. It depends on t he ear t hing coefficient , C
e
, t he impulse pr ot ect ive
level r at io of ar r est er , C
p
, and t he impulse pr ot ect ive r at io of equipment , C
i
. Thus, t he equipment
insulat ion level is
V
s
= C
e
.C
p
.C
i
.V
wher e V = r at ed r .m.s. value of power -fr equency line-line volt age of t he syst em.
Exa mp le 9.12. For a 750-kV syst em wit h maximum oper at ing volt age of 765 kV at t he
r eceiving-end subst at ion, t he ear t hing coefficient is C
e
= 0.84, t he pr ot ect ive level r at io of t he
ar r est er is 2.83, and t he equipment insulat ion level r at io is 1.3. Calculat e t he impulse wit hst and
volt age of t he equipment insulat ion.
Sol u t i on . V
s
= 0.84 2.83 1.3 V = 3.094 765
= 2370 kV, cr est .
[Not e. I.E.C. suggest s a 2400 kV level. But t his has not yet found accept ance as a st andar d].
Exa mp le 9.13. For a 400-kV syst em (420 kV maximum) t he impulse level of a t r ansfor mer
is 1425 kV, cr est or peak. Calculat e t he r at io of impulse wit hst and level of t r ansfor mer insulat ion
t o t he maximum ser vice volt age.
Sol u t i on . C
t
=C
e
.C
p
.C
i
= V
s
/ V

= 1425/420 = 3.4
Rod-Plane S park Gap
Thus far , t he r equir ement and pr ot ect ion affor ded by a light ning ar r est er wer e discussed.
For pr oviding fur t her safet y t o major equipment insulat ion in t r ansfor mer s, r eact or s and cir cuit
br eaker s as well as t heir bushings, r od-plane and r od-r od gaps will nor mally be used in par allel,
which ar e var iously known as pr ot ect ive gaps or spill gaps. These have a t ime lag of spar kover
r anging fr om 2-10 s depending upon t he gap lengt h bet ween elect r odes so t hat t he pr ot ect ed
equipment must be capable of wit hst anding t he flashover volt age of t he gaps for t his lengt h of
t ime.
Aver age 50% flashover volt age values of r od-plane and r od-r od gaps ar e given by well-
known for mulas, which ar e on t he aver age as follows, wit h d in met r es:
Elect rode Power Frequency Lightning Impulse
Geomet ry kV crest kV crest
Rod-Plane V
50
= 652. d
0.576
500 d
Rod-Rod V
50
= 850 d
0.576
650 d
The wit hst a nd va lue for t hese ga ps is nor ma lly 85% of t he 50% fla shover volt a ge.
Char act er ist ics of 50% flashover and wit hst and volt ages of long air gaps will be discussed in
Chapt er 11.
Exa mp le 9.14. A 750 kV bushing is pr ot ect ed by gaps which wit hst and 2 p.u. power -
fr equency volt age. Det er mine t heir 50% flashover value under 50 Hz and light ning-impulse
volt ages, if (a) r od-plane gap is used, and (b) r od-r od gap is used.
Sol u t i on . The calculat ion will be based on t he power -fr equency volt age of 750 kV, r .m.s.,
line-line. The 1 p.u. line-t o-gr ound cr est value is
3 / 2 750 = 612 kV.
2 p.u. = 1224 kV, which is t he wit hst and volt age, V
w
,
The flashover value is taken to be V
50
= V
w
/0.85 = 1440 kV.
(a) For a r od-plane gap, d =
736 . 1 576 . 0 / 1
50
2086 . 2 ) 652 / ( V
= 3.958 met r es.
For t his gap lengt h, t he light ning-impulse 50% flashover value is V
50
= 500 d = 1980 kV,
cr est . The wit hst and volt age will be appr oximat ely 85% of t his value, or V
wi
= 0.85 1980 =
1683 kV, cr est .
(b) For a r od-r od gap d = (1440/850)
1.736
= 2.5 met r es. The 50% flashover under light ning
impulse volt age is
V
50
= 650 d = 1625 kV, cr est
and t he impulse wit hst and is V
wi
= 0.85 1625 = 1381 kV, cr est .
For adequat e pr ot ect ion and pr oper insulat ion coor dinat ion, t he pr ot ect ive gap flashover
values must be higher t han t he light ning ar r est er pr ot ect ive volt age level and lower t han t he
t r ansfor mer or bushing insulat ion levels.
1. A r egion has 75 t hunder st or m days in a year . A 400-kV line has a t ower height of 35
m wit h t wo gr ound wir es at 25 met r e height at midspan and separ at ed by 20 met r es.
What is t he pr obable number of st r okes cont act ing 400 km of line per year ?
2. Descr ibe wit h neat sket ches t he machanism of light ning st r oke cont act ing (a) a t ower ,
and (b) midspan.
3. A 750-kV hor izont al line has 35 discs in t he insulat or . The t wo gr ound wir es ar e
spaced 30 m apar t at height s of 30 met r es at midspan and 40 met r es at t he t ower . The
t ower -foot ing r esist ance is 20 ohms. The coupling fact or bet ween a gr ound wir e and
phase conduct or is 0.15 and t he fact or in N
S
is 0.2 for calculat ing number of st r okes
cont act ing t he line per 100 km in a year . The isoker aunik level is 100 days per year .
Assume 50% of st r okes t o cont act t he t ower . Calculat e t he st r oke cur r ent t o flashover
t he insulat or st r ing if t he sur ge impedance of st r oke is 400 ohms, and gr oundwir e
sur ge impedance is 500 ohms. Take t he flashover value of one disc as 125 kV, peak,
for light ning impulse.
4. Define t he t er ms (a) ear t hing coefficient , (b) ear t h fault fact or , (c) r esidual volt age, (d)
ar r est er r at ing, and (e) insulat ion co-or dinat ion.
5. Compar e t he per for mance char act er ist ics of Silicon Car bide ar r est er wit h a Zinc Oxide
ar r est er . What ar e t he advant ages and disadvant ages of each?
6. A volt age wave of 2500 kV is t r avelling on a line of sur ge impedance 275 ohms. The
ar r est er connect ed t o t he line has a pr ot ect ive level of 1500 kV. Calculat e (a) t he
cur r ent in t he wave, (b) t he cur ent t hr ough t he ar r est er , and (c) t he ar r est er r esist ance
at t his cur r ent .
10.1 ORIGIN OF OVERVOLTAGES AND THEIR TYPES
Over volt ages due t o t he r elease of int er nally t r apped elect r omagnet ic and elect r ost at ic ener gy
in an e.h.v. syst em cause ser ious damages t o equipment insulat ion. These could, under many
cir cumst ances, be mor e sever e t han light ning damage which we consider ed in t he pr evious
chapt er . Sur ge diver t er s and r esist ances included pur posely while making swit ching oper at ions
as well as ot her schemes r educe t he danger t o a consider able ext ent . This chapt er will descr ibe
all t hese schemes and discuss t he equat ions t hat indicat e over volt ages and t he backgr ound for
suggest ed r emedies. Invest igat ion of swit ching over volt ages has assumed ver y gr eat impor t ance
as t r ansmission volt ages ar e on t he incr ease and line lengt hs and capacit y of gener at ing st at ions
ar e also incr eased. The shor t -cir cuit capacit y of sour ces is r esponsible for a lar ge amount of
damage t o insulat ion.
Over cur r ent s ar e gener at ed by shor t cir cuit s and light ning, but t hey do not for m t he
subject ma t t er of t his cha pt er . The pr oblems of ca lcula t ing shor t -cir cuit cur r ent s fr om
symmet r ical-component t heor y ar e well cover ed in a lar ge number of t r eat ises. Her e, some of
t he over volt age condit ions caused by int er r upt ion of shor t -cir cuit cur r ent s will only be discussed
wit h due r egar d t o t he dut y imposed on t he cir cuit br eaker t hr ough t he r est r iking and r ecover y
volt ages. They br ing in t he concept of t er minal fault , shor t -line fault , t wo-and four -par amet er
r epr esent at ions of t he r ecover y volt age. In addit ion, int er r upt ion by t he cir cuit br eaker of low
induct ive cur r ent s such as dr opping t r ansfor mer s and shunt r eact or s cause over volt ages because
of sudden collapse of cur r ent descr ibed by t he phenomenon of cur r ent chopping. Int er r upt ion
of small capacit ive cur r ent s caused by dr opping an unloaded line br ing over -volt ages because of
possibilit y of r e-st r iking in t he ar cing chamber of t he br eaker . Fer r o-r esonance condit ions
exist when t he cir cuit -br eaker poles do not close simult aneously as is usually t he case wit h
poor ly-maint ained cir cuit br eaker s. However , t he most impor t ant oper at ion caused by t he
cir cuit br eaker is t o ener gize a long e.h.v. t r ansmission line at desir ed int er vals. The line may
be car r ying no t r apped volt age or it could be r e-ener gized while a volt age is t r apped in it . These
ener gizing and r e-ener gizing t r ansient s will be discussed at gr eat lengt h and will for m t he bulk
of t he mat er ial of t his chapt er . Some of t he met hods of handling such pr oblems have alr eady
10
Overvol t a ges i n EHV S y s t em s Ca u s ed by
S wi t ch i n g Opera t i on s
been descr ibed in Chapt er 8 wher e t r avelling-wave and st anding-wave met hods wer e explained
which r esult when a swit ching oper at ion is per for med. Line r e-ener gizat ion wit h t r apped-char ge
volt age was also consider ed.
10.2 SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT AND THE CIRCUIT BREAKER
Consider a simple syst em wit h one gener at ing st at ion G connect ed t hr ough 2 lines and feeding
a load, Fig. 10.1. If a shor t cir cuit occur s at t he load bus necessit at ing br eaker CB t o open and
isolat e t he fault ed bus, t he quest ion is what st r esses come on t he br eaker .
Fig. 10.1 (a) Shor t cir cuit acr oss load bus in a syst em. (b) Shor t -cir cuit cur r ent component s.
St eady st at e ac component , t r ansient dc component and t ot al s-c cur r ent .
When all r esist ances ar e neglect ed, t he a.c. component of shor t cir cuit cur r ent fed by t he
sour ce is
i = ) 5 . 0 /(
L t g
X X X V + + ...(10.1)
If t her e ar e ot her gener at ing ar eas connect ed t o t he load, t heir cur r ent s add t o i.
In moder n 2-cycle high-speed br eaker s, t he cont act s separ at e in about 30 milliseconds or
2
1
1 cycles on 50 Hz base aft er t he init iat ion of t he shor t cir cuit . This is gover ned by t he
oper at ing t ime of t he pr ot ect ive syst em and t he pneumat ic or mechanical oper at ing syst em.
This t ime is equal t o or longer t han t he subt r ansient t ime const ant of lar ge alt er nat or s. Ther efor e
t he value of X
g
t o use is t he t r ansient r eact ance X
d
' which is near ly 0.3 p.u. for 500 MVA set s
and 0.3 t o 0.45 p.u. for 1000 MVA set s. For smaller set s t hey may r ange fr om 0.15 t o 0.2 p.u.
For t r ansfor mer s, X
t
is appr oximat ely 0.1 t o 0.15 p.u. For lines, appr oximat e values ar e X
L
= 0.32 ohm/km for 400 kV and 0.275 for 750 kV. In pr act ice, 5 . 0
'
+
t d
X X X p. u. so t hat for a
Isc
DC
O
Transient
( ) b
A.C.
G
T
L
1
L
2
CB
S. C LOAD
( ) a
G
Xg Xt
X
L
CB
Isc
XL
Overvoltages in EHV Systems Caused by Switching Operations 261
bus fault not including lines, t he shor t -cir cuit cur r ent is t wice t he r at ed cur r ent of t he gener at ing
st at ion. When t he d-c component is also included, t ot al shor t -cir cuit cur r ent wit h full offset will be
i =
)] / exp( ). cos( ) [cos(
2
2 2
T' t wt
X R
V
+
+
...(10.2)
wher e t an = X/R up t o t he fault and
T' =
R X 2 /
...(10.3)
At t = 0, i = 0 and at t = , t he cur r ent becomes t he a.c. component . The angle
denot es
t he inst ant on t he sinusoidal sour ce volt age
V 2
sin ) ( + wt at which t he shor t -cir cuit t akes
place. The var iat ion of i in equat ion (10.2) wit h full dc offset (
= 0) is shown in Fig. 10.1(b). The

I.E.C. r ecommends T' = 45 ms. Fr om t he figur e, t he maximum cur r ent occur s
2
1
cycle aft er
t he init iat ion of t he fault .
Exa mp le 10.1. A 400-kV syst em has a gener at ion of 2000 MVA. Calculat e (a) t he nor mal
cur r ent , (b) t he r .m.s. value of s-c cur r ent for a bus fault on t he t r ansfor mer h.v. winding if
t d
X ' X + = 0.5 p.u. on gener at or base on t he 400-kV side, (c) t he maximum cur r ent which t he
cir cuit br eaker cont act s have t o car r y, and (d) t he maximum int er r upt ing cur r ent of t he br eaker
if t he cont act s par t aft er
2
1
1 cycles (f = 50 Hz).
Sol u t i on .
(a) Nor mal cur r ent I = 2000/400 3 = 2.9 kA.
(b) RMS value of s-c cur r ent I
r ms
= 2 2.9 = 5.8 kA.
(c) Maximum cur r ent t hr ough br eaker cont act s at 10 ms is
I
m
= kA 8 . 14 2 8 . 1 ) 1 ( 2
r ms
45 / 10
r ms
+

I e I .
(d) At 30 ms, (
2
1
1 cycles aft er fault init iat ion) a peak value occur s.
I
t
= kA 4 . 12 2 513 . 1 ) 1 ( 2
r ms
45 / 30
r ms
+

I e I
The final int er r upt ion of t he cir cuit is at 2 cycles aft er fault init iat ion when t he cur r ent
passes t hr ough a zer o if t he decr ement of t he dc component is r apid.
In t his example, t he shor t -cir cuit cur r ent fr om one 2000 MVA sour ce at 400 kV was 5.8
kA, r .m.s. In a lar ge int er connect ed syst em wit h sever al gener at ing st at ions, t he s-c cur r ent
level will be ver y high. Pr esent ly, air blast br eaker s ar e available for 80 kA and S F
6
br ea ker s
for 90 kA. This shows t hat a syst em engineer must keep s-c levels down t o what cur r ent ly-
available cir cuit br eaker s can handle. In 400-kV net wor ks t he maximum specified is 40 kA.
It is evident t hat t he d-c component must decay fast in or der t hat int er r upt ion might t ake
place at t he fir st cur r ent zer o aft er t he cont act s par t . At 40 ms, t he d.c. component has a value
e
40/45
= 0.41 of t he a.c. component and usually a cur r ent zer o can occur . The above discussion
has assumed a 3-phase bus fault .
S i n gl e-Ph a se S h or t Ci r cu i t
Near ly 80% of all fault s in a syst em involve only a single phase and t he s-c cur r ent magnit ude
is lower t han for a 3-phase fault , which occur s only in 10% of cases. However , t he most sever e
dut y of a br eaker occur s under a 3-phase fault and t his gover ns t he br eaker design. As descr ibed
in Chapt er 9, under a single phase t o gr ound fault , t he t hr ee sequence net wor ks ar e connect ed
in ser ies and t he fault cur r ent is
I
1ph
= 3E/(Z
0
+ 2Z
1
) ...(10.4)
But it is I
3ph
= E/Z
1
under a 3-phase fault since only t he posit ive-sequence net wor k is
involved. Thus, t he r at io of cur r ent s for t hese t wo t ypes of fault is
I
1ph
/I
3ph
= 3/(2 + Z
0
/Z
1
) = 3/(2 + X
0
/X
1
) ...(10.5)
when r esist ances ar e neglect ed. For a solidly-gr ounded neut r al, 2 /
1 0
X X so t hat t he
single-phase s-c cur r ent is 75% of t hat for a 3-phase bus fault .
Del a yed Cu r r en t Zer o Con d i t i on
The at t ainment of a cur r ent zer o depends on t he r at e of decay of t he d-c component ,
which is gover ned by t he r esist ance up t o t he fault . When fault s occur ver y close t o lar ge power
st at ions of higher t han 1000 MVA capacit y and line r eact ance and r esist ance ar e not pr esent , it
is difficult for t he cur r ent t o pass t hr ough zer o quickly. In such cases, t he ar c r esist ance of t he
cir cuit br eaker must be incr eased by pr oviding mult iple int er r upt er s. For a low-volt age gener at or
br eaker s t he s-c cur r ent is even higher and in or der t o int er r upt 100 kA, air -blast br eaker s ar e
pr efer r ed because of higher ar c r esist ance t han S F
6
br eaker s in or der t o effect a cur r ent zer o.
10.3 RECOVERY VOLTAGE AND THE CIRCUIT BREAKER
When t he cont act s have separ at ed and t he ar c has been finally quenched, t he cont act s have t o
wit hst and t he r ecover y volt age. The final value of t his volt age equals t he sour ce volt age while
t he init ial value is equal t o t he low ar c volt age which may be pr act ically zer o. Thus, an oscillat or y
condit ion exist s which may be of single fr equency or cont ain mult iple fr equencies, depending
upon t he connect ed net wor k. For a single fr equency it is
V
R
= K t w wt V ). cos .(cos 2
0
...(10.6)
wher e
0
w =
0
2 f = t he nat ur al fr equency, and
K = a const ant which depends on t he t ype of fault .
The r at e of r ise of t his r ecover y volt age (RRRV) det er mines t he abilit y of t he quenching
medium t o int er r upt t he ar c, since t he r at e of r ise of dielect r ic st r engt h must exceed t he RRRV.
For syst ems wit h low nat ur al fr equency, which occur when long lines ar e involved wit h t heir
high induct ance and capacit ance, oil cir cuit br eaker s wer e found adequat e, alt hough air blast
and S F
6
br eaker s can do as well. But in syst ems wit h high nat ur al fr equency, t he r at e of r ise of
r ecover y volt age is ver y high and air -blast and S F
6
br eaker s ar e necessar y.
These ar e complicat ed fur t her when a shor t line of 1 or 2 km is int er posed bet ween t he
cir cuit br eaker and t he fault locat ion. Two t ypes of fault ar e dist inguished when t he sever it y of
RRRV is assessed: (1) t he t er minal fault , TF, and (2) t he shor t -line fault , SLF.
Terminal Faults (TF)
Such fault s involve maximum s-c cur r ent s. 3-phase t er minal fault s yield highest s-c cur r ent s
and r esult in most sever e condit ions for t he r ecover y volt age. This is fur t her enhanced when
one pole of t he cir cuit br eaker clear s ahead of ot her s. The fir st pole t o clear exper iences t he
highest r ecover y volt age since t he t r ansient component is higher t han when t he second or
subsequent poles clear . This is bet ween 1.5 t o 2 t imes t he phase volt age appear ing aft er final
int er r upt ion.
Short-Line Fault (SL)
In t his t ype of fault , r eflect ions ar r iving on t he line of 1 or 2 km lengt h bet ween t he
br eaker and fault ar e super imposed on t he sour ce volt age, as shown in Figur e 10.2. These give
t he highest r at es of r ecover y volt age, and in many br eaker s t he int er r upt ing capabilit y will be
gover ned by SLF r at her t han by TF. Time delays bet ween cont act s opening cannot be avoided
and in t his t ype of fault t he last pole t o open exper iences highest r ecover y volt age because of
induct ion fr om t he clear ed phases.
These st r esses can be r educed in cir cuit br eaker s by connect ing r esist ances or capacit ances
in par allel t o absor b t he shock of high-fr equency t r ansient s under ver y high s-c cur r ent s.
Resist ances ar e pr efer r ed for air -blast br eaker s and capacit ances for S F
6
br eaker s since t he
differ ence in ar c r esist ance cont r ols t he effect iveness of t hese r emedial measur es.
Fig. 10.2 Tr ansient r ecover y volt age acr oss poles of cir cuit br eaker under Shor t Line Fault .
Definition of Transient Component of Recovery Voltage
(a ) 2-Pa r a m et er Def i n i t i on
For single-fr equency cir cuit s, t he r ecover y volt age is defined t hr ough t wo par amet er s: (1)
t he magnit ude, V
1
, and (2) t he r at e of r ise, V
1
/t
1
, Fig. 10.3.
(b) 4-Pa r a m et er Def i n i t i on
Wit h lar ge int er connect ion in a syst em, t he 2-par amet er definit ion has been super seded
by t he 4-par amet er definit ion because of t he pr esence of mult iple fr equencies, as shown in
Figur e 10.3. These ar e V
1
, V
2
, t
1
, t
2
(or V
1
/t
1
). The init ial t ime t
1
is clear ly equal t o t wice t he
Short Line Side
V Source Side
Total Transient
50 Hz Voltage
t r avel t ime of t he wave on t he shor t est connect ed line. In a shor t -cir cuit t o gr ound, t he capacit ance
of t he gr ounding syst em is involved which may help t o keep t he st eepness of t he r ecover y
volt age or RRRV down.
Under t hese t wo t ypes of fault t he following values of RRRV ar e r ecommended by t he
I.E.C. for cir cuit -br eaker designs.
Terminal Fault 5kV/s (This is being r evised t o 5.5 t o 12.6 kV/ s).
S hort-Line Fault 9 kV/s
These ar e maximum values and will depend upon t he cur r ent and t he degr ee of asymmet r y.
The fir st peak of r ecover y volt age is usually 2.25 p.u.
Fig. 10.3 2-and 4-par amet er r epr esent at ion of r ecover y volt age acr oss cir cuit br eaker .
10.4 OVERVOLTAGES CAUSED BY INTERRUPTION OF LOW INDUCTIVE
CURRENT
When disconnect ing t r ansfor mer s or r eact or s, t he cur r ent is low but highly induct ive. When a
cir cuit br eaker designed nor mally t o int er r upt ver y high shor t -cir cuit cur r ent s int er r upt s such
low cur r ent s on t he high volt age side, over volt ages occur on t he equipment by pr emat ur e
r educt ion of cur r ent t o zer o pr ior t o r eaching a nor mal cur r ent zer o. Cur r ent magnit udes in
such cases ar e
Tr ansfor mer on no load2 t o 5 Amper es,
React or -loaded t r ansfor mer up t o 400 Amper es,
High-volt age r eact or s100 t o 200 Amps.
Fig. 10.4 shows a current magnitude i
a
when chopping occur s wit h t he syst em volt age v
a
acr oss t he induct ive load. The st or ed ener gy is
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
C v L i
a a
+ and oscillat es at t he nat ur al
fr equency f
2
= , 2 / 1
2 2
C L which in e.h.v. syst ems is 200 t o 400 Hz for a t r ansfor mer on no
load and may be as high as 1000 Hz for a shunt r eact or . The maximum volt age appear s when
all t his ener gy is st or ed in t he capacit ance.
Thus,
2
2
max
C V =
2
2
2
2
L i C v
a a
+ which yields
max
V =
2 / 1
2 2
2 2
) / ( C L i v
a a
+ ...(10.6)
The quant it y
2 2
/C L equals t he char act er ist ic or nat ur al impedance of t he equipment .
If i
a
is low, t he volt age is at it s peak and no over volt age occur s. However , if t he cur r ent at
t he inst ant of chopping is at it s peak value and v
a
= 0, t hen V
max
= . /
2 2
C L i
a
The following
values ar e t ypical over volt ages which may be expect ed based on exper ience.
V
2
V
1
t
1
t
2
220 kV 2.5 p.u. 400 kV 1.8 p.u. 750 kV 1.2 p.u.
This t ype of over volt age can be r educed by sur ge ar r est er s and ser ies r esist ances used in
cir cuit br eaker s.
10.5 INTERRUPTION OF CAPACITIVE CURRENTS
When t r a nsmission lines a r e dr opped or de-ener gized or ca pa cit or ba nks swit ched off,
over volt a ges a r e gener a t ed. Consider Fig. 10.4 wher e a line is r epr esent ed by a lumped
capacit ance C
2
. Befor e int er r upt ion, V
1
= V
2
.
Fig. 10.4 Condit ions of volt age and cur r ent dur ing 'cur r ent chopping'
when int er r upt ing low induct ive cur r ent s.
Aft er t he cur r ent is int er r upt ed C
2
r emains char ged t o 3 / 2
2 s
V V , which is t he cr est
value of t he sour ce volt age at power fr equency. However , t he sour ce volt age V
1
changes polar it y
and t he br eaker volt age is 3 / 2
s b
V V (1 + K) wher e
1 K
, giving 3 / 2 2
s
V . If t he insulat ing
medium in t he br eaker has not gained sufficient dielect r ic st r engt h t o wit hst and V
b
, t he ar c
may r est r ike and connect t he line t o t he sour ce. A cur r ent flows which is 90 leading. When t he
cir cuit is int er r upt ed again at a cur r ent zer o, t he volt age is at it s peak value and t he line holds
a negat ive volt age. Ther e may be r epeat ed r est r ikes such as t his and br eaker failur e may
occur . See Fig. 10.5.
Ther efor e, r est r ike-fr ee br eaker s ar e essent ial. Moder n S F
6
and air blast br eaker s meet
t hese r equir ement s but in all cases pr oper maint enance is absolut ely necessar y. Lines equipped
wit h shunt r eact or s help t o dr ain t he t r apped char ge of t he line and aid in pr oper int er r upt ion.
Capacit or banks cause t he same t ype of st r esses on t he cir cuit br eaker .
V
Line CB i
L
1
f1
C1
L
V
1
f
3
C2
V
2
f2
L
2
Va
i
a
f3
Va
V
2
f2
f1 V1
Fig. 10.5 Volt ages dur ing r e-st r iking of br eaker when int er r upt ing small
capacit ive cur r ent s (line dr opping)
10.6 FERRO-RESONANCE OVERVOLTAGES
Par t ial r esonance condit ions occur in power syst ems when unbalanced configur at ion occur s so
as t o place capacit ances in ser ies wit h induct ances.
Fig. 10.6 Condit ions leading t o fer r o-r esonance dur ing non-simult aneous
oper at ion of cir cuit br eaker poles.
When a t r ansfor mer is connect ed t o a long t r ansmission line and bot h ar e swit ched t oget her ,
such a condit ion might occur as shown in Fig. 10.6. Under nor mal oper at ing condit ions, t he
line capacit ance t o gr ound is ener gized by t he phase volt age. However , suppose dur ing a
swit ching oper at ion, one pole opens or closes non-simult aneously wit h t he ot her s. The equivalent
cir cuit , Fig. 10.6(b), shows t hat t he line capacit ance is in ser ies wit h t he t r ansfor mer induct ance
in t he open phase. The condit ion when t wo poles ar e open may be seen in Fig. 10.6(b). The
i
V2
V1
V3
V
1
Ec
LT E
a
Sb
Sa C
r, l, c
C
S
b
Sc
L
T
N
L
T
C
Sa
Ea
C
LT
S
b
Eb
C
LT
N
L
T
Sc
C
Ea
(a)
(b)
pr oblem involves ver y difficult analysis and must t ake int o account t he dist r ibut ed capacit ance
of line and t he non-linear magnet izat ion cur ve of t he t r ansfor mer . This is a highly specialized
t opic and will not be consider ed fur t her . The pr oblem is also ver y impor t ant in ur ban dist r ibut ion
wher e long cables ar e used under gr ound and failur es t o bot h cable and t r ansfor mer insulat ions
have r esult ed in gr eat expense and inconvenience t o consumer s and power companies, especially
since load-shedding and fr equent swit ching has become common.
10.7 CALCULATION OF SWITCHING SURGESSINGLE PHASE
EQUIVALENTS
Swit ching oper at ions in e.h.v. syst ems give r ise t o over volt ages due t o t he int er act ion bet ween
elect r ost at ic and elect r omagnet ic ener gies t r apped in t he long lines which r elease in connect ed
equipment . Insulat ion designs ar e gover ned by t hese over volt ages and t he r emaining par t s of
t his chapt er will be devot ed t o t he calculat ion of over volt ages and t heir r educt ion in pr act ice.
We will commence t he det ailed discussion on for mulat ing and solving equat ions cont r olling
swit ching sur ges wit h (a) lumped-par amet er net wor ks, t hen (b) dist r ibut ed-par amet er lines,
and finally (c) a combinat ion of bot h lumped-par amet er element s connect ed t o dist r ibut ed-
par amet er lines. Some of t hese ideas have alr eady been developed in Chapt er 8 wher e t he
t heor y was pr esent ed. A ver y good engineer ing idea of t he magnit udes of swit ching sur ges
exper ienced in syst em (c) can be obt ained if syst ems (a) a nd (b) ar e fir st analyzed and t heir
r esult s int er pr et ed.
10.7.1 Single-Frequency Lumped-Parameter Circuit
Consider Figur e 10.7 showing a ser ies L-R-C cir cuit ener gized by a sour ce e(t ) by closing t he
swit ch S . The capacit or has an init ial t r apped-char ge volt age V
0
wit h t he polar it y shown and
t her e is no init ial cur r ent . The oper at ional equat ion for t he cur r ent using Laplace Tr ansfor m is
s V s I Cs R Ls / ) ( ) / 1 (
0
+ + + = E(s) ...(10.7)
giving I(s) =
] ) [(
) ( .
2
0
2
0
w s L
V s E s
+ +
...(10.8)
wher e =
2 2
0
/ 1 and 2 / LC w L R ...(10.9)
Fig. 10.7 (a) Lumped-par amet er L-R-C cir cuit wit h init ial volt age on capacit or .
(b) Effect of incr ea se of R on peak value of volt age acr oss capacit or . (See Example 10.3)
e t ( ) E S ( )
S
V
c
L R
i
+V0
C
( ) a
V
cp
, P.U.
3.0
2.0
1.0
10 40 100 632 10
3
R. ohms
( ) b
Exa mp le 10.2. A 400-kV 400-km line has t he dist r ibut ed par amet er s r = 0.031 ohm/km, l
= 1 mH/km, and c = 10 nF/km. The equivalent lumped par amet er s for t he cir cuit of Fig. 10.7
ar e assumed as R = 12.4 ohms, L = 400 mH, and C = 4F. It is excit ed by an equivalent st ep
volt age of magnit ude E = 3 / 2 420 = 343 kV. Calculat e
(a) t he at t enuat ion fact or ,
(b) t he nat ur al angular fr equency w
0
and 2 /
0 0
w f , and
(c) t he peak value of volt age acr oss C wit h t he line holding an init ial t r apped-char ge
volt age equal t o 343 kV.
Sol u t i on .
(a) = R/2L = 12.4/2 0.4 = 15.5 sec
1
(b)
2
0
w = 1/LC
2
= 0.625 10
6
. w
0
= 790.6 and f
0
= 125 Hz.
Time for
2
1
cycle = 4 ms when t he peak occur s.
(c) Peak value of capacit or volt age is, by equat ion (10.15),
v
cp
= kV 988 88 . 2 ] cos . . 2 1 [
3
10 4 5 . 15

E e E .
Equat ion (10.14) can be maximized as follows:
]
]
]
E
t v
dt
d
c
) (
= )] sin( ) cos( [
2
0
0 0 0 0 0
0
+

t w w t w
LC w
e
t
.
giving t an ) (
0 0
t w = ) t an( or ) t an( t an /
0 0 0 0
w .
Ther efor e
0 0
t w =
0
, for t he fir st peak.
Subsequent peaks occur at (2n + 1)
0
, n = 1, 2, 3,....
The peak value occur s at t
m
=
0
/ w . ...(10.17)
The maximum p.u. value fr om equat ion (10.14) is
v
cp
/ E =
0
/
0 0
2 1 cos . /
0
.
2
1
w
e w
e
LC w

+
+ ...(10.18)
since cos LC w w w
0
2
0
2
0 0
/ + fr om equat ion (10.13).
In example 10.2, = 15.5 and w
0
= 790.6, giving 0
/ w
e

= 0.94, and t her efor e v
cp
= 1 + 2
0.94 = 2.88 p.u.
We also not e t hat t he r at io of adjacent peaks above t he input st ep can be wr it t en as
K
p
=
) / 2 exp(
) / ) 1 2 ( exp(
) / ) 1 2 ( exp(
) 1 2 (
) 1 2 (
0
0
0
w
w n
w n
E n v
E n v
p
p

+

+

...(10.19)
Ther efor e ) ln( . ) ln(
2
giving ) ln( / 2
0
0
0 p p p
K f K
w
K w
...(10.20)
This gives a ver y convenient met hod of mea sur ing t he a t t enua t ion fa ct or fr om a n
oscilloscopic r ecor d. The fr equency of t he oscillat or y volt age is easily measur ed while t he
amplit udes of successive peaks can also be found. Such a met hod is useful in all t r ansient
st udies wher e t he at t enuat ion is gover ned by t he ac value of r esist ance at t he fr equency of
oscillat ion while t he d.c. r esist ance can be measur ed on a br idge.
10.7.3 Reduction of Switching Surge Overvoltage
On long e.h.v. lines, int r oduct ion of a ser ies r esist ance wit h t he cir cuit br eaker at t he inst ant
of swit ching r educes t he open-end volt age. Aft er near ly 10 ms t he ser ies r esist ance is r emoved
fr om t he cir cuit by having anot her cir cuit br eaker closing acr oss t he t er minals of t he r esist or .
W e can exam ine the effect of increasing R in Fig. 10.7. We obser ve t hat w
0
= 0 when
C L R / 2
,
and t he cir cuit is 'cr it ically damped'. For t his condit ion, equat ion (10.10) becomes
V
c
(s) =
s
V
s s
LC
V E
0
2
0
) (
1
+
+
wher e
CL L R / 1 4 /
2 2 2

...(10.21)
The t ime r esponse is
v
c
(t ) =
0 0
)] 1 ( 1 )[ ( V t e V E
t
+ +

...(10.22)
For t he case V
0
= E,
v
c
(t ) =
)] 1 ( 2 1 [ t e E
t
+

...(10.23)
Differ ent iat ing and t aking dv
c
/dt = 0, t her e dv
c
/dt =
t e E
t
2
. 2
which is zer o at t = 0. The
r esult ing maximum value of capacit or volt age is
0
V E v
cp
, fr om (10.23). Consequent ly, t he
volt age acr oss t he capacit or will never exceed t he st ep or 1 p.u.
Exa mp le 10.3. In example 10.2, wit h L = 0.4 Henr y, C = F 4 calculat e t he maximum
volt age acr oss capacit or as t he r esist ance R is changed fr om 10 ohms t o 632 ohms ) / 2 ( C L .
Assume t he t r apped volt age t o be 1 p.u.
Sol u t i on . The maximum value is 1 + 2 exp ) / (
0
w p.u., equat ion (10.18). The r esist ance
values may be select ed on a logar it hmic scale.
R = 10 20 30 40 60 80 100 200 300 400 600 632
= 12.5 25 37.5 50 75 100 125 250 375 500 750 790
w
0
= 790.6 790.3 790 789 787 784 781 750 696 612 250 0
v
cp
= 2.9 2.81 2.723 2.64 2.48 2.34 2.21 1.7 1.37 1.15 1.003 1
Fig. 10.7(b) shows t he p.u. values of capacit or volt age as t he ser ies r esist ance is incr eased.
10.7.4 Sinusoidal ExcitationLumped Parameter Circuit
Equat ion (10.10) is t he gener al expr ession for t he capacit or volt age in oper at ional for m in t he
LRC cir cuit shown in Fig. 10.7(a). The for cing funct ion is e(t ) whose Laplace Tr ansfor m is
E(s). For a sine-wave of excit at ion wit h e(t ) = V
m
cos (wt +
), t he Laplace-Tr ansfor m is
E(s) = ) /( ) sin . cos . (
2 2
w s w s V
m
+ ...(10.24)
In solving for t he capacit or volt age for t his t ype of excit at ion, it is easy if t he r esponse due
t o t he for cing funct ion and t he init ial volt age V
0
on t he capacit or ar e separ at ed. Also, inst ead of
evaluat ing t he r esidues, we will use an int uit ive met hod, alt hough t he Inver se Laplace Tr ansfor m
can be wor ked out in t he usual manner .
Response due to Initial Trapped Voltage V
0
For t his volt age, t he oper at ional expr ession for t he capacit or volt age in equat ion (10.10) is
V
0
(s) =
] ) .[(
1
.
2
0
2
0 0
w s s LC
V
s
V
+ +
...(10.25)
The inver se t r ansfor m is, using equat ion (10.11),
v
0
(t ) = )}] cos( . / 1 . 1 { 1 [
0 0
2
0
2
0
+

t w w e V
t
=
) cos( .
0 0
0
0

t w e
LC w
V
t
...(10.26)
wher e t he values of , w
0
and
0
ar e t aken fr om equat ions (10.9) and (10.13). The above
solut ion is valid for
C L R / 2 <
.
For t he cr it ically-damped case, R = 0 , / 2
0
w C L , it becomes
v
0
(t ) = )}] 1 ( 1 ){ / 1 ( 1 [
2
0
t e LC V
t
+

= )}] 2 / 1 ( 1 ){ / 4 ( 1 [
2
0
L Rt e C R L V
t
+

...(10.27)
The quant it y
C L /
can be called t he nat ur al impedance Z
0
of t he L-R-C cir cuit , giving
4L/R
2
C =
2 2
0
/ 4 R Z . Thus, t he magnit ude of t he second quant it y in (10.27) depends on t he r at io
of char act er ist ic impedance t o t he act ual r esist ance included in t he net wor k. Also,
C R L
2
/ 4
=
1 for t he cr it ically damped case.
Response due to Forcing Function e(t) = V
m
cos (wt + )
The t r ansient r esult ing fr om sudden ener gizat ion of t he cir cuit will consist of t wo par t s which
ar e (1) t he st eady st at e t er m or par t icular int egr al sur viving when all t r ansient s have vanished,
and (2) t he exponent ially decaying t r ansient t er m or t he compliment ar y funct ion.
(1) S t ea d y-S t a t e T er m
Using phasor algebr a, t he cir cuit cur r ent phasor leads t he applied volt age by t he angle
and t he magnit ude is V

m
/Z. Thus, it s value is
I
ss
= ) cos( + + wt
Z
V
m
...(10.28)
'

+
] / ) / 1 t an[( ar c and
) / 1 ( wher e
2 2
R wL wC
wL wC R Z
...(10.29)
The capacit or volt age in t he st eady st at e lags 90 behind t he cur r ent and has t he value
V
cs
=
) sin( 90
1
+ + wt
wCZ
V
I
wC
m
ss ...(10.30)
(2) Com p l i m en t a r y Fu n ct i on or T r a n si en t T er m
The t r ansient t er m will be of t he same for m as equat ion (10.11) and is wr it t en as
V
cc
=
t
e t w K t w K

+ ) sin cos (
0 2 0 1
, ...(10.31)
Critical Damping. R = ) 2 .( / 2
0
Z R C L .
For t his case, t he r esponse funct ion wit h V
0
is
V
c
=
2 2
. ) {sin( ) [sin( w t e wt
wCZ
V
t m
+ + + + +

.
) 2 / 1 ( )}] cos(
0
L Rt e V
t
+ + +

...(10.39)
S hort -circuit Power
In usual sour ces, t he induct ance is consider able. If in t he cir cuit of Fig. 10.7 (a), t he
induct ance L is consider ed as cont r ibut ed by t he sinusoidal sour ce only, we can define a shor t -
cir cuit power of t he sour ce as
P
sc
= wL V
m
2 /
2
...(10.40)
This will be deliver ed when a shor t -cir cuit occur s at t he t er minals of t he sour ce whose
ser ies r eact ance at power fr equency is X = wL. Then, t he p.u. value of capacit or volt age for
C L R / 2 <
can be wr it t en in t er ms of t his s-c power as follows fr om equat ions (10.26) and
(10.36):
m
c
V
V
=
). sin( . ) [sin(
2
0
2
+ + +

t w e wt
CZ
L
V
P
t
m
sc
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
+
+
+ +
2 / 1
2
2 2
0
2 2 2
2
) ( cos
4
4
) ( sin
L w
L w R
) cos( ) exp(
1
0 0
0
0
+ t w t
LC w V
V
m
...(10.41)
The t er m w V L P
m sc
2 /
2
is a const ant for given values of for cing funct ion V
m
and power
fr equency f = w/2.
10.8 DISTRIBUTED-PARAMETER LINE ENERGIZED BY SOURCE
We have alr eady analyzed t he t r avelling-wave and st anding-wave r esponses of a dist r ibut ed-
par amet er line wit h open end when ener gized by a st ep funct ion in Chapt er 8. The oper at ional
expr essions for t he volt age and cur r ent at any point on an open-ended line wer e, neglect ing t he
init ial t r apped volt age,
'
pL Z px s E s x I
pL px s E s x V
cosh . / sinh ). ( ) , ( and
cosh / cosh ). ( ) , (
0
...(10.42)
wher e p = , ) )( ( cs g ls r + + t he pr opagat ion fact or
and Z
0
= , ) /( ) ( cs g ls r + + t he sur ge impedance of line c l / .
Also, v = , / 1 l c t he velocit y of pr opagat ion.
At t he open end, t he volt age is
V
0
= E(s)/cosh pL. ...(10.43)
S t ep Response. Denot ing A
0
= e
aL
wher e
0
2 / 2 / Z r lv r a , t he st ep r esponse was obt ained
as shown in Fig. 8.4 and t he Bewley Lat t ice Diagr am, Figur e 8.5. The gener al expr ession for
t he volt age at t ime t = NT, wher e T = t ime t aken for t r avel of sur ge over one line lengt h (T =
L/v) was , 2
) 2 (
2
0 0 T N NT
V A A V

N odd. The maximum volt age is 2A
0
at t he open end when
t r apped char ge is neglect ed. Wit h a t r apped volt age of 1 p.u., t he open-end volt age r eaches a
maximum of (2A
0
+ 1) p.u. In usual t r ansmission lines, t he t r apped volt age is 0.8 p.u. on a
r eclosing oper at ion. We may not e her e t hat t he value of fir st peak is ver y near ly t he same as
was obt ained fr om t he lumped-par amet er net wor k.
The at t enuat ion fact or must be pr oper ly calculat ed by consider ing t he r esist ance of not
only t he conduct or but also t he gr ound r et ur n which exceeds t he conduct or r esist ance by a
fact or of as much as 10. The following example shows t he effect of gr ound-r et ur n induct ance on
t he velocit y of pr opagat ion and t he r esist ance on t he at t enuat ion.
Exa mp le 10.4. The 400-km 400-kV line consider ed in example 10.2 has t he following
det ails:
Conductor resistance r
c
= 0.031 ohm/km
Gr ound r et ur n r esist ance r
g
= 0.329 ohm/km at 125 Hz
Ser ies induct ance of line l
s
= 1 mH/km
Gr ound-r et ur n induct ance l
g
= 0.5 mH/km
Shunt capacit ance c = 11.1 nF/km
Calculate
(a) velocit y of pr opagat ion v and t r avel t ime T;
(b) sur ge impedance;
(c) at t enuat ion fact or A
0
;
(d) maximum p.u. value of open-end volt age wit hout t r apped volt age.
Compar e all t hese quant it ies by neglect ing gr ound and consider ing t he gr ound-r et ur n
par amet er s.
Sol u t i on .
Neglect ing r
g
and l
g
Considering r
g
and l
g
Tot al r esist ance r 0.031 ohm/km 0.36 ohm/km
Tot al induct ance l 1 mH/km 1.5 mH/km
Capacit ance c 11.1 nF/km 11.1 nF/km
Velocit y v, km/sec 3 10
5
1 . 11 5 . 1 / 10
6
= 2.45 10
5
= 82% light velocit y
Time for 1 t r avel, T, ms 1.33 1.633
Sur ge impedance 300
367 10 1 . 11 / 5 . 1
3

Z
0
, ohms
At t enuat ion fact or , A
0 98 . 0
800 / 4 . 12
e 822 . 0
734 / 144
e
Maximum open-end 1.96 p.u. 1.644 p.u.
volt a ge, 2A
0
We not e t hat t he effect of gr ound-r et ur n r esist ance and induct ance on t he swit ching sur ge
r esponse (st ep r esponse) is t o
(a) decr ease t he velocit y of pr opagat ion of t he sur ge,
(b) incr ease t he t ime of t r avel,
(c) incr ease t he sur ge impedance,
(d) incr ease t he at t enuat ion of sur ge over one t r avel, and
(e) lower t he maximum value of open-end volt age.
Sine-Wave Response
Following t he same pr ocedur e as for t he st ep r esponse, t he t r avelling-wave concept yields t he
followin g sequ en ce of volt a ges a t t h e open en d wh en t h e sou r ce volt a ge h a s t h e for m
). cos( ) ( + wt V t e
m
At t = 0, t he swit ch is closed and t he sour ce volt age will appear at t he open end at t ime t
= T wit h magnit ude A
0
cos
. Due t o t ot al r eflect ion at t he open end, t he volt age will be

cos 2
0 1
A V , p.u. At t = 2T, t he volt age ) cos( + wT V
m
will r each t he open end and become
double. ) cos( 2
0 2
+ wT A V , p.u. At t = 3T, t he r eflect ed volt age at t = T would have gone
back t o t he sour ce and r et ur ned wit h a negat ive sign aft er at t enuat ing by
2
0
A . Also, t he volt age
V
m
cos ) 2 ( + wT would r each t he open end at t he same t ime. At t = 3T, and p.u. value of
open-end volt age is V
3
= 2A
0
cos
1
2
0
) 2 ( V A wT + . The sequence of volt ages is t her efor e as
follows:
At t = 0 : V
0
= 0
t = T : V
1
= cos 2
0
A
t = 2T : V
2
= ) cos( 2
0
+ wT A
t = 3T : V
3
=
1
2
0 0
) 2 cos( 2 V A wT A + ...(10.44)
t = 4T : V
4
=
2
2
0 0
) 3 cos( 2 V A wT A +
t = NT :V
N
= 2A
0
. ) 1 ( cos
2
2
0
+
N
V A wt N
When t he sour ce is swit ched on t o t he line at t he inst ant it is passing t hr ough it s peak
value,
= 0. This usually gives t he maximum st r ess on line insulat ion.

Exa mp le 10.5. For t he 400-kV 400-km line of pr evious example, when t he sour ce of
excit at ion is sinusoidal wit h f = 50 Hz, and is swit ched on t o t he line at it s peak (
= 0),
consider ing gr ound-r et ur n r esist ance and induct ance, calculat e and plot t he open-end volt age
in per unit up t o 20 ms (1 cycle).
Sol u t i on . T = 1.633 ms, v = 2.45 10
5
km/s, A
0
= 0.822
N = 20/1.633 = 12.25 t r avel t imes. We will go up t o 14 t r avel t imes
(V = 0 up t o t = T). ) 6757 . 0 (
2
0
A
t = 0 V
0
= 0
t = T V
1
= 2A
0
= 1.644
t = 2T V
2
= 452 . 1 4 . 29 cos 2 18 633 . 1 cos 2
0 0
A A
t = 3T V
3
= 259 . 0 4 . 29 2 cos 2
1
2
0 0
V A A
t = 4T V
4
= 9362 . 0 4 . 29 3 cos 2
2
2
0 0
V A A
Cont inuing in t his manner , we obt ain
V
5
= 0.587, V
6
= 0.746, V
7
= 1.244, V
8
= 0.976, V
9
= 0.098,
V
10
= 0.5037, V
11
= 0.735, V
12
= 0.98, V
13
= 1.134,
and V
14
= 86 . 0 4 . 29 13 cos 2
12
2
0 0
V A A
The oscillat ions have near ly vanished and t he open-end volt age follows t he sour ce volt age
as shown in Fig. 10.8.
Fig. 10.8 Open-end volt age on a line excit ed by a sinusoidal sour ce.
10.9 GENERALIZED EQUATIONS FOR SINGLE-PHASE REPRESENTATION
A mor e gener al case wit h ser ies and shunt impedance lumped element s connect ed t o dist r ibut ed-
par amet er line was consider ed in chapt er 8, sect ion 8.10. It was shown t hat t he volt age at t he
ent r ance t o t he line was, wit h a lit t le r e-wr it ing of equat ion (8.122),
V
e
=
pL
Z
Z
Z Z
Z Z
Z
Z
pL
Z
Z
Z
Z
pL Z Z pL
s E
s
t sh
s
t t
s
sh
s
t
sinh cosh 1
sinh ) / ( cosh
). (
0
0 0
0
,
`
.
|
+ + +
,
`
.
|
+ +
+
...(10.45)
Having found V
e
, all ot her volt ages and cur ent s can be obt ained. In par t icular , t he volt age
at t he far end or at t he t er minat ion is
V
0
=
]
]
]
]
,
`
.
|
+ + +
,
`
.
|
+ + pL
Z
Z
Z Z
Z Z
Z
Z
pL
Z
Z
Z
Z
s E
s
t sh
s
t t
s
sh
s
sinh cosh 1 ) (
0
0 0
...(10.46)
These for m t he gener alized equat ions for a single-phase r epr esent at ion of t he syst em.
These equat ions also yield t he mor e complicat ed set of per for mance equat ions of a 3-phase
syst em if all quant it ies ar e suit ably r eplaced by mat r ices. This will be t aken up in t he next
sect ion. The mat r ices can be diagonalized t o yield t hr ee mut ually-decoupled single-phase syst ems
or modes of pr opagat ion for t he sur ge. Obt aining t he inver se t r ansfor m t o yield t he cor r esponding
t ime var iat ion in closed for m is not easy for a gener al case and must be at t empt ed t hr ough t he
Four ier Tr ansfor m or ot her met hods suit able for t he Digit al Comput er .
Particular Cases of the General Equations
Equat ions (10.45) and (10.46) for t he ent r ance and t er minat ion volt ages can be used for
par t icular cases which occur in pr act ice. Some t ypical cases ar e shown in t he t abular for m. 7
cases ar e consider ed which ar e shown in Fig. 10.9.
2.0
1.0
0
1.0
2.0
1 2
3
4 5 6 7 8
9
10 11 12 13 14
V
0
t/T
S .No. S yst em Impedances Open-end Voltage V
0
Ent rance Volt age V
e
Configuration
1. Figur e 10.9 (a)

t
sh s
Z
Z Z , 0 E(s)/cosh pL E(s)
2. Figur e 10.9(b)
sh t
sh s
Z Z
Z Z
, , 0
pL
Z
Z
pL
s E
sh
sinh cosh
) (
0
+
E(s)
3. Figur e (10.9)(c)

sh
t s
Z
Z Z , 0
pL
Z
Z
pL
s E
t
sinh cosh
) (
0
+
E(s)
4. Figur e 10.9(d)

t
sh s
Z
Z Z ,
pL
Z
Z
pL
s E
s
sinh cosh
) (
0
+
pL V cosh .
0
5. Figur e 10.9(e)

t
sh s
Z
Z Z ,
pL
Z
Z
pL
Z
Z
s E
s
sh
s
sinh cosh 1
) (
0
+
,
`
.
|
+
pL V cosh .
0
6. Figur e 10.9( f )
sh t
sh s
Z Z
Z Z
,
,
pL
Z
Z Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
pL
Z
Z
s E
sh
s s
sh
sh
s
sinh
cosh
2
1
) (
2
0
0
0
,
`
.
|
+ +
,
`
.
|
+

,
`
.
|
+
pL
Z
Z
pL V
sh
sinh
cosh
0
0
7. Figur e 10.9(g)
t
sh s
Z
Z Z , , Equat ion 10.46 Equat ion 10.45
Line
E
E Zsh
Ve
V0
Zt
Ve V0
( ) a
( ) b
F i g. 10.9 7 par t icular cases of syst em configur at ion for illust r at ing
application of generalized equations. In (f ), Z
t
= Z
sh
.
Numerical Examples
The inver se t r ansfor m has been evaluat ed by using t he Four ier Tr ansfor m Met hod for
t hr ee cases which ar e shown in Fig. 10.10. These ar e:
1. 250 km line bet ween Dehar Power St at ion and Panipat Receiving St at ion wit h line
open. Line par amet er s ar e r = 0.0274 ohm/km, l = 0.992 mH/km, c = 7.4 nF/km, T =
916 s, Z
s
= 0.075 ohm and 0.2184 Henr y which r epr esent t he r esist ance and t r ansient
r eact ance of power st at ion. Swit ching at peak of sine wave. Bot h ent r ance volt age
and open-end volt age ar e shown.
2. 160 km line, Z
g
= 0.385 ohm and 0.049 Henr y, T = 545 s, r = 0.02 ohm/km, l = 0.89
mH/km, c = 13 nF/km. Init ial w
t
= 10, final w
F
= 10
5
, w = 100, number of or dinat es
used in numer ical int egr at ion n = 1000, a = 1/10 T fr om 0 t o 10 T, a = 1/20 T fr om 10T
t o 20 T. Bot h ent r ance volt age V
e
and open-end volt age ar e plot t ed for sinusoidal
excit at ion at peak value.
3. St ep r esponse of a t r ansfor mer -t er minat ed line. 160 km line, r = 0.29 ohm/km, l = 2
mH/km, c = 14.1 nF/km, t r ansfor mer r epr esent ed by 1000 pF bushing in par allel
wit h 13.9 ohm r esist ance and 0.468 Henr y induct ance in ser ies. The t r ansfor mer
volt age and volt age at 50% point of line ar e shown. Sour ce has no ser ies impedance.
Values of T, w
t
, w
F
, n and a ar e same as in case (2).
E
E
E
E
E
V
e
Ve
V
e
Zsh
Z
sh
Z
sh
Z
t
Z
t
V
e
V
e
V
0
V0
V
0
Z
s
Zs
Z
s
Z
s
V0
V
0
Zt
( ) c
( ) d
( ) e
( ) f
( ) g
Fi g. 10.10 Over volt ages dur ing swit ching oper at ions on syst ems calculat ed by Four ier Tr ansfor ms.
(a) 250 km line ener gized at peak of sine wave at gener at ing st at ion wit h ser ies impedance. (b) 160 km line
ener gized at peak of sine wave, wit h sour ce having small induct ance (sub-t r ansient ). (c) St ep r esponse of a
r eceiving-st at ion t r ansfor mer t er minat ion. No sour ce ser ies impedance.
V
e
V
0
Ve
V0
V
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
2T 4T 8T 12T 14T 16T
T
n
= 545 s
= 1000
.0488
160 km
V
e
V
0
V
.075
250 km
= 916 s T
.2184 H
Dehar
T 2T 3T 5T 6T 7T
1.0
( ) a
( ) b
( ) c
0.5
V
e
V0
V
Dehar
Panipat
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
T 2T 4T 6T 8T 12T 16T 14T
V
5
V
0
STEP
S 160 km 1 nF
.468 H
13.9
V
5
V
0
10.10 GENERALIZED EQUATIONS FOR THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS
The gener alized equat ions for swit ching-sur ge calculat ion on 3-phase syst ems is an ext ension
of t he single-phase case of t he pr evious sect ion. Since t he equat ions ar e quit e lengt hy, a st ep by
st ep pr ocedur e is given below. We will r est r ict t he development t o a fully t r ansposed line.
Resist ance of Line
Wit h gr ound-r et ur n consider ed, t he t ot al r esist ance consist s of conduct or r esist ance r
c
and gr ound-r et ur n r esist ance r
g
. The r esult ing mat r ix of r esist ance will be
[r] = ] [ ] [ D r U r
g c
+ ...(10.47)
wher e [U] =
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
1 , 1 , 1
1 , 1 , 1
1 , 1 , 1
] [ and
1 , 0 , 0
0 , 1 , 0
0 , 0 1
D ...(10.48)
Induct ance of Line: In a similar manner
[l] = ] )[ ( ] )[ ( D l l U l l
g m m s
+ + ...(10.49)
wher e l
s
= self induct ance, l
m
= mut ual induct ance bet ween phases, and l
g
= gr ound-r et ur n
induct ance per unit lengt h.
Capacitance of Line
[c] = ] [ ] )[ ( D c U c c
m m s
+ ...(10.50)
S hunt Impedance at line ent r ance
[Z
sh
] = Z
sh
[U] ...(10.51)
S eries Impedance of source
[Z
s
] = Z
s
[U] ...(10.52)
Terminating Impedance
For balanced condit ion
[Z
t
] = Z
t
[U] ...(10.53)
For gener al unbalanced condit ion,
[Z
t
] =
]
]
]
]
]
3
2
1
,
t
t
t
Z
Z
Z
...(10.54)
S ource Volt age
[e(t )] =
]
]
]
]
]
+
+
+
) cos(
) cos(
) cos(
3
2
1
wt
wt
wt
V
m
...(10.55)
For synchr onous closing.
2
= + 120 , 120
1 3 1
The angles
3 2 1
, , denot e t he point s on t he wave at which swit ching t akes place fr om
t he posit ive peaks of t he r espect ive phase volt ages.
Voltage Equations
Commencing wit h t he out put end, we have t he following sequence of equat ions, as shown
fr om Fig. 10.11.
[V
0
] = [Z
t
] [I
0
], [V
0
] = [F] [V
e
] ...(10.56)
wher e [F] is a funct ion which is t o be det er mined fr om t he differ ent ial equat ions. For a
single-phase r epr esent at ion, F is given by t he r at io of equat ions (10.46) and (10.45), which is
] sinh ) / ( [cosh
0
pL Z Z pL
t
+ . ] ][ [ ] [
e e
V G I wher e [G] is anot her funct ion st ill t o be evaluat ed.
Refer t o Chapt er 8 for t he single-phase case. A similar value in mat r ix for m can be der ived.
Fi g. 10.11 Gener a l r epr esent a t ion of a syst em.
[I
s
] = [I
e
] + [Z
sh
]
1
[V
e
] ...(10.57)
[E] = Laplace t r ansfor m of sour ce volt ages
= ]} [ ] [ ] ]{[ [ ] [ ] ][ [ ] [
1
e sh e s e s s e
V Z I Z V I Z V

+ + +
= ] }][ ] [ ] ]{[ [ ] [[
1
e sh s
V Z G Z U

+ + ...(10.58)
The ent r ance volt age is
[V
e
] = [[U ] + [Z
s
] {[G] + [Z
sh
]
1
}]
1
[E ] ...(10.59)
Having obt ained t he ent r ance volt age in t er ms of t he sour ce volt age [E], t he out put volt age
[V
0
] and t he cur r ent s can be obt ained in oper at ional for m. The t ime-domain solut ions have t o
be evaluat ed by t he Inver se Tr ansfor m.
10.10.1 Resolution into Component Modes of Propagation
In equat ions (10.47) t o (10.50), t he line par amet er s involve t he special mat r ix [D]. If t his is
diagonalized, t hen t he volt ages and cur r ent s can all be r esolved int o component s which will
show no mut ual int er act ion. They ar e r esolved int o t hr ee 'modes of pr opagat ion.' At any desir ed
t ime, t hey can be r ecombined t o yield t he phase quant it ies. This can be car r ied out by t he
Digit al Comput er aft er ever y calculat ion of t he inver se t r ansfor m.
It has been shown in Chapt er 3 t hat t he modified Clar ke Tr ansfor mat ion mat r ix will
diagonalize [D]. The mat r ices ar e
[T] =
]
]
]
]
]

]
]
]
]
]

1 2 , 1
3 0 , 3
2 , 2 , 2
6
1
] [ and
1 , 3 , 2
2 , 0 , 2
1 , 3 , 2
6
1
1
T
...(10.60)
[ ] Zs
[ ( )][Z ] E s
sh
[ ] I
s
[ ] I
e
[ ] I
0
[ ] Z
t [ ] V0 [ ] Ve
Then ] ][ [ ] [
1
T D T

= ] [
0 , 0 , 0
0 , 0 , 0
0 , 0 , 3

]
]
]
]
]
...(10.61)
t he eigenvalue mat r ix.
Line Paramet ers in Modal Form
Let [r
m
], [l
m
], and [c
m
] be t he r epr esent at ions of modal r esist ance, induct ance and capacit ance
mat r ices, obt ained as follows fr om t he line par amet er mat r ices.
[r
m
] =
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
c
c
g c
r
r
r r
r
r
r
T r T
, 0 , 0
0 , , 0
0 , 0 , 3
,
,
] ][ [ ] [
3
2
1
1
...(10.62)
[l
m
] =
]
]
]
]
]
+ +
]
]
]
]
]
m s
m s
g m s
l l
l l
l l l
l
l
l
T l T ,
3 2
] ][ [ ] [
3
2
1
1
...(10.63)
[c
m
] =
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
m s
m s
m s
c c
c c
c c
c
c
c
T c T ,
, 2
,
,
] ][ [ ] [
3
2
1
1
...(10.64)
Lumped Impedances in Modal Form
] [
shm
Z = ] [ ] ][ [ ] [
1
U Z T Z T
sh sh

...(10.65)
[Z
sm
] = ] [ ] ][ [ ] [
1
U Z T Z T
s s

...(10.66)The t er minat ing impedance needs special

at t ent ion. For balanced impedances, equat ion (10.53),
[Z
tm
] = ] [ ] ][ [ ] [
1
U Z T Z T
t t

...(10.67)
But when t he impedances connect ed t o gr ound in t he t hr ee phases ar e unequal as in
equat ion (10.54), t her e will be mut ual int er act ion bet ween t he phases since
] ][ [ ] [
1
T Z T
t
=
]
]
]
]
]
]
+ + +
+
+ + +
6 / ) 4 ( , 3 2 / ( , 3 2 / ) 2 (
3 2 / ) ( , 2 / ) ( , 6 / ) (
3 2 / ) 2 ( , 6 / ) ( , 3 / ) (
3 2 1 3 1 3 2 1
2 1 3 1 3 1
3 2 1 3 1 3 2 1
t t t t t t t t
t t t t t t
t t t t t t t t
Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z
...(10.68)
For ,
3 3 1 t t t
Z Z Z t his r educes t o equat ion (10.67).
Special met hods ar e available for handling unbalanced t er minal condit ions which have
been developed by Ur am, Miller and Feer o and by Dommel and ot her s. But a ver y ext ensive
invest igat ion of t he effect pr oduced on swit ching sur ges car r ied out on a Tr ansient Net wor k
Analyzer by Sujat ha Subhash, Meer a, J yot i and Kanya Kumar i have r evealed t he following
impor t ant t heor em:
'When unbalanced t er minal condit ions exist , t he syst em r esponse t o swit ching is near ly
t he same as if t he syst em consist s of t hr ee balanced syst ems, each one having t er minat ing
impedances equal t o t hose connect ed in t he individual phases.' Using t his pr oper t y, t he syst em
can be analyzed t hr ee t imes by using balanced load of Z
t1
in all phases and calculat ing t he
swit ching-sur ge r esponse in phase 1. Then r eplace a balanced load of Z
t2
and det er mine t he
r esponse of phase 2. Finally, r eplace a balanced load Z
t3
in t he syst em and t he r esult ing r esponse
of phase 3 will be t he same as when t he unbalanced load is used. We might also r emar k t hat
since swit ching-sur ge calculat ions under unbalanced loads or when consider ing r esist ances in
lines is ver y complicat ed and consumes a ver y long comput er t ime, shor t er met hods, giving
r esult s accept able for engineer ing designs must be cont inuously devised. Hedman has found
t hat t he line r esist ance can be omit t ed in solving t he t r avelling-wave equat ions but can be
included as a lumped ser ies r esist ance wit h t he load. Similar ly, t he pr oblems of fr equency-
dependence of gr ound-r et ur n par amet er s have also caused gr ave concer n and for m ver y advanced
t opics which cannot be discussed in t his int r oduct or y chapt er t o calculat ion of swit ching sur ges.
The r eader is r efer r ed t o t he ext ensive wor k list ed in t he bibliogr aphy.
Voltages and Currents in Modal Form: Differential Equations:
S ource Volt age
] )][ ( [ ] [
1
T t e T

=
]
]
]
]
]
+ + + +
+ +
+ + + + +
) cos( ) cos( 2 ) cos(
)} cos( ) {cos( 3
)} cos( ) cos( ) {cos( 2
6
3 1
3 1
3 2 1
wt wt wt
wt wt
wt wt wt
V
m
...(10.69)
The oper at ional for ms of t hese volt ages can be evaluat ed suit ably by using )] [cos( + wt L
= ) /( ) sin . cos . (
2 2
w s w s + .
The gover ning differ ent ial equat ions and t heir solut ions for each of t he t hr ee independent
modes can now be der ived. The basic differ ent ial equat ion for t he phase quant it ies ar e
dx
V d
x
] [
=
] [ ] [
] [
and ], }[ ] [ ] {[
x
x
x
V s c
dx
I d
I s l r +
...(10.70)
These ar e r esolved int o modal for m t hus:
] [ ] [
1
x
V
dx
d
T

=
] [ ] [ ] [
3
2
1
1
m
m
m
m
x
V
dx
d
V
V
V
dx
d
V T
dx
d
]
]
]
]
]
...(10.71)
But [T]
1
{[r] + [l]s} [T] [T]
1
[I
x
] = {[r
m
] + [l
m
]s} [I
m
] ...(10.72)
] [
m
V
dx
d
= {[r
m
] + [l
m
]s} [I
m
] ...(10.73)
Similar ly, ] [
m
I
dx
d
= [c
m
] s[V
m
] (10.74)
These const it ut e 6 independent equat ions which ar e as follows by using equat ions (10.62)
t o (10.64):

'
+
+
+ + + +
m m s c m
m m s c m
m g m s g c m
I s l l r dx dV
I s l l r dx dV
I s l l l r r dx dV
3 3
2 2
1 1
} ) { { /
} ) ( { /
} ) 3 2 ( ) 3 {( /
...(10.75)

'

+
m m s m
m m s m
m m s m
V s c c dx dI
V s c c dx dI
V s c c dx dI
3 3
2 2
1 1
. ) ( /
. ) ( /
. ) 2 ( /
...(10.75)
We obser ve t hat t hese ar e equivalent t o t he following 3 set s of equat ions, one for each
mode, as if each per t ains t o a single-phase quant it y but in modal for m,
d (V
km
)/dx = z
km
.I
km
, and d(I
km
)/dx = y
km
V
km
...(10.76)
wher e k = 1, 2, 3. Omit t ing t he subscr ipt s, for any one of t he modes, t he differ ent ial
equat ions ar e of t he for m
dV/ dx = zI, and dI/dx = yV ...(10.77)

'
) (
1
and
ar e solut ions Their
0
px px
px px
Be Ae
Z
I
Be Ae V
...(10.78)
We have encount er ed t hese befor e in Chapt er 8. In t hese equat ions, t he pr opagat ion
fact or p and sur ge impedance Z
0
belong t o t he mode under consider at ion, and t heir values ar e
as follows:
Mode 1:
p
1
= ] ) 2 }( ) 2 ( ) 3 [{( s c c s l l l r r
m s g m s g c
+ + + + +
'
+
+
s c s l r Z
s c s l r
1 1 1 01
1 1 1
/ ) (
) (
...(10.79)
Mode 2:
p
2
= s c s l r Z s c s l r
2 2 2 02 2 2 2
/ ) ( , ) ( + + ...(10.80)
Mode 3:
p
3
= p
2
and Z
03
= Z
02
...(10.81)
The values of r
1
, r
2
, l
1
, l
2
, c
1
, c
2
ar e given in equat ions (10.62) t o (10.64). Equat ions (10.78)
can be applied for each mode in t ur n which will yield expr essions for t he r equir ed volt ages or
cur r ent s in t he syst em when t he ent r ance volt age V
e
t o t he line is found in t er ms of t he sour ce
volt age as shown in equat ions (10.45) and (10.46) for a single phase case.
Aft er having calculat ed t he inver se t r ansfor m at ever y inst ant of t ime by a suit able met hod
on t he Digit al Comput er , t he modal volt ages and cur r ent s can be r e-conver t ed t o phase quant it ies
by t he inver se t r ansfor mat ion t o equat ions (10.71) t o (10.74):
[V
ph
] = [T] [V
m
] and [I
ph
] = [T] [I
m
] ...(10.82)
For exa mple,
]
]
]
]
]
3
2
1
ph
ph
ph
V
V
V
=
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
m
m
m
V
V
V
3
2
1
1 , 3 , 2
2 , 0 , 2
1 , 3 , 2
6
1
=
]
]
]
]
]
+ +
m m m
m m
m m m
V V V
V V
V V V
3 2 1
3 1
3 2 1
3 2
2 2
3 2
6
1
...(10.83)
In swit ching-t r ansient calculat ions, t he most difficult oper at ion is obt aining t he inver se
t r ansfor m. We will discuss t his aspect next and only indicat e t he st eps involved in evaluat ing
t he same by using a Digit al Comput er for t he Inver se Four ier Tr ansfor m. This is dir ect and t he
main ideas have alr eady been set for t h in Chapt er 8. Var ious ot her ver y power ful met hods
have been evolved by many eminent engineer s t o obt ain t he t ime r esponse. Chief among t hese
ar e (See Gr eenwood, under Books in Bibliogr apy):
1. Dommel's Met hod based on Ber ger on's analysis of Wat er Hammer in hydr aulic pipe
lines and t he development of t he Elect r omagnet ic Tr ansient s Pr ogr ammes (EMTP);
2. Ur am, Miller , and Feer o's Met hod using Laplace Tr ansfor ms;
3. Amet ani's Modified Refr act ion Coefficient Met hod;
4. Bar t hold and Car t er 's Reflect ion Coefficient Met hod which is an applicat ion and
impr ovement of Bewley's Lat t ice Diagr am for handling a lar ge syst em using t he
Digit al Comput er .
5. Finally, t he Four ier Tr ansfor m Met hod developed and used by t he Br it ish t eam of
Day, Mullineux, Reed, Doeppel, and ot her s.
10.11 INVERSE FOURIER TRANSFORM FOR THE GENERAL CASE
We will illust r at e t he st eps involved in evaluat ing t he Inver se Four ier Tr ansfor m (IFT) for t he
far -end volt age given by equat ion (10.46) and for each mode in a 3-phase syst em aft er t he phase
volt ages have been r esolved int o t he 3 independent modes. Consider t he equat ion
V
0
=
]
]
]
]
,
`
.
|
+ + +
,
`
.
|
+ + pL
Z
Z
Z Z
Z Z
Z
Z
pL
Z
Z
Z
Z
s E
s
sh t
s
t t sh
s
sinh cosh 1 ) (
0
0 0 0
...(10.46)
wher e p = ) /( ) ( , ) )( (
0
cs g ls r Z cs g ls r + + + + ...(10.84)
In pr evious equat ions t he shunt conduct ance g could be int r oduced as a mat r ix wit hout
loosing t he gener alit y. For t he sake of illust r at ing t he st eps, let r = g = 0, and only shunt
r eact or s be used at bot h ends so t hat Z
t
= Z
sh
. Then,
p = s L R Z s L Z Z c l Z v s lc s
s s s sh sh t
+ , , / . /
0
...(10.85)
Her e, v = velocit y of pr opagat ion for t he mode under consider at ion wit h l and c comput ed
for ea ch mode.
Z
0
= sur ge impedance of t he line for t he mode.
L
s
= induct ance of t he shunt -compensat ing r eact or ,
L
s
= ser ies induct ance of sour ce = t r ansient r eact ance/2f,
R
s
= ser ies r esist ance of sour ce and any r esist ance incor por at ed in t he cir cuit br eaker
dur ing swit ching, and
E(s) = sour ce volt age in oper at ional for m for t he mode obt ained fr om equat ion (10.69).
Then,
V
0
(s) =
,
`
.
| + +
+ v sL
s L
Z s L R
s E
sh
s s
/ cosh 1 ) (
0
]
]
]
]
,
`
.
|
+
+
+
+ v sL
Z
s L R
s L
Z s L R
s L
Z
s s
sh
s s
sh
/ sinh
) (
0
2 2
0 0
...(10.86)
Next , we r eplace s = a + jw wher e a and w ar e as yet unspecified but t hey ent er in t he
int egr at ion as discussed in Chapt er 8. When s = a + jw, t he equat ion (10.86) will become a
funct ion of complex number s. We t hen pr oceed t o separ at e t he r eal and j-par t s, designat ing
t hem P and Q r espect ively. Now,
sh
s
sh
s
L
L
s L
Z R
+
+
+
1
1
0
=
) (
) (
) (
) (
1
2 2
0
2 2
0
w a L
w Z R
j
w a L
a Z R
L
L
sh
s
sh
s
sh
s
+
+
,
`
.
|
+
+
+ +
0 0
2
0
2 2
0 0
1 1
Z
s L
Z
R
s
L
Z L
s L
Z R
s L
Z
s s
sh
s
sh
s
sh
+ + + +
...(10.87)
=
]
]
]
]
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
0 0
2 2 2
0
2 2 2
2 2
2
0
2 2
0
) (
Z
a L
Z
R
w a
a
L
Z L
w a
w a
L
Z R
w a
a
L
Z
s s
sh
s
sh
s
sh
]
]
]
]
+
+
+
+
+
0
2 2 2
0
2 2 2 2
0
2 2
0
) ( ) (
2
) (
Z
w L
w a L
w Z L
w a L
aw Z R
w a L
w Z
j
s
sh
s
sh
s
sh
...(10.88)
cosh (sL/v) = cosh (aL/v). cos(wL/v) + j sinh (aL/v). sin (wL/v) ...(10.89)
sinh (sL/v) = sinh (aL/v). cos (wL/v) + j cosh (aL/v). sin (wL/v) ...(10.90)
By mult iplying equat ion (10.87) wit h (10.89), and (10.88) wit h (10.90), t he denominat or of
equat ion (10.86) can be wr it t en as a complex number
D = D
r
+ jD
i
...(10.91)
If t he sour ce of excit at ion e(t ) is sinusoidal and t he modal r esolut ion has been car r ied out
accor ding t o equat ion (10.69) and it s cor r esponding oper at ional expr ession is evaluat ed wit h
s = a + jw, it can be wr it t en as
E(s) = N
r
+ jN
i
...(10.92)
V
0
(a + jw) = ) /( ) (
i r i r
jD D jN N + +
=
2 2
) ( ) (
i r
i r r i i i r r
D D
D N D N j D N D N
+
+ +
...(10.93)
The r eal par t is
P = ) /( ) (
2 2
i r i i r r
D D D N D N + + ...(10.94)
and t he j-par t is
Q = ) /( ) (
2 2
i r i r r i
D D D N D N + ...(10.95)
The inver se t r ansfor m of V
0
(a + jw) can be obt ained by per for ming a numer ical int egr at ion.
Thus,
V
0
(t ) =
F
i
w
w
F
F
at
dw
w w
w w
wt P
e
.
) / (
) / sin(
. cos .
2
...(10.96)
=
F
i
w
w
F
F
at
dw
w w
w w
wt Q
e
.
) / (
) / sin(
. sin .
2
...(10.97)
10.12 REDUCTION OF SWITCHING SURGES ON EHV SYSTEMS
In pr act ice t he most sever e over volt ages on lines which t he insulat ion must wit hst and ar e
caused under t he following condit ions:
(a) ener gizing an open-ended line;
(b) r e-ener gizing an open-ended line;
(c) r e-ener gizing a line aft er clear ing a single-phase t o ear t h fault .
Ener gizing r efer s t o swit ching a line wit hout t r apped char ge while r e-ener gizing is done
wit h a t r apped char ge left fr om a pr evious ener gizat ion or r e-ener gizat ion. In single-pole r eclosing
schemes, t her e is no volt age on t he fault ed phase when it is clear ed fr om bot h ends, but due t o
mut ual coupling fr om t he ot her phases t he cir cuit -br eaker r e-ener gizes t he fault ed phase wit h
a t r apped char ge. If r esist ance is inser t ed in t he br eaker dur ing r e-ener gizat ion, a maximum
value of 1.5 p.u. can be expect ed at t he open end.
I n e.h.v. lines, ener giza t ion a nd r e-ener giza t ion ca use a ma ximum swit ching-sur ge
amplit ude of not higher t han 2.5 p.u. at t he open end t o gr ound and t he designer has t o make
ever y effor t t o keep it below 2 p.u. by t aking measur es which will be descr ibed lat er . While we
discussed r e-ener gizat ion for lumped-par amet er net wor k in sect ion 10.7, in e.h.v. lines t r apped
char ge is ver y r ar ely pr esent because of shunt -connect ed equipment which dr ain t he t r apped
char ge. Thus, all closing oper at ions may be consider ed mor e or less equivalent t o ener gizing a
line wit hout t r apped char ge.
The following measur es ar e adopt ed in e.h.v. syst ems t o r educe over volt age magnit udes.
1. Draining of Trapped Charge of Line
Shunt r eact or s ar e invar iably used at bot h ends of an e.h.v. line as shown in Fig. 10.12 (a). The
schemes used r esemble Fig. 10.12 which is known as t he '4-legged r eact or '. The r eact or in t he
common neut r al connect ion ser ves t o quench secondar y ar c pr oduced under single-pole r eclosing
which is not discussed in t his book. The shunt r eact or s ar e designed wit h a ver y low r esist ance
(high Q at power fr equency of t he or der of 200). These pr ovide compensat ing VARs at near ly
zer o power fact or dur ing nor mal st eady-st at e oper at ion. If one of t he pur poses of using shunt
r eact or s is also t o dr ain t he t r apped char ge aft er a de-ener gizing or line-dr opping oper at ion, t he
r eact or in t he neut r al will be r eplaced by a r esist or . In such schemes, t he t ime const ant is low
and t he line dischar ges complet ely in 5 t ime const ant s which usually is set at 5 ms or 1/4 cycle
on 50 Hz basis. The r esist or is shor t -cir cuit ed by a vacuum swit ch VS r at ed for 15 kV. It is
int er locked wit h t he main cir cuit br eaker such t hat VS opens at t he same inst ant as t he cir cuit
br eaker and closes just pr ior t o t he main cir cuit br eaker does.
Inst r ument t r ansfor mer s such as t he induct ive t ype pot ent ial t r ansfor mer s (IPT) can also
dischar ge t he t r apped line char ge in cont r ast t o capacit ive volt age t r ansfor mer s (CVT). Power
t r ansfor mer s help t o dr ain t he t r apped char ge in about 20 ms or 1 cycle, if t hey ar e st ill left
connect ed. But swit ching a t r ansfor mer -t er minat ed line is not looked wit h favour because of
t he possibilit y of fer r o-r esonance condit ions. The Hydr o-Quebec Company of Canada r elies
solely on shunt r ect or s t o keep t he swit ching over volt age t o 2.1 p.u. on t heir 735 kV line and
have not equipped t he cir cuit br eaker s wit h ser ies r esist ances.
Fi g. 10.12 (a) Four -legged r eact or for dr aining t r apped char ge and quenching
secondar y ar c dur ing single-pole r eclosing.
(b) Swit ching ar r angement of ser ies r esist ance in cir cuit br eaker .
MBMain br eaker . ABAuxiliar y br eaker .
2. Series Resistance Switching
For lines of 400 kV and higher (or on some ver y long 220 kV lines also) r educt ion of swit ching
surges to 2 p.u. or less can be attained by inserting a resistance R in ser ies wit h t he line. At t he
t ime of ener gizat ion, Fig. 10.12 (b), t he main br eaker is open while t he auxiliar y br eaker
closes. The voltage impressed at the line entrance is thus V
e
= ) /( ). (
0 0
Z R Z t e + . If R = Z
0
, only
50% of t he sour ce volt age is impr essed on t he line giving 1 p.u. at t he open end due t o t ot al
r eflect ion. Because t he line is mat ched at t he sour ce end, t he volt age set t les down t o t he
sour ce volt age ver y quickly. However , when r e-ener gizat ion wit h t r apped char ge occur s a
maximum of 2 p.u. will be at t ained. Thus, wit h ser ies-r esist ance swit ching t he over volt age is
never higher t han 2 p.u. This has been ver ified by a lar ge number of swit ching sur ge st udies
using t he Tr ansient Net wor k Analyzer and Digit al comput er .
The value of r esist ance R in gener al depends on a lar ge number of fact or s as follows:
(a) The value of R is select ed t o achieve opt imum r esult s for t he syst em.
(b) The sur ge impedance of connect ed lines when t her e is a single line or mult iple lines.
The lines swit ched might not all be of equal lengt h so t hat complicat ions ar ise due t o
r eflect ions fr om t he shor t er lines get t ing int o t he longer ones and vice-ver sa.
(c) The inser t ion t ime of t he r esist ance cont r ols t he over volt age.
Fr om a lar ge number of st udies, t he following r ecommendat ions ar e made:
1. The inser t ion t ime is 810 ms or
2
1
cycle on 60 Hz or 50 Hz basis. Aft er t his t ime, t he
r esist ance is shor t ed.
a b c
VS
( ) a
MB
AB Rs
V
( ) b
2. The value of r esist ance is slight ly higher t han t he sur ge impedance of a single line
which is swit ched. In older designs a value of t he or der of 1000 ohms was used, but
moder n pr act ice is near ly 400 ohms.
3. The closing span of t he cir cuit -br eaker poles must be cont r olled wit hin 60.
The last it em is ver y impor t ant under 3-phase r eclosing oper at ions. Poor ly-maint ained
br eaker s can have a 180 lag bet ween t he fir st and last pole t o close which r esult in high
over volt ages since t he last phase has a t r apped volt age induced in it by t he ot her phases which
have alr eady been ener gized. On t he ot her hand, because of t he non-synchr onous or non-
simult aneous closur e of t he poles wit h r esult ing unbalanced condit ions, gr ound-r et ur n cur r ent s
ar e pr esent which help t o at t enuat e t he sur ges. However , each case must be st udied car efully
on models and t he wor st case guar ded against .
3. Electronic Sensing of Voltage Polarities
In t he r esist ance-inser t ion scheme t he maximum over volt age condit ion exist s when t he main
br eaker closes t o shor t -cir cuit R in t he auxiliar y br eaker , and at t he same inst ant t he polar it y
of line-side volt age is opposit e t o t hat of t he sour ce. Ver y sophist icat ed elect r onic cir cuit r y
using sensor s and logic element s t o sense t he polar it ies of t he t wo volt ages and t o act ivat e t he
closing mechanism of t he main cir cuit br eaker exist . This connect s t he line dir ect ly t o t he
sour ce while t he polar it ies of volt ages ar e t he same. This applies when t her e is a t r apped
char ge on t he line. In such schemes t he over volt age is br ought down as low as 1.5 p.u. at t he
open end. The scheme is impr oved fur t her if t he main br eaker closes when t he cur r ent in t he
line is zer o when t her e ar e oscillat ions caused by t he induct ance and capacit ance of t he line
it self. Such a scheme has been developed and used successfully in t he U.S.A. by t he Bonneville
Power Administ r at ion.
4. Limiting Value of Minimum Switching Surge
While a designer or user of such sophist icat ed and expensive equipment aims at lower ing t he
over volt ages t o 1.5 p.u. or less, it has been obser ved t hat t her e is not much advant age in
lower ing t he over volt age t o less t han 1.5 p.u. The main r eason for t his is t hat under a single
line t o gr ound fault , t he dynamic volt age r ise is 1.5 p.u. or ver y near t his value. For an 80%
ar r est er of t he convent ional t ype, t he over volt age under a fault r eaches
4 . 1 3 8 . 0
p.u.
Ther efor e, t her e is not much advant age gained in lower ing only t he swit ching over volt age.
However , wit h new gapless Met al Oxide ar r est er s, t he volt age r at ing of t he ar r est er can
be as low as 60 t o 65% of line-t o-line volt age which per mit s a lower ing of equipment insulat ion
levels. These ar r est er s ar e meant for swit ching-sur ge dut y so t hat e.h.v. insulat ion levels can
be br ought down fur t her .
10.13 EXPERIMENTAL AND CALCULATED RESULTS OF
SWITCHING-SURGE STUDIES
We conclude t his chapt er wit h a discussion of swit ching-sur ge over -volt ages as obser ved on
e.h.v. syst ems of t ypical configur at ions. These st udies ar e car r ied out by t hr ee met hods:
(a) Mat hemat ical modelling using t he Digit al Comput er ,
(b) Physical modelling using t he Tr ansient Net wor k Analyzer (TNA), and
(c) Field Test s.
Ever y designer involved in t he select ion of air -gap clear ances or ot her t ypes of insulat ion
must have exhaust ive dat a on t hese t wo point s:
(1) The expect ed maximum amplit udes of over volt ages at all point s of all t ypes in t he
syst em net wor k, and
(2) The flashover or wit hst and volt ages of t he insulat ion st r uct ur e t o be select ed which
will insulat e against t he over volt ages.
Bot h t hese aspect s ar e st at ist ical in nat ur e and involve applicat ion of pr obabilit y t heor y.
Some of t hese concer ning insulat ion st r engt h of long air gaps will be discussed in t he next
chapt er , Chapt er 11.
The main fact or s t o be invest igat ed on a TNA or wit h a Digit al Comput er pr ior t o line
design ar e list ed below. These var y wit h t he syst em but t he list cover s t he most impor t ant
it ems used in e.h.v. syst ems.
1. Line Lengt h L and Line Const ant s r, l, g, c: These quant it ies may not be t r uly
const ant because of t he effect of fr equency especially t he gr ound-r et ur n par amet er s.
In gener al, a fr equency of f = 1/4T = v/4L ca n be used wher e v = velocit y and T =
t r a vel t ime = L/v.
2. High Volt age React ors: When t hese ar e depended upon t o r educe t he swit ching-sur ge
magnit udes by dr aining t he t r apped char ge, t he loss of one leg or as many legs as ar e
ant icipat ed must be st udied. The loss of shunt r eact or also r aises t he power -fr equency
open-end volt age due t o Fer r ant i Effect . In lower ing t he swit ching-sur ge magnit udes,
bot h t he st eady-st at e and t r ansient component s of volt age must be kept down.
3. S eries Capacit ors: The pr esence of ser ies ca pa cit or s up t o 50% line-induct a nce
compensat ion nor mally does not affect swit ching sur ges, but will affect t he st eady-
st at e component in t he t ot al t r ansient .
4. S hort -Circuit Capacit y of S ource: This is r eflect ed as t he value of ser ies r eact ance of
sour ce. In gener al, an infinit e sour ce (zer o ser ies impedance) yields higher swit ching
sur ges at t he open end of a line, but t her e ar e cases wher e t his depends upon t he
lengt h of line swit ched as well as t heir number in par allel.
5. Damping Factor of S upply Network: The pr esence of gr ound cur r ent s on t he swit ching
over volt ages plays an impor t ant r ole. The fr equency-dependence of t he zer o-sequence
r esist ance and induct ance must be pr oper ly t aken int o account in any st udy.
6. Presence of Transformers or Aut ot ransformers: When a line is connect ed t o a sour ce
t hr ough a t r ansfor mer at t he gener at ing st at ion, as is usual in unit -connect ed schemes,
t he line can be swit ched eit her on t he high-volt age side or t he low-volt age side. In
gener al, when swit ched fr om t he l.v. side t he ser ies-impedance of t he t r ansfor mer
lower s t he ent r ance volt age of t he line and t he swit ching over -volt age at t he open
end is lower t han when swit ched fr om t he h.v. side. The pr esence or absence of
t er t iar ies has some effect on t he swit ching sur ges.
7. S at urat ion of Transformers and React ors: These give r ise t o har monic oscillat ions
wit h t he line capacit ance.
8. Load Transmitted: A line-dr opping oper at ion followed by a fault due t o t he over volt age
gives ver y high sur ges if t he cir cuit br eaker s at bot h ends do not open simult aneously.
The power fact or of load has consider able effect on t he swit ching sur ges.
9. S ingle-Phase Reclosing: When a fault is clear ed on a single line t o gr ound fault by
opening cir cuit br eaker s, due t o mut ual induct ion fr om t he healt hy phases, a cur r ent
of 20-30 Amper es keeps flowing in t he ar c at t he fault on t he gr ounded line. The dead
t ime, or t he t ime int er val bet ween opening of t he fault ed line and it s r eclosur e has t o
be det er mined. Wit h shunt r eact or s using 4-legged const r uct ion, t he dead t ime is of
or der of 5 seconds or 250-300 cycles.
10. Frequency of S ource: This has only a secondar y effect .
11. S wit ching Resist ors: These clear ly have ver y impor t ant effect in r educing swit ching
over volt ages. The opt imum values of r esist ance and t he t ime of t heir inser t ion in
ser ies wit h t he cir cuit br eaker has been t he subject of int ense st udy.
12. Order of Phases to Clear : Wher e cir cuit br eaker poles have a t ime lag in closing or
opening t he swit ching-sur ge magnit ude will have differ ent value fr om simult aneous
closur e called synchr onous closing. The last phase t o close has a higher over volt age
because of coupling of volt age fr om t he ot her phases.
13. Restriking in Circuit Breaker: When br eaker ar cing chamber s ar e unable t o int er r upt
pr oper ly, t her e is a r est r ike which essent ially connect s a line t o t he sour ce wit h
t r apped char ge on t he line. This has been consider ed in sect ion 10.5. Long lines
cause maximum t r ouble due t o line dr opping wit h r est r ike in cir cuit br eaker causing
light ning-ar r est er failur es or cir cuit -br eaker explosions due t o fr equent oper at ion.
14. Light ning Arrest er S parkover Charact erist ics: These ar e nor mally set for 1.5 p.u.
wit h gap t ype SiC ar r est er s. If magnet ic blowout or cur r ent -limit ing gaps fail, t hen
t hey cannot handle swit ching sur ge dut y. Their effect on insulat ion levels must be
invest igat ed.
15. Line-to-line Voltages: In or der t o design conduct or -t o-conduct or clear ances, a knowledge
of phase-t o-phase over volt age magnit ude is necessar y. It is insufficient t o obt ain t he
maximum expect ed line-t o-gr ound volt age on one phase and mult iply by
3
. The
maximum is lower t han t his value because of t he waveshapes not being sinusoidal.
Out of an enor mous amount of st udies car r ied out all over t he wor ld, t he following t ypes
of condit ions leading t o over volt ages ar e consider ed ver y impor t ant . Against each it em, a list of
par amet er s which affect t he over volt age is given.
1. Interruption of Line at No Load : Lengt h of line, line const ant s, shunt r eact or s, ser ies
capacit or s, r eact ance of sour ce, and swit ching r esist or s.
2. Load S h ed d i n g: All of t he a bove fa ct or s a nd in a ddit ion sa t ur a t ion effect s of
t r ansfor mer s and r eact or s, load char act er ist ics and damping fact or s.
3. Load S hedding at End of Line Followed by Disconnect ion of Unloaded Line: All of t he
above fact or s plus nat ur al fr equency of supply net wor k as it affect s t he r est r iking in
t he br ea ker .
4. Clearing a S hort Circuit : All t he above fact or s.
5. Closing a Transformer-Terminated Line with Load : All t he above fact or s plus or der of
phases t o close which causes possible fer r o-r esonance condit ion.
6. Energizing or Re-energizing an Unloaded Line: All t he above fact or s minus t he
t r ansmit t ed load.
In or der t o give an idea of p.u. values of over volt ages t hat may be r ealized, Table 10.1 has
been pr epar ed summar izing t he findings of a 500 kV/230 kV syst em which wer e obt ained fr om
model st udies on a Tr ansient Net wor k Analyzer and r epor t ed in an I.E.E.E. Paper (No. 42,
IEEE in list of Bibliogr aphy).
Ta ble 10.1 Swi t ch i n g-Su r ge Volt a ges fr om Mod el St u d i es on T.N.A.
A. Swi t ch i n g a n Op e n -e n d e d Li n e
1. S witching from High Voltage S ide (500 kV)
(a) Wit h t r apped char ge on Line
2,260 MVA sour ce shor t cir cuit power 3.3
13,600 MVA 3.8
Infinit e Bus at sour ce 4.1
(b) Wit hout t r apped char ge on line:
2,260 MVA sour ce shor t cir cuit power 2.1
13,600 MVA 2.6
(c) De-ener gizing wit hout fault : 1.p.u.
No r est r ike in br eaker t r apped on all lines
(+1, 1, 1)
(d) De-ener gizing line wit h a line t o gr ound fault (270 kms) 1.3
2. S witching from Low-Voltage S ide (220 kV)
Tr ansfor mer has no t er t iar y. Line has no t r apped char ge since t r ansfor mer dr ains t he
char ge in 5 t o 10 cycles 2.0
B. Swi t ch i n g a Tr a n sfor mer Ter mi n a t ed Li n e
High-volt age side closing; sour ce t r ansfor mer has no t er t iar y 2.2
C. Ser i es Ca p a ci t or Comp en sa t i on No changes in over -
Up t o 50% volt age magnit udes
D. Sou r ce Tr a n sfor mer Ter t i a r y Effect
1. S witching Open Ended Line
(a) High-side ener gizing wit h t r apped char ge
(i) Wit h t r ansfor mer t er t iar y 3.0
(ii) Wit hout t er t iar y 3.3
(b) High-side ener gizing a dead line wit hout t r apped char ge:
(c) Low-side ener gizing of t r ansfor mer and line:
(iii) Wit h shunt r eact or connect ed t o t er t iar y for 50%
compensat ion 2.6
(Contd...)
E. Li gh t n i n g Ar r est er
Ar r est er at sending end set t o spar k at :
(a) 2.0 p.u. 3.0
(b) 1.5 p.u. 2.6
Ar r est er included at r eceiving end, and set t o spar k
at 1.5 p.u. 2.2
F. Su r ge Su p p r essi n g Resi st or i n Br ea k er
In all cases wher e over volt ages exceeded 2.3 p.u.,
1200 ohms was included 2.0
G. Hi gh Sp eed Reclosi n g Aft er Fa u lt Clea r i n g
(wit h t r apped char ge) 3.6
H. Effect of Non -Syn ch r on ou s Op er a t i on of Ci r cu i t Br ea k er P oles
(a) Br eaker poles close wit hin 1/2 cycle 2.4
(b) Br eaker poles close on 1 cycle 3.5
1. A 750 kV syst em has a gener at ion of 4000 MVA. The t r ansient r eact ance of t he
sour ce is 0.25 p.u. on 750 kV 4000 MVA base and t he unit -connect ed t r ansfor mer has
a leakage r eact ance of 0.15 p.u. For a 3-phase bus fault on t he high-volt age side of t he
t r ansfor mer , calculat e t he shor t -cir cuit cur r ent in kiloamper es and in p.u.
2. Explain the term s (a) sub-t r ansient r eact ance, (b) t r ansient r eact ance, (c) synchr onous
r ea ct a n ce of a s ou r ce, a n d (d) a . c. compon en t , (e) d.c. compon en t , a n d (f) t h e
int er r upt ing cur r ent capacit y of a cir cuit br eaker .
3. Explain t he t er ms (a) t er minal fault , (b) shor t -line fault , (c) 2-par amet er definit ion of
r ecover y volt age, and (d) 4-par amet er definit ion of r ecover y volt age.
4. Explain clear ly how over volt ages ar e gener at ed when int er r upt ing (a) low induct ive
cur r ent s a nd (b) low ca pa cit ive cur r ent . Dr a w a figur e showing fer r o-r esona nce
condit ion in a net wor k when t wo poles of a cir cuit br eaker ar e open and one pole is
closed.
5. A ser ies L-R-C cir cuit has a L = 0.3 H, R = 9 ohm, and C = 3.3 F. It is excit ed by a
st ep input of magnit ude 600 kV wit h t he init ial value of capacit or volt age equal t o
600 kV, in Fig. 10.7. Calculat e t he following
(a) at t enuat ion fact or L R 2 / , (b) t he nat ur al fr equency of oscillat ion w
0
and f
0
.
(c) t he fir st peak of volt age acr oss t he capacit or , (d) t he r at io of adjacent posit ive
peaks of volt age fr om zer o value.
6. Repeat pr oblem 5 if t he r esist ance is incr eased t o t he value R = C L / 2 . Only par t s
(a) and (c) apply.
7. A 750 kV 500 km 50 Hz line has t he following det ails;
Conduct or r esist ance, r
c
= 0.03 ohm/km;
Gr ound r et ur n r esist ance, r
g
= 0.27 ohm/km at 100 Hz;
Ser ies line induct ance, l
s
= 0.9 mH/km;
Gr ound r et ur n induct ance, l
g
= 0.6 mH/km;
Shunt capacit ance, c = 12.33 nF/km.
Wor king on single-phase basis, calculat e t he following wit h and wit hout consider ing
gr ound-r et ur n par amet er s:
(a) Velocit y of pr opagat ion and t r avel t ime;
(b) Sur ge impedance Z
0
and at t enuat ion fact or L R e A
T
2 / ,
0

.
(c) Plot t he st ep r esponse upt o 20 ms when t he volt age of 1 per unit is swit ched on t o
t he line suddenly. Neglect t r apped char ge.
(d) Plot t he r esponse upt o 20 ms when t he sinusoidal volt age of 3 / 750 kV t o gr ound
is swit ched on t o t he line at (i) posit ive peak, and (ii) 30 aft er t he posit ive peak.
Neglect t r apped char ge in bot h cases.
11.1 TYPES OF ELECTRODE GEOMETRIES USED IN EHV SYSTEMS
In e.h.v. t r ansmission syst ems, ot her t han t he int er nal insulat ion of equipment such as
t r ansfor mer s, cir cuit br eaker s, et c., all ext er nal insulat ion is air at at mospher ic pr essur e and
elect r onegat ive gases such as S F
6
. Air gaps used for insulat ion have now r eached enor mous
lengt hsup t o 20 met r es and mor eand will incr ease wit h fur t her incr ease in t r ansmission
volt age. As of t his dat e, t he highest commer cially-used volt age is 1200 kV, ac. But exper iment al
pr oject s at 1500 kV ac have been in pr ogr ess since 1980. It is ver y impor t ant and vit al t o know
t he br eakdown and wit hst and pr oper t ies of such long gaps and in t his chapt er we will discuss
only air gaps.
The insulat ion char act er ist ics of long air gap lengt hs namely t he flashover and wit hst and
volt ages ar e gover ned mainly by t he geomet r y of t he elect r odes insulat ed by t he gap. The most
usual elect r ode geomet r ies ar e shown in Figur e 11.1. Repr esent at ive air -gap lengt hs used in
conduct or -t o-t ower gaps ar e:
400 kV 500 kV 750 kV 1000 kV 1150-1200 kV
2.134 m 2.59 m 5.6 m 7 m 8 m (U.S.A.)
(84") (102") 10 m (U.S.S.R.)
These gaps ar e subject ed t o sever al t ypes of volt age waveshapes so t hat br eakdown and
wit hst and volt ages have t o be ascer t ained for all of t hem. These ar e:
(a) Power Fr equency A.C.; (b) Light ning Impulsesposit ive and negat ive; (c) Swit ching
Sur gesposit ive and negat ive; (d) D.C.posit ive and negat ive; and (e) A.C. wit h a D.C. offset .
In bot h indoor and out door high-volt age labor at or ies, exper iment s at gr eat expense have
been and ar e being conduct ed in or der t o det er mine t he br eakdown volt ages of air -gap geomet r ies.
Along wit h t hese impor t ant exper iment s, a ver y lar ge amount of t heor et ical wor k concer ning
t he basic mechanisms of br eakdown have also been handed down in t echnical lit er at ur e. Once
t hese mechanisms ar e t hor oughly under st ood, t he br eakdown char act er ist ics of ver y long air
gaps have been known t o follow t he same pat t er n as small gaps. An under st anding of basic
br eakdown mechanisms helps t o r educe t he expense involved in lar ge-scale exper iment s and
pr oper int er pr et at ion of such exper iment al r esult s.
All br eakdown phenomena depend on t he elect r ic field dist r ibut ion in t he gap which init iat es
t he pr imar y elect r on-avalanche mechanism, leading t o secondar y mechanisms, as t hese depend
on t he velocit ies or ener gies of t he r esult ing ions. In ver y long gaps, especially under swit ching
11
In s u l a t i on Ch a ra ct eri s t i cs of Lon g Ai r Ga ps
sur ges, t he secondar y mechanisms lead t o ver y danger ous condit ions which ar e cont r olled by
t he envir onment leading t o t he well-known sat ur at ion phenomenon and somet imes t o anomalous
flashover .
Fig. 11.1 Types of elect r ode geomet r ies encount er ed in e.h.v. t r ansmission lines wit h long air gaps.
It is not possible t o discuss at any gr eat lengt h t he elect r ic field dist r ibut ion of all t ypes of
geomet r ies and t he r eader should consult books on elect r ost at ics and highly specialized ar t icles
on such field dist r ibut ion. It is one of t he single most impor t ant it em t hat must be car efully
examined. Some field pat t er ns will be given as and when t he discussion pr oceeds in t he lat er
sect ions of t his chapt er . Some pr oblems have alr eady been descr ibed in Chapt er 4 under Volt age
Gr adient s.
11.2 BREAKDOWN CHARACTERISTICS OF LONG AIR GAPS
The calculat ion of field dist r ibut ion in t he long gap will not lead t o as clear an under st anding of
t he br eakdown char act er ist ics as t hey do in ver y smal gaps because of t he impor t ance of secondar y
phenomena becoming t he cont r olling fa ct or s. We a r e t her efor e const r a ined t o r esor t t o
exper iment al r esult s conduct ed fr om full-scale mock-ups in labor at or ies using pr oper ly-designed
elect r odes. These models should r epr esent as fait hfully as possible t he sit uat ions encount er ed
in t he field, for example, a t ower must be full-scale wit h t ubular member s and gr ound can be
r epr esent ed by wir e mesh, and so on. Ar t ificial r ain appar at us must be mount ed pr oper ly t o
wet insulat or s evenly. The elect r ode geomet r ies shown in Figur e 11.1 must be capable of being
t est ed under t he t ypes of volt ages list ed in Sect ion 11.1, namely, power fr equency, light ning,
dc, and swit ching sur ges.
Coaxial
Cylinders
Sphere-
Sphere
Cond.-Plane
Rod-
Rod
Sphere-Plane Rod-Plane
Chainette Insulators Cond. - Tower
with Insulators
Cond. Cond.
Above Plane
Insulation Characteristics of Long Air Gaps 297
The most impor t ant fact or s by which engineer s descr ibe t he br eakdown volt age ar e t he
wit hst and volt age and cr it ical flashover volt age or 50% flashover volt age which is t he volt age
t hat yields flashover in 50% of t he number of shot s given t o t he air gap. The wit hst and volt age
is based on pr obabilit y basis and will be explained lat er on. The following empir ical r elat ions
bet ween t he CFO (50% flashover volt age) and gap lengt h ar e valid for design pur poses for
posit ive-polar it y volt ages, except for ac excit at ion. All volt ages ar e peak values of volt age,
including power fr equency. Negat ive polar it y flashover , except under r ain under swit ching
sur ges, will always be higher t han posit ive polar it y or become equal t o it . Under except ional
cir cumst ances, such as in heavy r ain under swit ching sur ges, it may be lower t han posit ive-
polar it y flashover .
S witching S urge
Lightning D.C. Power Frequency (120/4000
s
)
Rod -P la n e: Gap Length in metres, V
50
in kV crest
1.2/50 s550d 500d 652d
0.576
535.5d
0.552
(3<d<9)
1/50 - 667d 500d
0.6
Rod -Rod
1.2/50s580d 555d 500d 872d
0.429
687d
0.6
For posit ive-r od negat ive-plane elect r odes, t he following addit ional for mulas ar e also in
use.
Feser' s Formulas
St at ic volt age: 500d + 12, kV (d in met r es) ...(11.1)
Power Fr equency: 455d + 25 ...(11.2)
1.2/50
s
Light ning: 540d ...(11.3)
Swit ching Sur ge:
250 1 50 100 + d
...(11.4)
Leroy and Gallet Formula
Swit ching Sur ge 3400/(1 + 8/d) ...(11.5)
Paris et al. Swit ching sur ge 500d
0. 6
or 535d
0.552
...(11.6)
All t he above for mulas, ar e based on exper iment al r esult s and ar e compar ed in Figur e
11.2. Ther e ar e however , many at t empt s made fr om t ime t o t ime t o der ive a t heor et ical expr ession
for t he spar kover volt age
Fig. 11.2 Compar ison of flashover char act er ist ics of long air gaps under light ning impulse ), 50 / 2 . 1 ( s
dc, power fr equency (PF), and posit ive swit ching sur ges.
6000
4000
2000
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 17
V
s
,

k
V
1.2/50 s
DC
PF
S.S. (+)
d, metres
in t er ms of t he basic physical pr ocesses t hat might be occur r ing in long gaps. They ar e
based on t he following br oad assumpt ions:
(1) Pr ior t o br eakdown, t her e exist s an int ense cor ona envelope on t he highly-st r essed
elect r ode. This is par t icular y pr ominent on t he posit ive r od in a r od-plane ar r angement
and on bot h r ods in a r od-r od air gap. This spher ical cor ona envelope is assumed t o
have a diamet er r anging fr om 20 cm t o 1 met r e.
(2) The cor ona gives r ise t o leader channels of about 1-3 mm in diamet er such t hat t he
r adial elect r ic field is 20 kV/cm wit h a char ge of about 0.5 t o 1 . cm / c These leader s
for k out in all dir ect ions but one t hat event ually causes t he spar kover pr opagat es
along t he axis of t he gap and is pr eceeded by a leader -cor ona at it s t ip. The axial
elect r ic field in t he leader column is about 5 kV/cm.
(3) When t he leader cor ona has r eached a lengt h of 4.5 t o 5 met r es in a 7 m gap, or about
6570% lengt h, t he influence of t he plane cat hode is so int ense t hat t her e r esult s a
jump-phase wher e t he acceler at ion of t he leader cor ona is high enough t o br idge t he
r emaining por t ion of t he gap. In a r od-r od gap, a negat ive-leader pr opagat es fr om t he
negat ive r od also t o meet t he posit ive leader and spar kover occur s.
Wit hout going t hr ough t he der ivat ion of t he following equat ions which ar e based on differ ing
assum ptions, three expressions are given for the 50% sparkover voltage, V
s
, for posit ive swit ching
sur ges in t er ms of t he gap lengt h, d.
I. Lemke' s Model. (d < 10 m)
V
s
= kV )], ln ( ln 33 . 1 1 [ 450 d d + ...(11.7)
II. Wat ers' Model
V
s
= kV , 350 ) 10 2 . 3 10 5 . 1 (
5 . 0 5 6
+ d ...(11.8)
III. Alexandrov' s Model, ) m 9 . 0 ( = r
V
s
= kV , / 1 t anh . ) / 1 ( 1260
1 5 . 0
d r d r r

...(11.9)
All of t he above t hr ee models yield near ly t he same value of V
s
for gap lengt h up t o 20 m.
It is t her efor e ver y sur pr ising how widely differ ing assumpt ions made by t he t hr ee invest igat or s
can lead t o close r esult s. They also cor r espond ver y closely t o t he empir ical for mulas of Ler oy
and Gallet , and Par is et al. Result s of compar ison of t hese models ar e shown in Figur e 11.3.
Fig. 11.3 Compar ison of CFO vs gap lengt h accor ding t o t he models of Lemke (LK), Wat er s (WT),
and Alexandr ov (AL).
AL
WT
LK
3000
2000
1000
0
0 4 8 12 16 20
V
s
,

k
V
d, metres
11.3 BREAKDOWN MECHANISMS OF SHORT AND LONG AIR GAPS
Lit er at ur e descr ibing t he physical mechanism of spar kover of gaps is immense and var ied. We
will only give t he br oad out line her e of sever al basic and impor t ant t heor ies which have been
put for war d by eminent physicist s and engineer s t o give t he design engineer an indicat ion of
some of t he physica l pr ocesses in uinder st a nda ble t er ms. I t is r ecognized by a ll t ha t a
compr ehension of t hese basic mechanisms of spar kover will help t o design exper iment s of
br eakdown involving less expense and t ime.
We limit our selves t o t he mechanism of gaps near at mospher ic pr essur e. The t wo classic
t heor ies of br eakdown of small gaps wit h unifor m fields ar e t he well-known: (1) Townsend and
Raet her mechanisms called t he avalanche t heor y, and (2) t he st r eamer t heor y of Loeb and
Meek. Aft er discussing t hese t wo t heor ies, we will br iefly out line t he sever al t heor ies or models
of br eakdown of long gaps put for war d by many wor ker s t o explain t he dependence of t he 50%
br eakdown volt age wit h change in gap lengt h, which in one way or anot her ar e based on t he
avalanche and st r eamer t heor ies of unifor m field gap br eakdown.
11.3.1 Townsend's Theory and Criterion of Sparkover
Figur e 11.4(a) shows a unifor m-field gap bet ween an anode and a cat hode wit h E = V/d. An
init ial fr ee elect r on in t he gap acquir es sufficient ener gy t o r elease fur t her elect r ons fr om t he
int er vening gas molecules t o cause an elect r on avalanche. It is evident t hat if t he elect r ic field
is high t he elect r ons cause incr eased ionizat ion wit hin limit s while wit h incr ease in gas pr essur e,
p, t he number of molecules or densit y of gas is incr eased so t hat t he fr ee pat h of an elect r on is
decr eased befor e anot her collision can occur . This r esult s in an elect r on acquir ing low velocit y
and kinet ic ener gy bet ween collisions, and t he pr obabilit y t hat it will r elease anot her elect r on
fr om a gas molecule is r educed. The effect of elect r ic field int ensit y E and t he gas pr essur e p on
t he pr obabilit y of cr eat ing new elect r ons by an incident elect r on on gas molecules is t her efor e
pr opor t ional t o E and 1/p. This is expr essed t hr ough Townsend's fir st ionizat ion coefficient , .
F i g. 11.4 (a) Theor y of a va la nche br ea kdown of unifor m-field ga p (Townsend a nd Ra et her )
(b) Theor y of st r ea mer br ea kdown (Loeb a nd Meek).
Thus,
= mean number of collisions t aking place in 1 cm of dr ift by 1 elect r on. ...(11.10)
The value of is det er mined exper iment ally and has t he following char act er ist ics in
Nit r ogen, wher e n = number densit y of molecules at t he given t emper at ur e and pr essur e
[n = 2.69 10
19
/cm
3
at 0C and 760 mm].
V
d
E
p
Anode +
Cathode
+
+
( ) a ( ) b
+
+
+
+
+ +
+
+
Anode +
V
V
p
E
E
3
E
2
E1
Cathode
E/n 100 200 300 400 500 600
n /
10
19
4 10
18
1.5 10
17
3 10
17
4.5 10
17
5 10
17
.
The best fit for t his var iat ion (car r ied out by t he aut hor ) gives a for mula of t he t ype
) / ( log
10
n = ] 1 ) / /( 74 . 16 /[ 82 . 15 n E ...(11.11)
The ion densit y can be conver t ed t o pr essur e of gas by t he r elat ion.
n = ) / 273 ).( 760 / ( 10 69 . 2
19
T p
T
...(11.12.)
wher e p
T
= pr essur e of gas in mm Hg at t emper at ur e T
K. Then, at 20C (T = 293 K),

n = 3.295 10
16
p
20
. This gives
=

10 . 5
. 20
p ...(11.13)
wher e = ) 10 516 . 5 / /( 10 8725 . 0
17
20
19
p E ...(11.14)
This shows t hat = p.f
1
(E/p) wher e f
1
(E/p) is a funct ion of (E/p) only.
A single avalanche is at t r act ed by t he posit ive elect r ode because of t he int ense negat ive
char ge at it s head, at a velocit y of about 10
7
cm/sec, wher eas t he dr ift velocit y of posit ive ions
left behind and t r avelling t owar ds t he cat hode is about 10
5
cm/sec since t hey ar e much heavier
t han elect r ons. Thus, t he cloud of posit ive ions is almost st at ionar y as compar ed t o t he dr ift of
t he elect r on avalanche. The posit ive ions, however , dist ur b t he elect r ic field due t o t he space
char ge.
The single elect r on avalanche r eaching t he anode does not const it ut e spar kover since t he
gap is not complet ely br idged by elect r ons t o const it ut e a heavy enough cur r ent flow. The
br eakdown or spar kover of t he gap occur s due t o a succession of avalanches gener at ed by
secondar y mechanisms caused by t he pr imar y-avalanche elect r ons. These ar e (a) t her mionic
emission fr om t he cat hode due t o t he high ener gy acquir ed by t he posit ive ions or unst able
neut r a l molecules; (b) excit ed molecules emit t ing phot ons on r et ur ning t o t he gr ound st at e
which will cause phot o-emission of elect r ons; (c) t he pot ent ial of t he posit ive-ion space char ge
near t he cat hode being sufficient t o eject elect r ons upon st r iking t he cat hode. In what ever
manner t hese ar e r eleased, t he number of elect r ons now incr eases due t o secondar y mechanisms
and is descr ibed by Townsend's second ionizat ion coefficient
.
Once again (like ) is a funct ion
of (E/p). Fr om a va ila ble exper iment a l r esult s, t he a ut hor ha s found t ha t t he funct iona l
r elat ionship bet ween and (E/p) is of t he t ype
=
66 . 1 34 66 . 1 6
) / ( 10 782 . 5 ) / ( 10 52 . 1 p E n E

= ...(11.15)
The cur r ent int ensificat ion due bot h t o t he pr imar y and secondar y mechanisms is, when
t he avalanches cr oss t he gap dist ance d,
-pr ocess only: I =
d
e I

.
0
...(11.16)
-pr ocess also: I = )] 1 ( 1 /[ .
0

d d
e e I ...(11.17)
The Townsend cr it er ion for spar k br eakdown is t aken as , I or when t he denominat or
of equat ion (11.17) becomes zer o, t hat is,
) 1 (
d
e = 1 ...(11.18)
Since t he funct ional r elat ionship of and
wit h gas pr essur e p and elect r ic field int ensit y

E is known, t he va lue of (E/p) is calculat ed by t r ial and er r or fr om equat ion (11.18). In t he
unifor m field, E = V
s
/d so t hat t he value of (V
s
/pd) is found, and t he spar kover for given values
of p and d can be calculat ed.
11.3.2 Paschen's Law
Using ) / ( and ) / ( .
2 1
pd V f pd V f p = = for a unifor m-field gap, t he Townsend br eakdown cr it er ion
of equat ion (11.18) can be r e-wr it t en as
1 ] 1 } ). / ( ).[exp{ / (
1 2
= pd pd V f pd V f
s s
...(11.19)
Thus, t he spar kover volt age V
s
is a funct ion of (pd), which is Paschen's Law. In air , t he
for mula for spar kover volt age is found t o be
V
s
=
kV ,
760
.
273
20 273
08 . 6
760
.
273
20 273
. 22 . 24
pd
t
pd
t +
+
+
+
+
= kV , / 775 . 3 / 34 . 9 T pd T pd + ...(11.20)
wher e p is in mm Hg, d in cm, and t in C.
The above r elat ion holds even for gases wit h elect r on at t achment such as S F
6
, whose
r elat ive elect r ic st r engt h compar ed t o air is 2.5/1.
At st andar d t emper at ur e and pr essur e, equat ion (11.20) gives t he unifor m-field spar kover
for 1 cm gap as 30.3 kV.
In non-unifor m fields such as co-axial cylindr ical geomet r y and cylinder -cylinder (conduct or -
conduct or on a t r ansmission line) gaps, F.W. Peek, J r ., has det er mined t he following expr essions
for onset of par t ial dischar ge (cor ona) in t he highly diver gent field dist r ibut ion for air -densit y
fact or s close t o unit y.
Concentric Cylinders. E
0
= peak cm, / ), / 308 . 0 1 ( 31 kV r + ...(11.21)
Parallel Cylinders. E
0
= peak kV/cm, ), / 301 . 0 1 ( 30 + r ...(11.22)
Her e, r = r adius of inner cylinder or conduct or in cm,
and = air -densit y fact or
, / 3856 . 0
760
.
273
20 273
T p
p
t
=
+
+
=
...(11.23)
wit h p = pr essur e in mm Hg.
The pr essur e var ies wit h t emper at ur e and alt it ude as descr ibed in Chapt er 4. See Pr oblem
4 at end of Chapt er 4.
11.3.3 Streamer Breakdown Theory of Loeb and Meek
In t he Townsend mechanism, t he t ime lag of br eakdown, which is t he t ime int er val bet ween
applicat ion of pot ent ial and t he br eakdown of t he gap, is equal t o t he t r ansit t ime of t he elect r on
avalanche. However , it has been obser ved wit h long air gaps in unifor m fields, in pr act ice, t hat
t ime lags ar e shor t er t han t hose post ulat ed by elect r on-t r ansit t imes. This has led t o t he
St r eamer Theor y of br eakdown. It uses t he pr oper t y t hat a ver y high concent r at ion of t he
elect r ic field occur s in fr ont of t he elect r on-avalanche head, as well as in t he space bet ween t he
posit ive-char ge cloud and t he cat hode. These t wo ar e dir ect ed in t he same sense as t he applied
elect r ic field as shown in Figur e 11.4(b). In t he space bet ween t he elect r on-avalanche head and
t he posit ive spa ce-cha r ge cloud t he field is lower t ha n t he a pplied unifor m field. The
phot oelect r ons emit t ed in t he augment ed field init iat e auxiliar y avalanches, which ar e int ense
along t he axis of t he main avalanche, will be dir ect ed t owar ds t he anode t o be absor bed t her e.
The posit ive ions t hen for m a self-pr ogagat ing st r eamer ext ending fr om t he anode t o cat hode
for ming a conduct ing plasma. This const it ut es t he br eakdown of t he gap.
Loeb and Meek consider ed t he t r ansit ion fr om elect r on avalanche t o st r eamer t o occur
when t he field pr oduced bet ween t he posit ive ions and t he avalanche head is equal t o t he
applied field E = V/d. The br eakdown cr it er ion obt ained by t hem, wit h a spher ical avalanche
head, can be wr it t en as
V
s
= p d e d
d
/ / ). ( 10 27 . 5
) ( 7
...(11.24)
Since ), / ( .
1
pd V f p
s
= t he spar kover volt age is once again a funct ion of (pd). The equat ion
can be solved for V
s
for given values of p and d by t r ial and er r or . The funct ional r elat ionship
bet ween and (V
s
/pd) is of t he t ype of equat ion (11.13).
11.4 BREAKDOWN MODELS OF LONG GAPS WITH NON-UNIFORM FIELDS
As ment ioned ear lier , sever al models for explaining t he obser ved char act er ist ics of t he 50%
br eakdown of long air gaps have been put for war d fr om t ime t o t ime. The main char act er ist ics
of gap spar kover which need t o be explained by any of t he models ar e list ed below:
(1) The funct ional r elat ionship bet ween spar kover volt age and gap lengt h for a given
elect r ode geomet r y. Most t heor ies confine t hemselves t o a r od-t o-plane gap, and t r y
t o evolve a fact or called t he "gap fact or " t o ext end t he equat ion t o apply t o ot her t ypes
of gap geomet r ies found in pr act ical engineer ing sit uat ions, usually obt ained as a
r esult of exper iment al obser vat ions.
(2) The volt -t ime cha r a ct er ist ics which pr oduce t he t ime la g for br ea kdown a ft er
applicat ion of t he volt age t o t he gap.
(3) The r elat ion bet ween swit ching-sur ge fr ont t ime and t he spar kover volt age called
t he U-char act er ist ic.
(4) The aver age elect r ic field in t he gap at t he inst ant of br eakdown.
(5) The char ge in t he leader column and it s velocit y of pr opagat ion, as well as t he size of
cor ona envelope ar ound t he highly-st r essed elect r ode (r od).
(6) Some ot her char act er ist ics which ar e gover ned by t he conver gent or diver gent elect r ic
fields.
None of t he models put for war d so far in t echnical and scient ific lit er at ur e consider all t he
above fact or s in one model nor t he complet e mechanism of dist r ibut ion of t he char ge, t he
t emper at ur e, t he velocit y, number densit y, column r adius, leader -cor ona size, micr oscopic
volt age gr adient , et c. Some t heor ies or models use exper iment al dat a t o obt ain numer ical
est imat es for t he salient gover ning fact or s, as will be out lined below. We will fir st list t he
common fact or s t o all t heor ies and t hen point out wher e t hey differ , and yet in t he final r esult
t hey all show agr eement among each ot her wit hin limit s.
The mechanism of br eakdown depends on a leader or st r eamer pr opagat ing fr om t he r od
anode t owar ds t he plane cat hode in a r od-plane gap wit h t he r od posit ive. The onset of t his
"posit ive leader " is pr eceded by an init ial cor ona dischar ge, and also accompanied by cor ona at
t he leader t ip. This leader car r ies a cur r ent of less t han 1 Amper e and pr opagat es at a velocit y
var ying fr om 1 t o 10 cm/
. s
When t he leader cor ona appr oaches t he plane-cat hode, secondar y
pr ocesses give r ise t o a st r eamer which meet s t he leader in most cases, t hat is, t her e is a
"jump-phase" in which condit ions ar e r ipe for t he lat t er por t ion of t he leader t o r each t he anode
at velocit ies exceeding 100 cm/
. s
Once t he gap is br idged, a r et ur n cur r ent st r oke fr om t he
plane cat hode follows in t he ionized channel whose velocit y can r each 300 cm/
s
*. The pot ent ial
gr adient in t he r et ur n st r oke is of t he or der of 1 kV/cm or mor e.
Pr e-br eakdown st r eamer pulses in t he cor ona ar e followed by br eak-down st r eamer s. The
char ge in t he leader channel var ies fr om 0.5 C/cm t o 4 C/cm depending on t he r esist ance
connect ed in ser ies wit h t he gap t o t he sour ce, and t he waveshape of t he applied impulse
volt age. The cor ona envelope at t he r od gives r ise t o 50 or mor e leader br anches out of which
only one causes t he st r eamer br eakdown. The r est give r ise t o leader -t ip cor onas which cause
phot o-ionizat ion of t he gap and help secondar y pr ocesses. The t emper at ur e of t he leader has
been known t o exceed 5000 K and t he longit udinal elect r ic field appr oaches 23 kV/cm. The
cor ona envelope has been known t o ext end t o diamet er s r anging fr om 20 cm t o 2 met r es
depending upon t he over volt age. For small gaps, t he space char ge in t he cor ona envelope
lower s t he elect r ic field in t he gap t o such an ext ent t hat lar ge volt ages for br eakdown ar e
r equir ed. This effect is less pr onounced as t he gap lengt h incr eases so t hat br eakdown volt ages
less t han suggest ed by a linear incr ease ar e indicat ed. The ent ir e phenomenon is t her efor e
non-linear wit h t he br eakdown volt age showing a lower incr ease wit h gap spacing for swit ching
sur ges ). (
6 . 0 5 . 0
d V
s
Since most of t hese condit ions ar e gover ned by t he waveshape of t he
applied volt age, sever al fact or s gover ning t he spar kover volt age have t o be measur ed under
act ual condit ions in t he labor at or y fr om smaller gaps in or der t o pr edict t he br eakdown
char act er ist ics of ver y long gaps.
We will now consider a few impor t ant models.
(a ) Lem k e' s Mod el
The simplest and a ver y st r aight -for war d model is due t o Lemke, which is based on cer t ain
cont r adict or y assumpt ions as point ed out by Wat er s (see Meek and Cr aggs, (ed), Elect r ical
Br eakdown of Gases, Chapt er 5, 1978). It t akes int o account t he pr oper t ies of t wo component s
in t he leader channel: (i) a leader lengt h L
1
. and (ii) a leader -cor ona dischar ge t ip of lengt h L
t
wit h pot ent ial gr adient E
t
. Spar kover condit ion is assumed t o r each when ,
1
d L L
t
= + t he gap
lengt h. The spar kover volt age is
V
s
=
t t
L E L E . .
1 1
+ ...(11.25)
It is t he det er minat ion of t he four cont r olling quant it ies t hat give r ise t o some pr oblems.
The pot ent ial dr op along t he leader t ur ns out t o be
V
1
= ) / 1 ln( . . .
0 1 0 0 1 1
L L L E L E + = ...(11.26)
wher e E
0
= 1.5 kV/cm chosen by Lemke which is felt low,
and L
0
= 1 m fr om phot ogr aphs t aken of t he leader pr opagat ion in gaps up
t o 2m.
*Velocit y of light = 0.3 km/s = 300 m/s = 30,000 cm/s.
Tur ning t o t he leader -cor ona t ip, t he pot ent ial gr adient E
t
in t he st r eamer s of t he leader -
7cor ona is assumed t o be 4.5 kV/cm based on obser vat ions made wit h 1 m gap. The lengt h of
t he st r eamer s, L
t
, is also obt ained fr om measur ement s and is
L
t
= 1 + ln d ...(11.27)
Finally, t he cr it ical spar kover volt age comes out t o be
V
s
= cm, in )], ln ( ln ). / 1 ( 1 [
0
d d d E E E
t t
+ +
= 450 [1 +1.33 ln (d ln d)], kV. ...(11.28)
This for mula yields values of V
s
which agr ee wit h exper iment al r esult s for swit ching-
sur ge flashover s up t o gap lengt hs of 10 m, but lower values for lar ger lengt hs. Ther efor e, gap
clear ances r equir ed beyond 10 m will be lar ger t han r equir ed when using t his for mula and will
give uneconomical designs. However , it is wor t hwhile ment ioning at t his st age t hat up t o 1150
kV t r ansmission, ext er nal insulat ion using air gaps on t ower s ar e not in excess of 9 met r es and
t his simple model is adequat e.
(b) Wa t er s' a n d J on es' Mech a n i sm
In t his model, a cr it ical lengt h for t he leader pr opagat ion is post ulat ed which if at t ained, a lar ge
incr ease in cur r ent t akes place and spar kover r esult s. The calculat ion of t he cr it ical leader
lengt h is at t empt ed. In a r od-plane gap, t he aver age pot ent ial gr adient in t he leader channel is
gover ned by t he degr ee of ionizat ion given by Saha's equat ion t hr ough t he channel t emper at ur e
which is caused by i
2
R heat ing. Because of t his heat and incr eased ionizat ion, t he aver age
pot ent ial gr adient in t he leader channel is incr eased fr om 34 kV/cm t o a value of about
10 kV/cm when t he leader r eaches 24 cm lengt h in a 2-met r e r od-plane gap. If t he leader
pr opagat es beyond t his lengt h, due t o st ill higher ionizat ion (and possibly due t o int ense
secondar y mechanisms) t he aver age volt age gr adient falls t o 12 kV /cm ver y quickly and
spar kover occur s.
The model does not give a specific r elat ion bet ween spar kover volt age and gap lengt h, but
gives t he mean pot ent ial gr adient in t he leader dur ing t he decr easing gr adient pr ocess t o be
E
1
= kV/cm ), 25 . 5 1 .( ) ( 25 . 1
85 / 2 / 1 t
e i

+ ...(11.29)
wher e t is in
. s
The cur r ent i in most cases is equal t o 0.75 A but is r elat ed t o t he
t emper at ur e.
(c) Al ex a n d r ov' s Mod el
In t his t heor y, t hr ee quant it ies ar e assumed t o gover n t he br eakdown: (1) t he leader -t ip pot ent ial,
(2) elect r ic field st r engt h at t he head of t he developing dischar ge, and (3) r adius of cur vat ur e of
t he t ip. The r elat ion among t hem is found by Alexandr ov t o be
V
t
= d r d r r E
t
/ 1 t anh . / 1 . .
1

...(11.30)
wher e V
t
= leader -t ip pot ent ial,
E
t
= elect r ic field gr adient at t he head of t he developing dischar ge,
and r = r adius of cur vat ur e of t he t ip = 0.9 met r e.
The value of E
t
was obt ained exper iment ally, while r was calculat ed t o be 0.91 m for a 2-
m gap and 0.98 for a 30-m gap. For spar kover condit ion, E
t
= 12.6 kV/cm =1260 kV/m. Ther efor e,
equat ion (11.30) for t he spar kover volt age becomes.
V
s
= d r d r r / 1 t anh . / 1 1260
1

...(11.31)
(d ) Wa t er s' Mod el
Anot her model pr oposed by Wat er s assumes t hat t he cur r ent flow in t he posit ive leader column,
i, depends upon t he t ip pot ent ial V
i
in a par abolic manner , as der ived by Townsend. The unbr idged
gap bet ween t he leader t ip and plane cat hode is assumed t o br eak down when t he leader -t ip
pot ent ial is (0.5 V + 175) kV, wher e V = anode pot ent ial. Fr om t his, and ot her exper iment al
obser vat ions t hat t he leader lengt h is 20 cm in a 2-m gap at 1000 kV, t he spar kover volt age
der ived by Wat er s is
V
s
= kV 350 ] 10 5 . 3 10 5 . 1 [
2 / 1 5 6
+ d ...(11.32)
Anot her expr ession der ived by Wa t er s fr om cer t a in obser va t ions ma de of t he ba sic
pr ocesses by t he t eam fr om Elect r icit e' de Fr ance is, wit h d in met r es,
V
s
= kV , . 563
5 . 0
d ...(11.33)
Wit h all t hese models based on differ ing assumpt ions, it must be clear t hat a unified
model can be at t empt ed by a r esear ch wor ker even t oday.
11.5 POSITIVE SWITCHING-SURGE FLASHOVERSATURATION
PROBLEM
In select ing t he r equir ed air -gap insulat ion clear ance for e.h.v. t ower s bet ween t he conduct or
and t ower st r uct ur e, it s abilit y t o wit hst and posit ive swit ching sur ges wit h condcut or posit ive
is of par amount impor t ance. The shor t est air gap occur s in t he t ower window and has been t he
subject of int ensive invest igat ion. The pr oblem is complicat ed since t he cr it ical flashover volt age
depends upon (a) t he wave-fr ont t ime of t he swit ching sur ge, (b) t he gap lengt h, (c) t he widt h of
t he t ower st r uct ur e, and (d) t he pr esence of insulat or and ot her har dwar e. Ther efor e, no t wo
labor at or ies agr ee on t he CFO volt age of a given gap lengt h in a conduct or -t o-t ower insulat ion
st r uct ur e. Fr om a ver y la r ge number of exper iment a l r esult s a va ila ble, some impor t a nt
obser vat ions and pr oper t ies ar e wor t h not ing.
(1) The CFO volt age V
50
of t ower windows wit h insulat or st r ings inside t hem var ies wit h
t he fr ont -t ime of t he swit ching sur ge. Typical flashover volt ages ar e shown in Figur e
11.5 [Menemenlis and Har bec. See No. 56, IEEE, in Bibliogr aphy].
(2) The CFO volt age var ies wit h t he per cent age of space filled by por celain of t he insulat or
st r ing which has a higher per mit t ivit y t han air .
(3) The CFO volt age depends upon t he r at io of t he shor t est dist ance in air bet ween
conduct or and t ower (t he "st r ike dist ance") t o t he lengt h of t he por celain or glass
insulat or st r ing. A r at io bet ween 0.85 and 1 is nor mally used in t ower windows.
(4) The fir st swit ching-sur ge t est s per for med by J .W. Kalb, J r ., of t he Ohio Br ass Co.,
U.S.A., est ablished t he impor t ant pr oper t y t hat t he minimum value of CFO occur r ed
at a cer t ain fr ont t ime. His exper iment s for 525 kV t ower s wit h 24 insulat or s in t he
st r ing gave t he minimum CFO at a wave-fr ont t ime of 250
. s
The CFO was higher
at shor t er and longer wave-fr ont t imes t han t his value.
(5) Fr om r esult s obt ained in labor at or ies all over t he wor ld since
Fi g. 11.5(a) CFO of long a ir ga ps bet ween conduct or a nd t ower showing t ime t o cr est of swit ching
sur ge against gap dist ance. [Ref. 56, IEEE].
(b) Minimum br eakdown volt age and gr adient at minimum CFO. Var iat ion wit h gap lengt h.
Kalb's exper iment s in t he ear ly 1960's, it has been est ablished t hat t he minimum
CFO occur s for swit ching-sur ge wave-fr ont t imes var ying fr om 55 t o 300
, s
Figur e
11.5, depending upon t he mock-up t he invest igat or s have used.
(6) The values quot ed by differ ent invest igat or s for t he wave-fr ont t ime have not been
based on a unifor m definit ion of t he wave-fr ont . Some have used t he t ime t o act ual
cr est value of volt age, while ot her s have used t he I.E.C. st andar d definit ion of
) ( 67 . 1
30 90
t t t
f
= wher e
30 90
and t t ar e t imes fr om vir t ual zer o t o 90% and 30% cr est
values of volt age on t he r ising por t ion of t he wave. (See sect ion 13.2.1).
(7) Since Kalb's pioneer ing exper iment s, t he st andar d waveshape for a swit ching sur ge
has been adopt ed as 250/2500
. s
(8) This does not necessar ily imply t hat t ower insulat ion st r uct ur es t est ed under t he
st andar d waveshape will yield t he wor st swit ching-sur ge st r engt h. Each air gap
clear ance or gap lengt h for a given elect r ode geomet r y must be t est ed individually
wit h var ying fr ont t imes t o ascer t ain t he minimum CFO. This necessar ily r equir es a
swit ching-sur ge gener t or capable of deliver ing sur ges wit h var ying fr ont t imes. The
pr oblem of design of such impulse gener at or s is discussed in det ail in Chapt er 13.
(9) The widt h of t ower st r uct ur e used in mock-ups in labor at or y invest igat ion has some
effect on t he CFO volt age, as also t he lengt h of conduct or used on eit her side of t he
t ower . This has been clear ly point ed out by Dr . Alexandr ov who r ecommends conduct or
lengt hs not less t han 20 met r es on eit her side. The conduct or pr ofile and size must
be exact r eplicas of what will be used on act ual lines. This is because t he pr e-br eakdown
mechanisms and t her efor e t he br eakdown char act er ist ics of long gaps under posit ive
swit ching sur ges ar e ver y sensit ive t o secondar y mechanisms which ar e cont r olled
by met allic par t s in t he envir onment of t he air gap under going t est .
(10) The CFO of long gaps under posit ive swit ching-sur ge volt age does not incr ease linear ly
wit h t he gap lengt h, as shown in Figur es 11.2 and 11.3. It bends t owar ds t he gap-
lengt h axis showing t hat a sat ur at ion might be occur r ing.
2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
0 200 400 600 800
8.75
7.50
6.00
4.50
Gap, metres
Crest Time, s
M
V
,

C
r
e
s
t
2.5
2.0
1.5 3
2
1
1.0
0.5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
M
V
K
V
/
c
m
M
i
n
.

5
0
%
B
.
V
Gradient at
Min.
KV/cm
Gap, metres
Clearance to Tower
Possi bl e Cei l i n g Vol t a ge f or AC T r a n sm i ssi on
The most ser ious of t he above list ed pr oblems is t he non-linear br eakdown char act er ist ic wit h
ga p lengt h a nd sa t ur a t ion. It shows t ha t incr ea se in ga p lengt h does not br ing a bout a
cor r esponding incr ease in insulat ion st r engt h or CFO volt age. The gr oup of engineer s of E. de
F. in Fr ance, while t est ing gaps up t o 8 met r es bet ween r od and plane found t hat t he CFO for
posit ive swit ching sur ge can be descr ibed by t he equat ion
V
50
= ) met r es in ( kV ), / 8 1 /( 3400 d d + ...(11.34)
This was int er pr et ed at t he Less Renar dir es Labor at or y t o imply t hat as t he gap lengt h
d incr eased t o ver y lar ge values, t he highest volt age t hat can be suppor t ed is 3400 kV, cr est .
Beyond t his, no air gap lengt h however lar ge ) ( = d can sust ain a swit ching sur ge in excess of
3400 kV. This might imply t hat t her e is a limit t o t he t r ansmission volt age t hat can be used for
ac lines as shown below. This ceiling volt age has been var iously t aken t o be 1850 kV, r .m.s.
line-t o-line, t o 2800 kV. [see No. 50, IEEE, and Nos. 48, 49 under "Ot her J ournals" in Bibliography].
Exa mp le 11.1. If t he cr est value of s.s. suppor t ed by an air gap has a ceiling of 3400 kV,
using a safet y fact or of 1.5 and swit ching over volt age of 1.5 p.u., calculat e t he maximum
per missible r .m.s. value of line-t o-line volt age for ac t r ansmission.
Sol u t i on . Wit h a safet y fact or (wit hst and volt age = 2/3 CFO volt age) of 1.5, t he wit hst and
volt age is 3400/1.5 = 2267 kV cr est . Since t he p.u. value of s.s. is 1.5, t he cr est or peak value of
line-t o-neut r al volt age is 2267/1.5 = 1510 kV. The cor r esponding line-t o-line r .m.s. value of
volt age will be . kV 1850 2 / 3 1510 =
If t he p.u. value of s.s. can be r educed or t he safet y fact or decr eased, t he ceiling volt age
can be incr eased. The r elat ion bet ween t he 50% flashover volt age (CFO volt age) and t he wit hst and
volt age depends upon t he st at ist ical pr oper t ies of br eakdown which will be discussed in a lat er
sect ion. The flashover pr obabilit y of a given gap lengt h wit h volt age follows a near ly Gaussian
or nor mal dist r ibut ion. The st andar d deviat ion has t o be det er mined for each gap lengt h.
Then t he accept ed r ule up t o dat e is t hat
Wit hst and volt age = % 50 ) 3 1 ( flashover volt age ...(11.35)
The exist ence of a ceiling volt a ge for a c t r a nsmission is now being hot ly deba t ed.
Dr .Alexandr ov wor king wit h ver y long gaps has come t o t he opinion t hat t her e is a slow but
per cept ible incr ease in CFO for ver y long air gaps and t her e is no such value as a celing volt age
which an air gap can exhibit , i.e. t her e is no ult imat e sat ur at ion. This can be compar ed t o t he
br eakdown under light ning wave shapes on t he basis of what we obser ve in nat ur e. If t her e be
such a phenomenon as sat ur at ion, volt ages of t he or der of 100 t o 1000 MV obser ved in light ning
might not be pr esent in or der t o cause br eakdown of air gaps fr om 500 t o 5000 met r es fr om
cloud t o gr ound. Alexandr ov's equat ion (11.31) gives t his slow r ise.
Exa mp le 11.2. Using equat ion , / 1 t anh . / 1 1260 ), 31 . 11 (
1
d r d r r V
s
=

calculat e V
s
for r = 0.9 and d = 25,50, and 100 met r es.
Sol u t i on . Let . t anh / 1 Then . / 1 t anh
1
x d r d r x = =

, / 1 ) /( ) ( d r e e e e
x x x x
= +

giving x =
.
/ 1 1
/ 1 1
ln
2
1
d r
d r

+
(a) For d = 34614 . 2 ) 01816 . 0 / 98183 . 1 ln(
2
1
, 25 = = x
V
s
= 1260 0.9 0.981835 2.34614 = 2612.2 kV, cr est .
(b) d = 990959 . 0 / 1 : 50 = d r
x =
6973 . 2
990959 . 1
990959 . 1
ln
2
1
=
+
V
s
= 1260 0.9 0.990959 2.6973 = 3031 kV, cr est .
(c) d = 99549 . 0 / 1 : 100 = d r
x =
046155 . 3
99549 . 1
99549 . 1
ln
2
1
=
+
V
s
= 1260 0.9 0.99549 3.046155 = 3438.8 kV, cr est .
The equat ion 3400/(1 + 8/d) gives t he following values:
(a) . kV 2576 , 25 = =
s
V d
(b) ; kV 2931 , 50 = =
s
V d
(c) . kV 3148 , 100 = = Vs d
These obser vat ions ar e meant t o give t he r eader t he idea t hat t he invest igat ion of basic
mechanisms leading t o br eakdown of ver y long gaps is st ill as necessar y as when t hey wer e
fir st at t empt ed t o explain t he for mat ion of char ges in clouds, t heir pr opagat ion as leader s and
st r ea mer s, a nd t he mecha nism of induced pr e-discha r ge cur r ent s fr om t r a nsmission-line
st r uct ur es and gr ound plane. This must be invest igat ed under differ net t ypes of excit at ion
volt ages. Such invest igat ions ar e being under t aken at some expense of money, t ime, and effor t
in e.h.v. labor at or ies and by engineer s dealing wit h e.h.v. t r ansmission in conjunct ion wit h
physicist s. Dr . K. Ber ger of t he E.T.H. in Zur ich, Swit zer land, has point ed out in one of his
discussions t hat his st udies and t hat of his st udent s have r evealed t he fact t hat t her e is quit e a
lot t o under st and about t he basic char act er ist ics of br eakdown of a 60-cm gap and a 6-met r e gap
even t hough t hey show similar ext er nal char act er ist ics bet ween V
s
and d.
11.6 CFO AND WITHSTAND VOLTAGES OF LONG AIR GAPS
STATISTICAL PROCEDURE
Insulat ion design of e.h.v. lines based on t he use of long air gaps t ends t owar ds a st at ist ical
pr ocedur e inst ead of det er minist ic met hods based on wor st -case sit uat ion. This is pr imar ily
because of t he lar ge number of var iables involved in t he pr oblem each of which has it s own
char act er ist ic pr obabilit y of occur r ence eit her alone or in conjunct ion wit h ot her var iables. For
example, t he shor t est gap bet ween t he t ower st r uct ur e and conduct or suppor t ed fr om a ver t ical
or I-st r ing of insulat or s occur s under maximum conduct or swing in high winds and lar ge
oscillat or y condit ions. This dist ance must wit hst and t he highest swit ching-sur ge volt age nor mally
encount er ed in t he syst em under t he wor st -case design. However , t he above is t r ue only if t he
pr obabilit y of maximum conduct or swing coincides wit h t he pr obabilit y t hat t he maximum
swit ching sur ge will also occur at t he same t ime. Such a pr obabilit y of bot h event s occur r ing
simult aneously is ver y r emot e and a design based on wor st case gives uneconomically lar ge
air -gap lengt hs necessit at ing ext r emely heavy t ower s. In act ual pr act ice, t he U.S.S.R. 1150 kV
line does not consider bot h event s t o occur simult aneously dur ing t he life of t he line, and t he
gap clear ance is designed for wit hst anding t he maximum swit ching sur ge wit h t he insulat or
ver t ical in an I-st r ing or t he conduct or occupying it s nor mal r est posit ion for a double 90-V
st r ing.
In adopt ing t he pr obabilist ic philosophy of design, it is also evident t hat even t hough t he
pr obabilit y of a flashover under wor st condit ion is neglect ed, t her e exist s always t he danger
t hat such a condit ion could occur . Ther efor e, a flashover once in so many swit ching oper at ions
should be allowed. This depends ent ir ely on t he exper ience of t he designer acquir ed fr om
exist ing lines, if dat a of such infor mat ion have been pr oper ly logged. The most usual case is t o
allow 1 flashover in 100 swit ching oper at ions and it is t he det er minat ion of t his pr obabilit y t hat
has for med t he ent ir e basis for design of air gap insulat ion for swit ching sur ge and light ning-
impulse volt ages based on st at ist ical consider at ions. Some designer s use a 0.2% pr obabilit y of
flashover (1 in 500 oper at ions). It has however been r ecognized t hat a flashover under t hese
t wo t ypes of impulse volt ages is not cat ast r ophic on t he syst em in t hat it is not any mor e
ser ious t han init iat ion of a single line t o gr ound fault or a phase-t o-phase fault . Sur ge absor ber s
ar e also impr oved a lot t o handle t he sever it y imposed by swit ching-sur ge dut y.
Fr om what has been descr ibed befor e, it is evident t hat many pr obabilit ies have t o be
det er mined, chief among which ar e t he following:
(a) Magnit ude of swit ching sur ge exper ienced in t he syst em dur ing all possible t ypes of
swit ching oper at ions and syst em condit ions dur ing swit ching.
(b) Envir onment al condit ions such as r at e of r ainfall, humidit y (r elat ive and absolut e).
(c) Wind condit ions which give r ise t o aeolian vibr at ions, wake-induced oscillat ions, et c.,
t hat det er mine t he swing and clear ances under ser vice condit ions.
(d) Snow, ice, and such ot her condit ions which will affect t he insulat ion st r engt h.
Alt hough t he t ask of cor r elat ing all t hese fact or s in or der t o evolve an economical or
opt imal design is a for midable t ask and may sound impossible, in pr act ice, digit al comput er
pr ogr ammes such as t he METIFOR, at t empt t o include t he simult aneit y of t he pr obabilit y of
occur r ence of t he above fact or s in helping t o evolve a suit able design for t he insulat ion st r uct ur e
of t ower s and conduct or s. Needless t o say, cost s can be br ought down consider ably when all
fact or s ar e det er mined t o a high degr ee of confidence level.
As one example, we will quot e one inst ance of a 735-kV line fr om Chur chill Falls in
Labr ador (New Foundland) in Canada as designed by t he Becht el Cor por at ion. Wit h an air gap
in t he window of 15.4 feet (4.7 m) and 27 insulat or s, t he cost per kilomet r e of line was $ 61,000
(1970 pr ice quot ed by Mr . Pr ice), while it could be br ought down t o $ 48,000/km by using 13.2
feet (4.024 m) in t he window, t hat is a r educt ion of 2.2 feet or 14.3%. The CFO volt ages in t he
t wo cases ar e 1307 kV cr est and 1062 kV cr est . The phase spacing could be r educed fr om 50 feet
t o 45 feet (15.44 m t o 13.72 m) wit h a gr and saving of $ 5 million out of $ 65 million for
t r ansmit t ing 5000 MW which cost s $ 13/kW in t r ansmission line t ower s and foundat ions.
The dat a necessar y for line insulat ion design as it is pr act iced for t he pr esent ar e t her efor e
t he following:
(a) The flashover volt age of an insulat or st r ing on a t ower expr essed t hr ough t he 50%
flashover level, V
50
. This is t he r elat ion bet ween pr obabilit y of flashover and t he
sur ge amplit ude.
(b) The r elat ion bet ween flashover volt age and waveshape, t he weat her or at mospher ic
condit ions.
(c) The st andar d deviat ion, ,
f
for flashover when using an assumed st at ist ical var iat ion
for t he flashover volt age.
(d) The st at ist ical dist r ibut ion of amplit udes and waveshapes of t he sur ges occur r ing on
t he syst em dur ing all possible swit ching condit ions which can be defined t hr ough a
mean value
and st andar d deviat ion .

s
(e) The number , n, of insulat or st r ings st r essed simult aneously on t he line.

(f ) The st a t ist ica l r ela t ion bet ween a t mospher ic condit ions a nd t he pr oba bilit y of
occur r ence of a cer t ain level of t he swit ching sur ges.
It ems (a) t o (c) ar e evaluat ed in out door and indoor e.h.v. and u.h.v. labor at or ies, while
it em (d) on evaluat ing t he swit ching-sur ge magnit udes on elect r ical net wor ks is car r ied out
fr om model st udies on a Tr ansient Net wor k Analyzer (TNA) or by field t est s on exist ing lines
or calculat ion on Digit al Comput er s. Ver y ext ensive lit er at ur e exist s on case-by-case as well as
gener al st udies on t his t opic and t he r eader is r efer r ed t o t he bibliogr aphy on t his impor t ant
t opic.
Even t hough much st r ess has been laid on t he V
50
or CFO volt age, t he designer is r eally
int er est ed in t he wit hst and volt age of an insulat ion st r uct ur e at t he design st ages. This value
has been point ed out t o be t he volt age at which 1 flashover in 500 or 1000 swit ching oper at ions
r esult s, and cannot be det er mined fr om exper iment s wit h available t ime in a labor at or y. Thus,
t he low pr oba bilit y r egion of fla shover , 0.1% or 0.2%, must be obt a ined fr om fla shover
pr obabilit ies of higher values. Using a pr ocedur e par alleling insulat ion br eakdown values of
solid insulat ion st r uct ur es used in t r ansfor mer s and cables, t he t ime r equir ed t o evaluat e t he
0.1% or low pr obabilit y of flashover is obt ained by assuming t he most popular and widely-used
Nor mal or Gaussian dist r ibut ion of t he t ype.
) (V p =
dx V x
V
f f
. } 2 / ) ( exp{ ). / 1 (
2
1
2 2
50
...(11.36)
wher e ) (V p = pr obabilit y of flashover at volt age V,
50
V = 50% flashover volt age, or t he mean,
and
f
= st andar d deviat ion as per cent age of .
50
V
The t ype of r elat ion in equat ion (11.36) is used chiefly for obt aining t he st andar d deviat ion
f
fr om a set of exper iment al r esult s obt ained in a labor at or y. The pr obabilit y of flashover p(V)
at a cer t ain volt age level as well as t he V
50
-level ar e det er mined, as shown in Example 11.3
below:
Exa mp le 11.3. A flashover t est on an insulat ion st r uct ur e of a t ower gave t he following
r esult s.
No. of shot s 24 25 24 24 25 20 20
Voltage kV 1600 1620 1650 1690 1730 1770 1800
No. of flashovers 4 5 8 12 15 16 18
% flashover 16.67 20 33.3 50 60 80 90
(a) Plot t he % flashover against volt age on linear and pr obabilit y gr aph paper s.
(b) Give the value of 50% flashover, V
50
.
(c) Assuming t he st andar d deviat ion
f
t o be t he differ ence bet ween V
50
and V
16.7,
and V
50
and V
83.3,
calculat e t he aver age st andar d deviat ion in kV.
(d) Det er mine
50
/ V
f
in per cent age.
Sol u t i on .
(a) Figur e 11.6 shows t he t wo gr aphs.
(b) , kV 1690
50
= V cr est , fr om t he t able of dat a given.
(c) kV 90 1600 1690
7 . 16 50
= = V V
kV. 90 1690 1780
50 3 . 83
= = V V
. kV 90 =
f
(d) %. 3 . 5 1690 / 100 90 / %
50
= = V
f
The following pr oper t ies should be not ed r ega r ding t he r ela t ion bet ween fla shover
pr obabilit y, 50% flashover volt age, and st andar d deviat ion when t he dist r ibut ion is Gaussian.
F i g. 11.6 Plot of number or % fla shover s wit h volt a ge on (a) linear gr aph, (b) pr obabilit y paper ,
t o illust r at e median (50%) flashover volt age, and st andar d deviat ion. Example 11.3.
(1) As we deviat e fr om V
50
by one st andar d deviat ion ,
f
eit her below or above it , t he
pr obabilit y of flashover changes by 33.3%, and near ly 67% of all flashover s lie wit hin
one st andar d deviat ion.
(2) I t ca n be s h own t h a t a t
f
2 fr om V
50
, t h e fl a s h over pr oba bi l i t i es wi l l be
). 2 ( at % 98 and ) 2 ( at % 2
50 50 f f
V V + Since we ar e int er est ed in t he low-pr obabilit y
r egion of flashover , we only consider volt ages less t han t he mean value V
50
.
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1500 1600 1700 1800
%

F
l
a
s
h
o
v
e
r
s
Flashover, kV
1500 1600 1700 1800
99.9
99
95
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
1
%

F
l
a
s
h
o
v
e
r
s
Flashover Voltage, kV
(3) At 3 st andar d deviat ions fr om V
50
, t he flashover pr obabilit ies will be 0.1% at
) 3 (
50 f
V and 99.9% at ) 3 (
50 f
V .
(4) We now have est ablished t he wit hst and volt age if t his is t aken t o give 0.1% pr obabilit y
of flashover . For t he pr esent st at e of t he ar t of design followed in most count r ies, t his
is t he accept ed value for wit hst and volt age.
(5) However , some designer s use ) 4 (
50 f
V as t he wit hst and volt age which gives a
pr obabilit y of flashover of 0.0033% or 1 flashover in 30,000 swit ching oper at ions.
We can now appr eciat e t he full significance of cont r olled exper iment s in t he labor at or y
which should yield accur at e values for t he V
50
value and t he st andar d deviat ion .
f
In a design,
t he wit hst and volt age must equal or exceed t he highest cr est value of ant icipat ed swit ching
sur ge in t he syst em. This also must be ascer t ained on a pr obabilit y basis.
Exa mp le 11.4. The r esult s of a lar ge number of swit ching oper at ions per for med on a
syst em using models on a TNA gave t he following r esult s when pr e-inser t ion r esist or s wer e
not used in t he cir cuit br eaker .
Mean value of swit ching sur ge p.u. 325 . 2 =
St andar d deviat ion in s.s. over volt age p.u. 25 . 0
0
=
(a) Calculat e . / %
0

(b) Assuming t hat t he maximum swit ching sur ge is 4 st andar d deviat ions above t he
mean, calculat e t he upper value of s.s. on t his syst em st udied on t he TNA.
Sol u t i on . (a) %. 8 . 10 325 . 2 / 100 25 . 0 / %
0
= =
(b) Upper value p.u. 325 . 3 1 325 . 2 4
0
= + = + =
Exa mp le 11.5. The following t est r esult under dr y condit ions wer e obt ained on a 500-kV
t ower for posit ive swit ching sur ges wit h 23 unit s of " 10 "
4
3
5 insulat or s in a t ower window of 11
met r es (5.5 met r e clear ance when st r ing is ver t ical).
(i) S ingle st ring. CFO = 1340 kV cr est ,
wit hst and volt age at . kV 1100 down 3 =
f
(ii) Double st ring. CFO = . kV 1250 down 3 , kV 1390 =
f
For t he t wo cases, calculat e
(a) ; CFO / %
f
(b) The maximum allowable p.u. swit ching sur ge based on oper at ing
volt age of 525 kV.
Sol u t i on . 1 p.u. swit ching sur ge = , kV 66 . 428 3 / 2 525 = cr est , line-t o-gr ound.
(a) For single st ring.
f
= (1340 1100)/3 = 80 kV.
%
f
/V
50
= 80 100/1340 = 5.95%.
For double st ring
f
= (1390 1250)/3 = 47 kV.
%
f
/V
50
= 47 100/1390 = 3.4%.
These ar e t he per cent age st andar d deviat ions.
(b) Swit ching sur ge per -unit values:
S ingle string 1100/428.66 = 2.566 allowable
Double string 1250/428.66 = 2.916 allowable.
Exa mp le 11.6. In a t est set up for a 1100-kV t ower , t he CFO was 1640 kV on an insulat or
of 5 m lengt h inside t he window. The st andar d deviat ion obt ained fr om a gr aph on nor mal
pr obabilit y paper of all flashover dat a was %. 2 . 6 =
f
Calculat e t he maximum allowable p.u.
value of swit ching sur ge on t his insulat ion st r uct ur e.
Sol u t i on . Wit hst and volt age will be t aken as
f
3 down fr om CFO, which will be V
W
=
1640 (1 3 0.062) = 1330 kV. Peak value of line-t o-gr ound volt age, 1p.u. kV. 898 3 / 2 1100 = =
Allowable p.u. value of s.s. = 1330/898 = 1.481 p.u.
Fr om t he above examples, it should be evident t hat
(a) as t he syst em volt age incr eases (fr om 500 kV t o 1100 kV) t he p.u. value of maximum
swit ching sur ge is decr eased (fr om 2.5 3 t o 1.5).
(b) Pr e-inser t ion r esist or s ar e necessar y in or der t o lower t he s.s. amplit ude in pr act ice.
Also, shunt -compensat ing r eact or s ar e used as t he syst em volt age is incr eased.
(c) The st andar d deviat ion under dr y condit ions for air gaps in t ower s wit h insulat or s is
in t he neighbour hood of 5% CFO. Wit h t his value, t he wit hst and volt age is 85% of
CFO volt age. The value of % 5 =
f
has been r ecommended by t he I.E.E.E. even
t hough act ual t est r esult s may show var iat ions.
Further Properties of CFO and
f
In Sect ion 11.5, ment ion was made of t he pr oper t ies of t he Cr it ical Flashover volt age of
insulat ion st r uct ur es encount er ed in e.h.v. t r ansmission lines. We will consider some fur t her
pr oper t ies her e, chiefly t he var iat ion of CFO wit h waveshape and at mospher ic condit ions. It
must be emphasized befor ehand t hat ver y lit t le dat a is available t o dat e r egar ding t he exact
waveshape of swit ching sur ge obt ained on act ual syst ems dur ing swit ching oper at ions. It is
also evident t hat no t wo syst ems will encount er t he same waveshape because of r eflect ions in
t he connect ed equipment of t he syst em and t he syst em layout . Ther efor e, a waveshape of 250/
2500
s
has been st andar dized for t est ing pur poses. But t his does not yield t he cr it ical or
lowest value of CFO for all gap lengt hs as shown in Figur e 11.5. Wit h incr easing gap lengt h,
t he wavefr ont t ime at which minimum flashover occur s also incr eases. For example, for a 3-
met r e gap it is 150
s
wher eas for 15 met r es and longer t he minimum CFO occur s at wavefr ont
t imes 500
s
and longer . In e.h.v. t r ansmission, gap lengt hs r ange bet ween 3 m and 20 m for
t r ansmission volt ages fr om 400 kV t o 1200 kV.
An addit ional pr oper t y is t hat t he st andar d deviat ion is also not const ant . It is also a
funct ion of t ime t o cr est of t he applied impulse volt age. However , t he minimum value of
f
gener ally occur s for waveshapes of swit ching sur ges having t he cr it ical wavefr ont .
At mospher ic condit ions play a lar ge par t in influencing t he CFO of air gaps, as can be
expect ed. St andar d at mospher ic condit ions ar e defined accor ding t o ANSI and I.E.C. specificat ions
as follows.
Pressure Temperat ure Absolute Humidity Vapour Pressure
ANSI 760 mm 25C 15 Gr ams/m
3
15.5 mm Hg
I.E.C. 760 mm 20C 11 gr ams/m
3
11.37 mm Hg
For a par t icular set of weat her condit ions, t he CFO is given by t he equat ion
V
50
= . . .
p h rad
K K K (CFO under st andar d condit ions). (11.37)
The t hr ee cor r ect ion fact or s ar e as follows:
K
rad
= cor r ect ion for r elat ive air densit y = (RAD)
0.50.7
,
K
h
= cor r ect ion for humidit y , 656 . 0 82 . 0
p
v +
v
p
= vapour pr essur e in mm Hg,
and K
p
= cor r ect ion for pr ecipit at ion = 1 t o 0.96 depending upon int ensit y of
pr ecipit at ion.
Equat ion (11.37) gives a quant it y defined as "r elat ive insulat ion st r engt h, " defined as
RIS = (V
50
/V
50
under st andar d condit ions) = K
rad
.K
h
.K
p
, (11.38)
It has also been obser ved t hat for long wavefr ont t imes, br eakdown occur s pr ior t o t he
cr est t ime and for shor t er t han cr it ical fr ont , br eakdown occur s aft er t he cr est value. The t ime
dur at ion dur ing which t he sur ge r emains higher t han 90% cr est value is also impor t ant for
br eakdown.
11.7 CFO VOLTAGE OF LONG AIR GAPSPARIS'S THEORY
In Sect ion 11.3 all available for mulae r elat ing t o t he br eakdown of air gaps wer e summar ized
under t he usual four t ypes of volt age waveshapes encount er ed in e.h.v. t r ansmission and dc.
Sect ion 11.4 dealt wit h sever al mechanisms of br eakdown and for mulae wer e given for air -gap
flashover volt ages based on physical models of t he pr ocesses. In most cases, t he br eakdown for
posit ive-polar it y swit ching sur ges of t he highly-st r essed elect r ode r egion gover ns t he insulat ion
clear ance, d, r equir ed. The CFO volt age var ies appr oximat ely as d
0.50.6
. This r elat ion was
found fr om a ver y lar ge amount of exper iment al dat a gat her ed all over t he wor ld, par t icular ly
by Par is and his co-wor ker s in It aly. The for mulae ar e known as Par is's for mulae aft er t he
pr incipal invest igat or . Because of t his wor k, it may gener ally be said t hat t he design of insulat ion
of e.h.v. syst ems using long air gaps has been placed on a scient ific foot ing, but r equir es
invest igat ions of a mor e accur at e nat ur e on a case-by-case basis. The design of insulat ion
clear ances will be t aken up in Chapt er 14.
Basically, t he air -gap clear ance r equir ed fr om a conduct or t o t ower bear s a r elat ion t o t he
clear ance r equir ed for a r od-plane gap of t he same lengt h. The r od-plane geomet r y has t he
lowest CFO under posit ive polar it y swit ching impulse of any gap geomet r y encount er ed in
pr act ice. For t he r od-plane gap, Par is's for mula for V
50
is, wit h d in met r es,
) ( 50 p r
V

=
6 . 0
. 500 d , kV, cr est ...(11.39)
The flashover volt ages of ot her gaps also var y as d
0. 6
, but ar e differ ent fr om t he r od-plane
gap V
50
by a fact or called t he "gap fact or " and denot ed by k
g
, which is gr eat er t han unit y.
Ther efor e, t he gener al CFO volt age is given by
V
50
= 500. k
g
.d
0. 6
, kV. ...(11.40)
The following t able gives value of k
g
gener ally used.
Va l u es of Ga p Fa ct or s, k
g
k
g
Electrode Configuration
1.00 Rod-Plane
1.05 Rod-Tower St r uct ur e
1.15 Conduct or -Plane
1.20 Conduct or -Tower Window
1.30 Rod-Rod
1.55 Conduct or -Cr oss Ar m
In gener al, t he above values of gap fact or s k
g
ar e valid when insulat or st r ings ar e absent ,
and near ly valid when insulat or st r ings exist in t he t ower window. They ar e not valid for
negat ive-polar it y swit ching sur ges. Some exper iment al wor k car r ied out at t he EHV-UHV Pr oject
of E.P.R.I. by t he Gener al Elect r ic Co., U.S.A., has indicat ed t hat t he r at io (insulat or height /
shor t est air -gap clear ance t o t ower ) (H/d r at io) has a bear ing on t he value of t he gap fact or . Also
it is affect ed by t he insulat or st r ing, being differ ent for I-st r ings and V-st r ings. The exponent of
d in t he pr esence of insulat or s is also higher t han 0.6.
Application of Paris's Formula for Design
The chief mer it of Par is's for mulae lies in it s having been adopt ed in many count r ies for design
of air gap clear ance, as will be discussed below. The equat ion V
50
= 3400/(1 + 8/d) kV obt ained
by t he Les Renar dir es Gr oup of Elect r icit de Fr ance is also used for r od-plane gaps under
posit ive swit ching sur ges for gap lengt hs up t o 10 met r es and above 2 met r es.
The st eps used in design of air -gap clear ances making use of gap fact or s ar e as follows:
1. Fr om net wor k st udies using TNA or Digit a l Comput er a scer t a in t he expect ed
maximum swit ching-sur ge magnit udes, and decide on t he safet y fact or s. For example,
t hese wer e found t o be bet ween 2.5 p.u. t o 1.5 p.u. for t r ansmission volt ages fr om
400 kV t o 1150 kV. [1 p.u. = cr est line-gr ound power -fr equency volt age at maximum
oper at ing volt age. 362 kV for 345 kV syst em t o 1200 kV for 1150 kV syst em]. Because
of Fer r ant i effect 1 p.u. volt age is also based on t he maximum expect ed power -
fr equency volt age wher e t he equipment is connect ed in t he syst em.
2. Assuming % 5 =
f
a nd a llowing a fur t her 5% t o cover for differ ences bet ween
labor at or y measur ement s and field condit ions, t he wit hst and volt age is
V
w
= . 8095 . 0 05 . 1 / 85 . 0 05 . 1 / ) 3 (
50 50 50
V V V
f
= = ...(11.41)
The fact or
f
3 is suggest ed as adequat e for most design pur poses but some designer s
use
f
4 below V
50
as t he wit hst and volt age.
3. The value of wit hst and volt age V
w
is known since it is equal t o t he expect ed value of
swit ching-sur ge volt age V
ss
.
4. The CFO is t hen, wit h
f
= 0.05 V
50
,
V
50
= . 235 . 1 8095 . 0 / 3 05 . 1
ss ss f ss
V V V = = + ...(11.42)
5. This must equal 500. k
g
.d
0. 6
...(11.43)
d = (1.235 V
ss
/500 k
g
)
1/0.6
...(11.44)
Alt hough t he I.E.E.E. suggest s % 5 =
f
of CFO, t he I.E.C. r ecommends 6% which is
used in Eur opean designs.
6. Once t he line-t o-t ower clear ance is fixed fr om (11.44), t he line-t o-line clear ance is
taken to be 1.7d.
7. The line-t o-gr ound clear ance fr om swit ching-sur ge consider at ion is also fixed as h =
4.3 + 1.4 d met r es.
Exa mp le 11.7. A 400 kV line (420 kV maximum) has a 2.5 p.u. swit ching sur ge when
r esist or swit ching is used and t r apped char ge is neglect ed. Design t he clear ance bet ween
(a) conduct or t o t ower , (b) conduct or t o conduct or , and (c) t he conduct or t o gr ound. Assume a
fact or of safet y of 1.2.
Sol u t i on . 1 p.u. cr est volt age =
3 / 2 420
= 343 kV.
S.S. cr est volt age V
ss
= 1.2 2.5 343 = 1029 kV = 3 p.u.
The value of k
g
= 1.2 fr om t he t able of values of k
g
for conduct or -window. Using equat ions
(11.42) t o (11.44) we obt ain:
(a) d = (1.235 1029/1.2 500)
1.667
= (2.118)
1.667
= 3.493 met r es.
(b) Then, line-t o-line clear ance = 1.7 d = 5.938 met r es.
(c) The conduct or -t o-gr ound clear ance is 1.4 d + 4.3 = 9.19 met r es.
[The minimum clear ance t o gr ound used for 400 kV lines in India is 8.9 met r es and
conduct or -t o-t ower is 84" = 2.134 met r es].
Exa mp le 11.8. Using a conduct or -t o-t ower clear ance t o be 84" (2.134 m) as per NESC
r ecommendat ions, det er mine t he p.u. value of allowable swit ching sur ge level for t he 400-kV
line in Example 11.7. Neglect t he safet y fact or .
Sol u t i on . d = 2.134. V
50
= 1.2 500 2.134
0. 6
= 945.5 kV.
Wit h
f
= 5% of V
50
and V
W
= V
50

f
3 = 0.85 V
50
,
V
ss
= V
W
= 0.85 945.5 = 803.7 kV.
p.u. swit ching sur ge allowed = 803.7/343 = 2.343.
Exa mp le 11.9. For a 735-kV line (maximum oper at ing volt age 750 kV) t he ant icipat ed
swit ching sur ge is 2.1 p.u. wit hout r esist or s in t he br eaker s but only shunt r eact or s dr aining
t he t r apped char ge dur ing r eclosing. Design t he line-t o-t ower and line-t o-line clear ance on t he
assumpt ion of (a) no safet y fact or , and (b) a safet y fact or of 1.1 on t he ant icipat ed swit ching
sur ge (2.1 1.1 = 2.31 p.u.). Take
f
= 6% of CFO.
Sol u t i on . Cr est line-t o-gr ound volt age = 3 / 2 750 = 612.5 kV.
(a) V
ss
= 2.1 612.5 = 1286 kV, cr est
V
W
= (1 3 0.06) V
50
= 0.82 V
50
.
V
50
= V
W
/0.82 = 1286/0.82 = 1568.3 = 600. d
0. 6
,
and d = (1568.3/600)
1.667
= 4.96 met r es,
Line-t o-line clear ance = 1.7 4.96 = 8.432 met r es.
(b) V
ss
= 1286 1.1 = 1415 kV, cr est
V
50
= 1415/0.82 = 1725.1 kV = 600. d
0. 6
d = (1725.1/600)
1.667
= 5.814 met r es.
Line-t o-line clear ance = 1.7d = 9.883 met r es.
1. The 50% flashover volt age under posit ive swit ching sur ge ar e given by t he t hr ee
for mulae (1) Ler oy and Gallet , (2) Par is, and (3) Feser . They ar e, r espect ively,
kV ) 5 . 2 1 50 ( 100 and , 500 ), / 8 1 /( 3400
6 . 0
+ + d d d ,
wit h d in met r es. On a 750 kV line, t he swit ching sur ge expect ed is 2.1 p.u. which t he
air gap has t o wit hst and. Take V
50
= 1.15 V
W
. Calculat e t he gap lengt hs r equir ed
accor ding t o t he t hr ee for mulae.
2. Descr ibe t he mechanisms of br eakdown of a long air gap by (a) Lemke's model.
(b) Wat er s' model, and (c) Alexandr ov's model.
3. Explain t he differ ences bet ween Townsend's avalanche mechanism and t he st r eamer
t heor y of br eakdown of shor t gaps in unifor m fields.
4. Compar ing t he t wo for mulae 3400/(1 + 8/ d) and 500d
0. 6
for a r odplane gap br eakdown
volt age, discuss why one t eam of invest igat or s claims t hat t her e is a ceiling volt age
for ac t r ansmission while t he ot her does not indicat e such a limit .
5. The wit hst and volt age of a gap is 2000 kV wit h a st andar d deviat ion of = 6%.
Calculat e t he 50% flashover volt age and 83.3% flashover value if wit hst and volt age is
t a ken t o be 3 lower t han t he 50% flashover value.
12.1 PROBLEMS AT POWER FREQUENCY
Power -fr equency volt age is impr essed on a syst em cont inuously as compar ed t o t r ansient s
caused by fault s, light ning, and swit ching oper at ions. Cer t ain abnor mal condit ions ar ise when
over volt ages of a sust ained nat ur e can exist in syst ems which have t o be guar ded against .
Insulat ion levels will be gover ned by t hese, and it is ver y impor t ant t o know all t he fact or s
which cont r ibut e t o such over volt ages. E.H.V. lines ar e longer t han and t heir sur ge impedance
lower t han lines at 345 kV and lower volt ages. Also, e.h.v. lines ar e used mor e for point -t o-
point t r ansmission so t hat when load is dr opped, a lar ge por t ion of t he syst em is unloaded and
volt age r ise could be mor e sever e t han when t her e is a vast int er connect ed net wor k. Due also
t o t he high capacit ance of e.h.v. lines possibilit y of self-excit at ion of gener at or s is quit e ser ious.
Shunt r eact or s ar e employed t o compensat e t he high char ging cur r ent , which not only pr event
over volt ages dur ing load dr opping but also impr ove condit ions for load flow, and t he r isk of self-
excit at ion can also be count er act ed. In or der t o impr ove condit ions, var iable st at ic VAR syst ems
can also be employed as well as swit ched capacit or s which int r oduce har monics int o t he syst em.
Finally, t he use of ser ies capacit or s t o incr ease line loading in long lines might br ing about t he
danger of subsynchr onous r esonance in which elect r ical condit ions in gener at or s can pr oduce
t or ques which cor r espond t o t he t or sional fr equencies of t he shaft and r esult in mechanical
damage.
The syst em at power fr equency consist s of lumped-par amet er net wor k element s connect ed
t o dist r ibut ed-par amet er t r ansmission lines, and t he calculat ions ar e best handled t hr ough
gener alized const ant s in mat r ix for m.
12.2 GENERALIZED CONSTANTS
We have alr eady der ived equat ions for volt age and cur r ent at any point on a dist r ibut ed-
par amet er line in Chapt er 10 in t er ms of t he volt age at t he ent r ance t o t he line for any gener al
line t er minat ion impedance, Z
t
. They ar e, for a line of lengt h L,
E(x) =
pL Z Z pL
px Z Z px
E
t
t
e
sinh ) / ( cosh
sinh ) / ( cosh
0
0
+
+
...(12.1)
12
Power-Frequ en cy Vol t a ge Con t rol a n d
Overvol t a ges
Power-Frequency Voltage Control and Overvoltages 319
I(x) =
pL Z Z pL
px Z Z px
Z
E
t
t e
sinh ) / ( cosh
cosh ) / ( sinh
.
0
0
0
+
+
...(12.2)
In t he st eady st at e, t he pr opagat ion const ant and sur ge impedance ar e
p = ) /( ) ( and ) )( (
0
jwc g jwl r Z jwc g jwl r + + + + ...(12.3)
Also, at t he load end, x = 0, E
0
= Z
t
I
0
so t hat
E
0
= ] sinh ) / ( /[cosh
0
pL Z Z pL E
t e
+ ...(12.4)
This can be wr it t en for t he ent r ance volt age as
E
e
= ) / ).( sinh . ( ) (cosh
0 0 0 t
Z E pL Z E pL +
= pL Z I pL E sinh . cosh .
0 0 0
+ ...(12.5)
Similar ly, fr om equat ion (12.2), at x = 0 and at x = L,
I
0
= ) sinh ) / ( /[cosh ) / (
0
pL Z Z pL Z E
t t e
+ ...(12.6)
and I
e
=
] sinh ) / ( /[cosh ] cosh ) / ( [sinh
0 0
0
pL Z Z pL pL Z Z pL
Z
E
t t
e
+ +
...(12.7)
=
] sinh ) / ( /[cosh sinh
1
0
0
pL Z Z pL E pL
Z
t e
+
,
`
.
|
] sinh ) / ( /[cosh ) / ).( (cosh
0
pL Z Z pL Z E pL
t t e
+ +
=
0 0
0
) (cosh sinh
1
I pL E pL
Z
+
,
`
.
|
...(12.8)
Equat ions (12.5) and (12.8) give expr essions for t he volt age and cur r ent at t he ent r ance t o
t he line in t er ms of t he volt age and cur r ent at t he out put or load end.
These can be r e-wr it t en as
and
'
+
+
0 0
0 0
. .
. .
I D E C I
I B E A E
e
e
...(12.9)
For st eady-st at e condit ions, we will designat e t he line ent r ance as t he sour ce end and t he
load end as t he r eceiving end. The subscr ipt s "s" and "r" will be used t o indicat e t hese. Thus,
E
s
= AE
r
+ BI
r
and I
s
= CE
r
+ DI
r
...(12.10)
We obser ve t hat
A = D = cosh pL = cosh
ZY
...(12.11)
B = ZY
Y
Z
pL Z sinh . sinh .
0
...(12.12)
C =
ZY Z Y pL
Z
sinh . / sinh .
1
0
...(12.13)

'
+
+
line of admit t ance shunt t ot al ) ( and
line of impedance ser ies t ot al ) ( wher e
L jwc g Y
L jwl r Z
...(12.14)
In dealing wit h st eady-st at e volt ages and cur r ent s on an over head line, we can t ake g = 0.
For under gr ound cables, t his is not valid.
The wavelengt h at 50 Hz is 6000 km based on light velocit y of 300,000 km/sec. Ther efor e,
for a line of 100 km,
6 / 2 L
. This usually indicat es t hat on an uncompensat ed line at no
load, and when line r esist ance is negligible, t he phase differ ence bet ween t he sour ce volt age
and r eceiving end volt age is 6 for ever y 100 km of line lengt h at 50 Hz.
12.3 NO-LOAD VOLTAGE CONDITIONS AND CHARGING CURRENT
When t her e is no-load at t he r eceiving end, I
r
= 0, t he cont r ol of volt age at line ends poses
cer t ain pr oblems due t o over volt age condit ions. Unlike dc lines, ac lines have t he shunt char ging
cur r ent flowing t hr ough t he ser ies induct ance of line causing a r ise in t he out put volt age at t he
r eceiving end. This is t he well-known "Fer r ant i Effect ." Consider a simple ser ies L-C cir cuit
wit h lumped induct ance and capacit ance, as shown in Figur e 12.1 (a) and t he phasor diagr am of
volt ages and cur r ent s in 12.1 (b). By pr oper volt age division, t he sour ce volt age will be
E
s
=
r r
E LC w jwc E jwL jwc ) 1 ( ) / 1 /( ) / 1 (
2
+ ...(12.24)
This shows t hat E
s
is less t han E
r
and in phase wit h it . The volt age dr op in t he induct ive
r eact ance due t o t he char ging cur r ent of t he capacit or , I = jwC E
r
, is subst r act ing fr om t he load
volt age t o give t he sour ce volt age.
I n a dist r ibut ed-pa r a met er line, neglect ing ser ies r esist a nce for under st a nding t he
phenomenon, equat ion (12.5) gives at no load,
E
s
= ) / 2 cos( . ) / cos( . ) / (cosh
0 0
L E v wL E E v jwL
r r r
...(12.25)
Since cos 1 /
0
v wL , t he sour ce volt age is lower t han t he r eceiving-end volt age. Nor mally,
t he sour ce volt age is held const ant at t he st at ion bus so t hat t he r eceiving-end bus volt age r ises
wit h line lengt h.
Exa mp le 12.1. Calculat e t he expect ed p.u. value of load-end volt age for var ious line
lengt hs fr om 100 km t o 1000 km at no load. Neglect line r esist ance and assume sour ce-end
volt age t o be held const ant at 1 p.u.
Sol u t i on . The following t able shows all values.
L, km 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
) / 2 ( L 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60
) / 2 cos( L 0.9945 0.978 0.951 0.9135 0.866 0.809 0.743 0.669 0.588 0.5
s r
E E / 1.0055 1.022 1.05 1.095 1.155 1.236 1.346 1.494 1.7 2
If we cont inue t his t able, we soon find t hat t he r at io E
r
/E
s
on a r esist anceless line incr eases
t o infinit y for a line whose lengt h is equal t o one quar t er wavelengt h or 1500 km, and t hen will
decr ea se.
Since t he st andar d specificat ions st at e t he maximum oper at ing volt ages for given nominal
syst em volt ages, some measur es must be t aken t o cont r ol t he volt age r ise at no load at t he
r eceiving end. This r equir es shunt induct ive r eact ive var s t o be pr ovided. If t he equipment is
connect ed only at one end, usually t he load end, t hen a synchr onous condenser can be used
oper at ing in t he under -excit ed condit ion. However , shunt -compensat ing r eact or s eit her of t he
fixed t ype or var iable t ype ar e used at bot h ends, and in r ecent year s, st at ic var syst ems of t he
swit chable t ype using high-speed t hyr ist or swit ches ar e coming int o pr act ice.
Exa mp le 12.2. Det er mine t he limit ing lengt hs for uncompensat ed lines if t he volt ages at
t he t wo ends must be held at t he following set s of values. Neglect r esist ance and assume no-
load condit ion.
(a) E
s
= 400 kV, E
r
= 420 kV,
(b) E
s
= 380 kV, E
r
= 420 kV,
(c) E
s
= 750 kV, E
r
= 765 kV,
(d) E
s
= 735 kV, E
r
= 750 kV,
(e) E
s
= 720 kV, E
r
= 750 kV,
Not e t hat in all cases, E
s
< E
r
.
Sol u t i on . Since E
s
= ) / 2 cos( L E
r
, t he line lengt h is
L =
. km ), / ( cos
6
100
)] / ( )[cos 2 / (
1 1
r s r s
E E E E

For t he given dat a, t he line lengt hs will be
(a) 296 km, (b) 420 km, (c) 189 km, (d) 191 km, (e) 271 km.
Not e t hat t he lar ger t he differ ence bet ween E
s
and E
r
, t he longer will be t he line lengt h
allowed wit hout shunt r eact or compensat ion.
Charging Current and MVAR
The cur r ent supplied by t he sour ce int o t he line at no load (I
r
= 0) is, fr om equat ion (12.10)
I
s
=
r r
E pL
Z
CE . sinh
1
0
. ...(12.26)
When r esist ance is neglect ed,
Z
00
= / 2 / and /
0
j v jw p c l .
I
s
=
) / 2 sin( . . ). / sin(
0
L
l
c
jE E v wL
l
c
j
r r ...(12.27)
It leads t he r eceiving-end volt age by 90. An effect ive capacit ance for t he dist r ibut ed line
connect ed acr oss t he r eceiving-end volt age E
r
and dr awing t he same cur r ent has t he value
c
0
= ), / 2 sin(
1
00
L
wZ
Farad. ...(12.28)
The cor r esponding char ging r eact ive power supplied by t he sour ce per phase will be
Q
0
= ) / 2 sin( . . .
0
L
l
c
E E I E
r s s
. ...(12.29)
If E
s
and E
r
ar e line-t o-line volt ages in kV, r .m.s., t hen Q
0
will be t he 3-phase char ging
MVAR. Also,
Q
0
= ) / 2 cos( / since ), / 2 t an( . .
2
L E E L
l
c
E
s r s
...(12.30)
Not e t hat for a r esist anceless line, when L =
2 /
, t her e is no char ging cur r ent , and
fur t her mor e, E
r
= E
s
.
Exa mp le 12.3. For a 400 kV line, l = 1 mH/km and c = 11.1 nF/km, and E
s
= 400 kV fr om
t he sour ce, line-line, r .m.s. Calculat e t he char ging MVAR for line lengt hs var ying fr om 100 km
t o 1000 km. Neglect r esist ance.
Sol u t i on . Z
00
=
c l /
= 300 ohms.
L, km 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
,
`
.
|
100
6
t an
L
.105 .213 .325 .445 .577 .727 .9 1.11 1.38 1.732
MVAR Q ,
0
56 113.4 173.3 237.5 308 387.5 480 592 734 924
Q
0
/L .56 .567 .578 .594 .616 .646 .686 .74 .816 .924
For nor mally-encount er ed dist ances fr om 300 km t o 600 km, t he char ging MVAR per 100
km is 58 t o 65 wit h an aver age of 60 MVAR for each 100 km lengt h.
Exa mp le 12.4. Repeat example 12.3 for a 750 kV line wit h sur ge impedance of Z
00
= 250
ohms. Take line lengt hs fr om 400 km t o 1000 km.
Sol u t i on . ) 100 / 6 t an( 2250 . 2250 /
0 00
2
L Q MW Z E
s
.
L, km 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Q
0
, MVAR 1001 1298 1635 2025 2500 3096 3897
For lines bet ween 400 and 1000 km, t he char ging MVAR is 250 t o 390 per 100 km (Wit h an
aver age value of 300 MVAR/100 km).
Exa mp le 12.5. For t he 400-kV and 750-kV lines, calculat e t he sur ge-impedance loading,
SIL.
Sol u t i on . The sur ge-impedance load is equal t o t he MVA deliver ed t o a load equal t o Z
00
.
This is
SIL =
00
2
/Z E
s
.
For 400 kV line, SIL = 400
2
/300 = 533.3 MVA.
For 750 kV line, SIL = 750
2
/250 = 2250 MVA.
Exa mp le 12.6. For a 400 kV 400 km line, 50% of t he line-char ging MVAR is t o be
compensat ed by connect ing shunt r eact or s. Calculat e t he appr oximat e MVAR r equir ed in t hese.
Sol u t i on . Fr om example 12.3, t he char ging MVAR supplied by t he sour ce is 237.5 MVAR.
For 50% compensat ion, t he shunt r eact or s have t o pr ovide appr oximat ely 120 MVAR. In pr act ice,
60 MVAR r eact or s will be connect ed at each end of line.
Mor e accur at e shunt r eact or compensat ion will be calculat ed in lat er sect ions, including
line r esist ance.
12.4 THE POWER CIRCLE DIAGRAM AND ITS USE
Equat ion (12.10) can also be wr it t en for E
r
and I
r
in t er ms of E
s
and I
s
as follows, wit h AD BC
= 1, and A = D:
]
]
]
r
r
I
E
= ]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]

s
s
s
s
I
E
D C
B A
I
E
D C
B A
,
,
,
,
1
...(12.31)
Also, I
r
= (E
s
AE
r
)/B ...(12.32)
All t hese quant it ies ar e complex number s. The r eceiving-end power is
W
r
=
* * * * *
/ ) ( B E A E E I E jQr P
r s r r r r
+ ...(12.33)
If we consider E
r
as r efer ence giving 0
r r
E E , t hen t he sending-end volt age E
s
= | E
s
| ,
wher e t he angle is called t he power angle. Also let A = | A|
a
and B = | B|
b
. Then
W
r
= ) | | . | (|
| |
a r s
b r
r r
A E E
B
E
jQ P

+
=
) (
| |
| |
) (
| |
| |
2
a b
r
b
s r
B
A E
B
E E

...(12.34)
Separ at ing t he r eal and j-par t s, t her e r esult
P
r
=
) cos(
| |
| |
) cos(
| |
| |
2
a b
r
b
s r
B
A E
B
E E

...(12.35)
and Q
r
=
) sin(
| |
| |
) sin(
| |
| |
2
a b
r
b
s r
B
A E
B
E E

...(12.36)
These can be r e-wr it t en as

'
+
+
) sin(
| |
| |
) sin(
| |
| |
) cos(
| |
| |
) cos(
| |
| |
2
2
b
s r
a b
r
r
b
s r
a b
r
r
B
E E
B
A E
Q
B
E E
B
A E
P
...(12.37)
Then, eliminat ing by squar ing and adding t he t wo equat ions, we obt ain t he locus of P
r
against Q
r
t o be a cir cle wit h given values of A and B, and for assumed values of E
r
and | E
s
| as
follows:
2
2
2
2
) sin(
| |
| |
) cos(
| |
| |
'
'
+ +
'
'
+
a b
r
r a b
r
r
B
A E
Q
B
A E
P
=
2
| |
| |
,
`
.
|
B
E E
s r
...(12.38)
The coor dinat es of t he cent r e of t he r eceiving-end power -cir cle diagr am ar e

'

MVAR. ), sin(
| |
| |
and , MW ), cos(
| |
| |
2
2
a b
r
c
a b
r
c
B
A E
y
B
A E
x
...(12.39)
The r adius of t he cir cle is
R = MVA | , | / | | . B E E
s r
. ...(12.40)
Figur e 12.2 shows t he r eceiving-end cir cle diagr am. If t he r eceiving-end volt age is held
const ant , as is usually dict at ed by t he load, t he cent r e of t he cir cle is fixed, but t he r adius will
depend on t he value of t he sending-end volt age, E
s
. Ther efor e, for a chosen var iat ion in | E
s
| ,
a syst em of cir cles wit h cent r e at C and pr oper r adius given by equat ion (12.40) can be dr awn.
The power -cir cle diagr am and t he geomet r ical r elat ions r esult ing fr om it ar e ext r emely useful
t o a design engineer and an oper at ing engineer t o det er mine t he st at us of power flow, r eact ive
power flow, compensat ion r equir ement s for volt age cont r ol and many pr oper t ies concer ning
t he syst em. These will be illust r at ed t hr ough t ypical examples.
Refer r ing t o Figur e 12.2, t he angle OCP
m
= ) (
a b
and fr om equat ions (12.35) and
(12.36), when P
r
= 0, t hat is when t he cir cle int er sect s t he ver t ical axis at O' .
R cos ) (
0

b
= | x
c
| , giving O'CP
m
= (
b

0
) ...(12.41)
Fig. 12.2 Receiving-end cir cle diagr am for calculat ing r eact ive compensat ion for
volt age cont r ol at buses.
It is t her efor e a simple mat t er t o find t he angle
0
at no-load. For any ot her load, t he load
line is dr awn wit h given MW and MVAR along t he hor izont al and ver t ical axes shown as P
L
and
Q
L
. Let t he cir cle int er sect t he load line at O". Then,
b m
O"CP , fr om equat ion (12.35).
Because of geomet r ical const r uct ion using inst r ument s, t her e will be slight inher ent er r or
involved in t he r esult s but will ser ve engineer ing pur poses. However , wit h t he aid of Digit al
Comput er s, gr eat accur acy can be achieved fr om t he pr oper t ies r elat ing t o t he cir cle diagr am.
Maximum Power
For a given set of E
r
, E
s
, A and B, t he maximum power t hat can be t r ansmit t ed, P
m
, is
P
max
= ) ( cos
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
2
a b
r s r
c
B
A E
B
E E
x R ...(12.42)
and t he cor r esponding power angle is
max
=
m b
O'CP ...(12.43)
C
x, y ( )
c c
b a

b
E A
B
r
2
| |
| |
E
s
P
m
R1
P
L
Q
L
P
r
|Es1| < |E | s2
O
O'
O"
Load line
Er
E E
B
r s
| |
| |
2
R
2
=
Q
r
For t he case when r esist ance is neglect ed,
A = cosh pL = cos wL/v
0
, giving 0
a
, and
B = 90 giving , / sin . / / sinh . /
0 0 b
v wL c l j v jwL c l .
max
P = ) / sin ' /( | | | | / | |
0 00
v wL Z E E B E E
s r s r
...(12.44)
From (12.35) and (12.36), with
a
= 0 and
b
= 90,
| | / sin . | | B E E P
s r r
, which is maximum when 90 and so P
max
= E
r
| E
s
| /
|
B
|
. We
obser ve fr om equat ion (12.44) t hat | B| = Z
00
. sin wL/v
0
. Nor mally, r esist ances should not be
neglect ed since t he line losses for a given syst em st at us ar e one of t he gover ning quant it ies in
syst em design and compensat ion calculat ions.
Exa mp le 12.7. The following det ails ar e given for a 750-kV 3-phase line: Resist ance r =
0.014 ohm/km, induct ance l = 0.866 mH/km, r eact ance x = 0.272 ohm/km at 50 Hz, c = 12.82
nF/km giving a susceptance of y = 4.0275 10
6
mho/km, velocit y v
0
= 3 10
8
m/s = 3 10
5
km/
sec, line lengt h = 500 km. Calculat e it ems (a) and (b) below, and wor k par t s (c) and (d). Give
pr oper unit s for all quant it ies.
(a) c l Z jwcL Y jwl r L Z / , ), (
00
+ .
(b) The gener alized const ant s A, B, C, and D, in bot h polar and r ect angular for ms.
(c) For E
r
= 750 kV and | E
s
| = 0.98 E
r
, det er mine t he coor dinat es of t he cent r e of t he
r eceiving-end power -cir cle diagr am and t he r adius.
(d) Find t he power angle for t r ansmit t ing a load of 2000 MW at 750 kV at t he r eceiving-
end at unit y power fact or .
Sol u t i on .
(a) Z = 500(0.014 + j0.272) = 7 + j136 = 136.287, ohms.
Y = j500 4.0275 10
6
= j 2.014 10
3
= 2.014 10
3
90, mho.
Z
00
=
3
10 82 . 12 / 866 . 0
= 260 ohms.
(b)
ZY
= (136.2 2.014 10
3
)
1/2
88.5 = 0.5237 88.5
= 0.0137 + j0.5235. (0.5235 r adian = 30)
Y Z /
= (136.2/2.014 10
3
)
1/2
1.5
= 260 1.5 = 259.9 j6.8 ohms.
A = D = cosh
ZY
= cosh 0.0137. cos 0.5235 + jsinh 0.0137. sin 0.5235
= 0.86625 + j0.00685 = 0.8663 0.45
[At no load, wit hout compensat ion, for E
r
= 750 kV, E
s
= AV
r
= 650 kV, line-line].
C = ZY Z Y sinh / = sinh (0.0137 + j 0.5235)/260 1.5
= (sinh 0.0137. cos 0.5235 + jcosh 0.0137. sin 0.5235)/260 5 . 1
= 0.50024 88.64/260 1.5 = 1.924 10
3
90.14.
= (0.0047 + j1.923994) 10
3
mho.
B = 5 . 1 260 64 . 88 50024 . 0 sinh
0
ZY Z
= 130 87.14 = 6.486 + j129.84 ohms.
(c) Cent re : x
c
= | | / ) cos( | |
2
B A E
a b r

= 750
2
.0.8663 cos (87.14 0.45)/130
= 216.6 MW
y
c
= 3748.5. sin 86.69 = 3742.25 MVAR
Radius : R = E
r
| E
s
| /| B| = 0.98 750
2
/130 = 4240 MVA.
(d) Fr om t he geomet r y of t he cir cle diagr am, Figur e 12.2, or , fr om equat ion (12.35),
2000 + 216.6 = 4240 cos (87.14 ), giving
= 87.14 58.48 = 28.66.
[The sur ge impedance for a lossless line is Z
00
= 260 ohms. The SIL is 750
2
/260 = 2163
MW. At t his load wit h 6/100 km, t he power angle would be 30 for 500 km lengt h of line].
Exa mp le 12.8. In t he pr evious example, calculat e t he r eact ive compensat ion t o be pr ovided
acr oss t he load at t he r eceiving end for (a) no-load condit ion, and (b) at full r at ed load of 2000
MW at 0.95 power fact or lag. St at e t he nat ur e of r eact ive compensat ion used in t he t wo cases.
Sol u t i on .
(a) The no-load point is O' on t he cir cle diagr am, Figur e 12.2. By geomet r y, (Q
0
+ 3742.25)
2
+ 216.6
2
= 4240
2
, which gives Q
0
= 492.25 MVAR showing t hat t he compensat ion is
induct ive. The point O' falls above t he or igin O. See Figur e 12.3.
Fig. 12.3 Cir cle diagr am for Example 12.8.
(b) For locat ing t he full-load point at 0.95 lag, a line OL is dr awn fr om t he or igin at
cos
1
0.95 = 18.2 in t he 1st quadr ant since t he r eact ive power of load is posit ive, i.e.,
( 216.6, 3742.25)
MW MVAR
C
87.14
= 28.6
E
E
R
s
r
= 735 kV
= 750 kV
= 4240 MVA
Qc = 658 + 128
= 786 MVAR
Q
L
= 658
MVAR

2000
MW
128 MVAR = Q
r
Q
r
= 492.25
MVAR
O'
O
F
PL
O"
cos 0.95
1
induct ive, equal t o Q
L
= 2000 t an 18.2 = 658 MVAR. Fr om t he cir cle diagr am,
2 2
| ) | ( ) | (|
c L L c
x P F P y + + = R
2
or , (3742.25 P
L
F)
2
+ (2000 + 216.6)
2
= 4240
2
giving P
L
F = 128 MVAR, capacit ive, since t he point F was t aken below t he hor izont al or
power axis. This is t he t ot al r eact ive power r equir ed at t he r eceiving end acr oss t he load for t he
given volt age and load condit ions. To t his must be added 658 MVAR of t he load it self in or der t o
obt ain t he r at ing of t he compensat ing equipment , which not only has t o over r ide t he 658 MVAR
induct ive of t he load but also pr ovide 128 MVAR capacit ive. Ther efor e, t he r at ing of t he
compensat ing equipment will be 658 + 128 = 786 MVAR, capacit ive. Fr om equat ion (12.35), t he
power angle is = 28.66, which can also be obt ained fr om equat ion (12.36) by using Q
r
= 128
MVAR.
Fr om t he above example, it may be obser ved t hat at no load induct ive compensat ion is
necessar y amount ing t o 492.25 MVAR and at full load t he compensat ion r equir ed is capacit ive
amount ing t o 786 MVAR. The r at io of induct ive t o capacit ive MVAR's is 492.25/786 = 0.626.
Exa mp le 12.9. If in t he pr evious example, t he sending-end volt age is r aised t o 750 kV,
t he same as E
r
, calculat e t he compensat ion t o be pr ovided (a) at no load, (b) at full load, and
(c) t he power angle in t he t wo cases.
Sol u t i on . Since E
r
, A, and B ar e t he same, t he coor dinat es of t he cent r e of t he r eceiving-
end cir cle diagr am st ay t he same at ( 216.6 MW, 3742.25 MVAR). But t he new r adius is R =
750
2
/130 = 4327 MVA.
(a) At no load: (Q
0
+ 3742.25)
2
+ 216.6
2
= 4327
2
giving
Q
0
= 580 MVAR, induct ive.
(b) At full load: (3742.25 P
L
F)
2
+ 2216.6
2
= 4327
2
giving
P
L
F

=

26 MVAR, capacit ive. Ther efor e, adding 658 MVAR of t he load, t he compensat ing
equipment must pr ovide a r eact ive power of 684 MVAR, capacit ive. Since t he load can var y
fr om no-load t o full-load, t his will be in t he nat ur e of swit ched capacit or s. The r at io of induct ive
MVAR t o capacit ive MVAR = 580/684 = 0.848. Not ice t hat power can flow in an ac syst em fr om
a point at any volt age t o anot her of equal volt age or even at higher volt age, pr ovided t he pr oper
t ype and sufficient amount of r eact ive compensat ion is ut ilized. This is impossible in a dc
syst em.
(c) The power angles ar e 0
0
and 5 . 28
l
.
12.5 VOLTAGE CONTROL USING SYNCHRONOUS CONDENSERS
Fr om t he gener alized const ant s (A, B, C, D) of a given input por t and out put por t , t he power -
cir cle diagr am or t he cor r esponding geomet r ical r elat ions can be ut ilized for deciding t he pr oper
compensat ing MVAR's t o be pr ovided at t he r eceiving end when a set of magnit udes for E
r
and
E
s
at t he t wo ends of t he line ar e specified. When t he load has a lagging power fact or or even a
unit y power fact or , gener ally t he cont r ol of volt age is achieved by pr oviding leading power
fact or or capacit ive compensat ion at t he r eceiving end. This can t ake t he for m of swit ched
capacit or s, usually connect ed t o t he low-volt age t er t iar y of t he subst at ion t r ansfor mer at t he
load end. At no-load, usually induct ive r eact ive compensat ion is r equir ed if t he sending-end
volt age is t o be r aised t o st ay wit hin t he st andar d specificat ions. This is pr ovided by eit her t he
swit ched t ype (r egulat ed) or const ant t ype (unr egulat ed).
The synchr onous condenser pr ovides bot h t ypes of MVAR's, lagging or leading, t hat is
induct ive or capacit ive. The synchr onous mot or r uns wit hout a shaft load and is enclosed in an
explosion-pr oof casing which is filled wit h hydr ogen at above at mospher ic pr essur e in or der t o
minimize r ot at ional losses, and t o ensur e t hat any leakage of gas will be fr om t he inside t o
ext er nal air , t hus pr event ing an explosive mixt ur e t o be for med. The r eact ive power s gener at ed
by t he mot or ar e cont r olled by var ying t he dc field excit at ion of t he r ot or , under -excit at ion
pr oviding induct ive MVAR's a nd over -excit a t ion yielding ca pa cit ive MVAR's. Beca use of
limit at ions imposed on excit at ion, t he synchr onous phase modifier can pr ovide only 60 t o 70%
of it s r at ed capacit y at lagging power fact or (under -excit ed condit ion) and full r at ed leading
r eact ive power (over -excit ed condit ion).
The design of t he r at ing of t he synchr onous phase modifier (or condenser for shor t ) and
t he volt age condit ions ar e illust r at ed below. The gener al equat ion sat isfied by t he r eal and
r eact ive power s at t he load end at any point on t he cir cle is
(P
r
+ | x
c
| )
2
+ (Q
r
+ | y
c
| )
2
= R
2
...(12.45)
At no load, t he point O' in Figur e 12.2, obviously P
r
= 0. The r eact ive power is
Q
0
= | |
2 2
c c
y x R ...(12.46)
At full load, point O" in Figur e 12.2 or 12.3,
(P
L
+ | x
c
| )
2
+ (| y
c
| Q
r
)
2
= R
2
...(12.47)
The t ot al r eact ive power r equir ed at t he r eceiving end is
Q
r
= | y
c
|
2 2
| ) | (
c L
x P R +
..(12.48)
The capacit ive MVAR r equir ed in t he synchr onous condenser is t hen
Q
c
=
2 2
| ) | ( | |
c L c L r L
x P R y Q Q Q + + + ...(12.49)
If we use t he r elat ion ) 1 ( ,
0
< m m Q Q
c
, t hen t he equat ion t o be sat isfied by t he r adius of
t he cir cle, which is t he only quant it y involving t he sending-end volt age E
s
will be, when values
for E
r
, A, B, P
L
, Q
L
ar e specified,
2 2 2 2
| ) | (
c c L
x R x P R m + + =
L c
m Q y m + + | | ) 1 ( ...(12.50)
When a ll qua nt it ies except R a r e specified, equa t ion (12.50) will yield t he va lue of
B E E R
s r
| / | | | , fr om which t he sending-end volt age is det er mined. This is shown by t he
following example.
Exa mp le 12.10. For Example 12.9, t aking E
r
= 750 kV and m = 0.7 for t he synchr onous
condenser , det er mine (a) t he sending-end volt age, and (b) t he pr oper r at ing of t he synchr onous
condenser .
Sol u t i on . The dat a given ar e
E
r
= 750, A = 0.8663 0.45, B = 130 87.14, x
c
= 216.6,
y
c
= 3742.25, P
L
= 2000 MW, Q
L
= 658 MVAR induct ive, and m = 0.7.
(a) Solving equat ion (12.50) for R t her e r esult s
R = 4272 = 750 E
s
/130.
The sending-end volt age has t he magnit ude
E
s
= 4272 130/750 = 740 kV, line-line.
(b) The synchr onous-condenser r at ing is Q
c
= Q
L
+ Q
r
, fr om equat ion (12.49).
Q
r
= 3742.25
2 2
) 6 . 216 2000 ( 4272 +
, fr om equat ion (12.48)
= 90 MVAR, capacit ive at full load.
Q
c
= 90 + 658 = 748 MVAR, over -excit ed.
As a check, t he under -excit ed r eact ive power r equir ed at no load is given by equat ion
(12.46) as
Q
0
=
2 2
6 . 216 4272
3742.25 = 519 MVAR, induct ive.
The r at io of under -excit ed t o over -excit ed MVAR's is
Q
0
/Q
c
= 519/748 = 0.694 0.7.
The r at ing of t he synchr onous condenser would be about 750 MVAR when deliver ing
capacit ive r eact ive power at over -excit ed condit ion of oper at ion.
In or der t o use t he cir cle diagr am, a ser ies of cir cles should be dr awn wit h sever al chosen
values of magnit ude of E
s
and picking values of compensat ion r equir ed at no load and full load.
The value yielding a r at io of m = Q
0
/Q
c
= 0.7 will be t he magnit ude of t he sending-end volt age, E
s
.
12.6 CASCADE CONNECTION OF COMPONENTSSHUNT AND SERIES
COMPENSATION
In t he pr evious sect ions, t he (A, B, C, D) const ant s of only t he line wer e consider ed. It becomes
evident t hat t hr ough t he example of t he 750 kV line par amet er s, it is impossible t o cont r ol t he
volt ages wit hin limit s specified by IS and IEC by pr oviding compensat ion at one end only by
synchr onous condenser s, or by swit ched capacit or s if t he volt ages ar e t o var y over wider limit s
t han discussed. In pr act ice, shunt -compensat ing r eact or s ar e pr ovided for no-load condit ions
which ar e cont r olled by t he line-char ging cur r ent ent ir ely, and by swit ched capacit or s for full-
load condit ions when t he load has a lagging power fact or .
Generalized Equations
For no-load condit ions, Z
t
= , and t he equat ions for sending-end and r eceiving-end volt ages
ar e, Figur e 12.4,
E
r
= E
s
/[cosh pL + (Z
0
/Z
sh
)sinh pL] ...(12.51)
For simplicit y, let r = 0. Then,
p = , , / , / 2 /
00 0 0 sh sh
jX Z c l Z Z j v jw
so t hat E
s
/E
r
= . / 2 sin ) / ( / 2 cos
00
+ L X Z L
sh
...(12.52)
When t he r at io E
s
/E
r
is given for a syst em, t he value of X
sh
is easily det er mined. In
par t icular , when E
s
= E
r
,
Z
sh
= ) / 2 cot / 2 cosec /(
00
L L Z . ...(12.53)
Exa mp le 12.11. For t he 750-kV line of pr evious examples, L = 500 km, = 6000 km at 50
Hz and Z
00
= 260 ohms. Assuming E
s
= E
r
= 750 kV, calculat e t he r eact ance and 3-phase MVAR
r equir ed at load end in t he shunt -compensat ing r eact or . Neglect line r esist ance.
Sol u t i on . 2L/ = 30 at 6 per 100 km of lengt h of line.
X
sh
= 260/(cosec 30 cot 30) = 3.73 260 = 970 ohms.
This is necessar y at load end connect ed bet ween line and gr ound so t hat t her e will be 3
such r eact or s for t he 3-phases.
Cur r ent t hr ough each r eact or I
sh
= kA 4464 . 0 3 970 / 750 .
MVAR of each r eact or per phase = 750 0.4464/
3
= 193.3.
Tot al 3-phase MVAR at load end = 580 MVAR.
Chain Rule
For t he r eact or only, t he gener alized const ant s ar e given by, see Figur e 12.4,
]
]
]
s
s
I
E
=
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
'
r
'
r
sh I
E
jB 1 ,
0 , 1
...(12.54)
wher e B
sh
= 1/X
sh
= admit t ance of each r eact or per phase.
Fig. 12.4 Tr ansmission line wit h shunt -r eact or compensat ion for volt age cont r ol at no load.
I f (E
s
, I
s
) r efer t o t he input volt age and cur r ent fr om t he sour ce and (E
r
, I
r
) t he out put
quant it ies at t he load end, t hen t he gener alized const ant s (A
T
, B
T
, C
T
, D
T
) for t he ent ir e syst em
is obt ained by chain mult iplicat ion of t he t hr ee mat r ices for t he cascade-connect ed component s.
This is
]
]
]
T T
T T
D C
B A
,
,
= ]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
1
0 , 1
,
,
1 ,
0 , 1
, sh
Line
sh
jB D C
B A
jB
= ]
]
]
]
]
]
B B jB A
B
jB
D C
B A
sh
sh
Line
, 2
0 ,
,
,
...(12.55)
wher e A, B, C, D r efer only t o t he line, equat ions (12.11) t o (12.13). These ar e, in gener al,
complex quant it ies wher eas B
sh
is a r eal number .
When once t he t ot al gener alized const ant s (A
T
, B
T
, C
T
, D
T
) ar e calculat ed, t he r eceiving-
end power -cir cle diagr am can be dr awn and all r equir ement s for compensat ion can be det er mined.
The main r equir ement for t he shunt r eact or s is cont r ol of volt age at no-load. For t his case,
E
s
=
r sh r T
E B jB A E A ) (
B
sh
= B A E E j jB E E A
r s r s
/ ) / ( / ) / ( ...(12.56)
For Example 12.11, for E
s
= E
r
= 750 kV,
B
sh
= j(1 0.866)/j130 = 1.0308 10
3
mho
giving X
sh
= 970 ohms.
E
r Es E'r
Zsh
Z
sh
= jX
sh
1
X
sh
Bsh =
I
s
I'
r
Line
Ground
I
r
12.6.1 Shunt Reactor Compensation of Very Long Line with Intermediate
Switching Station
For ver y long lines, longer t han 400 km at 400 kV, or at higher volt ages, an int er mediat e
st at ion is somet imes pr efer able in lieu of ser ies-capacit or compensat ion which will be discussed
in t he next sect ion. Figur e 12.5 shows t he ar r angement wher e each line sect ion has t he
gener alized const ant s (A, B, C, D)
Line
, and each of t he four shunt r eact or s has an admit t ance of
(jB
sh
) and r eact ance (jX
sh
). Then, by using t he chain r ule of mult iplicat ion, t he t ot al gener alized
const ant s (A
T
, B
T
, C
T
, D
T
) r elat ing (E
s
, I
s
) wit h (E
r
, I
r
) will be as follows, upon using equat ion
(12.55).
Fig. 12.5 Ext r a-long line wit h shunt r eact or s at ends and at an int er mediat e st at ion.
]
]
]
T T
T T
D C
B A
,
,
=
2
2
, 2
,
]
]
]
B jB D B B A B j C
B B jB A
sh sh sh
sh
= ]
]
]
]
]
]
]
+
+
B A
B
B B
BC A AC
AB BC A
sh
2 , 6
0 , 2
, 2
2 ,
2
2
2
]
]
]
]
+ +
AB B B A BC
B AB
jB
sh
sh
4 , 2 4 2
4
2 2 2
2
...(12.57)
For B
sh
= 0, t his r educes t o
0
,
,
]
]
]
sh
B
T T
T T
D C
B A
=
2
2
2
,
,
, 2
2 ,
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
+
+
D C
B A
BC A AC
AB BC A
...(12.58)
The volt age and cur r ent at t he int er mediat e st at ion ar e
]
]
]
]
'
r
'
r
I
E
= ]
]
]
]
]
]
r
r
sh sh sh
sh
I
E
B jB D B B AB j C
B B jB A
, 2
,
2 ...(12.59)
Exa mp le 12.12. In example 12.11, shunt compensat ing r eact or s of 580 MVAR ar e pr ovided
at each end. Calculat e t he % compensat ion of char ging MVAR pr ovided by t hese shunt r eact or s.
Neglect line r esist ance.
Sol u t i on . The gener alized const ant s for t he line ar e
A = 0.866, B = j130, and C =
30 sin
260
1
/ 2 sin
1
00
j L
Z
j
= j1.923 10
3
mho.
Es
Is Ir
Er
jB
sh
jB
sh
A, B
C, D
Line
A, B
C, D
Line
Char ging MVAR of line wit hout shunt r eact or s is
Q
0
=
2
s
CE = j1.923 10
3
750
2
= 1082 MVAR.
Wit h shunt r eact or s, wit h B
sh
= 1.0308 10
3
mho, fr om equat ion (12.55),
C
T
= 0 10 ) 138 . 0 7854 . 1 923 . 1 ( 2
3 2

j B B B A j C
sh sh
.
% compensat ion is t ot al or 100%.
Exa mp le 12.13. For t he examples 12.11 and 12.12, inst ead of 580 MVAR, allow 60% shunt
r eact or compensat ion t o maint ain E
s
= 750 kV. Calculat e t he MVAR of t he shunt r eact or s at
each end, and t he volt age at t he r eceiving end at no-load.
Sol u t i on . % compensat ion = 100 (C C
T
)/C, giving
C
T
= (1 0.6) C = 0.4 C = j0.4 1.923 10
3
mho
= j0.7692 10
3
mho.
But C
T
= , 2
2
B B B A j C
sh sh

or j0.7692 10
3
= j1.923 10
3
j2 0.866 B
sh
j130
2
sh
B .
Solving t he quadr at ic equat ion for B
sh
r esult s
B
sh
= 0.6358 10
3
mho.
3-phase MVAR of each shunt -r eact or bank at 750 kV will be
Q
sh
=
2
s sh
E B = 0.6358 10
3
750
2
= 358 MVAR.
[Not e t hat t his may be appr oximat ely 60% of 580 MVAR which was r equir ed for 100%
compensat ion.]
Wit h t hese r eact or s connect ed, t he r eceiving-end volt age will not be 750 kV. It is calculat ed
as follows:
A
T
= A jB
sh
B = 0.866 + 0.6358 10
3
130 = 0.9486.
E
r
= E
s
/ A
T
= 790.6 kV.
The compensat ion is a bit low since t he bus volt age at t he r eceiving end is higher t han 765
kV, which is specified by IS and IEC. If E
r
is t o be held at 765 kV, t hen E
s
must be lower ed. Since
A
T
= 0.9486, E
s
= 0.9486 765 = 726 kV. Then, t he shunt -r eact or r at ing will be
Q
shs
= 726
2
0.6358 10
3
= 335 MVAR at t he sending end,
and Q
shr
= 765
2
0.6358 10
3
= 372 MVAR at t he r eceiving end.
A compr omise of 350 MVAR would be select ed and t he volt ages at t he t wo ends adjust ed.
Exa mp le 12.14. A 400-kV line is 800 km long. It s induct ance and capacit ance per km ar e
l = 1 mH/km and c = 11.1 nF/km (Z
00
= 300 ohms). The volt ages at t he t wo ends ar e t o be held
at 400 kV at no load. Neglect r esist ance. Calculat e
(a) MVAR of shunt -r eact or s t o be pr ovided at t he t wo ends and at an int er mediat e st at ion
midway wit h all four r eact or s having equal r eact ance.
(b) The A, B, C, D const ant s for t he ent ir e line wit h t he shunt r eact or s connect ed.
(c) The volt age at t he int er mediat e st at ion. (Use 6/100 km).
Sol u t i on . Refer t o Figur e 12.5 and equat ions (12.57) and (12.59). For one 400-km sect ion:
(a) A = D = cos 24 = 0.9135, B = j300 sin 24 = j122 ohm and
C = (sin 24)/300 = j1.356 10
3
mho.
The t ot al A
T
fr om end t o end for 800 km is
A
T
=
sh sh
ABB j B B BC A 4 2
2 2 2
+
=
2
768 , 29 8 . 445 669 . 0
sh sh
B B + + .
But since E
s
=E
r
, t he value of A
T
= 1.
By using t his value of A
T
and solving for B
sh
yields B
sh
= 0.709 10
3
mho. The MVAR of
each of t he r eact or s at t he t wo ends will be
Q
e
= 400
2
0.709 10
3
= 113.4 MVAR, 3-phase unit .
(b) The A, B, C, D const ant s for t he ent ir e line ar e found as follows:
Fr om equat ion (12.55), for each 400-km sect ion,
B jB A
sh
= 0.9135 + 0.709 10
3
122 = 1
) 2 ( B jB A jB C
sh sh
=
) 122 . 709 . 0 827 . 1 ( 10 709 . 0 10 356 . 1
3 3
+

j j
= 0.
]
]
]
T T
T T
D C
B A
,
,
= ]
]
]
]
]
]
1 , 0
244 , 1
1 , 0
122 , 1
2
j j
(c) At t he int er mediat e st at ion, kV 400 . 1
s
'
r
E E .
12.6.2 Series-Capacitor Compensation at Line Centre
In or der t o incr ease t he power -handling capacit y of a line, t he magnit ude of B must be r educed,
as shown in equat ions (12.35) and (12.44). In nor mal pr act ice, 90
b
and 0
a
for ver y low
ser ies line r esist ance. Ther efor e, P = E
r
E
s
.sin
B /
. We also obser ve t hat t he value of B is ver y
near ly equal t o t he ser ies induct ive r eact ance of t he line so t hat by employing capacit or s connect ed
in ser ies wit h t he line, t he power -handling capacit y of a line can be incr eased for chosen values
of E
s
, E
r
and . All t hese t hr ee quant it ies ar e limit ed fr om consider at ions of highest equipment
volt ages and st abilit y limit s. Usually, t he ser ies capacit or is locat ed at t he line cent r e when one
capacit or only is used, or at t he one-t hir d point s if t wo inst allat ions ar e used. On a ver y long
line wit h int er mediat e st at ion, t he ser ies capacit or can be locat ed her e. In t his sect ion we will
only consider t he gener alized const ant s when a ser ies capacit or is locat ed at t he line cent r e
wit hout int er mediat e shunt -r eact or compensat ion. Thus, t he syst em consider ed consist s of
equal shunt r eact or admit t ances B
sh
at t he t wo ends and a capacit or wit h r eact ance x
c
at t he
line cent r e, as shown in Figur e 12.7.
For each half of t he line sect ion of lengt h L/2,
A' = , 4 / sinh , 4 / cosh
0
ZY Z B' ZY D'
C' =
4 / sinh
1
0
ZY
Z
...(12.60)
wher e Z and Y r efer t o t he t ot al line of lengt h L. The sur ge impedance is not alt er ed even
t hough t he line lengt h is halved.
For t he ser ies capacit or , Figur e 12.6(b), t he volt ages and cur r ent s on t he t wo sides ar e
r elat ed by
F i g. 12.6 Tr ansmission line wit h ser ies-capacit or compensat ion in middle of line.
]
]
]
]
'
s
'
s
I
E
=
]
]
]
]
]
]
]

'
r
'
r c
I
E jx
1 , 0
, 1
...(12.61)
Thus, for t he t wo half-sect ions of line wit h t he capacit or separ at ing t hem, t he t ot al
gener alized const ant s will be, by t he chain r ule of mult iplicat ion, (Figur e 12.6a),
]
]
]
T T
T T
D C
B A
,
,
=
]
]
]

]
]
]
]
]
1 , 0
, 1
4 / cosh , 4 / sinh
1
4 / sinh , 4 / cosh
0
0
c
jx
ZY ZY
Z
ZY Z ZY
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
ZY ZY
Z
ZY Z ZY
ZY ZY
Z
ZY Z ZY
cosh , sinh
1
sinh , cosh
4 / cosh , 4 / sinh
1
4 / sinh , 4 / cosh
0
0
0
0
]
]
]
]
]
ZY ZY
Z
ZY Z ZY
Z
x
j
c
sinh ), 1 (cosh
1
) 1 (cosh , sinh
2
0
0
0
...(12.62)
=
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
pL pL
Z
pL Z pL
Z
x
j
D C
B A
c
sinh ), 1 (cosh
1
) 1 (cosh , sinh
2 ,
,
0
0
0 Line
...(12.63)
Wit h no ser ies capacit or , x
c
= 0, equat ion (12.63) r educes t o t he gener alized const ant s of
t he line.
Shunt Reactors at Both Ends and Series Capacitor in Middle of Line
If shunt -compensat ing r eact or s of admit t ance B
sh
ar e locat ed at bot h ends of line, t he t ot al
gener alized const ant s wit h ser ies capacit or locat ed in t he line cent r e can be obt ained in t he
usual way by using t he chain r ule, fr om Figur e 12.7. It is left t o t he r eader t o ver ify t he r esult .
E
s
E
r
E'
s
E'
r
Is
jX
c
jX
c
Ir
I'
s
I'
r
L/2 L/2
( ) a ( ) b
Fig. 12.7 Tr ansmission line wit h ser ies capacit or in middle and shunt r eact or s at ends.
]
]
]
T T
T T
D C
B A
,
,
=
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
B B jB A
B
jB
D C
B A
sh
sh
, 2
0 ,
,
,
Line
]
]
]
]
pL pL
Z
pL Z pL
Z
x
j
c
sinh ), 1 (cosh
1
) 1 (cosh , sinh
0
0
0
]
]
]
]
+ +
+
1 cosh ), 1 (cosh sinh

2
0 , 1 cosh
2
0
pL pL jB pL
Z
pL
B x
sh
sh c
...(12.64)
W e must point out that all quantities except x
c
and B
sh
a r e complex number s wit h a
magnit ude and phase angle.
If shunt r eact or s ar e not used, B
sh
= 0, t hen equat ion (12.64) r educes t o (12.63). If no ser ies
capacit or is used, equat ion (12.55) r esult s.
The value of capacit ance is chosen such t hat it s r eact ance amount s t o a chosen per cent age
of t he ser ies induct ive r eact ance of t he line. For example, if 50% ser ies capacit ance is t o be
pr ovided for a 800 km 400 kV line having a ser ies induct ive r eact ance of j 244 ohms, t he
capacit ive r eact ance is j 122 ohms. The r equir ed capacit ance will be C = 1/wx
c
= 26 F at 50
Hz. The power -handling capacit y of a line wit h 50% ser ies compensat ion will incr ease t o double
t hat wit hout ser ies capacit or .
While t he power -handling capacit y can be incr eased, ser ies capacit or compensat ion r esult s
in cer t ain har mful pr oper t ies in t he syst em, chief among t hem ar e:
(a) Incr eased shor t -cir cuit cur r ent . Not e t hat for a shor t -cir cuit beyond t he capacit or
locat ion, t he r eact ance is ver y low. At t he load-side t er minal of t he capacit or , a shor t -
cir cuit will r esult in infinit e cur r ent for 50% compensat ion.
(b) Sub-har monic or sub-synchr onous r esonance condit ions dur ing load changes and shor t -
cir cuit s. This has r esult ed in unexpect ed failur es t o long shaft s used in st eam-t ur bine-
dr iven alt er nat or s and excit er s when one or mor e of t he r esult ing sub-har monic
cur r ent s due t o ser ies compensat ion can pr oduce shaft t or ques t hat cor r espond t o
one of t he sever al r esonance fr equencies of t he shaft , called t or sional modes of
oscillat ion or cr it ical speeds. This aspect will be discussed in some det ail and count er
measur es used against possible failur e will be descr ibed in t he next sect ion.
Es Er
I
s
jX
c
Ir
L/2
jB
sh
L/2
jB
sh
12.7 SUB-SYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN SERIES-CAPACITOR
COMPENSATED LINES
12.7.1 Natural Frequency and Short-Circuit Current
Wit h ser ies compensat ion used, t he power -handling capacit y of a single cir cuit is appr oximat ely
P =
s s r
X E E / sin . ...(12.65)
wher e
s
X = ) 1 ( m X X X
L c L
...(12.66)
wit h m = X
c
/X
L
= degr ee of compensat ion, and t he r eact ances ar e at power fr equency f
0
.
The appr oximat ion occur s because we have consider ed t he ser ies induct ive r eact ance X
L
t o be
lumped. At any ot her fr equency f,
) ( f X
L
=
L
fL 2 = t ot al induct ive ser ies r eact ance of line
and ) ( f X
c
= fC 2 / 1 = ser ies capacit ive r eact ance of capacit or .
The r esonance fr equency occur s when ) ( ) (
e c e L
f X f X giving
L e
L f 2 = C f
e
2 / 1 ...(12.67)
We can int r oduce t he power fr equency f
0
by r e-wr it ing equat ion (12.67)
as ) / )( 2 (
0 0
f f L f
e L
= )] / .( 2 /[ 1
0 0
f f C f
e
at r esonance.
Consequent ly,
2
0
) / ( f f
e
= m X X C f L f
L c L
/ ) 2 ).( 2 /( 1
0 0
. ...(12.68)
Thus, t he elect r ical r esonance fr equency is m f f
e 0
...(12.69)
The r educt ion of ser ies r ea ct a nce a lso r eflect s a s decr ea se in effect ive lengt h t o
L m L
e
) 1 ( .
For f
0
= 50 Hz and 60 Hz, and for var ious degr ees of ser ies compensat ion, t he following
t able gives t he r esonant fr equencies and effect ive lengt h which ar e also plot t ed in Figur e 12.8.
m =
L c
X X / 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
% compensat ion 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0
/f f
e
0.3162 0.447 0.548 0.632 0.707 0.775 0.837 0.894 0.949 1
f
e
for 50Hz 15.8 22.4 27.4 31.6 35.36 38.7 41.8 44.7 47.4 50
f
e
for 60Hz 18.97 26.8 32.9 37.95 42.4 46.5 50.2 53.7 56.9 60
L
e
/L = 1 m 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0
F i g. 12.8 Va r ia t ion of r esona nce fr equency f
e
and effect ive lengt h L
e
of line wit h degr ee of ser ies
compensa t ion (X
C
/X
L
).
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0
L L
1
/
f f
e
/
0
m X X = / c L
For a single line wit h ser ies compensat ion bet ween 40% and 70%, t he line can r esonat e at
fr equencies bet ween 63.25% and 83.7% of t he power fr equencies. Any dist ur bance in t he line
giving r ise t o cur r ent s at t hese fr equencies will incr ease t he volt age acr oss t he ser ies capacit or
and t her efor e t he line dr op t o ext r emely high values which ar e limit ed only by t he line r esist ance.
The volt age acr oss t he capacit or dur ing nor mal oper at ion is I X V
c c
, wher e I = cur r ent
flowing in line.
Exa mp le 12.15. A 50-Hz 750 kV line wit h l = 0.866 mH/km is 500 km long. It is pr ovided
wit h 50% ser ies compensat ion connect ed in t he middle of line. The power deliver ed at 750 kV
is 2000 MW 3-phase per cir cuit at unit y power fact or . Neglect shunt capacit ance and line
r esist ance and assume t he line induct ance t o be lumped. Calculat e
(a) t he r eact ance and capacit ance of ser ies capacit or ,
(b) t he volt age dr op acr oss it at full load,
(c) t he cur r ent flowing t hr ough it and t he volt age acr oss it dur ing a sust ained shor t -
cir cuit occur r ing
(i) on t he sour ce-side t er minal of t he capacit or ,
(ii) on t he load-side t er minal of t he capacit or , and
(iii) acr oss t he load.
(d) t he same as in (c) wit hout t he ser ies capacit or .
F i g. 12.9. Illust r at ing danger s of incr eased shor t -cir cuit cur r ent s wit h ser ies-capacit or compensat ion
for fault s at var ious impor t ant locat ions.
Assume t hat no ot her gener at ing ar ea is supplying t he load. See Figur e 12.9.
Sol u t i on . Tot al ser ies r eact ance of 250 km of line at 50 Hz is
314 0.866 10
3
250 = 68 ohms.
(a) For 50% compensat ion, X
c
= 68 ohms and C = 46.8 F.
(b) At full load, I = 2000/750
3
= 1.54 kA = 1540 Amps.
Volt age acr oss capacit or V
c
= 68 1.54 = 104.7 kV.
(c) (i) For a shor t -cir cuit t o gr ound occur r ing at point A, t he capacit or will dischar ge
t hr ough t he fault and it s volt age will become zer o. Ther e will be an oscillat or y
st age consist ing of a cir cuit wit h t he capacit or , line r eact ance of j68 ohms and t he
load impedance.
750
3
A B C
Load
j68 j68 j68
Source
(ii) For a shor t -cir cuit at point B, we obser ve t hat t he st eady-st at e component of
cur r ent is infinit y and danger ously high volt age will exist acr oss t he capacit or .
Under such a condit ion, ar r angement s must be made t o bypass t he capacit or by
a gap t hat will flashover at a pr eset over volt age value. This is nor mally set at 2.2
p.u. wher e 1 p.u. volt age = volt age acr oss capacit or dur ing nor mal oper at ion
which was calculat ed as 104.7 kV. These pr ot ect ive schemes will be descr ibed
la t er on.
(iii) When a shor t -cir cuit occur s at point C, t he sust ained r .m.s. value of cur r ent is
I
sc
= 750/68
3
= 6.368 kA = 4.135 full-load cur r ent .
The volt age acr oss t he capacit or will be V
c
= kV 433 3 / 750 . This is t he lowest
value of volt age acr oss t he capacit or for a shor t -cir cuit occur r ing at any place on t he
line bet ween point s B and C.
(d) Wit hout t he ser ies capacit or , t he cur r ent s dur ing shor t cir cuit at point s A or B and C
will be 6.368 kA and 3.184 kA r espect ively. Consequent ly, using a ser ies capacit or
has incr eased t he shor t -cir cuit level of t he syst em.
Protective Schemes for Series Capacitor
Some of t he met hods used in pr act ice for pr ot ect ing ser ies capacit or s fr om damage due t o
over volt ages and over cur r ent s ar e descr ibed below and shown in Figur e 12.10. In some schemes,
t he capacit or banks ar e pr ot ect ed by a spar kover gap t hat will eit her shor t -cir cuit t he capacit or
or ot her wise use a volt age-limit ing sur ge ar r est er of t he gap-SiC t ype or gapless ZnO t ype.
When t he shor t -cir cuit in t he syst em is clear ed, t he capacit or is r e-inser t ed in or der t o pr eser ve
t he st abilit y of t he syst em. The r e-inser t ion t r ansient can be ver y high and cause gap flashover .
This is pr event ed by eit her par allel r esist or or SiC and ZnO ar r est er s. The spar kover volt age of
t he gap G is bet ween 2.2 and 3.5 p.u. of nor mal capacit or volt age at full r at ed cur r ent .
Fi g. 12.10 Pr ot ect ive schemes for ser ies capacit or s dur ing abnor mal condit ions.
Line Line
Gap
Arrester
S L
C
SiC
Line Line
Arrester
S L
C
ZnO
Line Line
C
Arrester
G
Voltage
Divider
Power Gap
Bypass Switch
12.7.2 Sub-Synchronous Resonance Problem and Counter Measures
As point ed out befor e, elect r ical r esonance fr equencies lower t han synchr onous fr equency f
0
exist when ser ies-capacit or compensat ion is used. The fr equency f
0
cor r esponds t o t he st eady-
st at e speed of t he r ot or in lar ge power st at ions. Wit h st eam-t ur bine-dr iven gener at ing unit s
(designat ed T.G. unit s), t he shaft or shaft por t ions connect ing t he HP, IP, LP st ages of t he
t ur bine a nd t he gener a t or -excit er a r e ver y long, wit h t heir own cha r a ct er ist ic t or siona l
mechanical r esonant fr equencies. When t he elect r ical syst em oper at es in such a manner t hat
t he r ot at ing fields in t he gener at or due t o sub-synchr onous cur r ent s pr oduce t or ques of t he
same fr equency as one of t he mechanical t or sional fr equencies of t he shaft and of t he cor r ect
phase, t or ques up t o 10 t imes t he br eak away or ult imat e st r engt h of t he shaft can be r eached
r esult ing in shaft damage. This phenomenon of elect r omechanical int er act ion bet ween elect r ical
r esonant cir cuit s of t he t r ansmission syst em and t he t or sional nat ur al fr equencies of t he T-G
r ot or is known as "Sub-Synchr onous Resonance", and designat ed SSR.
The phenomenon of SSR has been st udied ver y ext ensively since 1970 when a major
t r a nsmission net wor k in t he U.S. exper ienced sha ft fa ilur e t o it s T-G unit wit h ser ies
compensat ion in t he 500 kV lines. This has now gone int o t echnical lit er at ur e as a classic
pr oblem and known as Pr oject Navajo. The phenomenon, however , had been known t o exist
for a few yea r s a ccor ding t o ma ny exper t s who pr edict ed such a phenomenon in ser ies-
compensat ed lines connect ed t o T-G unit s. As a r esult of ext ensive st udy of Pr oject Navajo,
count er measur es t o combat t he SSR pr oblem have been designed and ar e oper at ing successfully.
The SSR failur e must t her efor e be consider ed as one of t he gover ning fact or s in design of
ser ies-compensat ed lines when t hey ar e used for evacuat ing power fr om lar ge t her mal power
st at ions. The combined cost of ser ies-capacit or inst allat ion and t he count er measur es is lower
t han t he cost of addit ional t r ansmission lines r equir ed when no ser ies-compensat ion is used.
We shall br iefly descr ibe t he SSR pr oblem and t he count er measur es, since t or que int er act ions
in t he gener at or belong t o t he r ealm of synchr onous-machine t heor y which is out side t he scope
of t his book.
Figur e 12.11 (a) shows t he t or que and speed condit ions in t he gener at or which cause
failur e of t he shaft , while condit ions when count er measur es ar e t aken t o suppr ess t he br eaking
t or que ar e shown in Figur e 12.11(b). Thr ee dist inct pr oblems have been ident ified in SSR
pr oblem which ar e called
1. Induct ion Gener at or Effect ,
2. Tor sional Int er act ion, and
3. Tr ansient Tor que Pr oblem.
The fir st t wo ar e known as st eady-st at e pr oblems while t he last one occur s when syst em
condit ions change due t o shor t -cir cuit s and swit ching oper at ions.
12.7.2.1 I n d u ct i on Gen er a t or Ef f ect
The elect r ical r esonance fr equencies, f
e
, pr oduce sinusoidal per t ur bat ions in t he gener at or
which ar e super imposed on t he synchr onously-r ot at ing field at f
0
. The r esult ing t or que var iat ion
pr oduced on t he r ot or is also sinusoidal and occur s at t he same speed as t he per t ur bing field.
When t he fr equency of per t ur bat ion is ,
0 e m
f f f t he t or que per t ur bat ion is in phase wit h t he
speed per t ur bat ion. This phenomenon is called "negat ive damping" and is t he main cause of
SSR oscillat ions. Dur ing t he SSR condit ion, a lar ge cur r ent flows in t he st at or cir cuit giving
r ise t o lar ge t or ques.
Thus, at sub-synchr onous fr equencies causing r esonance, t he r eact ance of t he syst em
viewed fr om t he gener at or t er minals is zer o and t he r esist ance may be negat ive. This condit ion
gives r ise t o self excit at ion of t he oscillat or y cur r ent s at t his nat ur al fr equency and danger ous
condit ions will build up pr ogr essively. The shaft mechanical life is usually r epr esent ed in gr aphical
for m as shown in Figur e 12.11(c). If t he magnit ude of t or que is below t he level shown as , no
damage t o t he shaft occur s and it s life can be count ed as infinit y. However , if t he t or que
oscillat ion exceeds t he level mar ked 0, t he fat igue life of t he shaft becomes zer o which indicat es
t hat t he shaft will fail. This is also known as t he "Once-in-a-Lifet ime Tor que Limit ."
Nor mally, t he long shaft of a T-G set consist s of sect ions wit h var ying dimensions, r esult ing
in differ ent values of st iffness and damping giving r ise t o sever al modes of t or sional r esonance
fr equencies. An example of t he Navajo Pr oject elect r ical and mechanical t or sional fr equencies
ar e given in t he t able below.
Fi g. 12.11 Sub-synchr onous Resona nce condit ion.
(a) Var iat ion of t or que and angular velocit y wit hout count er measur es.
(b) Sa me, wit h count er mea sur es.
(c) Life-st r engt h of shaft s of T-G unit s.
Electrical System
Nat ural Frequencies, f
e
44.5 43.5 30.7 28.3 25.5 10.5 10
Torsional Frequencies 44.2 39.8 34 26.7 6.8
Mode Number 1 2 3 4 5
T
W
T
W
t
t
( ) No control SSR a ( ) With Countermeasures b
H.P. I.P. L.P.I L.P. II
Gen.
Ex.

Life Remaining
Oscillatory
Torque
0
( ) c
Remedy for Countering Induction Generator Effect
The pr inciples on which count er measur es t o combat t he self-excit at ion pr oblem and t he r esult ing
induct ion-gener at or effect ar e based on t he following ideas:
1. Addition of pole-face or amortisseur windings to reduce the rotor resistance of gener at or
at t he sub-synchr onous fr equencies, which help t o pr oduce a net damping (posit ive
r esist ance) at t he slip fr equencies. They ar e used in salient -pole gener at or s t o pr event
hunt ing but ar e not nor mally used in cylindr ical-r ot or t ur bo-gener at or s. But t he SSR
pr oblem has shown t he need for incor por at ing t hem in r ound-r ot or gener at or s also.
2. Addit ion of series react ance in st at or circuit . This will help t o det une t he r esonant
n et wor k a s viewed fr om t h e gen er a t or t er min a ls. Th e lea ka ge in du ct a n ce of
t r a nsfor mer ca n a lso be incr ea sed. However , t he dr a wba ck of incr ea sed ser ies
r eact ance is t he r educt ion of st abilit y mar gin, and it is also not easy t o design t he
lar ge r eact or s r equir ed for t he high load cur r ent s t hey have t o car r y.
3. S ystem switching and unit tripping. Dur ing pot ent ially danger ous SSR condit ions,
syst em swit ching can t ake t he for m of shor t ing t he ser ies capacit or s as descr ibed in
t he pr evious sect ion, or isolat ing t he gener at or fr om t he syst em by swit ching it t o an
uncompensat ed line if t his is available in or der t hat power flow is not int er r upt ed.
But t his r equir es t hat t he syst em must be designed for such a scheme, and wit hst anding
t he t r ansient s r esult ing fr om swit ching oper at ions.
4. Armat ure-current relay prot ect ion. This r elay senses t he sub-synchr onous-fr equency
ar mat ur e cur r ent s in t he r ange of 25% t o 75% of power fr equency at a level of 5% of
r at ed cur r ent , when t hese fr equencies ar e known t o cause S S R danger . The r elay
will t r ip t he gener at or under sust ained sub-synchr onous oscillat ions. Ther e must be
a fur t her discr iminat ion for cur r ent level or t or que changes t hat t ake place under
low magnit ude sust ained condit ions and high level changes under fault condit ions.
These may var y fr om 1% of r at ed cur r ent under sust ained condit ions t o 300% under
fault s.
12.7.2.2 Tor si on a l I n t er a ct i on
Danger ous condit ions for a shaft exist when an elect r ical r esonance fr equency or minimum
r eact ance occur s ver y near one of t he nat ur al t or sional modes of t he T-G shaft . These fr equencies
a r e t he eigenva lues of t he spr ing-ma ss-da mping model of t he elect r o-mecha nica l syst em
equat ions. The analysis of t his pr oblem is consider ed beyond t he scope of t his book, since t he
mechanical damping inher ent in t he t ur bine incr eases when loaded and t her efor e t he pr oblem
is non-linear . Tor sional int er act ion t akes place at an elect r ical r esonance fr equency which is
near t he complement of a t or sional r esonant fr equency, t hat is, complement fr equency =
synchronous frequency f
0
t or sional r esonance fr equency f
m
. When t his condit ion exist s, even
a small volt age gener at ed by t he oscillat ing r ot or can give r ise t o lar ge SS cur r ent in t he st at or
r esult ing in lar ge undamped t or ques which keep gr owing.
Sol u t i on t o P r ob l e m
1. Dynamic S tabilizer. This is a shunt r eact or cont r olled by t hyr ist or s whose value is
modulat ed by t he oscillat or y cur r ent s in t he st at or , or t he r ot or velocit y deviat ions.
The r eact or int r oduces enough cur r ent in t he ar mat ur e at t he cr it ical sub-synchr onous
fr equency so as t o cancel t he cur r ent r esult ing fr om t he t r ansmission syst em wit h it s
ser ies capacit or .
2. Reduct ion in S eries-Capacit or Compensat ion or Complet e Removal. The flashing of
gaps acr oss t he ser ies-compensat ion capacit or pr event s t he danger ous condit ion.
3. Filters. Filt er s in ser ies wit h t he gener at or incr ease t he effect ive cir cuit r esist ance.
These ar e known as Line Filt er s. They have t o car r y t he full load cur r ent .
However , st at ic blocking filt er connect ed at t he neut r al end of t he h.v. winding of t he
gener at or -t r ansfor mer offer s a bet t er solut ion. The scheme is shown in Figur e 12.12. The N
separ at e filt er s in ser ies ar e each t uned in par allel r esonance t o block cur r ent at t he offending
fr equency giving r ise t o t he t or sional modes. The r esist ances of t he filt er s ar e in t he r ange 200
t o 600 ohms and have high Q.
Fi g. 12.12 Filt er s used at t r ansfor mer neut r al for blocking sub-synchr onous cur r ent s.
This can also be augment ed by a device known as Excit at ion Damping Cont r ol which act s
on t he Aut omat ic Volt age Regulat or by inject ing a sinusoidal signal of pr oper phase which is
obt ained fr om a r ot or -mot ion sensor .
4. Ot her Remedies. Except for pole-face amor t isseur windings, all count er measur es used
for eliminat ing t he induct ion gener at or effect also help t o r educe t he t or sional-
int er act ion pr oblem. In addit ion, a t or sional-mot ion r elay is used t o det ect excessive
mechanical st r esses in t he shaft . This picks up signals fr om t oot hed wheels and
pr oximit y magnet ic pick-ups at each end of t he shaft . Filt er s ar e used t o conver t
t hese signals pr opor t ional t o t he modal oscillat ions. It act s as a back-up pr ot ect ion as
Trans. Neutral
Current
Limiting
Reactor
Filter for
Mode 1
Mode 2
Mode N
it is t oo slow in act ion. It s main funct ion is t o t r ip t he gener at or in t he event of
excessive sust ained t or ques.
12.7.2.3 T r a n si en t T or qu e Pr obl em
Danger ous t r ansient t or ques ar e obt ained dur ing fault s in t he syst em or when making swit ching
oper at ions t o change syst em configur at ion. Two t ypes of fault condit ions must be consider ed
for t heir r elat ive sever it y, as shown in Figur e 12.13.
Fi g. 12.13 Sub-synchr onous condit ions dur ing fault s on a syst em giving r ise t o
t r ansient t or ques of lar ge amplit ude.
In Figur e 12.13(a) a fault occur s on t he gener at or side of t he t r ansmission line. In t his
case t he ser ies capacit or will be char ged t o high volt age by t he infinit e bus. Befor e t he fault
occur s t he nat ur al fr equency f
e
is det er mined by
L gt
X X , and
c
X of t he gener at or -t r ansfor mer ,
line, and the capacitor. This could be a com plem ent to a rotor torsional m ode frequency f
n
, t hat
is , or
0 0 e n n e
f f f f f f + wher e f
0
= aver age synchr onous fr equency (50 or 60 Hz). When t he
fault is clear ed, t he capacit or will dischar ge par t ly t hr ough t he gener at or at fr equency f
e
t o
pr oduce an amplified t or que.
On t he ot her hand, r efer r ing t o Figur e 12.13 (b), if a fault occur s at F
2
on t he infinit e-bus
side, sub-synchr onous cur r ent will flow int o t he fault and unt il t he fault is clear ed, t or que
amplificat ion occur s. This case is wor se t han t he pr evious case of fault at F
1
. Near ly 10 t imes
t he once-in-a-lifet ime t or que level (0 life-t ime in Figur e 12.11 (c)) may be r eached. In gener al,
t r ansient t or ques ar e lar ge-amplit ude pr oblems and ver y sudden.
Re me d y for Tr a n si e n t Tor q u e P r ob le m
Tr ansient t or ques can be cont r olled by some of t he schemes descr ibed befor e. These ar e:
(a) St at ic Blocking Filt er ; (b) Ser ies Line Filt er ; (c) Tr ipping t he Gener at or or Unit Tr ipping
Xgt XL
Xf
1
XF
1
X
c
Bus
( ) a
G
X
gt
X
L
XF2
Xc
X
f
2
Bus
( ) b
G
Scheme; (d) Incr eased Ser ies React ance; and (e) Flashing t he Ser ies Capacit or which will also
decr ease t he shor t -cir cuit cur r ent magnit ude.
12.7.2.4 S u m m a r y of S S R Pr obl em a n d Cou n t er m ea su r es
In ser ies-capacit or compensat ed syst ems, elect r ical r esonant fr equencies below t he synchr onous
fr equency exist which lie in t he r ange of t or sional fr equencies of t he T-G shaft . These cause
elect r o-mechanical sub-synchr onous fr equency oscillat ion leading t o shaft failur e in one of t he
sever al modes of excit at ion. Thr ee t ypes of SSR pr oblems exist : (1) Induct ion Gener at or Effect
caused by self-excit at ion and negat ive damping; (2) Tor sional Int er act ion when t he elect r ical
r esonant fr equency is t he complement of one of t he t or sional fr equencies; (3) Tr ansient Tor que
pr oblems occur r ing dur ing syst em fault s and swit ching oper at ions.
The r emedies or count er measur es ut ilized in r emoving t he shaft -failur e pr oblem may
consist of t he following five cat egor ies:
(1) Filtering and Damping: These ut ilize
(a) St at ic Blocking Filt er , (b) Line Filt er , (c) Bypass Damping Filt er , (d) Dynamic
Filt er , (e) Dynamic St abilizer , (f) Excit at ion Syst em Damper .
(2) Relaying and Detecting: These a r e
(a) Tor sional Mot ion Relay, (b) Ar mat ur e Cur r ent Relay, (c) Tor sional Monit or .
(3) S ystem S witching and Unit Tripping.
(4) Modificat ion t o Generat or and S yst em: These include
(a) T-G modificat ions for new unit s alt er ing st iffness, iner t ia and damping of r ot or s,
(b) Gener at or Ser ies React ance, (c) Pole-Face Amor t isseur Winding.
(5) Removal or S hort -Circuit ing t he S eries Capacit or
This is alr eady pr ovided in t he syst em dur ing nor mal cour se for limit ing shor t -cir cuit
cur r ent s in t he syst em.
12.8 STATIC REACTIVE COMPENSATING SYSTEMS (STATIC VAR)
In t he pr evious sect ion, one t ype of r eact or compensat ion for count er ing SSR was ment ioned as
a Dynamic Filt er which uses t hyr ist or s t o modulat e t he cur r ent t hr ough a par allel-connect ed
r eact or in r esponse t o r ot or speed var iat ion. The advent of high-speed high-cur r ent swit ching
made possible by t hyr ist or s (silicon-cont r olled-r ect ifier s) has br ought a new concept in pr oviding
r eact ive compensat ion for opt imum syst em per for mance. Impr ovement s obt ained by t he use of
t hese st at ic var compensat or s (SVC) or gener at or s (SVG) or simply st at ic var syst ems (SVS) ar e
numer ous, some of which ar e list ed below:
1. When used at int er mediat e buses on long lines, t he st eady-st at e power -handling
capacit y is impr oved.
2. Tr ansient st abilit y is impr oved.
3. Due t o incr eased damping pr ovided, dynamic syst em st abilit y is impr oved.
4. St eady-st at e and t empor ar y volt ages can be cont r olled.
5. Load power fact or can be impr oved t her eby incr easing efficiency of t r ansmission and
lower ing of line losses.
6. Damping is pr ovided for SSR oscillat ions.
7. Over a ll impr ovement is obt a ined in power -t r a nsfer ca pa bilit y a nd in incr ea sed
economy.
8. The fast dynamic r esponse of SVC's have offer ed a r eplacement t o synchr onous
condenser s having fast excit at ion r esponse.
In pr inciple, when t he volt age at a bus r educes fr om a r efer ence value, capacit ive Var s
h a ve t o be pr ovided, wh er ea s in du ct ive Va r s a r e n ecessa r y t o lower t h e bu s volt a ge.
Figur e 12.14 shows schemat ically t he cont r ol char act er ist ics r equir ed and t he connect ion scheme.
The aut omat ic volt age r egulat or AVR pr ovides t he gat e pulses t o t he pr oper t hyr ist or s t o
swit ch eit her capacit or s or induct or s. The r ange of volt age var iat ion is not mor e t han 5%
bet ween no load and full load.
Many schemes ar e in oper at ion and some of t hem ar e shown in Figur e 12.15 and descr ibed
below.
12.8.1 SVC Schemes
1. The TCR-FC S yst em (Figur e 12.15 (a)).
This is t he Thyr ist or Cont r olled React or -Fixed Capacit or syst em and pr ovides leading
var s fr om t he capacit or s t o lagging var s fr om t he t hyr ist or -swit ched r eact or s. Because of t he
swit ching oper at ion, har monics ar e gener at ed. Since t her e ar e 6 t hyr ist or s for t he 3-phases, 6-
pulse har monics ar e gener at ed in addit ion t o t he 3r d. These must be eliminat ed if t hey ar e not
t o affect nor mal syst em oper at ion.
Fi g. 12.14 Gener al cir cuit of St at ic Var Syst ems wit h cont r olled r eact ive element s
and cont r ol r ange exer cised.
This can be impr oved by using a lar ge number of small r eact or s t o r educe har monics
which nor mally depend on t he r eact or size. However , it r equir es cor r espondingly lar ger number
of t hyr ist or swit ches. This is known as segment ed TCR-FC.
By using t wo t r ansfor mer s, one in Y/ and t he ot her in Y/Y, and dividing t he fixed capacit or s
and cont r olled r eact or s int o t wo gr oups, 12 t hyr ist or s can be used in a 12-pulse configur at ion.
The lowest har monic will be t he 12t h (600 Hz or 720 Hz in 50 or 60 Hz syst em). It int r oduces
complicat ions in t r ansfor mer design, and r equir es mor e t hyr ist or s. The gat e-fir ing angle cont r ol
is made mor e difficult because of t he 30 phase shift bet ween t he secondar y volt ages of t he
Y/ and Y/Y t r ansfor mer s.
Control Range
V
REF
Bus
Voltage
Capacitive
MVAR
Inductive
MVAR
x CB
Line
TRANS
Fixed
Capacitor
AVR
Controlled Reactive Elements
(2) The TCT S cheme (Thyr ist or Cont r olled Tr ansfor mer )
A t r ansfor mer of special design wit h almost 100% leakage impedance is cont r olled on t he
secondar y side by t hyr ist or swit ches. By connect ing t he 3 phases in , 3r d har monics ar e
eliminat ed. This syst em has bet t er over -load capacit y and can wit hst and sever e t r ansient
over volt ages. But it is mor e expensive t han TCR scheme. See Figur e 12.15(b).
(3) TS C-TCR S cheme (Figur e 12.15)(c))
This is Thyr ist or Swit ched Capacit or s and Thyr ist or -Cont r olled React or s, It has TCR's
and capacit ance changed in discr et e st eps. The capacit or s ser ve as filt er s for har monics when
only t he r eact or is swit ched.
(4) MS C-TCR Compensat or S cheme
This is t he Mechanically Swit ched Capacit or -Thyr ist or Cont r olled React or s scheme. It
ut ilizes convent ional mechanical or SF
6
swit ches inst ead of t hyr ist or s t o swit ch t he capacit or s.
It pr oves mor e economical wher e t her e ar e a lar ge number of capacit or s t o be swit ched t han
using TSC (t hyr ist or -swit ched capacit or s). The speed of swit ching is however longer and t his
may impair t r ansient st abilit y of t he syst em.
Fi g. 12.15 Differ ent t ypes of St at ic Var Compensat or s.
(a) TCR-FC Syst em, (b) TCT scheme, (c) TSC-TCR scheme
(5) S R S cheme (Sat ur at ed React or )
In some schemes for compensat ion, sat ur at ed r eact or s ar e used. Fixed capacit or s ar e
pr ovided as usual. A slope-cor r ect ion capacit or is usually connect ed in ser ies wit h t he sat ur at ed
r eact or t o alt er t he B-H char act er ist ics and hence t he r eact ance.
Gen er a l R em a r k s
In all SVC schemes, har monics gener at ed by t he swit ching oper at ion ar e ver y impor t ant
fr om t he point of view of t elephone and ot her t ypes of int er fer ence, for example, signals. Filt er s
ar e t her efor e an int egr al par t of t hese Var compensat ing schemes. Fast -act ion of t hese SVC
schemes wit h pr oper pr ot ect ion can offer gr eat advant ages in cont r olling volt ages under load
r eject ion. Most moder n schemes ut ilize fibr e opt ics for gat e fir ing.
H.V. Line H.V. Line H.V. Line
To other
Phases
in

Y
Y Y
( ) a ( ) b ( ) c
The cur r ent -volt age r elat ionships as a funct ion of fir ing angle ar e shown in Figur e 12.16(a)
and (b) for swit ched r eact or s and capacit or s r espect ively.
A complet e 3-phase bank of swit ched r eact or or capacit or connect ed in is schemat ically
shown in Figur e 12.16, which eliminat es t r iplen har monics.
Fi g. 12.16. Volt age-cur r ent r elat ionships in swit ched r eact or and capacit or
wit h var iat ion in fir ing angle .
12.8.2 Harmonics Injected into Network by TCR
Figur e 12.17 shows filt er capacit or s and t he TCR's connect ed t o t he low-volt age winding of a
st ep-down t r ansfor mer . This may be a 2-winding or in most cases a 3-winding t r ansfor mer
having pr imar y, secondar y and low-volt age t er t iar y. We will analyse t he pr oblem of har monic
gener at ion, filt er design and t he r esult ing har monic inject ion int o t he syst em t hr ough t he
t r ansfor mer windings. When t he TCR's ar e connect ed in , t he 3r d har monic and it s mult iples
ar e eliminat ed. The low-volt age winding feeding t he TCR's may be connect ed eit her in or Y
as shown in Figur e 12.18. The har monics pr esent ar e t her efor e of or der s 5, 7, 11, 13, et c., t hat
is (2n 1) t imes t he fundament al wher e n = 3k, k = 1, 2, 3,... This gives r ise t o bot h posit ive-
sequence and negat ive-sequence cur r ent s.
The amplit ude of a har monic depends ent ir ely on t he fir ing angle of t he t hyr ist or s, denot ed
by . Since t he cur r ent is pur ely induct ive, it will lag behind t he t r ansfor mer volt age by 90 in
so far as t he fundament al is concer ned. For full conduct ion, = 90 fr om a volt age zer o.
Figur e 12.19 shows t he r elat ion bet ween volt age and cur r ent for = 90 and for > 90. When
= 90, no har monics ar e gener at ed, obviously. For a gener al value of , t he fundament al
component of cur r ent is
I
1
=

]
]
]
) ( 2 sin
2
1 2
sin . sin
2
I d I
...(12.70)
When I I
1
, 2 / in equat ion (12.70) so t hat t he value I can be consider ed as t he
amplit ude of t he fundament al when t he r eact or s ar e conduct ing fully over t he ent ir e cycle.
V
L
I
V
C
I
V
I
= 90
120
90
V
I
= 90
120
(a)
(b)
When changes, t he amplit ude of fundament al also changes, which is as shown in t he following
t able and calculat ed fr om equat ion (12.70):
= 90 105 120 135 150 165 180
I
1
/I = 1 0.674 0.391 0.182 0.058 0.0075 0
Fi g. 12.17 Har monic inject ion by TCR int o a high-volt age syst em t hr ough 2-winding
and 3-winding t r ansfor mer s.
Fi g. 12.18 Connect ion of TCR t o and Y-connect ed t r ansfor mer windings.
Fi g. 12.19 Volt a ge wa vefor m a nd cur r ent wa vefor ms for = 90 (full conduct ion of TCR) and > 90, for
calculat ion of har monics. (I
90
= cur r ent under full conduct ion of t hyr ist or and no har monics).
H.V. Line
P P S
S T
TCR TCR
H.V. Line M.V. Line
Trans TCR Trans TCR
90
180
V
I = I
90
I

n -t h h a r m on i c
The n-t h har monic of cur r ent gener at ed by t he swit ching oper at ion is given by
I
n
=
d n I
n
. sin . sin
2
= ]
]
]
+
+
) 1 sin(
1
1
) 1 sin(
1
1 2
n
n
n
n n
I
or = ]
]
]
+
+

) )( 1 sin(
1
1
) )( 1 sin(
1
1 2
n
n
n
n n
I
...(12.71)
Because t he r eact or has n t imes t he r eact ance for t he n-t h har monic as compar ed t o it s
value for t he fundament al, t he fact or n is int r oduced in t he denominat or . Now, as is changed
t he amplit ude of t he n-t h har monic gener at ed also changes so t hat t her e is a par t icular value
mn
for at which t he amplit ude of t he n-t h har monic at t ains maximum value. This is obt ained
by let t ing dI
n
/d = 0 and solving for t hus:
d dI
n
/ = 0 )] )( 1 cos( ) )( 1 )[cos( / 2 ( + n n n I ...(12.72)
) )( 1 cos( + n = ) )( 1 cos( n , ...(12.73)
and fur t her mor e, since n is an odd int eger , t her e is
mn
n + ) 1 cos( =
mn
n ) 1 cos(
or ,
mn mn
n sin sin = 0. ...(12.74)
Consequent ly,
eit her
mn
n sin = 0 giving > 90 , /
mn mn
n j ...(12.75)
or ,
mn
sin = 0 giving j
mn
, ...(12.76)
wher e j = an int eger = 0, 1, 2,... Also, since 2 / / > n j fr om equat ion (12.75) we obt ain j
> n/2, wher e n = har monic or der .
For var ious har monic or der s, t he following t able gives t he values of fir ing angles
mn
in
or der t o achieve maximum amplit ude of t hat har monic cur r ent .
n 5 7 11 13 17 19
j
3 4 6 7 9 10
mn
5 / 3 7 / 4 11 / 6 13 / 7 17 / 9 19 / 10
) / ( n j 108 102.9 98.2 96.9 95.3 94.7
For /2 = 90, t hen n-t h har monic cur r ent ) 1 ( 0 n I
n
so t hat no har monics ar e
gener a t ed for full conduct ion of t he t hyr ist or s. However , since t he fir ing a ngle cha nges
cont inuously t he condit ion = 90 does not exist all t he t ime and so har monics ar e cont inuously
gener at ed and inject ed int o t he connect ed syst em. However , t he r eact ive power gener at ed by
t he TCR is due only t o t he fundament al component of cur r ent and t he volt age. This is, by using
equat ion (12.70),
Q =
ph ph
V I V I
]
]
]
) ( 2 sin
2
1 2 3
2
1
3
1
=
ph
V I
]
]
]
) ( 2 sin
2
1
35 . 1
=
l l
V I
]
]
]
) ( 2 sin
2
1
78 . 0 ...(12.77)
When t he values of n j
mn
/ ar e subst it ut ed in equat ion (12.71) for I
n
, t he amplit ude of
t he n-t h har monic is
I
n
,
mn
= ]
]
]
+
+
mn mn
n
n
n
n n
I
) 1 sin(
1
1
) 1 sin(
1
1 2
...(12.78)
The following t able gives values of ) / , ( I I
mn n
for var ious har monics accor ding t o equat ion
(12.78):
n 5 7 11 13 17 19
mn
5 / 3 7 / 4 1 1 / 6 3 1 / 7 7 1 / 9 9 1 / 10
) / , ( I I
mn n
0.0505 0.0259 0.0105 0.0075 0.0044 0.00
Thus, if no filt er s ar e used t he 5-t h har monic inject ed int o t he net wor k r eaches 5.05% of
t he fundament al (or a lit t le over 5% of cur r ent I obt ain for = 90 or full conduct ion). Usually
such high values of har monics ar e not per mit t ed. A maximum limit set by power ut ilit ies is
mor e like (5/ n) wher e n is t he har monic or der . Ther efor e, under such a r est r ict ion t aken as
example , t he 5t h har monic should be kept below 1%, t he 7t h har monic below (5/7)% = 0.715%
of t he maximum amplit ude of t he fundament al occur r ing at full conduct ion, = 90. Not e t hat
wit hout a filt er t he 7t h har monic inject ed int o t he syst em is 0.0259 = 2.59% inst ead of 0.715%.
We will now consider t he pr oblem of suppr essing some har monics inject ed int o t he syst em by
using suit able filt er s.
12.8.3 Design of Filters for Suppressing Harmonics Injected into the System
Figur e 12.20 shows a schemat ic diagr am of a possible ser ies L-C filt er used for offer ing low
impedance t o any desir ed har monic cur r ent of or der n. The equivalent cir cuit r efer r ed t o t he
high-volt age side is as shown in Figur e 12.20(b). The har monic cur r ent gener at ed by t he TCR
is shown as a cur r ent sour ce I
n
. The t r ansfor mer and line r eact ances ar e x
t
and x
l
, r espect ively,
at t he fundament al fr equency of t he syst em. Ther efor e, at t he har monic fr equency ) (
0
n
wher e
0 0
2 f , t he angular fr equency at t he fundament al fr equency f
0
, t he filt er impedance
is
x
F
= C n L n x x
FC FL 0 0
/ 1 + ...(12.78)
The cur r ent inject ed int o t he line is, neglect ing r esist ances,
I
1
=
n
l t
l t F n F
I
C n x x L n
C n L n
x x x j I jx
0 0
0 0
/ 1 ) (
/ 1
)] ( /[
+ +

+ + ...(12.79)
Her e, all quant it ies ar e r efer r ed t o t he same volt age level.
Let
l
n
l
I
I
I
% 100 in t er ms of t he gener at ed I
n
. Then t he r equir ed value of capacit or
can be found out for a set limit ing value
for t he har monic. In t he pr evious sect ion t his limit

was t aken t o be (5/n)%. If a = t ur ns r at io of t he t r ansfor mer , t hen
100
=
F l t F
F F
C n a x x a L n
a C n L n
0
2 2
0
2
0 0
/ ) (
) / 1 (
+ +

...(12.80)
where L
F
, C
F
= act ual values of filt er induct ance and capacit ance connect ed t o t he low-
volt age winding of t he st ep-down t r ansfor mer , and x
t
, x
l
ar e act ual values of t r ansfor mer and
line r eact ances r efer r ed t o t he high-volt age side at t he fundament al fr equency f
0
or angular
frequency
0
. Examples will make clear t he design and oper at ion of t he filt er for a given simple
syst em.
Fi g. 12.20 Ar r angement of TCR and filt er for suppr ession of har monics.
(a) Act ual connect ion t o t r ansfor mer secondar y.
(b) Induct ive and capacit ive r eact ances r efer r ed
t o pr imar y by t ur ns r at io a.
Exa mp le 12.16. A 100 MVA 230 kV 50 Hz t r ansfor mer has x
t
= 12% and is connect ed t o a
line 200 km long which has an induct ance of 1 mH/km. The filt er , connect ed t o t he l.v. 33 kV
side of t he t r ansfor mer , is r equir ed t o suppr ess t he 5-t h har monic gener at ed by t he TCR t o 1%
of I
n
. Calculat e t he value of filt er capacit or if t he filt er induct ance used is 2 mH.
Sol u t i on . The given dat a ar e:
x
t
= 0.12 230
2
/100 = 63.48 ohms
x
l
= 314 0.2 = 62.8 ohms
a = 230/33 = 6.97
F
L
0
= 314 2 10
3
= 0.628 ohm at 50 Hz.
= 1% = 0.01.
n = 5-t h har monic = 5.
Fr om equat ion (12.80)
0.01 =
F
F
C
C
1570 / 97 . 6 ) 8 . 62 48 . 63 97 . 6 628 . 0 ( 5
97 . 6 ) 1570 / 1 628 . 0 5 (
2 2
2
+ +

H.V. Bus
P
S Ratio, a
Turns
L
F
TCR
CF
H.V.
a w C
2 0
/
F
a w L
2
0 F
( ) b
( ) a
Let K = 1/1570 C
F
, t he r eact ance of filt er capacit or for t he 5-t h har monic fr equency of
250 Hz. Then,
0.01 = (3.14 K) 48.58/(783.944 48.58K),
giving K = 3.0103 and C
F
= 10
6
/(1570 3.0103), F = 211.6 F.
Exa mp le 12.17. Using t he values of filt er induct ance and capacit ance of t he pr evious
example which have limit ed t he 5-t h har monic inject ed int o t he line t o 1% of t he gener at ed 5-
t h har monic:
(a) Calculat e t he 7-t h har monic inject ed int o t he line;
(b) If t he 7-t h har monic gener at ed by t he TCR = 2.586% of fundament al, as calculat ed for
t he value of 9 . 102 7 / 4
mn
in t he pr evious sect ion, calculat e t he % of 7-t h
har monic inject ed int o t he line on base of fundament al cur r ent I obt ained when t he
fir ing angle = 90.
Sol u t i on . Not e t hat t he capacit ive r eact ance is now 5/7-t h of t hat at t he 5-t h har monic
fr equency.
I
l
/I
7
=
7 / 5 0103 . 3 97 . 6 ) 8 . 62 48 . 63 97 . 6 628 . 0 ( 7
97 . 6 ) 7 / 0103 . 3 5 628 . 0 7 (
2 2
2
+ +

= 0.11.
Ther efor e, of t he 7-t h har monic gener at ed by t he TCR 11% ent er s t he line t hr ough t he
t r ansfor mer and t he filt er absor bs t he r emaining 89%. Not e t hat while t he filt er was designed
t o limit t he 5-t h har monic inject ed int o t he line t o 1% of t he amplit ude of 5-t h har monic
gener at ed, it has allowed 11% of t he 7-t h har monic gener at ed int o t he line.
(b) Since t he 7-t h har monic gener at ed is 2.59% of t he fundament al, t he r esult ing 7-t h
har monic cur r ent inject ed int o t he line is 2.59 0.11 = 0.2845% of t he fundament al
amplit ude.
Not e t hat if t he limit ing value of any har monic inject ed int o t he line is set at say (5/ n)% of
t he fundament al, t hen t he allowable 7-t h har monic cont ent inject ed int o t he line would be
(5/7)% = 0.715%. Ther efor e, in t his example, t he filt er has kept t he 7-t h har monic t o 0.2845%,
which is below t he specified limit . Thus t he filt er is quit e effect ive for bot h t he 5-t h and t he
7t h har monics.
Exa mp le 12.18. A 3-winding 400 kV/220 kV/33 kV t r ansfor mer wit h gr ounded wye/
gr ounded wye/delt a connect ion has r at ings of 250 MVA, 200 MVA, and 50 MVA for t he pr imar y,
secondar y and t er t iar y, r espect ively. The equivalent Y cir cuit r epr esent at ion of t he leakage
r eact ances of t he t hr ee windings r efer r ed t o t he 400-kV winding and 250 MVA ar e Z
p
= j0.0375
p.u., Z
s
= j0.0625 p.u., and Z
t
= j0.0625 p.u.
The line connect ed t o t he 400 kV side is 400 km long and t he 220-kV winding is connect ed
t o a line of 200 km in lengt h. Bot h lines have a ser ies induct ance of 1 mH/km. Line r esist ances
ar e negligible.
The filt er connect ed t o t he t er t iar y 33 kV winding has filt er induct ance of 2 mH and
capacit ance of 200 F. These ar e in ser ies and t he combinat ion is connect ed in par allel wit h t he
TCR's.
(a) Dr aw t he equivalent cir cuit of t he t r ansfor mer windings and line induct ive r eact ances
including t he filt er r efer r ed t o t he 400-kV side on base of 400-kV and 250-MVA for t he
fundament al fr equency.
(b) Dr aw t he equivalent cir cuit for t he 5-t h har monic of cur r ent gener at ed by t he swit ched
TCR.
(c) Calculat e t he % of 5-t h har monic cur r ent s inject ed int o t he 400-kV and 220-kV lines
t hr ough t he t r ansfor mer windings.
Sol u t i on . The base impedance on 400-kV and 250-MVA is 640 250 / 400
2
400

B
Z ohms.
Refer r ed t o t h e 220-kV s i de, 6 . 193 250 / 220
2
220

B
Z oh ms , a n d for t h e 33-kV s i de,
250 / 33
2
33

B
Z = 4.356. React ances at fundament al fr equency (50 Hz):
Lines:
400
kV 400
l
x
= j314 1 10
3
400/640 = j0.196 p.u.
220
kV 220
l
x = j314 1 0
3
200/193.6 = j0.243 p.u.
Filt er: LF
x
= j314 2 10
3
/4.356 = j0.144 p.u.
CF
x
= j10
6
/314 200 4.356 = j3.655 p.u.
(a) The equivalent cir cuit for t he fundament al fr equency is shown in Figur es 12.21(a)
and (b).
(b) Equivalent cir cuit for 5-t h har monic:
For t he 5-t h har monic cur r ent , all induct ive r eact ances calculat ed above ar e mult iplied by
5, while t he filt er capacit ive r eact ance is divided by 5. The r esult ing equivalent cir cuit is shown
in Figur es 12.21(c) and (d).
(c) The gener at ed har monic cur r ent is shown as t he cur r ent sour ce. This divides int o
t wo par t s, one par t flowing t hr ough t he t er t iar y winding connect ed t o t he ot her t wo
t r ansfor mer windings and t he t wo lines, while t he r emaining par t is absor bed by t he
filt er . The cur r ent inject ed int o t he t er t iar y is consequent ly fr om t he equivalent
cir cuit of Figur e 12.21(d),
I
1
=
5
5275 . 1 1675 . 1
5275 . 1 1675 . 1
3125 . 0 011 . 0
) 72 . 0 731 . 0 (
I
j j
j j
j j
j
+ +

= ( 0.011/0.9632) I
5
= 0.0114 I
5
.
This can be fur t her divided int o t he 400-kV and 220-kV lines as follows:
I
400
=
| | 00646 . 0 | | 567 . 0 | |
1675 . 1 5275 . 1
5275 . 1
5 1 1
I I I
+
= 0.646% of I
5
.
220
I = (0.0114 0.00646) I
5
= 0.00494 I
5
= 0.494% of I
5
.
Not e fur t her t hat t he maximum amplit ude of t he 5-t h har monic is 5.05% of fundament al
gener at ed by t he TCR so t hat t he filt er has been quit e effect ive in keeping t he 5-t h har monic
inject ed int o t he t wo lines much less t han (5/ n)%, if t his is t he limit set by t he power ut ilit y.
Fi g. 12.21 Equivalent cir cuit s for Example 12.18.
(a), (b): Fundament al fr equency.
(c), (d): 5t h ha r monic fr equency.
12.9 HIGH PHASE ORDER TRANSMISSION
For e.h.v. t r ansmission r equir ement s, eit her ac 3-phase or bipolar dc is used. Since such high
volt age lines r un most ly in t he count r yside, space for r ight -of-way does not pose as sever e a
pr oblem as near met r opolit an ar eas. However , wher ever insulat ion clear ances have t o be
opt imized and lines have t o be compact ed, t he use of higher t han 3-phases on t he same t ower
can be adopt ed. This is a r ecent development and st udies ar e being car r ied out on a ver y
ext ensive basis. One t r ansmission line using 6 phases has alr eady been commissioned in t he
U.S.A. and mor e ar e envisaged. We shall give her e a br ief discussion of a six-phase syst em only
in so far as t he t r ansmission line is concer ned and oper at ing in t he st eady st at e. Tr ansient s and
fault s ar e not consider ed.
In a 3-phase syst em, t he t hr ee volt ages wit h r espect t o gr ound can be wr it t en as t he
phasor s.
V
a
= 120 and 120 , 0 V V V V V
c b
...(12.81)
j0.196
j0.0375 j0.0625
j0.0625
j0.144
j0.3055
I1
j0.243
400 kV Line 220 kV Line
P S
T
( ) a
j0.98
j0.1875 j0.3125 j1.215
j0.3125
j0.72
j0.731
I5
( ) c
I5
j0.3125
j1.5275 j1.1675
( ) d
j0.72
j0.731
I1
Filter
33 kV Side
j0.0625
j0.3055 j0.2335
400 kV
Side
220 kV
Side
( ) b
j0.144
j3.655
The magnit ude of line-t o-line volt ages ar e also equal so t hat
| V
ab
| = |V
bc
| = | V
ca
| =
V 3
.
When a double-cir cuit configur at ion is used, as shown in Figur e 12.22(a), we obser ve t hat
t he insulat ion clear ance bet ween t he conduct or s ar e near ly
ac'
D = , , h D D D D D D D
a'b' b' c' bc ab ca' bb'

D
ac
= h D
a' c'
2 , and so on.
On t he ot her hand, t he magnit ude of volt ages ar e
ac'
V = ; 3V V V V V V
a'b' b' c' bc ab ca'

aa'
V = 0
cc' bb'
V V and so on.
Compar ing t he insulat ion clear ances wit h t he volt ages (neglect ing t he t ower widt h) we
obser ve t hat t hey bear no r elat ion t o each ot her . Thus, spat ial dist r ibut ion of insulat ion
clear ances do not mat ch t he volt ages exper ienced by t hem. Ther efor e, t he line is not opt imized
t o t his ext ent .
Fi g. 12.22 Double-cir cuit 3-phase ac line and single-cir cuit 6-phase line.
Now consider t he sit uat ion when t he six conduct or s ar e ener gized by a 6-phase syst em of
volt ages, Figur e 12.22(b). These a r e
Also
'

3 6 2 5 1 4
6 5 4
3 2 1
, ,
300 , 240 , 180
, 120 , 60 , 0
V V V V V V
V V V V V V
V V V V V V
...(12.82)
These ar e volt ages t o gr ound. The cor r esponding magnit udes of volt ages bet ween conduct or s
ar e as follows:
'

. 2
3
36 25 14
62 51 46 35 24 13
61 56 45 34 23 12
V V V V
V V V V V V V
V V V V V V V
...(12.83)
Fr om Figur e 12.22(b) it may be obser ved t hat t he dist ances bet ween t he pair s of conduct or s
denot ed by t he subscr ipt s in equat ion (12.82) in t he volt ages ar e also equal t o t he cor r esponding
volt age magnit udes. Thus, t he spat ial dist r ibut ion of conduct or s cor r esponds t o t he dist r ibut ion
1
2
3
4
5
6
D
D'
D
h
h
a a'
b b'
c c'
(a) (b)
D/C 3-Phase S/C 6-Phase
of syst em volt ages. Insulat ion clear ances ar e opt imized t o a high degr ee and t he lines can be
compact ed bet t er t han in a double-cir cuit 3-phase line.
For syst em volt ages (line-t o-gr ound) r anging fr om 80 kV t o 442 kV, t he volt ages bet ween
adjacent phases in a 3-phase syst em and a 6-phase syst em ar e compar ed in t he following t able.
Phase-Ground Voltage, kV 80 133 199 230 289 442
Phase-Phase Voltage, kV 3-phase 138 230 345 400 500 765
(Between adjacent 6-phase 80 133 199 230 289 442
Conduct ors)
We obser ve t hat it is bet t er t o define t he phase-t o-gr ound volt age as t he syst em volt age
since t his is a common fact or for bot h 3-phase and 6-phase syst em. The volt age bet ween conduct or s
is in t he r at io 3 : 1 for t he 6-phase and 3-phase syst ems and insulat ion clear ances ar e smaller
for t he 6-phase syst em. This r esult s in a gr eat r educt ion in over all dimensions of t he t ower s.
Fi g. 12.23 Sever al alt er nat ive configur at ions for high phase or der 6-phase line on t ower .
Some of t he pr oposed conduct or configur a t ions for 6-pha se syst ems a r e depict ed in
Figur e 12.23.
Comparison of Power-Handling Capacity
For t he sake of compar ison, we assume t hat a double-cir cuit 3-phase syst em and a 6-
phase syst em have t he same conduct or size and line-t o-gr ound volt ages. Ther efor e, t he cur r ent
per conduct or is assumed t he same for bot h syst ems. Then, t he following power r elat ions hold:
'

C LG ph
C LG ph
I V P S yst em C S Phase
I V P S yst em C D Phase
6 / 6
6 / 3
6
3
...(12.84)
Ther efor e, cost for cost , t her e is no differ ence bet ween t he t wo syst ems as long as t he
line-t o-gr ound volt ages ar e equal and t he cur r ent -car r ying capacit ies of t he conduct or s ar e also
equal.
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
Other Factors
For medium-volt age lines up t o 138 kV, 3-phase, (80 kV line-t o-gr ound) and 6-phase 80 kV lines,
wit h 1 met r e clear ance bet ween adjacent conduct or s in t he 6-phase syst em, t he clear ance
bet ween conduct or s in t he 3-phase syst em will be 1.73 met r es. As an example, wit h bot h having
conduct or s of 2.3 cm diamet er , t he maximum sur face volt age gr adient s on t he conduct or s ar e:
3-phase syst em 12 kV/cm (r .m.s.)
6-phase syst em 10.5 kV/cm (r .m.s.)
Gr ound-level elect r ost at ic fields (See Chapt er 7) wit h 11-met r e height of lowest conduct or
above gr ound ar e bot h less t han 1 kV/m so t hat t his is not a point of much concer n.
1. Der ive equat ions (12.1) and (12.2) for t he volt age and cur r ent at any point on a
t r ansmission line in t er ms of t he volt age at ent r ance t o t he line.
2. A 750 kV line has t he dist r ibut ed line const ant s r = 0.025 ohm/km, l = 0.9 mH/km,
and c = 12.3 nF/km. At 50 Hz, calculat e t he following if t he line is 600 km in lengt h.
(a) A, B, C, D const ant s.
(b) The char ging cur r ent and MVAR at a r eceiving end volt age of 750 kV, line-line,
on no load.
(c) The coor dinat es of t he cent r e of t he r eceiving end power -cir cle diagr am.
(d) The sur ge-impedance loading.
3. In Example 12.13, t he shunt r eact or compensat ion for maint aining
E
s
= 726 kV and E
r
= 765 kV, for a 750 kV
line, r eact or s had 3-phase r at ings of 335 MVAR and 372 MVAR. Wit h t he sending-end
volt age held const ant at 726 kV, t her e is a t ot al loss of r eact or at t he r eceiving end
due t o a fault . Calculat e t he r eceiving-end volt age r esult ing fr om t aking t he r eact or
out of ser vice.
4. Repeat pr oblem 3 if t he r eact or s at bot h ends ar e t aken out of ser vice. Calculat e t he
volt age at t he r eceiving end wit h E
s
= 726 kV.
5. Der ive equat ions (12.63) and (12.64).
6. A ver y long line has ser ies capacit ance amount ing t o 50% of t he ser ies r eact ance.
Calculat e t he nat ur al elect r ical fr equency.
7. List t he danger s r esult ing fr om ser ies capacit or compensat ion on long lines, and t he
r emedies t aken t o count er act t hem.
8. What is t he r eason for t he exist ence of SSR in t he st eady st at e and t r ansient condit ions
in ser ies-capacit or compensat ed lines?
9. List 3 danger ous condit ions which give r ise t o SSR and all t he count er measur es
t aken t o guar d against t hem. Use a t abular for m.
13.1 STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS
All e.h.v. equipment volt age levels ar e gover ned by St andar d Specificat ions adopt ed in each
count r y. Equipment manufact ur er s pr oduce goods not only for domest ic use but also for expor t
so t hat a design or t est ing engineer must be familiar wit h t hese specificat ions fr om all over t he
wor ld. Some of t he major specificat ions ar e I.E.C., I.S.I., V.D.E., S.A.E., A.N.S.I., B.S.S., C.S.A.,
U.S.S.R., J apan and ot her s. In t his chapt er we shall discuss some of t he r equir ement s of e.h.v.
insulat ion levels confor ming t o Indian St andar ds which par allel t he I.E.C, specificat ions for
most t ypes of equipment and lines.
Standard Voltages
At and above 220 kV, t he volt age levels t hat must not be exceeded in any par t of t he syst em ar e
st ipulat ed by IS 2026: Specificat ions for Power Tr ansfor mer Par t III: Insulat ion Levels and
Dielect r ic Test s. Some t ypical values ar e quot ed on next page.
Cer t ain br oad out lines can be discussed her e r egar ding t he volt ages levels. Wit h incr easing
t hickness used for solid insulat ion st r uct ur es in t r ansfor mer s immer sed in oil, t he danger of
voids for ming in t he insulat ion is incr eased. For lower -volt age t r ansfor mer s, a t est at t wice t he
r at ed maximum volt age at double t he power fr equency for 60 seconds was specified wit hout t he
need for par t ial-dischar ge measur ement . However , at higher volt ages t he t est volt age is 150%
of maximum equipment volt age and t he dur at ion of volt age is incr eased t o 30 minut es wit h t he
need for det ect ion of par t ial dischar ges. Fr om volt -t ime exper iment s car r ied out on such insulat ion
st r uct ur es, it has been ascer t ained t hat a t r ansfor mer which does not show a failur e under
t hese t est condit ions can be expect ed t o have r easonably long life if maint enance is excellent
dur ing ser vice.
We also obser ve sever al levels of P.F., swit ching, and light ning-impulse wit hst and t est
volt ages. These ar e necessar y in view of t he sever it y or ot her wise of t hese volt ages occur r ing
in pr act ice. For example, a t r ansfor mer locat ed in r egions of high isoker aunik level should be
t est ed at t he higher t est volt age level.
13
EHV Tes t i n g a n d La bora t ory Equ i pm en t
1. Nominal S ystem 220 275 345 400 500 750
kV, RMS (l l)
2. Highest Equipment 245 300 362 420 525 765
kV, RMS
3. S hort Duration P.F. 325 395,460 460,510 570,630 790 1150
Withstand Voltage 360
kV, RMS 395
4. Rated S witching 750,850 850,950 950,1050 1050,1175 1425,1550
Impulse Withstand
Voltage, kV crest
5. Rated Lightning 750 850,950 950,1050 1050,1175 1175,1425 1550,1800
Impulse Withstand 850 950,1050 1050,1175 1175,1300 1300,1550 1800,1950
Voltage, kV crest 950 1425 1425
Not e t ha t t her e a r e sever a l levels of P.F. volt a ges, light ning-impulse volt a ges a nd
swit ching-sur ge wit hst and volt ages.
Typical values of int er est ar e as follows:
Arrester Withstand Voltage Impulse S parkover kV, crest
Voltage up t o 10 k A (1.2/ 50 s), kV, Crest Residual Voltage
Rating Arresters
kV, RMS 10 k A Front of the wave,
kV/ s
150 288 500/577 a t 1080 500
174 334 570/660 1160 570
186 356 610/702 1180 610
198 380 649/746 1200 649
>198 1.9 Rat ed
Ar r est er Volt age
To 225 3.28/3.78 1200 3.28 Rat ed Volt age
Rat ed Volt age
To 396 3.26/3.76 1200 3.26 Rat ed Volt age
Rat ed Volt age
>396 No values ar e 1200 No values ar e
agr eed upon specified
Lightning Arresters
Gapless t ype ar r est er s ar e new and st andar d specificat ions ar e st ill being for mulat ed. But for
gap-t ype non-linear r esist or t ype ar r est er s, t ypical t est values ar e given in IS 3070-Par t I (1974),
r evised in 1982.
Thr ee impor t ant it ems specified ar e
1. Volt age wit hst and of t he ser ies gap;
2. Maximum impulse spar kover of t he gap;
3. Maximum r esidual volt age of t he r esist or block.
EHV Testing and Laboratory Equipment 361
The st andar d light ning-impulse waveshapes ar e (a) 1.2/50 s for volt age, (b) 8/20 s for
cur r ent . These t imings and t heir definit ions will be descr ibed lat er .
In addit ion, a long-dur at ion impulse cur r ent t est is also r equir ed at 150 Amper e peak
cur r ent for 2000 s dur at ion (of t he peak) for 10 kA class of ar r est er s. This simulat es swit ching
sur ges on lines.
A high-volt age labor at or y should consist of sour ces or gener at or s t o pr ovide t he necessar y
t est volt ages, and in addit ion, be adequat e t o car r y out r esear ch and development wor k. The
r emaining par t s of t his chapt er will be devot ed t o descr ipt ion and design of t hese t est ing
equipment s.
13.2 STANDARD WAVESHAPES FOR TESTING
The t r ansient volt ages impinging on equipment when connect ed in a syst em show a wide
var iat ion in magnit ude and waveshape. It is only t he power -fr equency volt age which has a
definit e sinusoidal shape and is symmet r ic in bot h half cycles. However , fr om a vast exper ience
and amount of exper iment al dat a collect ed, it has been ascer t ained t hat t he sever it y of st r ess
on t he equipment insulat ion is pr oper ly r epr esent ed dur ing t est ing if t hese volt ages and cur r ent s
ar e st andar dized r egar ding t heir magnit udes and waveshapes. The magnit udes have alr eady
been given t hr ough examples fr om st andar d specificat ions. The waveshapes ar e discussed below.
Their gener at ion in a labor at or y will be descr ibed lat er on.
13.2.1 Voltage Waveshapes
(1) Li gh t n i n g I m pu l se
For t est ing all t ypes of equipment including t r ansfor mer s under light ning impulses, t he
following definit ion for volt age will be used as per I.E.C. and Indian St andar d Specificat ions as
shown in Figur e 13.1. In t his wavefor m V
p
= cr est value, V
0
= over -shoot , t
m
= t ime t o cr est , t
t
= t ime t o 50% value on t ail, t
1
= t ime t o 90% value of cr est , t
2
= t ime t o 30% value of cr est , 0 =
act ual zer o, 0' = vir t ual zer o. All t imings ar e measur ed fr om t he vir t ual zer o 0', which is
defined below.
Fig. 13.1 Det ails of light ning-impulse volt age waveshape.
The solid cur ve r epr esent s t he act ual desir ed waveshape gener at ed wit hout oscillat ions
on t he fr ont , and wit hout t he over shoot shown by br oken line. The wave can be expr essed as
t he differ ence bet ween t wo exponent ials wit h equat ion.
e(t ) =
) (
t t
e e E

...(13.1)
t
m
t
1
t
2
Overshoot
V
p
0.9V
p
0.5V
p
0.3V
p
0'
0
tt
Ther e is an init ial cur vat ur e at t he wavet oe, followed by a near ly linear r ise, t hen a ver y
gr adual r ise t o peak value, and finally a fall t o zer o value on t he 't ail'. The impor t ant t imings
ar e:
(1) t he t ime int er val bet ween 90% and 30% cr est value, t
1
t
2
,
(2) t he vir t ual zer o of t ime (point 0' ) obt ained by joining t he 90% and 30% volt ages and
ext ending it backwar ds t o int er sect t he t ime axis (zer o volt age),
(3) the tim e t
m
fr om vir t ual zer o t o cr est value,
(4) t he t ime t
t
fr om 0' t o 50% cr est value on t he t ail,
(5) t he t ime int er val t
3
dur ing which t he volt age r emains above 90% cr est value.
On t he same figur e is shown an oscillat or y por t ion wit h an over shoot V
0
since t he pr esence
of induct ance in a t wo-element ener gy st or age cir cuit wit h small damping gives r ise t o oscillat ions
at t he peak value.
The st andar d waveshape defined above has t he following specificat ions for t he t imings
and over shoot :
Fr ont t ime: t
f
= 1.67 (t
1
t
2
) = 1.2 s 30% t oler ance
= 0.84 s t o 1.56 s.
Tail t ime: t
t
= 50 s 20% t oler ance = 40 s t o 60 s.
Over shoot : Not over 5% of cr est value.
In nor mal labor at or y-gener at ed waves, t he vir t ual zer o occur s in less t han 0.2 s fr om t he
act ual zer o 0. The t ime t o act ual cr est fr om zer o, t
m
, is in gener al t wice t he fr ont t ime t
f
.
However , t he act ual value will depend on t he waveshape t imings wit h t heir t oler ance and will
be discussed lat er on.
(2) S wi t ch i n g S u r ge f or T est i n g Li n e Equ i p m en t
For t est ing all equipment ot her t han t r ansfor mer under swit ching sur ge volt ages, t he
fr ont and t ail t imings for t he double-exponent ial waveshape of Figur e 13.1 have t he following
values and t oler ances:
Front Time: t
f
= s s t t t 325 t o 175 % 30 250 ) ( 67 . 1
2 1
Tail Time: t
t
= s s t 3000 t o 2000 % 20 2500 .
For cr est values longer t han 100
, s
cer t ain st andar d specificat ions per mit t he fr ont t ime
of 250
s
t o equal t he t ime t o act ual cr est value of volt age. The t est engineer must consult t he
st andar ds for such var iat ions allowed in definit ions.
(3) S wi t ch i n g S u r ge f or T r a n sf or m er T est i n g
On account of t he lar ge induct ance which an unloaded t r ansfor mer pr esent s t o a high-
volt age gener at or , oscillat ions r esult on t he wavet ail. For t his r eason, st andar ds specify t he
following definit ions for a swit ching sur ge for t r ansfor mer t est ing: As per Indian St andar ds, t he
wavefr ont should be at least 20
, s
t he lengt h of sur ge fr om fir st zer o t o t he occur r ence of next
zer o must be at least 500
, s
and t he magnit ude of t he sur ge must be in excess of 90% of cr est
value for at least 200
. s
When cor e sat ur at ion occur s t he lengt h of t he sur ge may be shor t er
t han 500
, s
but t his is usually cor r ect ed by inject ing a dc of pr oper polar it y in special t est s.
F i g. 13.2 Det ails of light ning-cur r ent waveshape.
13.2.2 Current Waveshapes
For t ype t est ing light ning ar r est er s, t he light ning cur r ent impulse wave-shapes have t he following
specificat ions, as shown in Figur e 13.2:
(1) S hort Durat ion Impulse. Time t o cr est = 8
, s
on a st r aight line joining 10% and
90% cr est values. Time t o 50% value on t ail = 20
. s
(2) Long Duration Impulse. Time dur at ion of cr est value is 1000
s
t o 2000
s
depending
upon t he cr est value of cur r ent . For 150 Amps, t he dur at ion is 2000
s
and for light -
dut y ar r est er s for 100 Amps, it is 1000
. s
Most of t he volt age and cur r ent waveshapes of double-exponent ial t ypes ar e gener at ed by
using capacit or s, r esist or s, cascade-connect ed t est ing t r ansfor mer s. But t he long-dur at ion cur r ent
wave is gener at ed by a set of induct or s and capacit or s which r epr esent a t r ansmission line t ype
of cir cuit .
13.3 PROPERTIES OF DOUBLEEXPONENTIAL WAVESHAPES
A double exponent ial volt age waveshape can be gener at ed in pr inciple by char ging a capacit or
and dischar ging it t hr ough pr oper ly-connect ed set of r esist or s and a load capacit ance. The
cir cuit descr ipt ion and design of such gener at or s based on t he pr inciple of t he Mar x cir cuit will
be discussed in t he next sect ion. Her e, we shall descr ibe t he pr oper t ies of a double exponent ial
waveshape which for m t he basis for designing t he gener at or or modifying t hem in or der t o
obt ain suit able waveshapes for st andar d t est as well as for r esear ch and development pur poses.
The waveshape and it s impor t ant pr oper t ies ar e shown in Figur e 13.
The equat ion is
e(t ) =
) (
t t
e e E

...(13.1)
I
p
0.9I
p
0.5I
p
0.1I
p
0
0'
20 s
8
1000 to
2000 s
Ip
t
0
The r equir ed pr oper t ies ar e
(a) the crest value V
p
,
(b) t he fr ont t ime
t
f
=
) ( 67 . 1 ) (
6 . 0
1
30 90 2 1
t t t t
...(13.2)
(c) t he t ail t ime t
t
.
The value of E in equat ion (13.1) in r elat ion t o t he cr est V
p
will depend on t he r equir ed
t imings for t he volt age. The st andar d t imings ar e
(a) for light ning, t
f
= s t s
t
t t 10 50 , 36 . 0 2 . 1 .
(b) for swit ching, t
f
= s t s
t
t t 500 2500 , 75 250 .
The values of and will be cont r olled by t hese t imings, and vice ver sa.
Exa mp le 13.1. Examine t he double-exponent ial waveshape for
t f
t t , , and V
p
given t hat E
= 1.035, = 14.5 10
3
, and = 2.45 10
6
.
Sol u t i on . Nor mally, since t is in micr oseconds, we modify t he values of and suit ably.
The given equat ion can be r e-wr it t en as ) ( 035 . 1 ) (
45 . 2 0145 . 0 t t
e e t e

wit h t in s.
For examining t he wavefr ont , let t r ange fr om 0 t o 1 s. Then t he following values ar e
obt ained.
t = 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.85 0.9 1.0
e = 0.2234 0.316 0.398 0.64 0.788 0.877 0.893 0.9074 0.9315
At t = 0.141, e = 0.3, and at t = 0.87, e = 0.9.
The fr ont t ime is
t
f
= 1.67 (0.87 0.141) = 1.215 s.
At t = 50 s, t he volt age is e = 0.501. Ther efor e, t he given values of E, and sat isfy t he
r equir ement s for a st andar d 1.2/50 s waveshape. The peak value V
p
= 1 is obt ained at t = 2.22 s.
Exa mp le 13.2. Given E = 1.13, = 326, and = 11 10
3
, examine t he waveshape
e =
) ( 13 . 1
3
10 11 326 t t
e e

for a swit ching impulse.

Sol u t i on . At t = 3 . 0 sec, 10 29 29
6

e s
At t = 9 . 0 sec, 10 172 172
6

e s
t
f
= 1.67 (172 29) = 238 s.
At t = 2500 s, e = 0.5.
These fall wit hin t he r equir ed t oler ances. The wave r eaches a peak value of 0.985 at 360 s.
13.3.1 Lightning Impulses: Values of E, ,
For design pur poses, Figur e 13.3 (a), (b), (c) pr ovide infor mat ion about t he t hr ee par amet er s in
equat ion (13.1) for t imings. The met hod of calculat ing t hese is quit e lengt hy and will be out lined
in sect ion 13.4 next . It r equir es t he solut ion of a set of non-linear equat ions and has been
car r ied out by an it er at ion pr ocedur e using t he Digit al Comput er . Simplified met hods yielding
quick r esult s for engineer ing pur poses will also be discussed lat er .
t
f
= 1.2 30% and t
t
= 50 20% s
F i g. 13.3 Var iat ion of E, , of a double-exponent ial volt age wave of light ning t ype wit h fr ont t
f
The t ail t ime t
t
is used as par amet er .
13.3.2 Switching Impulses: Values of E, , ,
For t
f
= 125 t o 500 s and t
t
= 2000 t o 5000 s,
t he r ange of var iat ion of E, and is shown in Figur e 13.4.
F i g. 13.4 Var iat ion of E, , for swit ching-impulse t ype of volt age wave wit h fr ont t ime t
f
.
Fig. 13.5 Var iat ion of t ime t o cr est t
m
of a double-exponent ial wavefor m wit h fr ont and t ail t imings.
1.000
1.025
1.050
1.075
E
V
/
p
t s
f
,
40
50
60
0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
t s f ,
t s
t
,
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
40
45
50
60
0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
10
3
t s
f
,
0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.8

4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
10
6
t s t,
t s
f
,
50
40
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
100 300 500
t s
t
,
t s ,
2000
1500
3000
4000
5000
t s
t
,
t s ,
600
500
400
300
200
100
100 300 500
2000
2500
3000
4000
5000
t s
t
,
t s ,
3
2
1
0
100 300 500
10
4
5000
2000
3
2
1
0
0.8 1.2 1.6
C
r
e
s
t

T
i
m
e

(
)
,

t
s
m
C
r
e
s
t

T
i
m
e

(
)
,

s
t
m
t s
t
,
t s
f
, t s
f
,
t s
t
,
40
50
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
100 300 500
5000
4000
2500
2000
( ) a ( ) b
In cer t ain t est ing pr ocedur es, labor at or ies in var ious par t s of t he wor ld have not maint ained
unifor mit y in r epor t ing insulat ing pr oper t ies as r elat ed t o t he waveshape t imings. Some r epor t
t he waveshape used in t er ms of t he st andar d wavefr ont /wavet ail t imings while ot her s use
wa vecr est /wa vet a il t imings. I n or der t o cor r ela t e t he wa vefr ont t ime t
f
a s per st a nda r d
specificat ions wit h t he wavecr est t ime t
m
, Figur e 13.5 (a) and (b) ar e pr ovided for bot h light ning
impulse and swit ching sur ges. Of t hese, t he lat t er is mor e impor t ant .
For swit ching-sur ge t est ing of insula t ion st r uct ur es a nd t o under st a nd br ea kdown
phenomena, one impor t ant par amet er or t ime of t he volt age is t he dur at ion dur ing which t he
magnit ude r emains in excess of 90% cr est . This depends on bot h t he wavefr ont t ime and t he
t ime t o 50% on t he t ail, t
f
and t
t
. Figur e 13.6 pr ovides t his infor mat ion. The following r ange of
values ar e t ypical as obser ved fr om t his figur e.
Front Time t
f
t
3
= t
1t
t
1f
(for t
t
from 2000 to 5000 s)
150 s 420 t o 930 s (2.8 t
f
t o 6.2 t
f
)
250 470 t o 980 s (1.88 t
f
t o 3.92 t
f
)
500 590 t o 1120 s (1.18 t
f
t o 2.24 t
f
).
Fig. 13.6 Var iat ion of t ime dur at ion t
3
in which magnit ude is in excess of 90% cr est
wit h fr ont and t ail t imings of a double-exponent ial wave.
13.4 PROCEDURES FOR CALCULATING , , , , E
The t hr ee quant it ies for a double-exponent ial wave ar e , , E which will complet ely specify t he
wave as given in equat ion (13.1). These have t o be det er mined fr om t he t hr ee known quant it ies
for a sur ge, na mely, (i) t he cr est value V
p
, (ii) t he fr ont t ime t
f
as defined by t he st andar d
specificat ions, and (iii) t he t ime t
t
t o 50% value on t he t ail. The values of , , and E t hus
det er mined fr om V
p
, t
f
and t
t
will be used t o calculat e t he waveshaping r esist or s used in a
gener at or as will be discussed lat er on. The complet e waveshape is sket ched in Figur e 13.7
along wit h impor t ant volt age magnit udes and t imings, fr om which t he following six pr oper t ies
or equat ions can be wr it t en down:
(1) At t = ) ( 3 . 0 3 . 0 ,
2 2
2
t t
p p
e e E V V e t

...(13.3)
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
100 300 500
t s t,
t s
f
,
t
s
3
,

5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
Fig. 13.7 Double-exponent ial waveshape wit h impor t ant t imings and magnit udes.
(2) At t = ) ( 9 . 0 9 . 0 ,
1 1
1
t t
p p
e e E V V e t

...(13.4)
(3) At t = ) ( 5 . 0 5 . 0 ,
t t
t t
p p t
e e E V V e t

...(13.5)
(4) t
f
= 6 . 0 / ) (
2 1
t t by definit ion ...(13.6)
(5) At t = ) ( ,
m m
t t
p p m
e e E V V e t

...(13.7)
(6) At t =
m m
t t
m
e e dt de t

0 / , ...(13.8)
Of t hese, only V
p
, t
f
and t
t
ar e known. We define
x =
m t m
t t z t t y / and , / , /
2
...(13.9)
Also, let p = 0.6 t
f
/ t
t
, which is a known quant it y. ...(13.10)
Then, by manipulat ing t he equat ions pr oper ly, t he following equat ions for x, y, z ar e
det er mined, which ar e non-linear ,
1
) (
+y pz
x
=
) 1 /(
). 1 ( 3

x pzx y
x x
...(13.11)
) 1 ( 3
z
x
=
) 1 /( ) (
). 1 ( 5

x y z x y
x x ...(13.12)
3(x 1) =
) 1 /( ) 1 (
). 1 ( 10

x y x y
x x ...(13.13)
These have t o be solved for x, y, z in t er ms of p, t he only known quant it y. In or der t o do
so, t he following appr oximat ions ar e made t o obt ain one equat ion r elat ing x t o p, x t o y, and x
t o z so t hat by solving for x in t er ms of p, t he values of y and z ar e det er mined.
(1) In pr act ice, x = / is much lar ger t han unit y and x is also much gr eat er t han
m
t t y /
2
.
Fr om examples shown pr eviously, for t he st andar d light ning impulse, (see Examples 13.1 and
13.2)
x = . 3 / 1 / and , 1 169 /
2
x t t y
m
< < > >
For swit ching impulse,
x = . 25 / 1 / and 1 75 . 33 /
2
x t t y
m
< < > >
Using t hese pr oper t ies is equat ion (13.13) gives
3(x 1) =
) 1 /(
). 1 ( 10

x x y
x x ...(13.14)
This gives t he value of y in t er ms of x as
y = ) ln( / )}] . 3 10 /( 10 [ln{
) 1 /( 1
x x
x
...(13.15)
V
p
0.9 Vp
0.5 Vp
0.3 V
p
e t E e e () = ( )
t t
0
0' tt tm t1 t2
(2) In a similar manner , y is eliminat ed fr om equat ions (13.12) and (13.13) t o yield an
equat ion r elat ing z and x as follows:
) 1 /( ) 1 ( x x
z
=
) 1 /( ) 1 (
5 . 0
x z x
x
...(13.16)
Now, x is a quant it y usually r anging fr om 50 t o 200 and z = t
t
/ t
m
r anges fr om 10 t o 20.
Ther efor e,
) 1 (
) 1 /( ) 1 (

z z
x x x
. Using t his in (13.16) gives
z = 1 + (x 1). ln (2)/ln (x) ...(13.17)
(3) Equat ions (13.15) and (13.17) for y and z ar e subst it ut ed in equat ion (13.11) t o finally
yield an equat ion for x in t er ms of p = 0.6 t
f
/t
t
, t he known quant it y.
When t he value of x is obt ained by an it er at ion pr ocedur e, all ot her quant it ies, namely, (y,
z, , , t
1
, t
2
, t
m
and E) can be calculat ed as follows:
(a) y fr om equat ion (13.15); (b) z fr om equat ion (13.17); (c) t
m
= t
t
/ z; (d) = ln (x)/t
m
(x 1);
(e) = . x ; (f) t
2
= y.t
m
; (g) t
1
= 0.6 t
f
+ t
2
; and finally (h) E/V
p
=
1 1
) ( 5 . 0 ) (

t t m m
t t t t
e e e e
Figur es. 13.3 and 13.4 have been plot t ed fr om t his pr ocedur e.
Case II. When t he sur ge waveshape is defined t hr ough t he t ime t
m
t o cr est inst ead of t he
wavefr ont t ime t
f
, t he evaluat ion of , , E becomes simpler . Refer r ing t o Figur e 13.7, t he
following 3 equat ions can be wr it t en.
(1) At t = ) ( ,
m m
t t
p p m
e e E V V e t

...(13.18)
(2) At t = ) ( 5 . 0 5 . 0 ,
t t
t t
p p t
e e E V V e t

...(13.19)
(3) At t =
m m
t t
m
e e dt de t

. 0 . 0 / , ...(13.20)
The r esult ing equat ion for / x in t er ms of t he known quant it y z = t
t
/ t
m
becomes t he
same as equat ion (13.17):
(x 1)/ln (x) = (z 1)/ln (2) ...(13.21)
The value of x is easily det er mined by t r ial and er r or , aft er which t he values of , , E ar e
calculat ed fr om (i) = Ln (2)/ ) (
m t
t t ; (ii) ; x and (iii)
1
) ( /

m m
t t
p
e e V E .
13.5 WAVESHAPING CIRCUITS: PRINCIPLES AND THEORY
A double-exponent ial waveshape of volt age acr oss a capacit ive load can be gener at ed fr om t he
cir cuit shown in Figur e 13.8. A capacit or C
s
of t he sour ce is char ged t o a dir ect volt age E
0
t hr ough a char ging r esist or shown as R
c
. The act ual ar r angement of C
s
and R
c
will be descr ibed
in a lat er sect ion, but when t he waveshape is gener at ed, t hey ar e in par allel. At t he r equir ed
inst ant of t ime, t he spar k gap S G is t r igger ed. The value of
f t
R R > > in pr act ice so t hat t he
sour ce capacit ance C
s
char ges t he load capacit ance C
L
ver y quickly t hr ough t he ser ies r esist ance
R
f
. This gives t he st eep wave-fr ont for t he out put volt age V
0
. When C
L
is sufficient ly char ged,
bot h C
s
and C
L
dischar ge t hr ough R
t
giving a slower wavet ail por t ion. The waveshape of out put
volt age V
0
will be double-exponent ial as will be shown by an analysis of t he cir cuit using Laplace
Tr ansfor ms. The values of C
s
, C
L
, R
f
and R
t
det er mine (a) t he wavefr ont t ime, t
f
; (b) t he wavet ail
t ime t
t
t o 50% peak; and t he peak value V
p
of t he out put volt age V
0
in r elat ion t o t he char ging
volt age E
0
, t hat is, t he volt age efficiency.
Fig. 13.8 Equivalent cir cuit of an impulse volt age gener at or for
calculat ing waveshaping component s.
The char ging r esist or R
c
is ext r emely high and is in par allel wit h C
s
so t hat it s effect on
t he waveshape of out put volt age is negligible. However , we will r et ain R
c
in der iving t he equat ions
and t hen let
c
R . The oper at ional for m of t he r elat ion bet ween t he out put volt age V
0
(s)
and t he char ging volt age (E
0
/s) when t he spar k gap S G is conduct ing will be
V
0
(s) =
1
2 0
1 1 1 1
]
]
]
]
+ +
+
,
`
.
|
+ + + +
L s t f c
t f c
s c L t L f s f L f
C C R R R
R R R
s
C R C R C R C R
s
C R
E
...(13.22)
Now, if t he out put volt age is ) ( ) (
0
t t
e e E t V

, it s Laplace Tr ansfor m is
V
0
(s) = ] ) ( /[ ) (
2
+ + + s s E ...(13.23)
Compar ing (13.22) and (13.23), and equat ing coefficient s of like power s of s, t her e r esult
t he r equir ed equat ions bet ween t he gener at or component s and t he values of , , E det er mined
fr om r equir ed t imings as descr ibed in t he pr evious sect ion. These ar e:
s c L t L f s f
C R C R C R C R
1 1 1 1
+ + +
= + ...(13.24)
L s t f c t f c
C C R R R R R R / ) ( + + = ...(13.25)
and
L f
C R =

1
.
0
E
E
...(13.26)
Ther e ar e 5 unknown par amet er s R
c
, R
f
, R
t
, C
s
, C
L
and only 3 equat ions. However , in
pr act ice, t he sour ce capacit ance and char ging r esist or ar e fixed when an impulse gener at or is
pur chased and inst alled in a high-volt age labor at or y. It is t hen necessar y t o choose pr oper
values of R
f
and R
t
for a given load capacit ance C
L
. The values of E , , ar e t aken fr om Figs.
13.3 and 13.4 for t he gener at ion of r equir ed waveshapes for light ning and swit ching impulses.
When R
c
is ver y lar ge (> 1 Megohm), we obt ain t he following equat ions fr om (13.24) and
(13.25):
L t L f s f
C R C R C R
1 1 1
+ +
= +
L s t f
C C R R / 1 and , ...(13.27)
Solving t hese for R
f
and R
t
, t her e r esult
R
t
=
]
]
]
]
+
+
t
+
+
2
) (
) ( 4
1 1
) ( 2
L
L s
L s
C
C C
C C
...(13.28)
aft er which
R
f
=
L s t
C C R / 1 ...(13.29)
V
0
R
c
R
t
R
f
C
L C
s
E
0
SG
+
Fr om equat ion (13.28), we obser ve t hat t he discr iminant must be posit ive in or der t o
obtain a real value for R
t
. This r equir es
) / (
s L
C C
2
) ( 4 ...(13.30)
Voltage Efficiency
Equat ion (13.26) can be used for calculat ing t he volt age efficiency defined as
0
/ E V
p v
.
At t = t
t
, e = 0.5 V
p
so t hat
V
p
= 2E (exp )) exp( ) (
t t
t t
=
)) exp( ) (exp(
) (
2
0
t t
L f
t t
C R
E

...(13.31)
Ther efor e,
0
/E V
p v
=
)) exp( ) .(exp(
) (
2
t t
L f
t t
C R

...(13.32)
Now, by imposing t he condit ion t hat t he volt age efficiency must be less t han or equal t o 1,
(since we ar e not consider ing over shoot which cannot t ake place in t he absence of induct ance),
we obt ain t he limit ing value for (R
f
C
L
) t o be
L f
C R
)) exp( ) (exp(
2
t t
t t

...(13.33)
12.5.1 Limitations on Values of Generator Components
Ther e ar e cer t ain limit ing equat ions for t he cir cuit component s which can gener at e t he r equir ed
waveshape and efficiency. These ar e
(1) 4 / ) ( /
2
L s
C C ...(13.34)
(2) ) /( )) exp( ) (exp( 2
t t L f
t t C R ...(13.35)
(3) Since
t s L f
R C C R / 1 , a limit on R
t
C
s
is also placed, namely,
s t
C R =
1
)) exp( ) (exp(
2
1

t t
L f
t t
C R
...(13.36)
Exa mp le 13.3. Find suit able values for gener at or capacit ance C
s
and t he r esist ances R
f
and R
t
for gener at ing a 1.2/50 s light ning impulse acr oss a load C
L
= 2000 pF. The values of
and ar e = 14.5 10
3
and = 2.45 10
6
.
Sol u t i on . 4 / ) (
2
= 41.74 and 41.74 C
L
= 83.5 nF.
Ther efor e, any value of C
s
less t han 83.5 nF, accor ding t o equat ion (13.34) will yield a
r easonable value for R
t
, t he r esist ance in par allel wit h t he load C
L
.
Also,
6 50 45 . 2 10 50 10 5 . 14
10 ) 0145 . 0 45 . 2 /( ) ( 2
6 3

e e C R
L f
, 10 398 . 0
6

fr om equat ion (13.35)
Ther efor e R
f
200 10 2 . 0
3
ohms for C
L
= 2000 pF.
Comment s. If t he gener at or consist s of 6 st ages of capacit or s connect ed in ser ies while SG
dischar ges, t hen each can be 500 nF = 0.5 F giving a t ot al capacit ance of 83.3 nF. We can
select a r esist ance R
f
= 300 ohms which gives
f L s t
R C C R / 1 = 563 ohms. The ser ies
r esist ance R
f
can consist of 6 50 ohms and R
t
made fr om 6 94 ohms for waveshaping.
Accor ding t o equat ion (13.32) t he volt age efficiency falls t o 66.3%. In or der t o incr ease t he
efficiency, a lower value of R
f
can be used which will r equir e a higher value for R
t
. For exa mple,
wit h R
f
= 250 ohms, t he efficiency is incr eased t o 83% and R
t
= 680 ohms.
Exa mp le 13.4. The gener at or of pr evious example wit h C
s
= 83.3 nF is r equir ed t o gener at e
a swit ching impulse of appr oximat ely 250/2500 s waveshape for which = 365 and = 11
10
3
. Design t he values of C
L
, R
f
, R
t
and find t he efficiency.
Sol u t i on .
2
) /( 4
s L
C C fr om equat ion (13.34). Wit h given values, nF 83 . 11
L
C .
We obser ve t hat t he load capacit ance is much higher for gener at ing swit ching sur ge t han
for light ning impulse gener at ion.
6
10 5 . 75 ) /( }) exp{ } (exp{ 2

t t L f
t t C R
Ther efor e 6382
f
R ohms.
Let C
L
= 12 nF and R
f
= 6.4 kilohms. Then R
t
= 39 k.
Volt age efficiency
v
= 75.5 10
6
/(6.4 10
3
12 10
9
) = 98.3%.
13.5.2 Approximate Equations for Quick Estimation of R
f
and R
t
The pr evious discussion used a r igor ous met hod of det er mining t he values of waveshaping
r esist or s wit h given gener a t or ca pa cit a nce a nd r equir ed loa d ca pa cit a nce. A quick but
appr oximat e set of values for R
f
and R
t
can be obt ained by t he following pr ocedur e, on t he lines
of t he following ideas.
(1) Dur ing t he gener at ion of t he fast wavefr ont , t he par allel r esist ance R
t
has lit t le
influence over char ging t he load capacit ance C
L
fr om t he gener at or capacit ance C
g
.
(2) Similar ly, dur ing t he gener at ion of t he wavet ail por t ion of t he impulse, when bot h
capacit ances dischar ge t hr ough R
t
, t he ser ies r esist or exer cises lit t le influence.
Fig. 13.9 Equivalent cir cuit s dur ing for mat ion of wavefr ont and
wavetail for quick estimation of R
f
a nd R
t
.
These suggest t he equivalent cir cuit s Figur e 13.9 (a) and (b) for t he gener at ion of wavefr ont
and wavet ail.
For t he cir cuit of 13.9 (a),
v
0
(t ) =
}) / exp{ 1 (
0
f
L s
s
T t
C C
C E

+
...(13.37)
and for 13.9 (b),
) (
0
t v =
) / exp( .
0
t
L s
s
T t
C C
C E
+
...(13.38)
V0
E
0
C
s
R
f
C
L
( ) a
+
( ) b
V
0
C
L
Rt
C
s
E
0
+
The t wo t ime const ant s T
f
and T
t
ar e, r espect ively,
T
f
=
f L s L s f
R C C C C R + ) /( (C
s
and C
L
in ser ies) ...(13.39)
and
T
t
= +
t L s t
R C C R ) ( (C
s
and C
L
in par allel) ...(13.40)
When t he fr ont and t ail t imings t
f
and t
t
of t he wave ar e specified, t he values of R
f
and R
t
can be calculat ed as shown below in t er ms of C
s
and C
L
.
At t = t
2
, v
0
= 0.3 giving 1 exp ( t
2
/T
f
) = 0.3, fr om Figur e 13.7, and
at t = t
1
, v
0
= 0.9 giving 1 exp (t
1
/T
f
) = 0.9.
These yield t
2
= 0.3567 T
f
and t
1
= 2.303 T
f
.
But by definit ion,
t
f
= 1.67 (t
1
t
2
) = ) /( 25 . 3 25 . 3
L s L s f f
C C C C R T + ...(13.41)
Ther efor e R
f
=
L s L s f
C C C C t / ) .( 3077 . 0 + . ...(13.42)
Again, fr om t he definit ion of wavet ail t iming, exp (t
t
/T
t
) = 0.5 giving t
t
/T
t
= ln 2 = 0.6931.
Ther efor e T
t
= t
t
/0.6931 = 1.4428 t
t
.
But , R
t
= ) /( 4428 . 1 ) /(
L s t L s t
C C t C C T + + ...(13.43)
Ther efor e, equat ions (13.42) and (13.43) give values for R
f
and R
t
ver y quickly when
f L s
t C C , , and t
t
ar e known and does not r equir e a knowledge of and . However , t hese
r esist ance values ar e appr oximat e and in a labor at or y some adjust ment will be necessar y aft er
looking at t he act ual wavefor m on an oscilloscope.
Exa mp le 13.5. Wit h C
s
= 83.3 nF, C
L
= 2nF for t he light ning-impulse gener at or of example
13.3 and t
f
= 1.2 s, t
t
= 50 s, calculat e appr oximat e values of R
f
and R
t
r equir ed and compar e
t hem wit h t he values in example 13.3.
Sol u t i on . Fr om equat ion (13.42),
R
f
= 0.3077 1.2 10
6
85.3 10
9
/166.6 10
18
= 189 ohms.
Not e t hat R
f
was calculat ed t o have a minimum value of 200 ohms in t he pr evious example.
R
t
= 1.4428 50 10
6
/85.3 10
9
= 846 ohms.
Fr om t h e exa ct expr es s ion R
t
ca n be ca lcula t ed for R
f
= 200 ohms which will be
f L s t
R C C R / 1 = 846 ohms. This is exact ly t he same value as obt ained fr om t he appr oximat e
equivalent cir cuit , Figur e 13.9(b).
Exa mp le 13.6. Est imat e t he values of R
f
and R
t
quickly for t he swit ching-sur ge gener at or
wit h C
s
= 83.3 nF, C
L
= 12 nF, t
f
= 250 s, and t
t
= 2500 s.
Sol u t i on . R
f
= 0.3077 0.25 10
3
95.3 10
9
/(83.3 12 10
18
)
= 7.33 kilohms.
The value obt ained in example 13.4 was 6.4 kilohms.
R
t
= 1.4428 2.5 10
3
/95.3 10
9
= 38 kilohms against 39 kilohms obt ained befor e.
Fr om equat ion (13.37) and Figur e 13.9 (a) we obser ve t hat R
f
cont r ols t he wavefr ont t ime
and so is called t he wavefr ont r esist or . Similar ly, R
t
may be designat ed t he wavet ail r esist or , as
shown in equat ion (13.38) and Figur e 13.9 (b).
13.6 IMPULSE GENERATORS WITH INDUCTANCE
In sect ion 13.5, t he sever al induct ances inher ent in an impulse gener at or and t he t est cir cuit
wer e not consider ed. Ther e exist induct ances in t he gener at or it self, t he connect ing leads, and
measur ing syst em which give r ise t o a defor mat ion of t he ideal double-exponent ial wavefor m
on t he fr ont , peak, and t ail. Thus, no waveshape gener at ed in an impulse gener at or is t r uly
double exponent ial . These induct ances ar e
(a) induct a nce in t he gener a t or ca pa cit a nce, r esist or s, a nd lea ds connect ing t hem
int er nally;
(b) induct ance in t he high-volt age lead connect ing t he gener at or out put t er minal wit h
t he volt age divider and t he t est object :
(c) induct ance in t he volt age divider column; and
(d) induct ance in t he gr ound connect ion.
13.6.1 Inductance in Generator
In Figur e 13.10(a) an induct ance L is shown in ser ies wit h C
s
. In nor mal pr act ical impulse
gener at or cir cuit s, t he ar r angement of R
f
and R
t
can change wit h t he gener at or connect ion. In
t his cir cuit , R
t
is shown on t he sour ce side but t his does not alt er t he char act er ist ics t o any
gr eat ext ent fr om t he pr evious sect ion. The oper at ional expr ession for t he out put volt age is
V
0
(s) =
c bs as s LC R R
R
E
L t f
t
+ + + +
2 2
0
1
.
) (
...(13.44)
'
+
+ + +
+ +
L s t f
L s t f s t L t L f
L t f L t f
C LC R R c
C C L R R C R C R C R b
C L R R C R R L a
) /( 1 and
) /( ) (
, ) /( ) ( wher e
..(13.45)
Two cases ar ise for t he r oot s of t he denominat or ,
s
2
+ as
2
+ bs + c = 0.
These a r e:
(1) All t hr ee r oot s ar e r eal. Let t hese be ) , , ( . Then t he t ime r esponse of out put
volt age will be
v
0
(t ) =
] ) ( ) ( ) [(
) )( )( (
1
.
) (
.
0
t t t
L t f
t
e e e
LC R R
R
E

+ +
+
...(13.46)
(2) One r eal r oot , and a pair of complex conjugat e r oot s t j . For t his case, t he
inver se t r ansfor m of equat ion (13.44) is
v
0
(t ) = )] sin cos ( [
) (
0
t D t B e Ae
LC R R
R
E
t t
L t f
t
+ +
+

...(13.47)
'
+
+
) /( } ) ( 1 { and
, }, ) /{( 1 wher e
2 2
2 2
A D
A B A
...(13.48)
Fi g. 13.10(a) Impulse gener at or wit h induct ance. (b) Impulse volt age divider wit h
r esist ance and induct ance connect ed t o impulse gener at or and load capacit ance.
Exa mp le 13.7. For an impulse gener at or , t ake C
s
= 20 nF, C
L
= 2 nF, R
f
= 376 ohms, R
t
= 3120 ohms. For L = 40 H and 100 H, obt ain t he values of , and .
Sol u t i on . Using Newt on's met hod for finding t he r eal r oot of a cubic equat ion, t he following
values ar e obt ained:
(a) L = . 10 688 . 6 , 10 83 . 1 , 046 , 14 : H 40
6 6

(b) L = . 10 363 . 1 , 10 743 . 1 , 050 , 14 : H 100
6 6

For t he above gener at or , t he behaviour of wavefr ont of t he sur ge is calculat ed and shown
in Figur e 13.11 for t he cases of L = 0, 40 H, and 100 H. The effect of incr easing R
f
t o 550
ohms is also shown on it s lengt hening of wavefr ont and r educing t he volt age efficiency.
The induct ance of e.h.v. impulse gener at or s r ange fr om 3 t o 4 H per st age. A 12-st age
gener at or has a t ot al induct ance of about 40 H when all st ages ar e connect ed in ser ies dur ing
dischar ge.
Fi g. 13.11 Effect of impulse-gener a t or induct a nce on
wavefr ont of light ning impulse.
V0 CL
R
f
Rt
E
0
C
s
L
( ) a
+
V
0
R
f
R
d
L
d
C
d
R
t
E
0
C
s
( ) b
+
C
L
3
1
4
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
2
V
E
0
0
/
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
t s ,
1 = 0, = 376
2
L R
f
= 40 H, = 376
3 = 100 H, = 376
4 = 40 H, = 550
L R
L R
L R
f
f
f
13.6.2 Inductance of Lead Connecting Generator and Load
The physical sizes of ext r a high volt age equipment , labor at or y dimensions and air gap clear ances
ar e on t he incr ease t o t hat ver y long leads ar e necessar y in or der t o int er connect var ious
component s dur ing t est ing. These give r ise t o t r avelling-wave effect s when t he gener at or
dischar ges. For example, a lead lengt h of 20 met r es has a t r avel t ime for t he impulse of 1/15t h
micr osecond at light velocit y. Repeat ed r eflect ions fr om t he gener at or and load give r ise t o
oscillat ions which will appear on bot h t he load and t he measur ing syst em. This affect s t he
buildup of t he wavefr ont . This has been invest igat ed int ensively by manufact ur er s and t est ing
engineer s r esult ing in t he invent ion of t he Zaengel Volt age Divider measur ing syst em. It uses
a suit able value of r esist or at t he ent r ance t o t he volt age divider high-volt age t er minal t o damp
t he oscillat ions.
13.6.3 Inductance of the Voltage Divider
Volt age divider s ar e used for st epping down t he high volt age t o a value suit able for t he low-
volt age measur ing equipment . These divider s may be of t he pur e r esist ive t ype, pur e capacit ive
t ype, or a combinat ion of r esist ance and capacit ance, t he r esist or used only t o damp any nat ur al
oscillat ion caused by t he high-volt age capacit or and t he induct ance or iginat ing fr om t he height
of t he capacit or it self. For example, a capacit ance of 1000 pF wit h an induct ance of 2.5 H
r equir es a r esist ance
d d d
C L R / 2 = 100 ohms for cr it ical damping of t he oscillat ions. The
effect of induct ance L
d
of t he divider is t o incr ease t he r at e of r ise of wavefr ont so t hat t he
measur ed wavefor m will have a shor t er wavefr ont t ime t han t he act ual volt age t o which t he
t est object will be subject ed.
The equivalent cir cuit of an impulse gener at or cir cuit consider ing t he divider capacit ance,
induct ance, and r esist ance is shown in Figur e 13.10(b). The Laplace-Tr ansfor m of t he out put
volt age is
V
0
(s) =
q ps ns ms s
b as s
C R
E
L f
+ + + +
+ +
2 3 4
2
0
.
...(13.49)
'
+ +
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + +

) /( )} ( { and
) /( ) ( / ) / 1 / 1 / 1 (
/ 1 ) / 1 / 1 / 1 )( / ( / 1
/ 1 / 1 / 1 /
, / 1 , / wher e
2 2
d d L s t f t f d s t
d d L t f f d d d s t s f L f
L s t f s t s f L f d d d d
s t s f L f d d
d d d d
L C C C R R R R C C R q
L C C R R R R C L c R C R C R p
C C R R C R C R C R L R C L n
C R C R C R L R m
C L b L R a
...(13.50)
The inver se t r ansfor m can be evaluat ed when numer ical values for all cir cuit component s
ar e given. Figur e 13.12 shown wavefor ms (wit h an expanded wavefr ont ) for an impulse gener at or
whose det ails ar e as follows:
C
s
= 20.8 nF, C
L
= 1 nF, R
f
= 276 ohms, R
t
= 3120 ohms
The volt age divider det ails ar e
(a) R
d
= 100 ohms, C
d
= 1 nF, L
d
= 2.5 H
(b) R
d
= 50 ohms, C
d
= 2 nF, L
d
= 1.25 H
Set (b) consist s of t wo of set (a) connect ed in par allel. As a compar ison, t he out put volt ages
when t he divider induct ance is neglect ed ar e also shown. Not e t hat t he pr esence of L
d
has
given a st eeper r ise in out put volt age.
Fi g. 13.12 Load volt age waveshapes wit h R
d
a nd L
d
of t he volt age divider .
13.7 GENERATION OF SWITCHING SURGES FOR TRANSFORMER
TESTING
The equivalent cir cuit of an impulse gener at or wit h it s waveshaping cir cuit and t r ansfor mer t o
be t est ed is shown in Figur e 13.13(a). Wit h R
d1
omit t ed C
s
and C
sh
ar e in par allel and t he cir cuit
is simplified t o Figur e 13.13(b).
The figur e also shows t he B-H cur ve of t he t r ansfor mer cor e. Since t he t r ansfor mer
under going t est is unloaded, t he leakage induct ance L
1
is omit t ed. Also let cor e loss be ignor ed.
Nor mally, negat ive polar it y is used since posit ive polar it y yields er r at ic r esult s. When
cor e sat ur at ion t akes place, t he induct ance L
t
of t r ansfor mer becomes ver y low and t he volt age
collapses when t he sat ur at ion cur r ent I
s
is r eached. The st andar d specificat ions r equir e t hat
t he wavefr ont should be at least 20 s, t he t ot al lengt h of t he swit ching sur ge at least 500 s,
and t he magnit ude should be in excess of 90% of cr est value for at least 200 s. We assume t hat
t he lengt h of sur ge is denot ed by t he t ime fr om fir st zer o t o t he inst ant t he magnet izing
cur r ent I
m
equals I
s
. These for m t he design const r aint s.
The out put volt age V
0
acr oss t he t r ansfor mer in oper at ional for m is
V
0
(s) =
c bs as s
s
C R
E
e
+ + +
2 3
2
0
...(13.51)
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
t s ,
1
2
3
1 = 100, = 1 nF, = 2.5 H

C L
d
R
R C L
R C L
R C
d d
d d d
d d d
d d d
= 50, = 2 nF, = 1.25 H
2 = 100, = 1 nF, = 0
3 = 50, = 2 nF, L = 0
'
+
+
+ +
) /( ) ( and
) /( ) (
) /( ) ( wher e
2 1 2 1
2 1 2 1
2 1 2 1 1
t e s
t e s t s
t e s e e s t
L C C R R R R c
L C C R R L C R R b
L C C R R C R C R C R L a
...(13.52)
Fi g. 13.13(a) Complet e equivalent cir cuit of t r ansfor mer under going swit ching impulse t est .
(b) Simplified equivalent cir cuit .
(c) B-H cur ve of t r ansfor mer cor e illust r at ing sat ur at ion cur r ent .
Let t he r oot s of t he polynomial (s
3
+ as
2
+ bs + c) = 0 be denot ed as s = p, q + jr,
q jr. Then, t he t ime var iat ion of t he out put volt age will be
V
0
(t ) = )] cos( . [
. 2 2
2
0
+ +

rt e C B Ae
C R
E
qt pt
e
...(13.53)
'
+ +
+
}] ) {( /[ ) (
} ) /{( wher e
2 2 2 2
2 2
r p q r pq r q C
r p q p B A
...(13.54)
and t an
= C/B.
The cur r ent t hr ough t he magnet izing induct ance is
I
m
(s) = V
0
(s)/sL
t
...(13.55)
( ) a
Generator Wave-Shaping
Circuit
Transformer
+
E
0
C
s
R
d1 R
d2
R
1
L
1
L
1
R
1
C
te
L
t
R
t
C
sh
R
c
S G
V0 L
t
Ce
R2
R1
E0
Cs
( ) b
+
Im
Is
V
( ) c
It s t ime var iat ion will be
i
m
(t ) =
]
]
]
]

+ +
+
+

) cos( .
) (
) (
1
2 2
2 2
2
0
' rt e
r
r q p
e
r p q
L C R
E
qt pt
t e
...(13.56)
wher e ' t an = (q p)/r ...(13.57)
Sat ur at ion will set in at a t ime t
0
when I t i
m
) (
0 s
, fr om which t he t ime of collapse of t he
sur ge will be det er mined and hence t he lengt h of t he swit ching sur ge.
Figur e 13.14 shows t he out put volt age for t wo set s of impulse-gener at or component values.
(1) C
s
= 0.125 F, R
1
= 22K, R
2
= 3.7K, C
e
= 6 nF.
(2) C
s
= 20.1 nF, R
1
= 132K, R
2
= 22.2K, C
e
= 10 nF.
The second set consist s of 6 st ages, each st age having t he component values given by set
(1). The induct ance of t he t r ansfor mer , L
t
, has been var ied fr om 10 Henr y t o 100 Henr y. On
t hese figur es, sat ur at ion of cor e has not been consider ed.
Fi g. 13.14 Volt age waveshapes acr oss t r ansfor mer showing var iat ion of impulse-gener at or
cir cuit component s and t r ansfor mer induct ance.
We obser ve t hat wit h lower t r ansfor mer induct ances t he lengt h of wave decr eases and
oscillat ions set in. Wit h a smaller value of gener at or capacit ance, t he magnit ude V
p
/E
0
, i.e., t he
volt age efficiency, decr eases, and t he wave is shor t er . In cer t ain cases, t he desir ed t ime of 200
s for t he volt age t o r emain in excess of 90% cr est values may be difficult t o achieve. The
wavefr ont becomes st eeper wit h a higher gener at or capacit ance.
Many pr oblems in labor at or y waveshape gener at ion and e.h.v. line design have been
wor ked by Ms. Amr ut hakala using Comput er Gr aphics, (see Ref. 47, 'Ot her J our nals' in
bibliogr aphy).
13.8 IMPULSE VOLTAGE GENERATORS: PRACTICAL CIRCUITS
The gener al pr inciples of impulse gener at or s for gener at ing desir ed waveshapes have been
discussed in pr evious sect ions. The cir cuit s used in pr act ice will be descr ibed her e. Volt age
0.4
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
1 2 1 2 3
10
50 50
10
100 100
3
t, ms
L
T
, Henry L
T
, Henry
V
E
0
0
/
C
s
= 0.021 F C
s
= 0.125 F
C
L
= 100 nF C
L
= 6 nF
R
1
= 132 K R
1
= 22 K
R
2
= 22.2 K R
2
= 3.7 K
t, ms
divider s used for measur ing t he high volt ages as well as volt met er s, oscilloscopes, and ot her
equipment will be descr ibed in t he next sect ion.
The impor t ant component s of an impulse gener at or ar e basically (a) t he impulse capacit or ,
C
s
; (b) t he load capacit or C
L
; (c) t he wavefr ont -shaping r esist or , R
f
; and (d) t he wavet ail-shaping
r esist or , R
t
. In addit ion, ot her component s ar e t he char ging t r ansfor mer -r ect ifier , t he char ging
r esist or , spar k gaps and ot her auxiliar ies. In some gener at or s, t he ser ies r esist or R
f
is inser t ed
bet ween t he high-volt age out put t er minal and t he t er minal common t o t he volt age divider and
t est object . In ot her designs, it consist s of sever al smaller r esist or s connect ed in ser ies wit h t he
impulse capacit or s in each st age in or der t o damp out any oscillat ions occur r ing due t o st age
induct ance. In pr inciple, t he gener at ion of ext r emely high volt ages up t o 6000 kV or 6 MV
r equir es a ver y lar ge number of st ages of capacit or s, each r at ed for about 200 kV, t o be char ged
in par allel fr om t he low volt age, and dischar ged in ser ies.
Figur e 13.15 shows a complet e schemat ic diagr am of one t ype of Mar x Cir cuit . Figur e
13.16 shows t he over all equivalent cir cuit when dischar ging. Only 4 st ages ar e shown for clar it y
but t his could be ext ended t o any number , say 30, built on t he same pr inciple.
Fi g. 13.15 Pr act ical 4-st age impulse gener at or cir cuit layout .
Refer r ing t o Figur e 13.15, 50 Hz ac is supplied t o t he r egulat ing t r ansfor mer (1) t hr ough
an isolat ing t r ansfor mer (not shown). The isolat ing t r ansfor mer is usually a 3-phase t r ansfor mer
at power -fr equency volt age wit h only t wo of t he t hr ee windings used on t he secondar y side.
Thus, line-t o-line volt age is fed t o t he r egulat ing winding (1). The diode (3) deliver s a r ect ified
10 9
7
4 3
2 1
6
8
5
R
c
R
c
Rc
R
p
Cg
R
s
Rse
Test
Object
Voltage
Divider
H.V.
Arm
L.V.
Arm
SG
D
Impulse
Ground
A.C.
50 Hz
ac t o char ge t he impulse-gener at or capacit ance C
g
. While t he fir st or lowest st age is char ged
dir ect ly, t he second and subsequent -st age capacit ances ar e char ged t hr ough a combinat ion of
R
c
, R
s
, and R
p
. The higher st ages t her efor e acquir e char ges at slower r at es but t he final volt age
of all st ages will be t he same. The spar k gaps S G ar e set such t hat t hey do not spar kover at t he
volt age used dur ing char ging.
Fi g. 13.16 Equivalent cir cuit of gener at or when dischar ging.
Aft er all t he st ages have acquir ed t heir final volt age, t he t est engineer can 'fir e' t he
impulse gener at or by applying a suit able pot ent ial t o t he lowest spar k gap (7). If t he st age
volt age is E
s
, t hen br eakdown of t he fir st gap places t wo capacit or s in ser ies, assuming t he
value of R
c
t o be ver y high, as shown in Figur e 13.17. The volt age acr oss t he spar k gap S G
2
is
now high enough t o cause it t o br eakdown. The successive spar kover of all gaps places t he
sever al st ages of capacit or s in ser ies t o t hat t he out put volt age at t he high-volt age t er minal t o
gr ound is near ly nE
s
. The t est object is now impulsed. The volt age divider is used for supplying
a suit able low volt age t o t he measur ing syst em consist ing of (a) a high-volt age high wr it ing-
speed oscilloscope, (b) a pea k volt met er , or (c) a digit al r eading device of t he volt age.
Fi g. 13.17 Condit ions dur ing fir ing of ser ies spar k gap.
An ar r angement for init iat ing t he t r igger ing of t he lowest gap is var iously known as a 3-
elect r ode a r r a ngement or a t r iga t r on. Figur e 13.18 shows a simplified dia gr a m of t he
ar r angement . A low-volt age impulse gener at or dischar ges t hr ough a coupling capacit or t o a
t hir d elect r ode called t he Tr igger ing Elect r ode which will place a volt age of opposit e polar it y t o
SG
V.D.
R
f
C
L Rt
E0
Cs
C
g
/n
+
Rc
Es
R
s
R
p
C
g
SG
2
Es
+
+
3
4
Rp
R
c
t he spher e shown at r ight t her eby incr easing t he volt age dr op acr oss S G moment ar ily. This
fir es t he gap.
In or der t o obt ain var iable volt age out put t o suit t he t est object , t he char ging volt age is
adjust ed suit ably. This also r equir es t hat t he gap spacings of all spar k gaps such as S G must be
changed t o pr event anomalous fir ing or not fir ing at all. In pr act ical gener at or s one set of
spher es, say t he ones at left , in all t he mult it ude of spar k gaps is fixed t o an insulat ing column
as t all as t he impulse gener at or it self. The ot her companions ar e at t ached t o anot her insulat ing
column which is movable t hr ough a mot or . The oper at or has t o set t he gap pr oper ly t o suit
ever y t est volt age value r equir ed.
Fi g. 13.18 Thr ee-elect r ode t r igger gap for fir ing impulse gener at or .
The net equivalent cir cuit of Figur e 13.15 when all spar k gaps S G have fir ed is shown
pr ogr essively in Figur e 13.19 for t he 4-st age Mar x Cir cuit . For ident ical st ages, cur r ent s in
leads a b and b c a r e zer o. Also for ver y high va lues of R
c
, t hey can be consider ed as open.
Nor ma lly, a ll t r igger ing ga ps S G ar e ar r anged ver t ically in one column which allows t he
ult r a-violet r adiat ion fr om t he br eakdown of a lower gap help t r igger t he one above it . This
pr event s misfir ing t o a la r ge ext ent . As t he number of st a ges incr ea ses, t he r isk of misfir ing
is minimized st ill fur t her by pr oviding a t r igger ing gener at or for ever y spar k gap since
collect ion of dust on t he spher es is a gr ea t nuisa nce. In ver y high volt a ge gener a t or s, a bove
3 MV, t he spar k gaps ar e enclosed by an insulat ing cylinder . The pr oper oper at ion of t he t est
syst em depends so much on t hese spa r k ga ps t ha t ver y gr ea t ca r e must be given t o t hem.
They also act as spar k t r ansmit t er s and dist ur b high-r at e-of-r ise phenomena such as t he
wavefr ont of a light ning impulse. This pr oblem will be discussed lat er on.
13.9 ENERGY OF IMPULSE GENERATORS
We obser ved in Sect ion 13.5, equat ion (13.34), t hat t he load capacit ance must have a minimum
value,
2
) /( 4 .
s L
C C , and in Examples 13.3 and 13.4, a value of C
L
= 2 nF r equir ed a
sour ce capacit ance C
s
not exceeding 41.74 t imes C
L
for gener at ing a st andar d light ning impulse,
and t he same sour ce capacit ance r equir ed a load capacit ance of not less t han 12 nF for gener at ing
a swit ching sur ge. In pr act ice, t he ener gy st or ed in sour ce capacit ance C
s
and t he ener gy
r equir ed in t he load det er mine t he design of impulse gener at or s in addit ion t o t he waveshaping
r esist or s. Impulse gener at or s ar e r at ed in t er ms of t his ener gy, t he char ging volt age per st age
E
s
, t he st age capacit ance C
g
, and t he number of st ages n. When dischar ging t he t ot al volt age is
V
0
= nE
s
and t he capacit ance is C
s
= C
g
/n. Some t ypical examples ar e descr ibed below. For a
SG
I.G.
C
s
Trigger
Electrode
given st age capacit ance C
g
and char ging volt age E
s
, t he ener gy incr eases n t imes when t he
capacit or s ar e r e-connect ed in n st ages inst ead of 1 st age. For example, let t he capacit ance in 1
st age equal 125 nF = 0.125 F, a nd t he cha r ging volt a ge 200 kV. The ener gy st or ed is
2500
2
1
2
cV J = 2.5 kJ . If t he capacit or s ar e connect ed in 4 st ages in or der t o t est an object at
higher volt age, t he t ot al capacit ance r educes t o 125/4 = 31.25 nF. But when all st ages dischar ge
in ser ies and t he char ging volt age per st age is st ill 200 kV, t he t ot al ener gy deliver ed by t he
gener at or is
2 3 9
) 10 800 ( 10 25 . 31
2
1

= 10.0 kJ .
Fi g. 13.19. Equivalent cir cuit for Fig. 13.15.
The choice of t ot al ener gy in t he gener at or , t he st age capacit ance and volt age will be
gover ned by t he t est s t o be car r ied out and t he char act er ist ics of t he t est object . Impulse
gener at or s for t est ing line equipment only such as insulat or s, air -cor e t r ansfor mer s, et c., will
need low ener gies while t hose t hat t est long cables and high-volt age t r ansfor mer s will need
cor r espondingly higher ener gies. The following t able gives t ypical ener gies and capacit ance in
n st ages in ser ies r equir ed when t he st age volt ages ar e t aken t o be 100 kV and 200 kV. The
capacit ances ar e given in nF.
Rse Rse Rse
R
p
R
p
R
p
R
p
R
p
R
p
R
p
R
p
R
p
Rp
Rse
Rt nRp
E
0
Cs
= Cg /n
Rp Rp
Rs
Rs
Rs
R
s
R
s
R
s
R
s
R
s
Rs
Rs
Cg
Cg Cg
C
g
C
g
Cg
Cg
Cg
C
g
C
g
C
g
Rc
Rc
R
c
R
c
Rc
Rc
SG
C
g
a
b
c
To Load
V0 CL
( 1) n R
s
Ta ble: Tot a l Ca p a ci t a n ce of I mp u lse Gen er a t or s wh en Di sch a r gi n g (n F )
Total S tage Voltage 100 k V S tage Voltage 200 k V
Energy, KJ n = 1 n = 10 n = 1 n = 10
2.5 500 5 125 1.25
5 1000 10 250 2.5
10 2000 20 500 5
20 4000 40 1000 10
30 6000 60 1500 15
The r elat ion bet ween ener gy, st age volt age, number of st ages in ser ies when dischar ging
and t ot al capacit ance of gener at or when dischar ging is given by
KJ =
6 2
10 ) .(
2
1

s s
E n C ...(13.58)
wher e C
s
= capacit ance of gener at or in nF and E
s
= st age volt age in kV.
Exa mp le 13.8. An impulse gener at or consist s of 6 st ages wit h each st age having a
capacit ance of 0.125 F (125 nF). The char ging volt age is 200 kV. Calculat e (a) t he ener gy
out put of gener at or when all st ages ar e connect ed in ser ies, and (b) t he ener gy when t he 6
capacit or s ar e r econnect ed in 3 st ages and t he char ging volt age per st age is kept t he same as
200 kV.
Sol u t i on . The t wo cir cuit s ar e shown in Figur e 13.20.
(a) Tot al gener at or capacit ance when dischar ging =
125
6
1
= 20.83 nF.
Tot al volt age when dischar ging = 6 200 = 1200 kV.
Ther efor e, ener gy =
6 2 9
10 1200 10 83 . 20
2
1

= 15,000 J oules = 15 kJ .
(b) When t he gener at or is r econnect ed in 3 st ages, each st age consist s of 2 capacit or s in
par allel, Figur e 13.20(b), wit h a t ot al st age capacit ance of 250 nF. When t he 3 st ages dischar ge
in ser ies, t he t ot al gener at or capacit ance is 250/3 = 83.3 nF, and t he out put volt age is 600 kV.
Ther efor e, ener gy =
6 2 9
10 600 10 3 . 83
2
1

= 15,000 J oules = 15 kJ .
Equat ion 13.58 can also be used for t he t wo cases.
The capacit ances of t ypical loads on an impulse gener at or may be summar ized as follows:
Type of Test Object Capacitance Range, C
L
(1) Line Insulat or s 50 pF for each disc. Tot al capacit ance of
st r ing does not exceed a few pF.
(2) Bushings of Appar at us 100 t o 500 pF
(3) Power Tr ansfor mer s 1000 pF up t o 1000 kVA
100010,000 pF over 1000 kVA
(4) Ca bles 150 t o 300 pF per met r e lengt h.
Fi g. 13.20 6-st a ge impulse gener a t or r econnect ed for ener gy r ela t ions.
The suggest ed minimum capacit ance in gener at or when dischar ging is 5 load capacit ance
(C
s
> 5C
L
). Ther efor e, when t he flashover volt age is det er mined for t he t est object , t he volt age
out put of gener at or is fixed. The number of st ages, t he st age capacit ance, and char ging volt ages
ar e t hen det er mined. These ar e nor mally fixed in a labor at or y when once t he gener at or is
pur chased. The following examples will pr ovide guidelines for select ion cr it er ia of impulse
gener at or s for a small h.v. t est ing labor at or y and a ver y lar ge e.h.v. labor at or y.
Exa mp le 13.9. A small labor at or y for t est ing appar at us up t o 66 kV level (power fr equency)
r equir es an impulse gener at or . Assume t hat t he lar gest piece of load t o be t est ed is 10 met r es
of cable having 200 pF/met r e capacit ance. The impulse wit hst and is t o be 325 kV, cr est . Assume
t he br eakdown volt age t o be 20% higher and t hat a t est volt age up t o 450 kV should be available
for r esear ch and development pur poses (Resear ch fact or of 450/390 = 1.15). Design a suit able
impulse gener at or for t his labor at or y.
Sol u t i on . Cable capacit ance = 200 10 = 2000 pF. Assume a capacit ive volt age divider of
1000 pF.
Tot al load on gener at or , C
L
= 3000 pF.
Appr oximat e gener at or capacit ance when dischar ging C
s
= 5C
L
= 15 nF.
Select ing a st andar d char ging volt age of 100 kV per st age will r equir e 5 st ages wit h a
volt age efficiency in t he r ange of 90% when t he out put is 450 kV. The capacit ance per st age C
g
= C
s
.n = 15 5 = 75 nF.
Ther efor e, t ot al ener gy when dischar ging =
6 2
10 ) 100 5 ( 15
2
1

= 1.875 kJ .
Ener gy in each st age =
6 2
10 100 75
2
1

= 0.375 kJ .
Exa mp le 13.10. An e.h.v. labor at or y for t est ing equipment up t o 765 kV level r equir es an
impulse wit hst and level of 2400 kV, peak of light ning volt age.
[Not e : IEC and ISI have a minimum level of 1950 kV, but t his will be incr eased in fut ur e
t o 2400 kV. This is not yet a st andar d.]
The flashover volt age is expect ed t o be 20% higher and a R. and D. Fact or of 1.11 is t o be
incor por at ed (10% higher t han flashover value). The load capacit ance is 5 nF wit h t he volt age
divider expect ed t o pr ovide a fur t her 500 pF capacit ance. The st age char ging volt age is 200 kV.
0.125 F
0.125 F
0.125 F
0.125 F
0.125 F
0.125 F
1200 kV
0.125
F
0.125
F
0.125
F
600 kV
Select t he r equir ed st age capacit ance, number of st ages, and t he ener gy of gener at or
when dischar ging.
Sol u t i on . The highest volt age r equir ed acr oss t he high volt age t er minal of t he gener at or
is 2400 1.2 1.11 = 3200 kV.
A volt age efficiency of 80% r equir es a t ot al of 4000 kV in char ging. Ther efor e, number of
st ages = 4000/200 = 20. The load capacit ance is C
L
= 5 + 0.5 = 5.5 nF. Hence, t he gener at or
capacit ance when all 20 st ages ar e dischar ging in ser ies can be select ed as C
s
= 5C
L
= 27.5 nF.
Ther efor e, t he capacit ance of each st age is C
g
= 20 27.5 = 550 nF = 0.55 F.
Ener gy =
6 2
10 ) 200 20 ( 5 . 27
2
1

= 220 kJ
Ener gy per st age =
6 2
10 200 550
2
1

= 11 kJ
[Not e. For such lar ge ener gies and high volt ages, a manufact ur er 's cat alogue must be
consult ed for near est st andar d size of capacit or , ener gy, and volt age efficiency.]
13.10 GENERATION OF IMPULSE CURRENTS
Light ning impulse cur r ent s up t o 200,000 Amper es cr est ar e gener at ed by char ging a set of
impulse capacit or s in par allel and dischar ging t hem t he same way in a t est object , which is
usually a sur ge diver t er or high r upt ur ing-capacit y fuse. The waveshape has a t ime t o cr est of
8 s, and 20 s t o 50% value on t ail, as shown in Figur e 13.2 befor e. Figur e 13.21(a) shows t he
act ual connect ion diagr am and 13.21(b) t he elect r ical equivalent cir cuit when t he capacit or s
ar e dischar ging t hr ough t he t est object .
Fi g. 13.21 Impulse cur r ent gener at or :
(a) Act ual Schemat ic of Component Layout .
(b) Equivalent Cir cuit .
A.C.
50 Hz
Current
Shunt
To
Scope
Test
Object
( ) a
C'
1
C'
1
C'1
C'
1
+
+
+
+
+
D
TG
Va
I
a
Ip
E
0
Ci
IG L R
( ) b
8 20
+
In some special t est s wher e t he impulse cur r ent is t o be super imposed on a power -
fr equency volt age at a desir ed point on t he wave, t he cir cuit shown in Figur e 13.22 is used. The
trigger gap TG is ar r anged t o fir e at a select ed point on t he 50 Hz wave. Bot h t he impulse
cur r ent and t he power -follow cur r ent ar e measur ed by ut ilizing t he volt age dr op pr oduced on
suit able non-induct ive shunt s. The power -fr equency volt age can be measur ed by a pot ent ial
t r ansfor mer PT while a r esist ive volt age divider is used on t he impulse-gener at or side beyond
t he diode D t o measur e t he char ging volt age. A capacit ive volt age divider is connect ed acr oss
t he t est piece t o measur e t he impulse volt age. The char ging volt age of t he capacit or s is again
in t he r ange of 100 kV t o 200 kV.
Fi g. 13.22 Cir cuit diagr am for simult aneous impulse cur r ent t est and
power -fr equency t est on a n a r r est er .
13.10.1 Analysis of Impulse Current Generator Circuit
Equivalent cir cuit of t he impulse cur r ent gener at or is shown in Figur e 13.23. For t he sake of
analysis, we assume t hat t he volt age acr oss t he t est object r emains const ant at all values of
cur r ent , t hat is t he t est object is a met al oxide sur ge ar r est er . In gap-t ype SiC ar r est er s, t he
cur r ent is a funct ion of t he volt age and nonlinear .
Fi g. 13.23 Equivalent cir cuit of impulse-cur r ent gener at or for calculat ing cir cuit
component s, a nd a r r est er I-V char act er ist ics (ZnO ar r est er ).
For t he gapless ZnO ar r est er , t he following oper at ional expr ession for cur r ent is valid
+ + +
t
a
i
V idt
C
Ri
dt
di
L
0
1
= E
0
...(13.59)
I(s) =
) / 1 ( ) / (
1
2
0
i
a
C L s L R s L
V E
+ +
...(13.60)
C'1 C'1 C'1
Test
Object
PT
50 Hz
A.C
50 Hz
A.C.
Impulse
Current
Shunt
Follow
Current
Shunt
D L TG
E
0
Ci V
a
Ia R L
+
( ) a
( ) b
Va
Vp
Ia
The r equir ement of t he gener at or is t o develop a unidir ect ional cur r ent wit h a peak value
I
p
occur r ing at t ime t
m
and falling t o 50% peak value at t ime t
t
. For t he sake of pr eliminar y
est imat e, let us assume t hat t he value of cir cuit r esist ance R can be adjust ed t o give cr it ical
damping of t he cir cuit . Then,
R =
i
C L / 2 . For t his case,
I(s) =
2
0
) (
1
a s
L
V E
a
+
...(13.61)
wher e a = R/2L. Also, R
2
/L
2
= 4/LC
i
. ...(13.62)
The, t ime var iat ion of cur r ent t hr ough ar r est er is
i(t ) =
at a
e t
L
V E

. .
0
...(13.63)
It s peak occur s when t
m
= 1/a = 2L/R. Ther efor e, at
m
= 1 ...(13.64)
This is obt ained by differ ent iat ing (13.63) wit h r espect t o t and let t ing di/ dt = 0 t o find t
m
.
Since t
m
= 8s, t her e r esult s R = 2L/ t
m
...(13.65)
Ther efor e, t he r equir ed value of R is obt ained in t er ms of t he cir cuit induct ance L, and
known value of cr est t ime t
m
.
The peak value of cur r ent is
I
p
=
L
C V E
e t
L
V E
e t
L
V E
i a
m
a atm
m
a
.
73 . 2
. . . .
0 1 0 0

...(13.66)
At t =
p t
I t i t 5 . 0 ) ( ,
Ther efor e,
t
at
t
a
e t
L
V E

. .
0
=
a
t
La
V E
m
a
1
since ,
73 . 2
. 5 . 0
0
...(13.67)
This gives
a 73 . 2
5 . 0
=
t
at
t
e t

.
or t
at
e
= 2 at
t
e ...(13.68)
This yields
t
at = ) 2 ln( e at
t
...(13.69)
or , wit h a = 1/t
m
,
) / ln( /
m t m t
t t t t = 1.693 ...(13.70)
This equat ion det er mines t he t ime t
t
t o half value when cr est t ime t
m
is known and for t he
cir cuit cr it ically damped.
Exa mp le 13.11. An R-L-C cir cuit is cr it ically damped. It gener at es a cur r ent of t he t ype
i(t ) = J .t . e
at
wit h peak occur r ing at t
m
= 8 s. (a) Calculat e t he t ime t o 50% value on t ail. (b) If
t he cir cuit induct ance is L = 40 H, find t he values of cir cuit r esist ance R and t he capacit ance
C
i
of t he impulse capacit ance when dischar ging.
Sol u t i on . (a) Fr om equat ion (13.70), a t r ial and er r or solut ion gives
t
t
/t
m
= 2.68. t
t
= 2.68 8 = 21.44 s.
This is near ly equal t o t he st andar d 20 s. Ther efor e, t he r esist ance is cor r ect .
(b) R = 2L/t
m
= 2 40 10
6
/8 10
6
= 10 ohms.
C
t
= 4L/R
2
= 1.6 F.
If t he damping is insufficient , t he inver se t r ansfor m of equat ion (13.60) should be wor ked
out but wit h
C L R / 2 >
which gives t wo r eal r oot s for t he polynomial in t he denominat or . Let
t he waveshape be assumed a double exponent ial. Then
I(s) =

,
`
.
|
+
s a s L
V E
a
1 1 1
0
...(13.71)

'
]
]
]
+
]
]
]
+
]
]
]

]
]
]

i i
i i
LC a a C R L
L
R
LC a a C R L
L
R
2 2
2 2
/ 1 1 1 / 4 1 1
2
and
/ 1 1 1 / 4 1 1
2
wher e
...(13.72)
Also, =
i i
LC a a C R L
L
R
2 2
/ 1 1 2 / 4 1 ...(13.73)
Ther efor e
i(t ) =
) .( ) (
] / 4 1 [
0
2 / 1 2
0 t t t t
i
a
e e I e e
C R L R
V E

...(13.74)
Refer r ing t o equat ion (13.21) in Sect ion (13.4) wher e / x and
m t
t t z / ,
(x 1)/ln (x) =
2 ln
1 ) / (
) 2 ln(
1
) / ln(
1 ) / (

m t
t t z
,
=
1
0
) ( / and , . ), /( ) 2 ln(

m m
t t
p m t
e e I I x t t
Ther e ar e now sufficient equat ions for calculat ing R, C
t
, and L when one of t hem is known.
Exa mp le 13.12. An impulse cur r ent gener at or consist s of 10 impulse capacit or s each of
0.125 F connect ed in par allel. The desir ed out put waveshape has t
m
= 8 s and t
t
= 20 s.
Calculat e
(a) t he appr oximat e values of r esist ance and allowable induct ance in t he cir cuit t o gener at e
a double-exponent ial waveshape of cur r ent ,
(b) t he char ging volt age t o obt ain peak value of I
p
= 10 kA t hr ough an ar r est er whose
r esidual volt age is 25 kV (3 p.u. on 6 kV, r .m.s, 8.486 kV, peak, base).
Sol u t i on . Let x = / . Also, 5 . 2 8 / 20 /
m t
t t . Ther efor e
(x 1)/ln (x) = (2.5 1)/ln 2 = 2.1642.
A t r ial and er r or solut ion yields x = 4.
=
4
10 776 . 5 ) /( 2 ln
m t
t t , so t hat
4
10 1 . 23 4 .
5.776 10
4
=
i
LC a a
2
/ 1 1 1 (
and 23.1 10
4
=
t
LC a a
2
/ 1 1 1 ( +
This yields, a =R/ 2L = 14.44 10
4
, and LC
i
= 0.75 10
10
.
The given value of C
i
= 10 0.125 F = 1.25 10
6
Farad.
Ther efor e L = 60 H and hence R = 17.33 ohms.
Fr om equat ion (13.74), I
0
=
kA.
4 . 10
3 486 . 8
/ 1 1
0
2
0

E
LC a R
V E
i
a
Ther efor e
I
p
=
) (
4 . 10
47 . 25
kA 10
2 6 4
10 8 1 . 23 10 8 10 776 . 5 0

e e
E
giving E
0
= 245.5 kV.
The char ging volt age is t her efor e about 250 kV. By incr easing t he sour ce capacit ance C
i
t he char ging volt age can be decr eased. Not e t hat in such high-cur r ent cir cuit s, t he volt age
efficiency is not a fact or of consider able impor t ance.
13.11 GENERATION OF HIGH ALTERNATING TEST VOLTAGE
Power fr equency volt ages up t o 2000 kV, r .m.s., and 1A may be r equir ed for t est ing insulat ion
st r uct ur es at e.h.v. levels. The shor t -dur at ion t est volt age r equir ed is 1.5 highest equipment
volt a ge (l l) so t hat 1150 kV is r equir ed for 765 kV level. The flashover volt age is usually 20%
higher and wit h a r esear ch and development fact or of 1.1, t her e ar ises a need for a volt age of
1520 kV in such a labor at or y. For 1150 kV t r ansmission equipment , based on a maximum of
1200 kV, a power -fr equency t est ing volt age of about 2000 kV may be r equir ed. Such high
volt ages at low cur r ent levels ar e gener at ed by cascade-connect ed unit s wher e mor e t han 1
t r ansfor mer is connect ed in ser ies. For example, at t he IREQ labor at or ies in Canada, 4 unit s of
600 kV ar e connect ed in ser ies and t he lower 2 unit s have t wo unit s in par allel making up a
t ot al of 6 t r ansfor mer . The need for t he par alleling of t he lower unit s ar ises for pollut ion
t est ing of insulat or s t o give a higher cur r ent (up t o a volt age of 1200 kV) and lower leakage
r eact ance. Nor mally, at t hese high volt ages, except for insulat or t est s car r ied out under pollut ed
condit ion, t he load on a t est ing t r ansfor mer is pr edominant ly if not ent ir ely capacit ive. The
power out put of t he t r ansfor mer in MVA is
P = wC.V
2
10
6
, MVA ...(13.75)
wher e w = 2f, C = load capacit ance in F, and V = t est volt age at t he high-volt age t er minal
of t r ansfor mer in kV, r .m.s.
If t he load capacit ance is measur ed in pF, and t he t r ansfor mer power in kVA, t hen
P = wC V
2
10
9
, kVA (C in pF, V in kV)
When wet t est s ar e car r ied out , t her e must be a r eser ve of power over t hat given above
because of leakage cur r ent s on t he t est piece. The load capacit ance includes t he capacit ance of
t he t est object , t hat of t he t r ansfor mer it self, and t he lar ge high-volt age shields and elect r odes
t hat ar e necessar y.
Typical r at ings of single unit s might be as follows:
High Voltage Output Current Range (continuous) kVA Range
50 kV 40 mA t o 400 mA 2 t o 20
100 100 mA t o 500 mA 10 t o 50
200 0.5A t o 2A 100 t o 400
350 0.5A t o 2A 175 t o 700
600 1A t o 3A 600 t o 1800
The shor t t ime cur r ent r at ing will nor mally be t wice t he cont inuous cur r ent r at ing (for
about 12 hour s in a day), if t est ing is car r ied out for 5 minut es wit h a cool-off per iod of 1 hour .
For par t ial dischar ge measur ement , t he t est ing has t o be car r ied out for 30 minut es and would
be consider ed as a cont inuous t est and not a shor t -t ime t est .
Principles of Construction
The t est ing t r ansfor mer differ s in const r uct ion fr om a power t r ansfor mer in some essent ial
det ails. The cor e is const r uct ed out of laminat ed gr ain-or ient ed magnet ic st eel of t he same t ype
as convent ional t r ansfor mer s but t he flux densit y used is below sat ur at ion (knee or bend) value
and on t he linear por t ion of t he B-H cur ve. This is necessar y t o pr event volt age dist or t ion
caused by lar ge magnet izing cur r ent . Because of lack of r adiat or s or for ced cooling, t he oil
cont ent in t he t ank has t o pr ovide t he lar ge t her mal t ime const ant r equir ed so t hat t he enclosur e
is mor e bulky t o hold sufficient oil for cooling.
Windings ar e made fr om double-enamelled copper and ver y t ight ly wound t o pr ovide good
capacit ive coupling. For t r ansfor mer s t o be cascaded, t her e ar e 3 windings on t he cor e as
shown in Figur e 13.24. In addit ion, for t r ansfor mer s built wit h a r eact or for compensat ing t he
lar ge capacit ive cur r ent dr awn fr om t he sour ce, t he r eact or is wound on t he same cor e.
Fi g. 13.24 Ca sca de connect ion of t r a nsfor mer s for gener a t ing
high power -fr equency alt er nat ing volt ages.
The pr imar y winding is locat ed near est t he cor e. The secondar y t ur ns ar e so wound t hat
t hey t aper t owar ds t he out side giving t he same st r ess-gr ading effect as used in a condenser
bushing. An elect r ost at ic shield is usually used which also act s t o pr event any oscillat ions
caused by t he induct ance and high capacit ance, especially dur ing a t r ansient such as br eakdown
of t est object . The excit at ion winding or t he t er t iar y is also of low volt age just like t he pr imar y,
and r at ed for 1000 t o 6000 volt s. But it is at high pot ent ial wit h one end connect ed t o t he high-
volt age end of secondar y. The t er t iar y is used only when t he t r ansfor mer for ms a lower unit in
a cascade-connect ed mult i-unit t r ansfor mer set . A r egulat ing t r ansfor mer is pr ovided at t he
input t o t he pr imar y of t he gr ound unit t o var y t he volt age input fr om zer o t o full r at ed value.
The shor t -cir cuit r eact ance of a t est ing t r ansfor mer is ver y impor t ant fr om t he point of
view of int er nal volt age dr op. It should be as high as possible t o pr event damage in t he event of
high cur r ent dur ing flashover of t est object , and at t he same t ime low enough t o per mit dr awing
high cur r ent dur ing pollut ion t est s. For t his r eason, t he lower unit s can consist of t wo unit s in
E2
E1 P1
S1 P1
S2
H.V.
Terminal
OR
To 3rd
Unit
RIV
Two-Unit
Cascade
50 Hz
A.C.
H.V. Load
S
50 Hz
A.C.
Core
Single Unit
P
par allel. Typical values of shor t -cir cuit volt age at r at ed cur r ent r ange fr om 1.5% t o 40% of
r at ed value, t he higher values applying for unit s in cascade. Single unit s may have up t o about
10% int er nal impedance but st andar d specificat ions must be consult ed for t he maximum allowed.
When t wo unit s ar e par alleled, it dr ops t o 5% for pollut ion t est s.
Reactive Compensation
When t r ansfor mer windings, capacit or s, and cables ar e t est ed, t he load on t he t est ing t r ansfor mer
is pur ely capacit ive of a lar ge magnit ude. A t est ing t r ansfor mer nor mally wor ks at zer o power
fact or leading in cont r ast t o a power t r ansfor mer whose power fact or is almost always lagging
and may be 0.9 or higher . Ther efor e, compensat ing r eact or s ar e necessar y t o minimize t he
t ot al cur r ent dr awn fr om t he sour ce in labor at or ies. The r eact or s can be ext er nally connect ed
wit h ar r angement s t o swit ch t hem at pr edet er mined levels of input cur r ent . This can only be
done in st eps. An alt er nat ive is t o build t hem on t he same cor e as t he t r ansfor mer and connect
t hem in par allel wit h t he pr imar y windings in each unit . It is usual t o pr ovide a maximum
compensat ion at r at ed volt age amount ing t o 50% of t he r at ed cont inuous power of t he t est ing
t r ansfor mer .
When t he volt age of t he t r ansfor mer var ies, t he r eact ive power supplied by t he built -in
r eact or s also var ies but as t he squar e of t he volt age in a par abolic manner . Figur e 13.25 shows
t he compensa t ion pr ovided a s a funct ion of volt a ge va r ia t ion. Ther efor e, should ext r a
compensat ion be necessar y, ext er nal swit ched r eact or s have t o be pr ovided acr oss t he sour ce
t o t he gr ound unit . This is always single phase.
Fi g. 13.25 React ive compensat ion available wit h int er nally-built compensat ing r eact or s.
High Voltage Electrodes, Insulating Supports and Enclosures
Because of t he ext r emely high volt age used at t he high volt age t er minal, ver y lar ge elect r odes
ar e necessar y. The diamet er of a near ly hemispher ical elect r ode var ies fr om 3 met r es for a 300
kV t o 400 kV t er minal t o 5 met r es for 2000 kV unit s. The minimum clear ances r equir ed for
safet y fr om t he t r ansfor mer r ange fr om 1.5 met r es for 300 kV t o almost 15 m for 2000 kV.
Because of t he lar ge size of aluminium elect r ode r equir ed, it can be made in segment s using a
net wor k of saucer -shaped elect r odes each about 25 cm diamet er . Such a const r uct ion has a
pat ent ed name called POLYCON in Sweden.
100
75
50
25
0
12.5
%
R
a
t
e
d
P
o
w
e
r

O
u
t
p
u
t
Reactive Power
of Built-in Reactor
0 50 100
Test ing t r ansfor mer s have insulat ing cylinder s made fr om r einfor ced fibr e-glass or ot her
insulat ing mat er ials of high mechanical st r engt h. The ent ir e t ank wit h oil, cor e, and windings
is placed inside t his cylinder . This eliminat es separ at e insulat ing pedest als necessar y in cascade-
connect ed t r ansfor mer s wher e t he higher unit s must be insulat ed fr om gr ound for t he volt age
of t he lower unit . Ther e ar e sever al schemes for lower ing t his insulat ion r equir ement such as
connect ing t he high volt age secondar y middle t o t he cor e, but t hese ar e det ails best discussed
wit h t he manufact ur er s. However , a t r ansfor mer using an insulat ed cylinder is only meant for
indoor labor at or y wit h a r oof and walls t o keep t he element s out . For out door use, which
eliminat es t he need for a lar ge building and it s at t endant cost s, convent ional st eel t anks wit h
por celain bushings ar e necessar y. Figur e 13.26 shows t he t wo const r uct ions.
Fi g. 13.26 Over all pict or ial r epr esent at ion of cascade-connect ed t r ansfor mer s wit h
insulat ing cylinder s and st eel t anks.
A cir cuit diagr am t ypical of a 2-unit cascade t est ing t r ansfor mer inst allat ion is shown in
Figur e 13.27, t oget her wit h sour ce, r egulat ing t r ansfor mer , volt age divider and peak and r .m.s.
volt met er s. One can also obser ve t hat wit h a 3-unit cascade-connect ed unit , it is possible t o use
t hem as 3 separ at e single-phase unit s and per for m exper iment s in 3-phase configur at ion at t he
r at ed volt age of each unit . However , a suit able 3-phase sour ce of supply is necessar y for such
an event ualit y. This facilit y is used when conduct ing high-volt age measur ement s on 3-phase
t est lines t o obt ain cor ona loss values and such ot her pr oper t ies as r adio int er fer ence, elect r ost at ic
fields, and audible noise in 3-phase configur at ion, if single-phase t est r esult s ar e found inadequat e
t o ext r apolat e t o 3-phase r esult s. Chapt er s 5 and 6 have cover ed t he t opic of conver sion of
single-phase r esult s t o 3-phase lines and may be used in or der t o r educe t he cost involved in
st r inging a 3-phase line.
H.V. Electrode
Bushing
H.V.
Load
Tank
I
n
s
u
l
a
t
i
n
g
C
o
l
u
m
n
s
( ) b ( ) a
50 Hz
Source
Fi g. 13.27 Int er nal ar r angement of 2-unit cascade-connect ed t r ansfor mer in
insulat ing cylinder , wit h excit at ion and measur ing cir cuit s.
13.12 GENERATION OF HIGH DIRECT VOLTAGES
High dir ect volt ages ar e r equir ed for sever al t ypes of dielect r ic diagnost ic t est s, usually t er med
non-dest r uct ive t est s, on insulat ion st r uct ur es, as well as for r esear ch on h.v. effect s under dc.
The most usual way of gener at ing volt ages of t he or der of 1000 kV t o 3000 kV is by a 'Gr einacher
Chain', also known as t he 'Cockr oft -Walt on Gener at or '. Figur e 13.28 shows a schemat ic diagr am
of a dc gener at or of t his t ype wit h t he char ging t r ansfor mer , char ging capacit or s, loading
capacit or s, diodes, and auxiliar ies. The diodes ar e shown connect ed for pr oducing posit ive polar it y
volt age at t he h.v. t er minal wit h r espect t o gr ound. The high volt age is measur ed t hr ough a
calibr at ed micr o-ammet er at t he gr ound end in ser ies wit h t he measur ing r esist or R
m.
The
r esist ance R
p
is used for pr ot ect ion of t he diodes fr om high cur r ent in t he event of flashover of
t est object .
The r ect ifier s ar e eit her selenium or silicon diodes. Their polar it y is easily changed by
r ever sing t heir t er minals. For n st ages, t her e ar e n char ging capacit or s C
C
and an equal number
of loading capacit or s C
L
, but 2n diodes D
1
t o D
2n
. The pr inciple of oper at ion consist s of diode D
1
char ging C
C1
when t er minal 1 of t he high-volt age char ging t r ansfor mer is posit ive, t o t he peak
value of t he input sine wave of volt age. Dur ing t he next half cycle, t er minal 2 is posit ive wit h
r espect t o gr ound so t hat D
1
is r ever se biased. However , D
2
is for war d biased and t he loading
capacit or C
L1
is char ged t o a volt age 2 E
m
= 2 2E, wher e E = r .m.s. value of out put volt age of
t he t r ansfor mer . The t er minal A is now at a volt age of E 2 2 above gr ound and posit ive.
Dur ing t he succeeding half cycle, t he diodes D
1
and D
3
help t o t r ansfer t he char ge of C
L1
t o t he
char ging capacit or C
C2
while C
C1
r eceives a char ge t hr ough D
1
t o make up for t he char ge it lost
t o C
L1
dur ing t he pr evious half cycle. The chain of capacit or s will get char ged in successive half
cycles and t he full volt age of t he gener at or will be built up r apidly since t her e ar e no r esist ances
in t he cir cuit except t he leads. When t he t est object is connect ed, t hat is t he gener at or is
loaded, some char ge is lost which is made up once again fr om t he char ging sour ce. The out put
volt age on no load at t he high-volt age t er minal is E n 2 2 while on load t her e will be a r egulat ion.
(See Naidu and Kamar aju, under "Books" in Bibliogr aphy).
P1
E1
S1
P
2
Ground Unit
S2
Insulating
Stand
Second Unit
To Test
Object
Voltage
Divider
RMS Peak
Ch
C1 KVe
KV
p
Reactor
Fi g. 13.28 Gr einacher Chain or Cockr oft -Walt on cascade ar r angement for
gener at ing high dir ect volt age.
The r ipple cont ent in t he out put volt age depends upon t he number of st ages which is one
of t he limit ing fact or s for using a ver y lar ge number of st ages. The r ipple may be r educed by
addit ional filt er unit s. In one pr act ical scheme, an e.h.v, t r ansfor mer wit h a ser ies diode and
capacit or in par allel has wor ked ver y well at t he 400-kV FGH in Ger many wher e for an out door
r esear ch line meant pr imar ily for ac, by mer ely adding t he diode and capacit or , r esear ch at
high dc volt ages was done for cor ona loss, r adio int er fer ence, et c. Many labor at or ies in t he
wor ld also use such simplified ar r angement s inst ead of t he Gr einacher chain alt hough t he
t r ansfor mer must be r at ed for t he full value of t he high volt age dc inst ead of only 1/2n of t he
volt age r equir ed at t he high volt age t er minal. The cur r ent out put of such gener at or s is small
being about 50 mA which is limit ed by t he diodes. Oil-immer sed diodes wit h pr oper cooling and
connect ed in par allel can be r at ed higher .
13.13 MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGES
In a high-volt age labor at or y, volt ages wit h a wide r ange of magnit udes, waveshapes, r at es of
r ise and t ime dur at ions have t o be measur ed accur at ely, by met er s and ot her equipment locat ed
in t he cont r ol r oom at gr ound level. The dist ances ar e quit e lar ge and sour ces of er r or ar e
numer ous. The most ver sat ile equipment is t he volt age divider coupled wit h an oscilloscope, a
peak volt met er , and a digit al r ecor der . Coaxial cables ar e used ever ywher e and in moder n
development s, fibr e opt ic channels ar e also used. We will discuss t he volt age divider in some
det ail and indicat e t he er r or s involved which have t o be consider ed in calibr at ion and accur acy.
In some labor at or ies, t he low-volt age input t o an impulse gener at or or t r ansfor mer is measur ed
To Test
Object
D
2n
R
p
C
Ln
CL2
D3
D
2
D1
CL1
Cc1
Cc2
Ccn
B
A
O
Measuring
Resistor
1
2 A
E wt m sin A.C.
inst ead of using a high-volt age divider , but t his lacks accur acy. For r out ine t est ing of mass-
pr oduced equipment , such quick met hods will be found quit e adequat e.
13.13.1 Voltage Dividers
Ther e ar e 3 t ypes of divider s: (a) pur ely r esist ive divider ; (b) a pur ely capacit ive divider ; and
(c) r esist ance-capacit ance divider . The for mer t wo ar e subject t o ser ious limit at ions for e.h.v.
wor k if pr ecaut ions ar e not t aken, which ar e over come in t he R-C divider .
R esi st i ve Vol t a ge Di vi d er
Figur e 13.29(a) shows a pur ely r esist ive divider consist ing of a high-volt age ar m R
h
, a low-
voltage arm R
1
at t he gr ound end, a cable wit h sur ge impedance R
c
t er minat ed at t he oscilloscope
end by a r esist ance R
c
equal t o t he sur ge impedance of t he cable t o pr event r eflect ions fr om t he
opened end of t he measur ing cable. In high-volt age oscilloscopes, t he ver t ical deflect ion cir cuit
offer s almost infinit e r esist ance and t her e is no r esist ance or capacit ance at t he input end as in
convent ional oscilloscopes. St andar d co-axial cables available for measur ement have R
c
= 50
ohms or 75 ohms.
The volt age r at io is
h v
V V r /
1
=
c c h h
c
c c h
c c
R R R R R R
R R
R R R R R
R R R R
1 1
1
1 1
1 1
) /(
) /(
+ +
+ +
+
...(13.76)
Exa mp le 13.13. Calculat e t he divider r at io when a 20 kilohm high-volt age ar m is connect ed
t o a 100-ohm l.v. ar m and t he cable has R
c
= 75 ohms.
Fi g. 13.29 Resist ive volt age divider . (a) Equivalent cir cuit . (b) St r ay capacit ances of divider .
Sol u t i on . The t ot al l.v. ar m r esist ance is 100 75/175 = 42.86 ohms.
Ther efor e r
v
= 42.86/(20,000 + 42.86) = 1/467.6
Also, 100 75/(20,000 175 + 100 75) = 1/467.6.
At e.h.v. levels, t he height of t he high-volt age lead above t he gr ounded floor of t he labor at or y
can be 20 met r es so t hat induct ances ar e pr esent in t he r esist ance. In addit ion, st r ay capacit ances
ar e pr esent which incr ease as t he gr ound is near ed. A r ealist ic cir cuit of even a pur ely r esist ive
divider is depict ed in Figure 13.29 (b). Scr eening of t he r esist or is t her efor e necessar y t o eliminat e
t hese st r ay capacit ances. An advant age of t he r esist ive divider is t he damping pr ovided for
V
b
R
1
R
h
R
c
R
c
V
1
Cable
H.V. Load
To
Scope
Rh
L
d
R
1
C
d
( ) b ( ) a
t r avelling waves on t he high-volt age lead connect ed fr om t he sour ce t o t he t est object . Ser ious
limit at ions of heat ing of t he divider limit s it s use for e.h.v. since t he r esist ance must be low
enough t o pr event t he impedance of t he st r ay capacit ances fr om affect ing t he measur ement s.
The value of R
h
is usually limit ed t o 5 t o 20 kilohms. It s use is mainly up t o 500 kV.
Ca p a ci t i ve Vol t a ge Di vi d er
A simplified diagr am of a capacit ive volt age divider , Figur e 13.30 consist s of t he high-
voltage arm C
h
wit h a capacit ance bet ween 300 and 1000pF, a low-volt age ar m C
1
, a measur ing
cable whose open end is connect ed t o t he ver t ical deflect ion cir cuit s of a CRO or a peak volt met er
or any high-input -impedance measur ing appar at us. It is not possible t o t er minat e t he cable at
t he far end by a r esist ance r
c
since t his would offer a ver y low impedance acr oss t he low-volt age
ar m, t her eby making t he out put volt age near ly zer o. Also, t he low-volt age capacit or C
1
will
dischar ge r apidly t o gr ound t hr ough t he low r esist ance R
c
if it is pr esent . Inst ead, a ser ies
r esist ance R
c
equal t o t he cable sur ge impedance is placed at t he ent r ance whose pur pose is t o
place
1
2
1
V acr oss t he cable. At t he open end t his volt age will double it s value by t ot al r eflect ion
giving a volt age equal t o V
1
acr oss t he measur ing inst r ument . Thus no cor r ect ion for calibr at ion
is necessar y.
Fi g. 13.30 Capacit ive volt age divider wit h r esist ance R
c
at ent r ance t o measur ing cable
This t ype of divider also suffer s fr om induct ance of t he high-volt age ar m which is ver y
t all, as well as t he effect of st r ay capacit ances. A t ypical high-volt age capacit or of 10-20 met r e
height at 25 cm diamet er has an induct ance bet ween 2.5 and 10 H. The nat ur al fr equency for
1000 pF and 5 H is
1
0
) 2 (

d d
C L f = 2.25 MHz, and for 500 pF and 2.5 H it is 4.5 MHz. A
light ning impulse r ising t o a peak value in 2.5 s is equivalent t o one-quar t er cycle of 0.1 MHz
waveshape. A st eeper r ise such as 100 ns t o peak value has a fr equency of 2.5 MHz. The
oscillat ions caused by t he divider L and C will be super imposed on t he fr ont of t he wave giving
an impur e light ning-impulse volt age which will be difficult t o calibr at e for t he wavefr ont t imings.
H.V. Lead
V
h
C
h
Rc
C
1
CRO
V
1
Rc
Anot her sour ce of er r or wit h such t all slender equipment is t hat t hey might act as ant ennas
t o pick up r -f r adiat ion fr om t he numer ous spar k gaps in an impulse gener at or which for m
quit e power ful spar k t r ansmit t er s. Anot her effect of t hese spar k gaps in ver y lar ge halls is
cavit y r esonance. In most e.h.v. labor at or ies t he r adiat ion fr om t hese spar ks is act ually r equir ed
in or der t o pr ovide a deflect ion volt age wit hout t ime delay t o t he hor izont al deflect ion plat es of
t he oscilloscope. The lengt h of measur ing cable connect ed t o t he ver t ical deflect ion plat es t hen
act s as a delay line so t hat t he ver t ical deflect ion volt age is impr essed wit h some t ime delay t o
enable t he full wavefor m t o be viewed on t he scr een.
Exa mp le 13.14. Select t he capacit ance r equir ed in t he l.v. ar m of a capacit ive divider t o
pr ovide a peak volt age of 500 volt s at t he oscilloscope when t he high-volt age ar m of t he divider
has C
h
= 1000 pF and t he volt age t o be measur ed is 1200 kV, peak. Omit t he cable sur ge
impedance and R
c
.
Sol u t i on . The r equir ed volt age r at io is
r
v
=
,
2400
1
10 1200
500
/ 1 / 1
/ 1
3
1
1 1
h h
C C
C
V
V
giving
C
1
/C
h
= 2400 1 = 2399.
Ther efor e C
1
= 2399 10
9
F = 2.399
h
C 2400 F .
Not e t hat t he low-volt age ar m has higher capacit ance which is almost equal t o t he high-
volt age capacit ance t imes t he volt age r at io
C
1
= (1/r
v
1) C
h
.
In or der t o r educe t he induct ance of t he low volt age capacit or and it s leads, t he t ot al
capacit ance would be usually made up of sever al capacit or s in par allel. In t he above example, 6
capacit or s of 0.4 F each might be solder ed t o heavy r ings at bot h ends.
In sect ion 13.5.1 and examples 13.3 and 13.4, it was shown how a swit ching-sur ge gener at or
r equir es a higher loading capacit or C
L
in compar ison t o a light ning-impulse gener at or for t he
same sour ce capacit ance C
s
. The values wer e 12 nF inst ead of 2 nF for t he t wo cases wit h C
s
=
83.3 nF. The capacit ive volt age divider offer s an advant age over a pur ely r esist ive divider by
act ing as an incr eased capacit ive load and t he same gener at or can deliver bot h a swit ching
sur ge and a light ning impulse if a r esist ive divider is used for t he lat t er . These can usually be
ar r anged wit h a capacit or inside t he insulat ing column sur r ounded by t he high-volt age r esist or s.
The low-volt age ar m is pr ovided wit h a swit ch which connect s eit her a pur e capacit ance or a
r esist ance. Pr oper swit ching of R
c
must also be made for such cases.
R esi st i ve-Ca pa ci t i ve Di vi d er
Figur e 13.31 shows t he ar r angement of r esist ances and capacit ances in t he high-volt age
ar m. The low-volt age ar m could consist of a r esist ance and capacit ance t o mat ch t he high-
volt age ar m t o pr ovide t he desir ed volt age division, but in most cases t he ver y low value of
r esist ance r equir ed can be neglect ed and only a suit able value of low-volt age capacit or C
1
is
sufficient .
The r esist ance ser ves a dual pur pose. It helps t o damp r eflect ions in t he high-volt age lead
t o t he t est object and cr it ically damp t he effect of ser ies induct ance in t he divider column it self.
Typical value of t ot al r esist ance of a divider for 1200 kV is 100 ohms for a capacit ance of 1000
pF. This will cr it ically damp any nat ur al oscillat ion in t he high-volt age ar m having an induct ance
of 2.5 H ) / 2 (
d d d
C L R . The effect of R
d d d d
L C R of t he divider on t he wavefr ont of a
light ning impulse has been fully analyzed in Sect ion 13.6.3 and shown in Figur e 13.12. The
pr esence of L
d
gives st eeper r ise of t he fr ont of t he wave as compar ed t o it s absence.
Fi g. 13.31 Resist ance-capacit ance volt age divider .
As ment ioned ear lier , t he r esist ive or pur e ohmic volt age divider cannot be nor mally used
for measur ing all t ypes of volt age waveshapes because of t he st r ay ear t h capacit ance whose
effect can be minimized if not eliminat ed by using scr eening elect r odes or using a ver y low
value of r esist ance of t he high-volt age ar m. This will, in t ur n, have a limit ed t her mal r at ing for
t he ver y high volt ages t o be measur ed. In or der t o have a ver y low elect r ical t ime const ant t o
r epr oduce t he volt age fait hfully, t he pr oduct of r esist ance and effect ive st r ay capacit ance must
be low which again r equir es a low value of r esist ance. Fur t her mor e, it cannot act as a load for
gener at ing composit e waves (bot h light ning and swit ching) fr om t he same gener at or .
For t he pur ely capacit ive divider , t he st r ay capacit ance t o ear t h can be t aken int o account
in t he over all r esponse since it adds t o t he capacit ance of t he high-volt age ar m. The pur e
capacit ance, however , cannot damp oscillat ions caused by t r avelling waves or lead induct ances.
Ther efor e, a damped capacit ive divider of t he R-C t ype is found advant ageous and has been
applied for measur ing volt age var iat ions wit h as st eep a r ise t o peak value as 100 ns = 0.1 s,
and for volt age magnit udes of sever al megavolt s.
Ther e ar e essent ially t wo t ypes of damped capacit ive divider s: (1) t he cr it ically-damped
divider ; (2) t he low-damped divider . Bot h t hese use ser ies-connect ed set s of R-C element s. In
t he cr it ically-damped divider , t he t ot al r esist ance equals R =
e d
C L / 2 , wher e L
d
= induct ance
H.V. Lead
R'
R'
R'
C'h
C'h
C'
h
C
h
Rd
C
1
Rc Rc
Cable
CRO
In gener al t he value of r esist ance r equir ed r anges fr om 400 t o 1000 ohms for volt ages
higher t han 1 MV = 1000 kV. C
e
is of t he or der of 50-150 pF and L is 5 t o 10 H.
(2) For a low-damped capacit ive divider , t he r esist ance is kept bet ween 0.25 t o 1.5 t imes
h h
C L / , wher e now L
h
= induct ance of t he ent ir e loop of t he high-volt age equipment and
measur ing syst em (which may be as much as 20 m 20 m), and C
h
= capacit ance of t he h.v. par t
of t he divider only. In t his case t he h.v. lead has consider able induct ance, and t he r esist ance
used equals near ly it s sur ge impedance. For a hor izont al lead, t he sur ge impedance is 120 ln
(2H/r), wher e H = height of lead above a conduct ing plane and r = r adius of lead. For a ver t ical
r od, it is near ly 60 ln (2H/r) wher e H = height of t he r od. Based upon t hese values, t he t ime
const ant in t he divider is kept below 100 ns for r epr oducing light ning impulses of 1.2/50 s.
This usually r equir es r esist ances in t he r ange of 50 t o 300 ohms for divider s meant for 1 MV
and higher volt ages.
Since t he cr it ically-damped divider r equir es a value of r esist ance higher t han t he sur ge
impedance of t he h.v. lead, it is connect ed at t he h.v. t er minal of t he impulse gener at or . The
low-damped divider , on t he ot her hand, can be mat ched t o t he sur ge impedance of t he lead and
pr ovides a good compr omise. When t he impulse gener at or wit h t he leads and divider is designed
by t he same manufact ur er , opt imum design can be achieved.
We now obser ve t hat t he best compr omise consist s of t he following scheme, Figur e 13.33.
In or der t o damp t he oscillat ion occur r ing on t he fr ont of t he impulse which is caused by t he
gener at or induct ance, an int er nal ser ies r esist ance in each st age amount ing t o a t ot al of R
si
is
necessar y. The wavet ail-shaping r esist or R
t
is connect ed inside t he gener at or in each st age. A
par t of t he wavefr ont -shaping r esist or is connect ed as R
se
at t he head of t he h.v. lead t o t he
volt age divider and t est object locat ed 15 t o 20 m away. The volt age divider can be of low-
damped or cr it ically-damped t ype wit h an int er nal r esist ance R
d
.
Fi g. 13.33 Complet e equivalent cir cuit of impulse gener at or wit h int er nal damping r esist or R
si
,
ext er nal ser ies r esist ance R
se
, wavet ail-shaping-r esist or R
t
, damped R-C divider and t est object .
13.13.2 The High-Speed Oscilloscope
For measur ing light ning impulses and chopped waves, ver y high fr equency r esponse is necessar y
in an oscilloscope. A 50 MHz oscilloscope is usually aimed at . For a full 1.2/50 s wave, t he
highest fr equency component in a fr equency spect r um goes t o 1 MHz, and if t he wave is chopped
at 0.5 s on t he fr ont t he fr equency r equir ed is 20 MHz. When used wit h volt age divider s, t he
full-scale deflect ion of t he oscilloscope r anges fr om 500 volt s t o 2000 volt s so t hat impulse
oscilloscopes must handle much higher volt ages t han convent ional gener al pur pose oscilloscopes.
E0
Cs
R
si
R
se
R
d
C
d
Ct To
Scope
R
t
S G
+
Lead
To Test
Object
The hor izont al deflect ion should be capable of being expanded t o 2 s full scr een in or der t o
view t he wavefr ont pr oper ly.
J ust as in all oscilloscopes used for viewing ver y fast phenomena, t he ver t ical deflect ion
plat es must get t heir volt age aft er a set t ime delay following t he hor izont al-axis deflect ion
volt age. A delay line or cir cuit wit h ver y low at t enuat ion is necessar y. The delay pr ovided by a
coaxial cable having dielect r ic of per mit t ivit y = 2.5 is T
d
=
9 8
10 27 . 5 10 3 / 5 . 2

sec =
5.27 ns per met r e, since t he velocit y is pr opor t ional t o t he r ecipr ocal of . Figur e 13.34 shows
t he T-ar r angement r equir ed t o mat ch t he cables t o t he t wo deflect ion plat es wit h t he incoming-
cable sur ge impedance of R
c
. When viewed fr om point P t owar ds t he oscilloscope, t he impedance
must equal R
c
so t hat
c c
R R R R + + ) (
2
1
giving 3 /
c
R R . For 50-ohm cables, t he r esist ance
t o be connect ed in t he T-junct ion is R =
3
2
16
ohms and for 75-ohm cables, t he r esist ance t o be
connect ed in t he T-junct ion is R = 25 ohms.
Fi g. 13.34 T -net wor k for mat ching hor izont al and ver t ical input cables t o
oscilloscope wit h cable fr om low-volt age ar m of volt age divider .
When such mat ching T-net wor ks ar e used, t he ver t ical deflect ion r equir es a calibr at ion
cor r ect ion because t he volt age dr op in R is 33.3% of t he volt age r eaching t he end of t he lead at
P. The deflect ion obser ved on t he oscilloscope scr een will be mult iplied by 1.5 t o obt ain t he t r ue
volt age of t he l.v. ar m of t he volt age divider .
This can be eliminat ed if t he signal t o t he hor izont al deflect ion plat es is pr ovided by ot her
means. The scheme used is t o pick up t he r adiat ed h-f ener gy fr om t he lar ge number of spar k
gaps, which br eak down when t he impulse gener at or is fir ed, by means of a r od ant enna. This
is connect ed t o t he hor izont al deflect ion cir cuit of t he oscilloscope t hr ough as shor t a lengt h of
coaxial cable as possible. The measur ing cable fr om t he l.v. ar m of t he volt age divider will t hen
act as a delay line or an ar t ificial delay line can be pr ovided for suit able t ime delay t o t he
ver t ical deflect ion plat es.
13.13.3 The Peak Voltmeter and the Sphere Gap
The oscilloscope pr ovides a pict ur e of t he waveshape of an impulse and offer s a means of
checking t he t imings and pur it y of t he volt age as r equir ed by St andar d Specificat ion. Once t his
Vert. Div
Rc Rc
R J
J
R
P
R
P
R
c
Hor
R = R
c
/3
2
3
R
c
is ver ified and cir cuit const ant s adjust ed suit ably, it will only be necessar y t o have an indicat ion
of t he peak value of t he volt age. For t his pur pose, a simpler inst r ument is used. Figur e 13.35
shows t he schemat ic cir cuit diagr am of a peak-measur ing volt met er . Her e, t he diode D will
char ge t he auxiliar y capacit or C
m
t o t he peak value of impulse which is obt ained acr oss t he low-
volt age ar m of t he volt age divider . This is indicat ed on a volt met er PVM, or on a micr o-ammet er
connect ed in ser ies wit h t he dischar ge r esist or R
d
. This r esist ance is necessar y in or der t hat
t he met er capacit ance C
m
can be r eady for next impulse. A second diode can be used for t he
opposit e polar it y of t he incoming signal.
Fi g. 13.35 Cir cuit diagr am of peak volt met er .
Spher e gaps have been st andar d pieces of measur ing equipment in a labor at or y, but t hey
ar e now finding lit t le or no use for e.h.v. needed for t est ing. The PVM and SG volt met er cannot
indicat e t he waveshape but only t he peak values. In addit ion, a spher e gap can be adjust ed t o
limit t he peak value of volt age acr oss t he t est piece by suit ably adjust ing t he gap lengt h. The
spher e gap br eakdown is ver y consist ent and it s accur acy is wit hin 3%. At mospher ic cor r ect ion
fact or s ar e necessar y wher e t he br eakdown volt age depends upon t he air densit y fact or
=
,
1013
.
273
273
760
.
273
273
0 0 m mm
b
t
t p
t
t
+
+
+
+
...(13.80)
wher e t
0
= 20C, t = t emper at ur e in labor at or y C, p
mm
= bar omet r ic pr essur e in mm Hg
and b
m
= bar omet r ic pr essur e in millibar s. For light ning impulses, t he br eakdown volt age
var ies dir ect ly wit h , while for swit ching sur ges it var ies as
7 . 0
. One may appr oximat e t he
bar omet r ic pr essur e t o decr ease by 7.5 mm or 10 millibar s for ever y 100 met r es incr ease in
elevat ion. Temper at ur e has ver y lit t le effect on t he pr essur e, but st andar d specificat ions must
be consult ed. Accor ding t o Indian St andar ds, t he t emper at ur e cor r ect ion is
b
m
= 1013 (1 1.8 10
4
t ) ...(13.81)
13.13.4 The Digital Recorder
A r ecent development in st or ing and displaying an impulse volt age wavefor m t oget her wit h all
t est det ails is t he Digit al Recor der , which uses t he facilit y of fast sampling of s-phenomena
and st or ing t hem. It is believed by t hose t hat have developed t his inst r ument t hat it will
event ually r eplace t he high-speed oscilloscope, for impulse and ot her t ypes of measur ement in
h.v. t est ing. [See No. 73, IEEE, in Bibliogr aphy].
Ch
Cl
Cm
R
d
D
e t ( )
PVM
H.V. Lead
V
m
A comput er pr ogr ammed t o display all essent ial pr oper t ies such as t he peak value, t ime
t o peak, fr ont t ime, over shoot , t ime t o 50% on t ail, r at e of r ise in kV/ s, and any ot her desir ed
pr oper t y facilit at es analysis of t he r ecor ded wavefor m ver y easily. The wavefor m can be displayed
on a comput er gr aphic scr een, st or ed on magnet ic t ape for fut ur e use, or a har d copy can be
obt ained for cust omer dist r ibut ion or st or age.
The wavefor m is sampled at a ver y high r at e such as 10 ns/sample, and t he use of 8-bit
wor d lengt h per mit s 2
8
= 256 discr et e volt age levels t o be r ecor ded and st or ed. The only limit at ion
for high sampling r at e is t he band widt h of t he digit al r ecor der s, which ar e however higher
t han t hose of convent ional oscilloscopes. Some high-fr equency oscillat ion which is lost in an
oscilloscope has been handled by t he A/D conver t er s in t he Digit al Recor der . Pr e-t r igger ing
phenomena, which occur befor e t he wavefor m commences, can also be st or ed wher e necessar y.
Because of t he use of int egr at ed cir cuit s, which ar e influenced by t he ener gy r adiat ed by
t he dischar ge of spar k gaps in an impulse gener at or , t hese elect r onic cir cuit s must be shielded
ver y well, even t hough t hey may be inst alled in a Far aday cage enclosing t he cont r ol desk and
oper at or . Ideally, t he shield should be an ent ir ely enclosed box made fr om t hick sheet met al
wit h an ext r emely low r esist ivit y. The cur r ent s induced in t he met al will set up fields t o count er
t he ext er nal dist ur bing e.m. fields. Any obst r uct ion t o t he flow of t his cur r ent , such as holes or
high-r esist ance welds and seams or door s wit h gaps, will r educe t he effect iveness of t he shielded
enclosur e. Even t he lead-in for cables will affect it s per for mance. Resear ch and development of
such Digit al Recor der s wit h display and st or age is pr ogr essing r apidly and t his is a ver y new
t echnique.
13.13.5 Use of Fibre Optics in H.V. Measurements in Laboratories and
Stations
Fibr e opt ics and associat ed t r ansmit t er -r eceiver s have now assumed ver y gr eat impor t ance
and wide use in high-fr equency communicat ion. Their insulat ing pr oper t ies and fr eedom fr om
e.m. int er fer ence make t hem excellent r eplacement s for convent ional coaxial cables for high-
volt age measur ement s. Fut ur e measur ement s, cont r ol, and communicat ion can be said t o
belong t o opt ical fibr es. The sizes of e.h.v. swit chyar ds and subst at ions have become so lar ge
t hat t he lengt h of cont r ol and communicat ion cables ar e subject t o int er fer ence due t o gr ound-
mat pot ent ial r ise which could int er fer e even wit h pr oper r elay oper at ion. Fur t her mor e, t he
use of mini-comput er s a nd micr o-pr ocessor s a r e a lso subject t o such pot ent ia l r ises a nd
int er fer ence. Opt ical t echnology can pr ovide t he elect r ical isolat ion r equir ed and fr eedom fr om
inject ed int er fer ing noise. They also pr ovide fast er t r ansmission or t r ansfer of dat a t han
convent ional cables. Schemes ar e now under const r uct ion wher eby car r ier -t ype communicat ion
and cont r ol can be car r ied out bet ween gener at ing and r eceiving st at ions by fibr e opt ical links,
since t hey can car r y a ver y lar ge number of channels. Micr owave communicat ion is impeded by
hills and ot her obst r uct ions which ar e eliminat ed wit h t he use of fibr e-opt ical links.
Opt ical fibr es ar e also used in high-volt age labor at or ies for measur ement of t he ext r emely
high volt ages. It has always been t he pr act ice t o locat e t he low-volt age ar m of t he divider near
gr ound in or der t o pr ot ect t he measur ing equipment and t he oper at or fr om exper iencing high
volt age. By t he use of an opt ical-fibr e link, t he low-volt age ar m can be placed at t he high
volt age end of t he divider t her eby eliminat ing any st r ay capacit ances caused by near ness t o t he
labor at or y gr ound floor . An opt ical isolat or is used t o insulat e t he measur ing equipment fr om
t he high volt age. This scheme uses a light -emit t ing diode (LED) which is ener gized fr om t he
volt age developed acr oss t he low-volt age ar m. The light int ensit y, modulat ed by t he impulse or
ot her wavefor m t o be measur ed, can be made t o fall on a phot odiode or t r ansist or which sends
t he signal t hr ough t he opt ical fibr e link t o t he measur ing equipment . Opt ical isolat or s pr ovide
effect ively t he insulat ing clear ances.
13.13.6 Measurement of Partial Discharges
Localized elect r ical dischar ges inside high-volt age equipment ar e ver y impor t ant for t heir effect
on insulat ion det er ior at ion. They ar e t he r esult of ionizat ion in cavit ies or along t he sur faces of
solid dielect r ics. Par t ial dischar ges give r ise t o cor ona-t ype pulses over a ver y wide fr equency
r ange, which ar e pr opagat ed fr om t he sour ce of par t ial dischar ge t hr ough cir cuit capacit ances
in t he windings of t r ansfor mer and along t he conduct or s. The measur ement of t hese dischar ges
is r ecommended by IEC Publicat ion No. 270, 1980 and in IS 2026: Power Tr ansfor mer s.
Fi g. 13.36 Cir cuit for measur ement of par t ial dischar ges
One example of t he many schemes available is given in Figur e 13.36. The measur ing
device M consist s of an oscilloscope or a r adio noise met er for displaying t he q-V r elat ionship as
a Lissajous figur e or t he conduct ed noise in micr ovolt s. In most t r ansfor mer s 1 pico coulomb
corresponds to 1 V on t he noise met er , but t his depends upon t he capacit ance of t he winding
fr om t he sour ce of p.d. t o t he high volt age t er minal wher e t he measur ing syst em is locat ed.
Volt age is applied t o t he object under t est , E. The t r ansfor mer must be fr ee of par t ial
dischar ge up t o t he t est volt age. A filt er F is int er posed bet ween t he t r ansfor mer and t est
object so t hat all ener gy in t he par t ial dischar ge goes t o t he measur ing syst em and none int o
t he sour ce t r ansfor mer which pr esent s a low impedance t o t he h-f pulses. The p.d. pulses ar e
t r ansmit t ed t o t he coupling capacit or and a damped t uned cir cuit consist ing of t he volt age-
divider induct ance and a r esist or . The ent ir e measur ing syst em must also be fr ee fr om par t ial
dischar ges. The coupling capacit or is filled wit h nit r ogen at high pr essur e. The ent ir e syst em
must be enclosed in a Far aday cage and scr eened fr om ext er nal dischar ges. The design of a
pr oper ly shielded enclosur e which pr event s ext er nal e.m. dist ur bances fr om r eaching t he p.d.
mea sur ing equipment is a highly specia lized t opic a nd will not be discussed her e. P.D.
measur ement s ar e diagnost ic t est s and can give an indicat ion of a fault t hat might develop
pr ogr essively inside high volt age equipment such as t r ansfor mer s, cables and ot her equipment
using ver y t hick insulat ion.
Lf
Cf
50 Hz
A.C.
Test
Object
C
L
R
M
13.14 GENERAL LAYOUT OF E.H.V. LABORATORIES
We end t his chapt er wit h some infor mat ion on t he design and layout of e.h.v. labor at or ies,
chiefly of t he indoor t ype. Out door labor at or ies for ext r emely high volt ages ar e also used in
or der t o save t he high cost of t he building, but t he equipment cost is higher . A combinat ion of
indoor and out door labor at or ies also exist s since some t est s such as pollut ion and r adio
int er fer ence r equir e closed chamber s. Out door equipment r equir es st eel t anks and por celain
insulat or housing t o guar d against t he element s. We shall give some examples of labor at or y
layout . It is assumed t hat t he highest volt ages r equir ed in t he t est ing equipment have been
decided by t he designer based on t he t ype of t est s t o be per for med.
Cl ea r a n ces
The dimensions of labor at or ies will depend upon:
(a) t he highest volt age for which t he lab is designed,
(b) t he number of pieces of equipment r equir ed,
(c) t he air gap clear ances t o be maint ained, and
(d) t he t ypes of t est s t o be conduct ed and sizes of t est object s.
Over and above t he r equir ement of a main hall, annexes have t o be pr ovided for r esear ch,
development and auxiliar y equipment , as well as offices. The following r ecommended clear ances
can be used as a guide for design.
(1) For Power Frequency Test s
Up t o 1000 kV a linear ly incr easing clear ance of at least 4 met r es will be necessar y. The
50% fla shover va lue of a r od-pla ne ga p for power -fr equency is given a ppr oxima t ely by
576 . 0
50
. 652 d V kV peak wit h d in met r es. The following gap lengt hs ar e t hen necessar y: 1000
kV r .m.s. 3.835 met r es, 1500 kV 7.754 met r es, 2000 kV 12.8 met r es.
Exa mp le 13.15. An air gap clear ance is t o be designed for a wit hst and volt age of 1500 kV,
r .m.s. The wit hst and volt age is 80% of 50% flashover volt age. For a r od-plane gap, calculat e t he
minimum clear ance r equir ed.
Sol u t i on . 50% flashover volt age = 8 . 0 / 2 1500 = 2651.65 kV, peak.
Ther efor e, 2651.65 = 652. d
0.576
giving d = 11.42 met r es.
(2) Lightning-Impulse Clearances
For volt age up t o t he highest value used for light ning-impulse t est s (6 t o 7 MV) t he r equir ed
clear ance r ises linear ly wit h volt age, as has been discussed in Chapt er 11. A clear ance of 2
met r es for each 1000 kV is necessar y. The impulse flashover for mula is V
50
= 500d for a r od-
plane gap (V
50
in kV and d in met r es). The wit hst and volt age can be assumed t o be 80% of V
50
,
so t hat a 2-met r e gap will wit hst and 800 kV, cr est . For ot her t ypes of gap, t he same gap lengt h
can wit hst and higher values of volt age.
(3) D.C.
A clear ance of 4 met r es for ever y 1000 kV is r ecommended.
(4) S wit ching S urges
A given elect r ode geomet r y exhibit s t he weakest elect r ical st r engt h for posit ive-polar it y
swit ching sur ge, as descr ibed in chapt er 11. The r ecommended clear ance is d = 4(MV)
2
, which
gives 4 met r es for 1000 kV cr est and 16 met r es for 2000 kV, cr est .
The r od-plane CFO is V
50
= 500. d
0.6
kV cr est accor ding t o Par is's for mula. This yields d =
3.2 m for 1000 kV and 10.1 met r es for 2000 kV, cr est . Wit h t he wit hst and volt age being 80% of
CFO, t he clear ances r equir ed ar e 4.6 m for 1000 kV wit hst and and 14.6 m for 2000 kV wit hst and.
General Layout
The clear ances given above will help t o dimension t he layout of equipment . In or der t o
r educe t he size r equir ed for a hall, one might obser ve t hat t her e is no need for using all t he
sour ces of high volt age simult aneously. For example, ver y r ar ely if ever is a swit ching impulse
t est car r ied out simult aneously wit h power -fr equency t est . This enables t he t r ansfor mer t o be
moved out of it s per manent locat ion dur ing t est s, if it is mount ed on wheels. Similar ly, for t he
impulse gener at or . When t his philosophy is adopt ed, it is sufficient t o const r uct t he floor of
st eel and pave it wit h smoot h cement . An ar r angement for supplying a cushion of pr essur ized
air under t he base of t he heavy equipment will facilit at e easy movement . The appr oximat e
weight of a 2000-kV power fr equency t r ansfor mer for indoor use of t he insulat ing-cylinder t ype
is 100 Tonnes. An impulse gener at or for 6 MV and 30 kJ weighs 25 Tones appr oximat ely.
Lar ge halls have a met allic scr een in t heir walls t o act as shield in or der t o pr event e.m.
r adiat ion fr om sour ces ext er nal t o t he building, such as ignit ion spar k r adiat ion et c., ent er ing
t he hall t her eby dist ur bing sensit ive measur ement s such as par t ial dischar ges and r adio
int er fer ence (RIV) in t he V r ange at 0.5 t o 1.5 MHz. However , wit h t he ver y lar ge number of
spar k gaps dischar ging t he impulse gener at or , t his met allic shield in t he walls will r eflect t he
ener gy back int o t he hall and dist ur b not only RIV measur ement s but also t he st eep-r ising
fr ont of t he light ning impulse it self. This effect is known as Cavit y Resonance. A semiconduct ing
coat ing on t he inside of all walls of t he huge hall will pr event t he r e-r adiat ion. Many labor at or ies
have used chicken-wir e mesh on t he inside. An out door labor at or y is fr ee fr om cavit y r esonance
but it will be subject t o e.m. int er fer ence fr om sour ces out side labor at or y ar ea such as passing
vehicles (ignit ion r adiat ion), welding equipment near by, mot or s, et c. In ever y case, t her efor e,
a compr omise has t o be effect ed such as const r uct ing specially-shielded r ooms for sensit ive
measur ement s and lead t he high-volt age connect ion t hr ough a wall bushing fr om an out door
gener at or . Such bushings ar e ver y heavy and long, r equir ing pr oper suppor t .
Gr ounding gr ids in e.h.v. labor at or ies and ear t hing wells need ver y special car e. It is
consider ed beyond t he scope of t his book t o deal wit h t his pr oblem.
Exa mp le 13.16. Design a possible layout of a labor at or y t o be equipped wit h t he following
high-volt age equipment . Ot her specificat ions ar e also supplied.
(1) Lightning and S witching Impulse Generator
4000 kV out put volt age. Char ging volt age per st age 200 kV, st age capacit ance 1.5 F,
ener gy 30 kJ , number of st ages 20. Gener at or height 15 met r es, elect r ode height 2m. Requir ed
clear ances: Light ning 8m, swit ching 26 m. Gener at or base 3 m on side.
(2) Power Frequency Transformer
3-unit cascade, 1500 kV, 1A. Insulat ed cylinder t ype. Appr oximat e height t o t he t op of t he
high-volt age elect r ode 15 m. Requir ed clear ance is 8 m all r ound. Pr ovide one mor e gr ound
unit for higher cur r ent out put connect ed in par allel wit h t he fir st or base unit of 3-unit cascade.
Clear ance = 3m. Bases: 1500 kV 5m on side. 500 kV 3.5 m on side.
(3) D.C. Generat or
2000 kV, 10 mA. Height 10 m, base 2 m on side.
(4) Voltage Divider
Same height as impulse gener at or . Dist ance fr om gener at or = 20 m.
(5) S pace for Test Object
10 m along t he lengt h of hall.
(6) Cont rol Room
As annexe t o t he main hall. 15 m long, 6 m wide.
Sol u t i on .
Figur e 13.37 shows a possible plan and elevat ion of t he labor at or y showing dimensions of
equipment and r equir ed clear ances. No at t empt has been made t o move equipment fr om t heir
per manent locat ions. The main point s t o not e ar e t he following: clear ance fr om IG t o walls 26
m for swit ching sur ge. Dist ance bet ween IG and Volt age divider 20 m. IG t o DC set 18 m.
Clear ance fr om IG t o t est object 18 m.
Dist ance fr om 50 Hz t r ansfor mer cascade t o wall 8 m; t o volt age divider 5 m.
Compensat ing r eact or ar e placed against walls.
Fi g. 13.37 Plan and elevat ion of gener al layout of a e.h.v. labor at or y for 4000 kV impulse,
1500 kV power fr equency and 2000 kV dc volt age.
Reactors
Control
15
6
10
18
26
26
26
5
7

m
4
3
67 m
67 m
50 Hz
Trans
Test
Area
V.D.
I.G.
12
17 17 15
50 Hz
V.D I.G
18
1. What ar e t he st andar d waveshapes used for t he following t ypes of sur ges? (a) Light ning
vol t a ge, (b) Light ning Cur r ent , (c) Swit ching impulse for t est ing line ma t er ia l,
(d) Swit ching impulse for t r ansfor mer t est s. Give neat sket ches and indicat e all
magnit udes and t imings.
2. A double-exponent ial volt age r ises t o peak value in t
m
= 0.1 s and falls t o 50% value
on t ail at t
t
= 0.3 s. Det er mine it s equat ion ) ( ) (
t t
e e E t e

by calculat ing E/V
P
,
and . What t ype of volt age is t his?
3. An impulse gener at or wit h sour ce capacit ance C
s
= 125 nF and load capacit ance 5 nF
is r equir ed t o gener a t e a double-exponent ia l volt a ge of 1.2 s/50 s. Calculat e
appr oximat ely t he values of fr ont and t ail r esist ances R
f
and R
t
.
4. What ar e t he t hr ee places wher e induct ance is pr esent in an impulse gener at or ?
Discuss t heir effect on measur ed wavefor ms of volt age by a volt age divider .
5. What is a cr it ically-damped divider and an under -damped divider ? Wher e ar e t hey
used?
6. In pr oblem 3, t her e ar e 12 capacit or s wit h each st age having 125 nF capacit ance and
t he char ging volt age per st age is 200 kV. Calculat e it s ener gy when (a) all st ages ar e
connect ed in ser ies, (b) t he st ages ar e r e-connect ed wit h 2 capacit or s in par allel in 6
st a ges, (c) all 12 capacit or s ar e connect ed in par allel int o 1 st age.
7. An impulse cur r ent gener at or has 6 impulse capacit or s each of 0.2 F in par allel. The
desir ed waveshape is t
m
= 8 s and t
t
= 20 s. Calculat e (a) t he appr oximat e values of
r esist ance and induct ance allowable in t he cir cuit t o gener at e double-exponent ial
cur r ent wavefor m and (b) t he char ging volt age t o obt ain 15 kA t hr ough an ar r est er
whose r esidual volt age st ays const ant at 20 kV, peak.
8. Dr aw a neat diagr am of an insulat ing cylinder t ype of cascade-connect ed t r ansfor mer
wit h 3 st ages showing power input , t he windings wit h int er nal compensat ing r eact or s
and measur ing cir cuit s.
9. A pur e capacit ive divider has high-volt age ar m of 495 pF r at ed for 2.4 MV. The divider
r at io is 990/1. Calculat e t he value of capacit ance of t he low-volt age ar m and it s volt age
r at ing.
10. Dr aw t he cir cuit diagr am of a peak volt met er and explain t he pr inciple of oper at ion.
See D. Kind, under "Books" in Bibliogr aphy.
14.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapt er will be devot ed t o a discussion of t he applicat ion of all t he mat er ial of pr evious
chapt er s t o evolve met hods of design of e.h.v. lines. Two impor t ant gover ning fact or s st r essed
her e ar e (1) st eady-st at e oper at ing limit s, and (2) insulat ion design based upon t r ansient
over volt ages. Ot her pr oblems usually associat ed wit h t r ansmission lines ar e (a) t r ansient and
dynamic st abilit y, and (b) shor t -cir cuit cur r ent s and volt ages. These depend on t he char act er ist ics
of t he connect ed gener at ing st at ions and syst em int er -connect ion and cannot be discussed
her e. But such a st udy has t o be conduct ed aft er t he line is designed and some fact or s might
have t o be modified.
High-volt age insulat ion pr oblems can be gener alized in sequent ial st eps when t he syst em
t r ansient st udies ar e conduct ed and t he air -gap insulat ion char act er ist ics ar e under st ood t o
offer a pr oper level of safe oper at ion which is det er mined on a pr obabilit y basis of allowing a
cer t ain level of line out ages. But t he st eady-st at e compensat ion r equir ement s depend upon t he
power t r ansmit t ed and line lengt h. The differ ent t ypes of r eact ive-power compensat ion discussed
in Chapt er 12 can be divided int o t he following cat egor ies:
(1) Lines for which compensat ing equipment is pr ovided at only t he r eceiving-end of t he
line acr oss t he load. Such schemes use synchr onouse condenser s, swit ched capacit or s,
st at ic Var syst ems and r egulat ing t r ansfor mer s wit h on-load t ap-changing facilit y.
These lines ar e shor t .
(2) Those for which st at ic shunt -r eact or compensat ion is r equir ed at no load condit ions
for volt age cont r ol at t he t wo ends. These ar e per manent ly connect ed and swit ched
capacit or s acr oss t he load t ake car e of compensat ion r equir ed for load var iat ion at
t he r eceiving end. These lines can be t er med medium lengt h in so far as e.h.v.
t r ansmission is concer ned.
(3) Condit ions for which t he load r equir ement necessit at es ser ies-capacit or compensat ion
along t he line in addit ion t o shunt -r eact or compensat ion at t he ends for volt age cont r ol
on no load. Swit ched capacit or s will t ake car e of load condit ions for volt age cont r ol.
These lines can be consider ed as long.
14
Des i gn of EHV Li n es Ba s ed u pon S t ea d y S t a t e
Li m i t s a n d Tra n s i en t Overvol t a ges
(4) Lines which necessit at e an int er mediat e swit ching st at ion wher e shunt r eact or s ar e
pr ovided in addit ion t o ser ies capacit or s in t he t wo line sect ions along wit h shunt -
compensat ing r eact or s for no-load condit ions acr oss t he sour ce and load. These ar e
ext r a-long lines.
The t heor y and analysis of t hese t ypes have been cover ed in Chapt er 12. Air gap insulat ion
char act er ist ics have been dealt wit h in Chaper 11. We will discuss design pr ocedur es t hr ough
examples of sever al t ypes of lines based upon t he pr inciples set for t h in all t he ear lier chapt er s.
The gover ning cr it er ia for line design ar e post ulat ed below and discussed fur t her .
14.2 DESIGN FACTORS UNDER STEADY STATE
All designs can be consider ed as synt hesis of analyt ical pr ocedur es t hat ar e available and an
enumer at ion of t he limit s and const r aint s under which line designs have t o be car r ied out . The
st eady-st at e consider at ions ar e t he following:
(a) Maximum allowable bus volt ages and acr oss equipment for a given volt age level.
These ar e specified by St andar ds and given in Chapt er s 2 and 11.
(b) Cur r ent densit y in conduct or s which det er mine t he cr oss sect ional ar ea, t he r esult ing
t emper at ur e r ise, et c. These wer e discussed in Chapt er 3.
(c) Bundling, cor ona-incept ion gr adient , and ener gy for t hese fact or s ar e impor t ant for
fixing t he conduct or diamet er and number of conduct or s in t he bundle and have been
discussed in Chapt er s 4 and 5.
(d) Elect r ost at ic field under t he line at 50 Hz cover ed in Chapt er 7.
(e) Audible noise and r adio int er fer ence discussed in Chapt er s 5 and 6.
( f ) Compensat ion r equir ement s for volt age cont r ol as descr ibed in Chapt er 12.
A summar y of equat ions and const r aint s can be given her e.
(a) The limit s for maximum oper at ing volt ages ar e as follows:
Nominal S yst em kV 220 345 400 500 735765 1000 1150
Maximuim Equipment kV 245 362 420 525 765 1050 1200
The power -handling capacit y of a single cir cuit can be assumed for commencing t he design
t o be P = 0.5 V
2
/Lx, MW/cir cuit wit h V in kV, line-line, L = line lengt h in km, and x = t ot al
ser ies r eact ance per km per phase. The % power loss is P = 50 r/x, wher e r = line r esist ance
per km per phase. Based on t he t ot al power t o be t r ansmit t ed, t he number of cir cuit s can be
decided for a chosen volt age level. Sever al volt age levels should be select ed and alt er nat ive
designs wor ked out , since design r equir ement s var y fr om locat ion t o locat ion. It has been
discussed ear lier t hat one 1200kV cir cuit can car r y as much power as 3750 kV lines and 12
400 lines for t he same dist ance of t r ansmission.
(b) Cur r ent densit y nor mally encount er ed lies bet ween 0.75 A/mm
2
t o 1 A/mm
2
. At t he
lower values for car r ying t he same cur r ent (det er mined by power per cir cuit and
chosen volt age level) conduct or s t end t o be lar ger t han at t he higher value of cur r ent
densit y which r eflect on t he sur face volt age gr adient and cor ona effect s.
(c) Char ge of bundled conduct or s gover ns t he elect r ost at ic field in line vicinit y, t he sur face
volt age gr adient on conduct or s and t he r esult ing RI, AN, and cor ona loss. The char ge
per unit lengt h on t he 3-phase conduct or s is ], ][ [ 2 ] [
0
V M e q wher e t he volt age
Design of EHV Lines Based upon Steady State Limits and Transient Overvoltages 411
mat r ix is
t
V V ] 120 1 , 120 1 , 0 1 [ ] [ in t he st eady st at e wit h V = r .m.s. va lue of
line-t o-neut r al volt age in volt s. The mat r ix
, ] [ ] [
1
P M
wher e [ P ] is t he Maxwell's
pot ent ial-coefficient mat r ix wit h t he element s . ) / ln( ), / 2 ln( j i A I P r H P
ij ij ij eq i ii

Her e H
i
= height of conduct or i above gr ound, I
ij
= dist ance bet ween conduct or i and
t he image of conduct or j, A
ij
= aer ial dist ance bet ween conduct or s i and j, and r
eq
=
geomet r ic mean r adius or equivalent r adius of bundle =
N R r N R
N
, ) / . (
/ 1
number
of sub-conduct or s, r = sub-conduct or r adius, R = bundle r adius, and i, j = 1, 2, 3.
The r esult ing induct ance mat r ix is [L] = 0.2 [P] mH/km (or

H/m), and t he capacit ance
ma t r ix is ], [ 2 ] [
0
M e C Fa r a d/m (t h e fa ct or , F/m 10 55 . 55 18 / 10 2
12 9
0

e
wher e . F/M) 842 . 8
0
e
For t he 3 phases,
'
+ +
+ +
+ +
] 120 120 0 [ 2 /
] 120 120 0 [ 2 /
] 120 120 0 [ 2 /
33 32 31 0 3
23 22 21 0 2
13 12 11 0 1
M M M V e q
M M M V e q
M M M V e q
...(14.1)
(d) Elect rost at ic Field
The hor izont al and ver t ical component s of field ar e det er mined at a point A(x, y)
wher e x and y ar e it s coor dinat es wit h r efer ence t o a chosen or igin. A convenient
locat ion is at gr ound under t he cent r e phase. Then:
(i) Ver t ical component due t o phase i will be
) (i E
v
= ] ) /( ) ( / ) ).[( 2 / (
2 ' 2
0 i i i i i
D y H D y H e q + + ...(14.2)
(ii) Hor izont al component is
) (i E
h
= ] ) /( 1 / 1 )[ )( 2 / (
2 ' 2
0 i i i i
D D x x e q ...(14.3)
wher e
i
x = hor izont al coor dinat e of phase i,
2
i
D =
2 2
) ( ) (
i i
H y x x +
and
2 '
) (
i
D =
2 2
) ( ) (
i i
H y x x + + ...(14.4)
(iii) The t ot al field is
2
i
E =
2 2
)] ( [ )] ( [ i E i E
h v
+ ...(14.5)
(e) Conduct or S urface Volt age Gradient
The quant it y q
i
calculat ed ear lier is t he char ge of t he ent ir e bundle. The maximum
sur face volt age gr adient on any sub-conduct or will be
E
max
= ] / ) 1 ( 1 )[ / 1 ).( / 1 ).( 2 / (
0
R r N r N e q
i
+ ...(14.6)
For most pr act ical calculat ion, t he Mangoldt For mula (Mar kt -Mengele For mula) can
be used for hor izont al configur at ion of t he t hr ee phases (Chapt er 4).
( f ) Corona-Inception Gradient
For a cylindr ical conduct or above a gr ound plane, Peek's for mula for cor ona-incept ion
gr adient is
E
0
=
r.m.s. kV/m, ) / 0301 . 0 1 ( . . 2140 + r m
...(14.7)
wher e m = conduct or sur face r oughness fact or < 1
= air -densit y fact or
t
t b
+
+
273
273
1013
0
r = conduct or r adius in met r e,
b = bar omet r ic pr essur e in millibar s,
t = t emper at ur e C
t
0
= r efer ence t emper at ur e, 20C pr esent ly used, but will become
27C when adopt ed in fut ur e.
The bar omet r ic pr essur e var ies wit h elevat ion and t emper at ur e dr opping by 10
millibar s for ever y 100 met r e incr ease in elevat ion. The t emper at ur e cor r ect ion is
insignificant . The value of m = 0.7 t o 0.8 in fair weat her and 0.55 t o 0.65 in r ain.
( g ) Radio Noise Level (Chapt er 6)
For up t o 4 conduct or s in bundle, t he C.I.G.R.E. for mula is
RI(k) = 0.035 E
m
(k) + 1200 r 33 log (D(k)/20)30 dB ...(14.8)
wher e E
m
(k) = maximum sur face volt age gr adient on sub-conduct or in kV/m, r .m.s.,
D(k) = aer ial dist ance fr om phase k t o t he point wher e RI is evaluat ed and k = 1, 2, 3.
Rules for adding RI due t o all phases ar e given in Chapt er 6. For 1 MHz level, deduct 6 dB
fr om equat ion (14.8).
(h) Audible Noise (Chapt er 5)
For N < 3, AN(k) = 120 log E
m
(k) + 55 log (2r) 11.4 log D(k)
245.4, dB (A) ...(14.9)
For N
3, AN(k) = 120 log E

m
(k) + 55 log (2r) 11.4 log D(k)
+ 26.4 log N 258.4, dB (A) ...(14.10)
The t ot al AN level of t he 3 phases is
AN = 10 log
3
1
) ( 1 . 0
dB(A) , 10
k
k AN
...(14.11)
(i) Cor ona Loss. (Ryan and Henline For mula, Chapt er 5).
W
L
= 4fC V(V V
0
) MW/km, 3-phase. ...(14.12)
(j ) Volt age Cont rol at Power Frequency (Chapt er 12).
(i) Line only:
]
]
]
s
s
I
E
=
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
r
r
I
E
D C
B A
,
,
...(14.13)
A = D = cosh pL = cosh
ZY
'

. 1
sinh . / / sinh
sinh . / sinh
0
0
BC AD
ZY Z Y Z pL C
ZY Y Z pL Z B
...(14.14)
Z = (r + jwl) L, Y = jwcL. ...(14.15)
r,l,c = dist r ibut ed r esist ance, induct ance and capacit ance per km
L = line lengt h in km
w = f 2
(ii) S hunt React or Compensat ion. React or admit t ance = B
L
.
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
B B jB A
O B
jB
D C
B A
D C
B A
L
L
line
T T
T T
, 2
,
,
,
,
,
...(14.16)
(iii) S eries Capacit or Locat ed at Cent re and S hunt React ors at ends.
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
B B jB A
O B
jB
D C
B A
D C
B A
L
L
line
T T
T T
, 2
,
,
,
,
,
]
]
]
]
+ +
+
pL pL jB pL
Z
O pL
B X
L
L c
cosh 1 ), cosh 1 ( sinh
2
, cosh 1
2
1
0
]
]
]
+
pL Z pL
Z pL pL
Z
jX
c
sinh / ) 1 (cosh
/ ) 1 (cos , sinh
2
0
0
0
...(14.17)
Limit s. The following limit ing values will gover n t he design of line and t he widt h of line
cor r idor r equir ed.
( a) Elect rost at ic Field. Gr ound-level maximum value is 15 kV/m, r .m.s.
( b ) Radio Int erference. 40 dB above 1
V/m at 1 MHz in fair weat her at t he edge of

R-O-W.
( c ) Audible Noise. 52.5 dB (A) at edge of R-O-W.
(d ) CoronaIncept ion Gradient . Mar gin above maximum volt age gr adient is at least
10% on cent r e phase or t he phase wit h maximum volt age gr adient .
( e ) Corona Losses. Wit h cor ona-incept ion gr adient being above maximum volt age
gr adient at t he oper at ing volt age, no cor ona loss is ant icipat ed in fair weat her .
But check in r ain.
( f ) Line Compensat ion. This must be designed t o hold t he bus volt age wit hin limit s
given by St andar d Specificat ion.
14.3 DESIGN EXAMPLES: STEADY-STATE LIMITS
The above cr it er ia and equat ions for all quant it ies under st eady st at e oper at ing condit ions of
line will be applied for design of t he following lines.
(1) 400 kV 200 km line t o t r ansmit 1000 MW using synchr onous condenser at load end.
(2) 400 kV 400 km line t o t r ansmit 1000 MW using shunt -r eact or compensat ion at bot h
ends for no load condit ion and swit ched capacit or s for load condit ion for volt age cont r ol
at buses.
(3) 400 kV 800 km line t o t r ansmit 1000 MW using 50% ser ies capacit or compensat ion at
line cent r e, shunt r eact or s at bot h ends for volt age cont r ol at no load, and swit ched
capacit or s acr oss load.
(4) 750 kV 500 km line for t r ansmit t ing 2000 MW wit h only shunt -r eact or s at ends for
volt age cont r ol at no load and swit ched capacit or s under load.
14.4 DESIGN EXAMPLEI (400 kV, 200 km, 1000 MW)
(1) Number of Circuit s
Wit h equal volt age magnit udes at bot h ends t o commence t he design and 30 phase
differ ence bet ween t hem, t he power -handling capacit y per cir cuit is wit h x = 0.327 ohm/km,
P = 0.5 400
2
/0.327 200 = 1223 MW, 3-phase.
Ther efor e, one cir cuit will be sufficient .
(2) Line Clearance and Phase S pacing
NESC r ecommends a minimum clear ance of 29 feet = 8.84 met r es based on 17' for fir st
33 kV and 1' ext r a for each 33 kV above t his or par t t her eof. The sag is expect ed t o be 12 m.
Ther efor e, aver age height for calculat ion of pot ent ial coefficient s is H = 9 + 12/3 = 13 m
in hor izont al configur at ion. The phase spacing r equir ed fr om swit ching sur ge consider at ions is
expect ed t o be 12 m. At maximum swing of insulat or s it should be 7.5 m. Allow 4.3 met r e
height for insulat or st r ing and 30 swing. This aspect will be t aken up in Sect ion 14.8 under
Design Based upon Tr ansient Over volt ages.
(3) Conductor S ize and Number in Bundle
The t win conduct or has become t he accept ed st andar d for 400 kV, alt hough one line in
Ger many (Rheinau) uses 4 conduct or s in bundle in 4-cir cuit configur at ion. We fir st t r y t he
double Mor kulla or Moose wit h r = 0.0159 met r e r adius at bundle spacing of B = 0.4572 met r e.
This will be checked for (a) cor ona-incept ion gr adient and (b) mar gin bet ween t his and t he
maximum sur face volt age gr adient . Using Mangoldt for mula,
F or t h e Ce n t r e P h a s e
E
mc
= }] 4 / 2 ln{ . . /[ ] / ) 1 ( 1 [
2 2
S H r HS r N R r N V
eq
+ + ...(14.18)
Her e, V = kV 3 / 420 at t he maximum oper at ing volt age,
N = 2, R = 0.2286, r = 0.0159, H = 13, S = 12
r
eq
= m. 08526 . 0 rB
Ther efor e, E
mc
=
85 . 4 0159 . 0 2
07 . 1
3
420

= 1681.5 kV/m = 16.815 kV/cm
F or t h e Ou t e r P h a s e s
E
mo
= [ ) / 2 /[ln( ] / ) 1 ( 1
.
eq
r H R r N
r N
V
+
]
]
]
'
'
+ +
2 2 2 2 2
/ ) )( 4 ( ln 5 . 0 S S H S H
...(14.19)
= 1601.5 kV/m = 16.015 kV/cm.
Corona-Inception Gradient ( ). 1 at Take m = 0.75
E
or
= kV/m 1988 75 . 0 ) 0159 . 0 / 0301 . 0 1 ( 2140 +
Margin. For t he cent r e phase, (1988 1681.5)/19.88 = 15.42%. For t he out er phases, (1988
1601.5)/19.88 = 19.44%. These ar e consider ed sat isfact or y.
(4) RI Level
At 15 m fr om t he out er phase at gr ound.
E
mc
= 16.82 kV/cm, E
mo
= 16.02 kV/cm.
D(1) =
, m 30 27 13 ) 2 ( , m 85 . 19 15 13
2 2 2 2
+ + D
D(3) =
) m 20 ) 1 ( : ( . m 1 . 41 39 13
2 2
+ D Note
Ther efor e,
RI(1) = 0.035 1602 + 1200 0.0159 30 = 45.15 dB
RI(2) = 0.035 1682 + 19.08 30 33 log (30/20) = 42.14 dB
RI(3) = 0.035 1602 + 19.08 30 33 log (41.1/20) = 34.83 dB.
Ther efor e, RI level of line = 45.15 dB at 0.5 MHz and 39.15 dB at 1 MHz. This is consider ed
sat isfact or y since t he limit is 40 dB at t he edge of R-O-W. The line cor r idor can t her efor e be
made equal t o 2(S + 15) = 54 met r es.
(5) Audible Noise
At 15 m fr om out er phase at gr ound.
AN(1) = 120 log 1602 + 55 log 0.0318 11.4 log 19.85 245.4
= 42 dB (A)
AN(2) = 120 log 1682 82.37 245.4 11.4 log 30 = 42.5
AN(3) = 120 log 1602 82.37 245.4 11.4 log 41.1 = 38.4
Ther efor e,
AN = 10 log (10
4. 2
+ 10
4.25
+10
3.84
) = 46.08 dB (A)
This is less t han t he limit ing value of 52.5 dB (A) and t he line cor r idor gover ned by RI can
be consider ed as adequat e.
(6) Elect rost at ic Field
The Maxwell Pot ent ial coefficient mat r ix has t he element s
P
ii
= ln (26/0.08526) = 5.716, P
oc
= ln
and 87 . 0 ) 12 / 12 26 (
2 2
+
P
00
=
. 39 . 0 ) 24 / 24 26 ln(
2 2
+
Ther efor e, [P] =
]
]
]
]
]
716 . 5 87 . 0 39 . 0
87 . 0 716 . 5 87 . 0
39 . 0 87 . 0 716 . 5
,
giving [M] =
]
]
]
]
]
1728 . 0 026 . 0 008 . 0

026 . 0 1772 . 0 026 . 0
008 . 0 026 . 0 1728 . 0
] [
1
P
Then, at V = , kV 3 / 420
]
]
]
]
]
0 3
0 2
0 1
2 /
2 /
2 /
e q
e q
e q
=
3
420
120 1728 . 0 120 026 . 0 0 008 . 0
120 026 . 0 120 1772 . 0 0 026 . 0
120 008 . 0 120 026 . 0 0 1728 . 0
]
]
]
]
]
+
+

At a dist ance d along gr ound fr om t he line cent r e, t he ver t ical component of e.s. field
comes out t o be
E
u
=
'
'
+
+
+
+ +
2 2 2 2 2 2
) (
116 . 2 6416 . 2
) (
94 . 4
3
420
S d H d H S d H
]
]
]
]
'
'
+
+
+
+ +
+
2 2 2 2 2 2
) (
472 . 4 576 . 4
) (
398 . 0
S d H d H S d H
j
The maximum value occur s at d = 1.05 H = 13.65 met r es fr om line cent r e and is 4.7 kV/
m. This is below t he limit of 15 kV/m for safe let -go cur r ent s.
(7) Corona Loss
Since an ample mar gin is given bet ween t he cor ona-incept ion gr adient and t he maximum
sur face volt age gr adient on conduct or s, no cor ona loss is ant icipat ed at t he design st age in fair
weat her .
(8) Line Compensat ion Requirement s
Fr om t he [P] and [M] mat r ices, t he aver age values of posit ive-sequence induct ance and
capacit ances ar e calculat ed as follows:
L
s
= 0.2 P
ii
= 1.144 mH/km,
L
m
= 0.2 (2 0.87 + 0.39)/3 =0.142 mH/km
Ther efor e,
L
+
= ) H/m ( . mH/km 1 142 . 0 144 . 1
m s
L L
X
+
= ohm/km. 314 . 0 2
+
fL
C
s
=
3 / ) 1728 . 0 1772 . 0 1728 . 0 (
18
10
2
9
0
+ +
ii
M e
= 9.68 nF/km (pF/m).
C
m
=
o
e 2 ( 0.026 0.008 0.026)/3 = 1.11 nF/km
Ther efor e,
C
+
= C
s
C
m
= 9.68 + 1.11 = 10.79 nF/km
y = wC
+
= 3.39 10
6
mho/km
r = 0.023 ohm/km
For L = 200 km
Z =4.6 + j62.8 = 62.97
85.8 ohm. Y = j0.68 10

3
mho
Ther efor e,
Z
0
=
, 1 . 2 3 . 304 ) / (
2 / 1
Y Z
ZY
= 0.207
87.9 = 0.0076 + j0.2069

cosh
ZY
= 0.9787 + j0.00156 = 0.9788
0.09
sinh
ZY
= 0.0074 + j0.2055 = 0.2056
87.94.
For t he line, A = D = 0.9788
0.09, B =62.56
85.84,
C = 0.6756
90 10
3
.
As a fir st assumpt ion, let t he r eceiving-end volt age E
r
= 420 kV. Then , cent r e of t he
r eceivingend cir cle diagr am is at
x
c
= | MW 5 . 204 ) cos( | /
2

a b r
B A E
y
c
= | MVAR 2752 ) sin( | /
2

a b r
B A E
Radius R = | . / , 2820 . | /
r s s r
E E m where MVA m B E E
The r eceiving-end cir cle diagr am is dr awn for sever al values of m r anging fr om 0.8 t o 1.0.
The load line is dr awn at 1000 MW at unit y power fact or . At no load, t he r eact ive power
r equir ed is found as Q
or
which is induct ive. At full load, t he capacit ive r eact ive power is also
det er mined as Q
Lr
. The value of m t hat gives Q
or
/ Q
Lr
= 0.7 will give t he r equir ed value of E
s
when a synchr onous condenser is ut ilized for compensat ion. The t wo equat ions ar e fr om Figur e
14.1,
2 2 2 2
2820 | ) | ( m x y Q
c c or
+ + ...(14.20)
and
2 2 2 2
2820 ) | (| | ) | 1000 ( m Q y x
Lr c c
+ +
A value of m = 1.0162 gives t he desir ed r at io Q
or
/ Q
Lr
= 0.7 wit h induct ive compensat ion of
Q
or
= 106.4 MVAR at no load and capacit ive compensat ion of 151.8 MVAR at full load of 1000
MW at unit y power fact or . The sending-end volt age will t hen be E
s
= 1.0162 420 = 426.8 kV.
This is 6.8 kV higher t han allowed by St andar d Specificat ion. Ther efor e, t he r eceiving-end
volt age should be t aken t o be less t han 420 kV and t he compensat ion r equir ement r e-wor ked.
A second t r ial could st ar t at E
R
= 400 kV.
x
c
= 185.5 MW, y
c
= 2496.4 MVAR, R = 2557.5m MVA.
The equat ions for Q
or
and Q
Lr
ar e found t o be
Q
or
=
and , 4 . 2496 5 . 185 ) 5 . 2557 (
2 2
m
Q
Lr
=
2 2
5 . 1185 ) 5 . 2557 ( 4 . 2496 m
For m = 1.023 or E
s
= 409.2 kV, t her e r esult Q
or
= 113 MVAR induct ive and Q
Lr
= 164
MVAR capacit ive giving a r at io Q
or
/Q
Lr
= 0.69. This is sat isfact or y. The synchr onous condenser
r at ing will be appr oximat ely 165 MVAR leading for over excit at ion and 115 MVAR lagging for
under -excit ed oper at ion. The bus volt ages ar e 400 kV at t he r eceiving end and 409.2 kV at t he
sour ce end. These ar e wit hin t he limit s specified by St andar ds.
F i g. 14.1 Compensat ion calculat ion for Design Example No.1.
The power angle at full-load oper at ion is
=
+
84 . 21 63 84 . 85
1000
ar ct an
c
Lr c
b
x
Q y
The analyt ical equat ions for (E
s
, I
s
) in t er m of (E
r
, I
r
) ar e given below:
]
]
]
s
s
I
E
= ]
]
]
]
]
]
r
r
I
E
D C
B A
,
,
...(14.21)
Now, E
r
= 400 kV , 0 line-line.
The t ot al load at t he r eceiving end is
W
r
= P
r
+ jQ
r
= 1000 = j 164 MVA, 3-phase.
Ther efor e,
I
r
= 400 3 / ) 164 1000 ( )* / ( + j E W
r r
= 1.443 + j 0.237 kiloamper es per phase
= 1.462 9.33 kA.
Ther efor e,
E
s
= 33 . 9 462 . 1 84 . 85 56 . 62
3
400
09 . 0 9788 . 0 +
= 236.73
22.73, kV line-t o-gr ound = 410 kV, 11

Qor
Q
Lr
1000 MW
y
c
R = 2820 m
C
P
L (204.5, 2752)
Ther efor e, = 22.73 as compar ed t o 21.84 fr om t he cir cle diagr am,
I
s
= kA , 33 . 9 462 . 1 09 . 0 9788 . 0
3
400
10 6756 . 0
3
+

j
= 1.4984
28.33 = 1.319 + j 0.711 kA.

The sending-end power is
W
s
= 33 . 28 73 . 22 4984 . 1 410 3 3
*

s s
I E
= 1059 j 103.84 MVA
Ther efor e t he line loss is P = 1059 1000 = 59 MW, 3-phase
The % line loss is P = 59 100/1059 = 5.57% and t he efficiency of t r ansmission in
= 1000 100/1059 = 94.43%
14.5 DESIGN EXAMPLE-II: 400 kV, 400 km, 1000 MW WITH SHUNT
COMPENSATION
Using P = 0.5 400
2
/400 0.327 = 640 MW, we find t hat 2 cir cuit s may be necessar y t o handle
1000 MW. Design will be based on 500 MW/Cir cuit .
The high-volt age effect s will be t he same as t he example in Sec. 14.4 for t he 200-km line.
Only t he compensat ion r equir ement s will be differ ent .
No-Load Compensat ion
For cont r ol of volt age at no load, shunt r eact or s of 50 MVAR each at bot h ends will be
used. This is a r ecommended pr act ice in India. But t he bus volt ages should be checked for
ot her r eact ive power s. As shown in chapt er 12, t he t ot al gener alized const ant s ar e
A
T
= A B j B B C C B B B jB A D
L L T T L T
2 , ,
2
...(14.22)
wher e A, B, C, D per t ain only t o t he line.
For 400 km, Z = 9.2 + j 124 ohm, Y = j 1.36 10
3
mho
Z
0
= . 88 411 . 0 , 1 . 2 3 . 302 ZY
Ther efor e,
cosh ZY = . 1 . 88 4 . 0 sinh , 36 . 0 917 . 0 ZY
For t he line, A = D = 0.917
0.36, B = 120.77
86 and
C = 1.4 10
3

87.8
At 50 MVAR 3-phase and 400 kV, line-t o-line, each shunt r eact or has an admit t ance of B
L
= 0.312 10
3
mho. This gives A
T
= D
T
= 0.955.
Select ing a sending-end volt age E
s
= 400 kV, t he load-end volt age will be E
r
= E
s
/A
T
=
418.85 kV, which is below t he maximum allowable 420 kV.
Now, B
T
=

86 10 817 . 0 2 and 86 77 . 120
3 2
j A B j B B C C B
L L T
Ther efor e, t he per cent age compensat ion affor ded by t he shunt r eact or s is (1.4 0.817)
100/1.4 = 41.6%, which is consider ed sat isfact or y. Nor mal values lie bet ween 40% and 60%.
Receiving-End Power-Circle Diagram
Cent re: x
c
=
MW 8 . 96 ) ( cos /
2

a b T T r
B A E
y
c
=
MVAR 1384 ) ( sin /
2

a b T T r
B A E
Radius : R = MVA. 3 . 1387 /
T s r
B E E
For a load of 500 MW, t he compensat ion r equir ed is
2 2 2
3 . 1387 ) 1384 ( ) 8 . 96 500 ( + +
Lr
Q
giving Q
Lr
= 132 MVAR, capacit ive. This will t ake t he for m of swit ched capacit or s cont r olled
by an aut omat ic volt age r egulat or at t he r eceiving end.
The sending-end volt age and cur r ent ar e now calculat ed. The load at t he r eceiving end is
W
r
= 500 j 132 MVA, 3-phase.
Ther efor e, I
r
=
. kA 8 . 14 7125 . 0 182 . 0 6892 . 0
85 . 418 3
132 500
+
+
j
j
]
]
]
s
s
I
E
=
]
]
]
]

]
]
]
8 . 14 7125 . 0
3 / 85 . 418
955 . 0 86 10 817 . 0
86 77 . 120 , 955 . 0
3
= ]
]
]

9 . 28 7673 . 0
5 . 21 86 . 230
This gives E
s
= 400 kV, line-t o-line.
Ther efor e, sending-end power is W
s
=
*
3
s s
I E = 527 j68.4 MVA. This gives a line loss of
27 MW and efficiency
= 500 100/527 = 94.88%.

14.6 DESIGN EXAMPLEIII:400 kV, 800 km, 500 MW/CIRCUIT, 50%
SERIES-CAPACITOR COMPENSATION, AND SHUNT REACTORS AT
BOTH ENDS
For 400 km: Z = , 8 . 85 6 . 248 248 4 . 18 + j
Y = , 1 . 2 3 . 302 , 90 10 72 . 2
0
3

Z
ZY
=
. 765 . 1 6817 . 0 cosh , 88 822 . 0 ZY
sinh
ZY
= . 5 . 88 733 . 0
For t he line only,
A = , 37 . 86 5 . 221 , 765 . 1 6817 . 0 B D
C = . 6 . 90 10 424 . 2
3

For t he ser ies capacit or , X
c
= 124 ohms.
The volt ages select ed ar e E
r
= 420 kV and E
s
= 400 kV.
Ther efor e,
T
A = . 9524 . 0 /
r s
E E
Now, fr om Chapt er 12,
A
T
= ) cosh 1 ( 5 . 0 sinh ) 2 / (
0
ZY B X Y Z Z X j B jB A
L c c L
+
or , 0.9524
2
= (0.83166 + 116.81 B
L
)
2
+ (0.021 15.33 B
L
)
2
.
This yields B
L
= 1.0333 10
3
mho and at 400 kV, t he shunt r eact or s have a r at ing of 165
MVAR at each end. Using t his value of B
L
gives A
T
= 0.9524
0.313. Then,
B
T
= , 5 . 82 8 . 117 ) cosh 1 ( 5 . 0 + ZY X j B
c
and
C
T
= ) 1 )(cosh / ( 5 . 0 2
2
0
2
pL Z X j A B j B B C
c L L
) 1 (cosh 5 . 0 sinh ) / (
2
0
+ + pL B X j ZY Z B X
L c L c
which yields C
T
= . 7 . 89 10 802 . 0
3

% compensat ion pr ovided by t he shunt r eact or s is
(2.424 0.802) 100/2.424 = 67%
which is quit e a sat isfact or y figur e.
Receiving-End Power-Circle Diagram
Cent re: x
c
= 193.5 MW, y
c
= 1413 MVAR.
Radius: R = 1426 MVA for E
s
= 400 kV and E
r
= 420 kV.
The r equir ed swit ched capacit or s at load and for 500 MW at unit y power fact or will be 167
MVAR which is near ly equal t o t he shunt r eact or MVAR pr ovided at load end.
14.7 DESIGN EXAMPLEIV 750 kV, 500 km, 2000 MW (WITH ONLY
SHUNT-REACTORS)
(Det ails of calculat ion ar e left as an exer cise for t he r eader )
Using an aver age value of x = 0.272 ohm/km, t he power /cir cuit is P = 0.5 750
2
/500
0.272 = 2080 MW. Ther efor e, one cir cuit can handle 2000 MW.
Line clear ance and phase spacing fr om NESC r ecommendat ions and swit ching-sur ge
insulat ion clear ance will be t aken as H
min
= 12 m and S = 15 m. The sag is expect ed t o be 18 m
so t hat t he aver age height for calculat ions is H = 12 + 6 = 18 m.
A 4-conduct or bundle is nor mally used for 750 kV. The conduct or size is in t he r ange 1.2"
t o 1.4" diamet er (r = 0.015 t o 0.0175 m). These will be checked for cor ona-incept ion volt age and
mar gin bet ween t his and t he maximum sur face volt age gr adient . At a r oughness fact or m =
0.75 and = 1, Peek's for mula gives.
(a) E
or
= kV/cm 20 kV/m 2000 75 . 0 ) 015 . 0 / 0301 . 0 1 ( 2140 +
(b) E
or
= kV/cm 7 . 19 kV/m 1970 75 . 0 ) 0175 . 0 / 0301 . 0 1 ( 2140 + for t he t wo
conduct or sizes.
By Mangoldt 's for mulae, t he maximum sur face-volt age gr adient for t he 1.2" conduct or in
hor izont al configur at ion on t he cent r e phase t ur ns out t o be 19.9 kV/cm. Ther efor e, t her e is no
mar gin bet ween t his and E
or
. The conduct or size is t oo small. But at r = 0.0175 m, t he cent r e-
phase gr adient is calculat ed t o be 1740 kV/m = 17.4 kV/cm. The mar gin is (1970 1740)/19.7 =
11.7%. For t he out er phases, it will be gr eat er t han t his value. Ther efor e, t he choice of conduct or
size will fall on r = 0.0175 met r e. Fur t her design calculat ions will be based on t his value.
RI Level. The t hr ee RI levels at 15 met r es along gr ound fr om t he out er phases ar e
RI(1) = 46.5 dB, RI(2) = 43.9 dB, and RI(3) = 36 dB.
Ther efor e RI = ) 3 9 . 43 5 . 46 (
2
1
+ +
= 46.7 dB at 0.5 MHz and 40.7 dB at 1 MHz.
This is consider ed adequat e since t her e is a disper sion of
t
6 dB in t he CIGRE for mula.
Also, t he value of 40 dB at 1 MHz is meant only for pr eliminar y est imat es. Ot her consider at ion
such as S / N r at io will have t o be consider ed in final decison. The widt h of R-O-W based on a
line cor r idor ext ending t o 15 m fr om out er phase is 2 (15 + 15) = 60 met r es.
Audible Noise Level. At 15 m fr om t he out er phase, AN(1) = 48, AN(2) = 49, and AN(3) =
44.3 dB (A). The resulting AN level of line is AN = 10 log
10
(10
4. 8
+ 10
4. 9
+ 10
4.43
) = 52.3 dB (A).
For no complaint s accor ding t o t he Per r y cr it er ion of Chapt er 5, t he limit is 52.5 dB (A).
Elect rost at ic Field. Fr om a calculat ion of Maxwell's Pot ent ial Coefficient Mat r ix [P] and
it s inver se [M], and using t he r esult s of Chapt er 7, t he maximum gr ound-level e.s. field wor ks
out t o be 7.7 kV/m at x = 1.2 H fr om t he line cent r e. This is below t he safe limit of 15 kV/m.
Line Const ant s. These a r e, fr om [P] and [M] mat r ices.
L
+
= L
s
L
m
= 0.866 mH/km, C
+
= 13 nF/km
The conduct or r esist ance is r = 0.0136 ohm/km.
Ther efor e z = 0.0136 + j0.272 ohm/km, and y = j3.4 10
6
mho/km.
Compensat ion Requirement s (Neglect resist ance)
Sever a l set s of sen din g-en d a n d r eceivin g-en d volt a ges a r e select ed. At n o loa d,
compensat ion is pr ovided by using shunt r eact or s at bot h ends.
Now, A = D = cosh
ZY
= cosh 866 . 0 500 10 4 . 3 ) 272 . 0 0136 . 0 (
6
+

j j
B = 129.2
90, and C = 1.945 10

3

90
S et 1. Tr y E
r
= E
s
= 750 kV. This gives B
L
= 1.037 10
3
mho for each r eact or and at 750 kV,
t he MVAR = 585. % compensat ion comes t o be 95%. This is consider ed t oo high. A
value of 5070% is aimed at .
S et 2. For 50% shunt r eact or compensat ion, or about 300 MVAR at each end, for E
r
= 750
kV, E
s
wor ks out t o be 700 kV. The volt age can be impr oved by using some mor e
compensat ion.
S et 3. For 400 MVAR shunt -r eact or capacit y at each end, wit h E
r
= 750 kV, t he sending-end
volt age wor ks out t o be E
s
= 720 kV. This is consider ed sat isfacor y. By dr awing t he
cir cle diagr am or a geomet r ical met hod r esult ing out of it , for 2000 MW load at unit y
power fact or , capacit ive compensat ion amount ing t o 500 MVAR in swit ched capacit or s
will be r equir ed. This complet es t he design based on st eady-st at e const r aint s and
limit s of some examples of 400 kV and 750 kV lines.
14.8 LINE INSULATION DESIGN BASED UPON TRANSIENT
OVERVOLTAGES
The sect ions t hat conclude t he chapt er will discuss t he impor t ant t opic of select ion of long air -
gap clear ances r equir ed bet ween (a) conduct or t o t ower window, (b) conduct or t o gr ound, and
(c) conduct or t o conduct or t o wit hst and (i) swit ching sur ges, (ii) power -fr equency volt age, and
(iii) light ning. The t heor y and discussion pr esent ed in Chapt er 11 will for m t he basis for air -
gap-lengt h select ion, while t he chapt er s on Light ning (Chapt er 9), Swit ching Sur ges (Chapt er
10) and Power Fr equency (Chapt er 12) give indicat ions of magnit udes of over volt ages for which
insulat ion has t o be pr ovided. The magnit udes of over -volt ages and t he pr obabilit y of t heir
occur r ence is an individual char act er ist ic of a syst em so t hat no fixed designs can be given in
t his discussion, but only t he guiding pr inciples can be illust r at ed t hr ough examples.
The pr inciples upon which insulat ion levels ar e select ed ar e only t wo: (1) A knowledge of
all r elevant pr oper t ies of over volt ages which a syst em might exper ience; and (2) A knowledge
of insulat ion char act er ist ics for all t ypes of volt ages t o which it will be subject ed. A design
evolved for a given t ower -window can only be consider ed pr eliminar y which will have t o be
checked and modified suit ably in an e.h.v. labor at or y by conduct ing act ual t est s on a t ower
mock-up.
14.8.1 Discussion of Rod-Plane Gap Design
The basis for select ion of air -gap clear ance bet ween any given t ype of elect r ode geomet r y can
best be under st ood by r elat ing it or compar ing it wit h t he design of a r od-plane gap, which
shows t he lowest flashover and wit hst and volt age of any t ype of elect r ode geomet r y. We illust r at e
t he pr ocedur e by
(a) select ing a r ange of posit ive swit ching-sur ge magnit udes fr om 1.8 p.u. t o 3 p.u. on a
400 kV and a 750 kV syst em,
(b) t hen using t wo r epr esent at ive for mulae t o calculat e t he r equir ed r od-plane gap lengt h
d.
1 P.U. Value of S wit ching S urge
For 400 kV lines, at t he maximum oper at ing volt age of 420 kV, 1 p.u. value of cr est line-
t o-gr ound volt age is 420
3 / 2
= 343 kV. At 750 kV, it is 750
3 / 2
= 612.4 kV.
Critical Flashover Voltage, Withstand Voltage and S tandard Deviation
The assumpt ion t hat long air -gap br eakdown and wit hst and volt ages follow a Gaussian or
Nor ma l dist r ibut ion will be followed. Accor dingly, t he univer sa lly-a ccept ed r ela t ion t ha t
wit hst and volt age = % 50 ) 3 1 ( flashover volt age will also be consider ed, wit h t he st andar d
deviat ion % 5 of CFO. As discussed in Chapt er 11, t his value of is ver y er r at ic in behaviour ,
depending upon such fact or s as waveshape of swit ching sur ge, gap lengt h, climat ic condit ions,
et c.
Wit h t he above assumpt ions as t he basis, we will wor k out t he clear ances r equir ed accor ding
t o t wo for mulae: (1) Elect r icit de Fr ance (Ler oy and Gallet For mula), and (2) Par is's For mula.
These are, V
50
= 3400/(1 + 8/d) and V
50
= 500. d
0. 6
, wit h d in met r es and V
50
in kV, cr est .
Now, let t he swit ching sur ge magnit ude be K
s
p.u. so t hat for a syst em volt age V, t he
magnit ude of s.s. is . 3 / 2 .V K V
s w
Then, t he 50% flashover value is
V
50
=

3 1
3 / 2
3 1
V K V
s w
...(14.22)
Ther efor e, accor ding t o t he above for mulae, t he gap lengt h will be
(1) d
1
= ) 1 / 3400 /( 8
50
V ...(14.23)
and (2) d
2
=
667 . 1
50
) 500 / (V ...(14.24)
Table 14.1 gives t he calculat ed gap lengt hs for V = 420 kV and V = 750 kV, for . % 5
50
V
The values ar e plot t ed in Figur e 14.2. In addit ion t o t he above for mulae, Chapt er 11 has
list ed ot her for mulae t o which r efer ence should be made.
For t he 400 kV line, an incr ease in swit ching sur ge magnit ude fr om 1.8 t o 3 p.u. r equir es
an incr ease of air gap clear ance fr om 2.1 m t o 4.27 m. The incr ease in s.s. is 66.7% while t he
air -gap clear ance incr eases by 103.3% accor ding t o t he Ler oy and Gallet For mula. If Par is's
For mula is used t he incr ease becomes 133.3% For t he 750 kV line, t he incr ease in air gap is
176% for 66.7% incr ease in swit ching sur ge magnit ude.
Ta ble 14.1 Rod -P la n e Ga p Clea r a n ce Ba sed on Swi t ch i n g Su r ges
P.U. 400-kV line 750-kV line
Value Withstand V
w
=
K
s
V
w
= V
50
= d
1
d
2
612.4 K
S
V
50
d
1
d
2
343 K
S
V
w
/ 0.85
1.8 617.4 710 2.1 1.8 1102 1267 4.75 4.71
2.0 686 789 2.42 2.14 1225 1408 5.66 5.62
2.2 754.6 868 2.74 2.51 1347 1549 7 6.59
2.4 823.2 947 3.09 2.9 1470 1690 7.91 7.61
2.6 892 1026 3.455 3.31 1592 1831 9.34 8.7
2.8 960.4 1104 3.85 3.75 1715 1972 11.05 9.85
3.0 1029 1183 4.27 4.2 1837 2113 13.13 11.08
Fig. 14.2 Rod-plane gap clear ance for 400 kV and 750 kV syst ems. Swit ching sur ge magnit udes
r anging fr om 1.8 t o 3 p.u. (Table 14.1).
5
4
3
2
1
0
1.8 2.2 2.6 3.0
d
,

m
E
. d
e
. F
.
P
a
ri s
P.U. Swit. Surge
400-kV Line
10
8
6
4
2
0
1.8 2.2 2.6 3.0
d
,

m
E
.
d
e
.
F
.
P
a
r
i s
P.U. Swit. Surge
750-kV Line
14.8.2 Conductor-Tower, Conductor-Ground and Conductor-Conductor
Clearances
The ot her geomet r ies can be handled in t he same manner . Par is's For mulae for t hese cases
ar e used which ar e as follows:
Conduct or-Tower. V
50
= 1.3 V
50
for r od-plane = 650 d
0. 6
...(14.25)
For t his case, t he gap fact or is 1.3
Conduct or-Ground. Having calculat ed t he r equir ed conduct or -t ower clear ance d for t he
ant icipat ed swit ching-sur ge magnit udes, t he minimum clear ance fr om conduct or t o gr ound
will be
H = 4.3 + 1.4d, met r es ...(14.26)
Phase-to-Phase Clearance. This is also descr ibed by a 'gap-fact or ' whose value is 1.8. Thus,
V
50
= 900d
0. 6
...(14.27)
However , in t his case, t he swit ching sur ge is bet ween phases which is not equal t o
3
phase-t o-gr ound magnit ude of swit ching sur ge. These must be det er mined by exper iment s
car r ied out on models or digit al comput er calculat ions.
We ca n now wor k out t he conduct or -t ower a nd conduct or -gr ound clea r a nces for t he
swit ching sur ge values r anging fr om 1.8 p.u. t o 3 p.u. for t he 400 kV and 750 kV lines. These
ar e car r ied out accor ding t o t he for mulae:
Conduct or-Tower. d = , ) 650 / (
667 . 1
50
V met r es ...(14.28)
wher e V
50
= kV , 85 . 0 / ) 3 1 /(
w w
V V ...(14.29)
and V
w
= wit hst and volt age
= K
s
(cr est line-t o-gr ound volt age of syst em)
The clear ances ar e wor ked out in Table 14.2 and ar e plot t ed in Figur e 14.3. We obser ve
fr om t he t able and t he r ecommended clear ance by t he N.E.S.C., t hat a minimum clear ance of
9 met r es for t he 400 kV line can sust ain swit ching-sur ge magnit udes of over 3 p.u. The minimum
clear ance for 750 kV line is 12 met r es which can sust ain a swit ching sur ge magnit ude of about
2.6 p.u.
The last clear ance is t he phase-t o-phase gap. Table 14.3 shows t he values for s.s. magnit udes
r anging fr om 2.5 t o 3.5 p.u. wher e 1 p.u. volt age is 343 kV cr est for t he 400 kV line, and 612.4
kV cr est for t he 750 kV line. The r equir ed gap lengt h is d = , ) 900 / (
667 . 1
50
V wher e 85 . 0 /
50 w
V V
and 1
s w
K V p.u. volt age.
Fig. 14.3 Conduct or -t ower and Conduct or -gr ound clear ances r equir ed for Figur e 14.2. (Table 14.2).
1.8 2.0 3.0
P.U. S.S. 400 kV Line
( ) a
d
,

m
10
8
6
4
2
0
Cond. -G
round
C
ond.-To
wer
1.8 2.0
3.0
P.U. S.S. 750 kV Line
( ) b
d
,

m
10
12
8
6
4
2
0
C
o
n
d
.
-G
r
o
u
n
d
C
o
n
d
.-T
o
w
e
r
Ta ble 14.2 Con d u ct or -Tower a n d Con d u ct or -Gr ou n d Clea r a n ce
P.U.S .S . 400 kV Line 750 kV Line
K
s
V
w
V
50
d = (V
50
/650)
1.667
H V
w
V
50
d H = 4.3 + 1.4d
1.8 617.4 710 1.164 5.924 1102 1267 3.04 8.56
2.0 686 789 1.38 6.232 1225 1408 3.63 9.38
2.2 754.6 868 1.62 6.57 1347 1549 4.25 10.25
2.4 823 947 1.87 6.92 1470 1690 4.92 11.2
2.6 892 1026 2.14 7.3 1592 1831 5.62 12.17
2.8 960 1104 2.42 7.69 1715 1972 6.36 13.2
3.0 1029 1183 2.715 8.1 1837 2113 7.133 14.29
Ta ble 14.3. P h a se-P h a se Clea r a n ce
P.U.S .S .
K
s
2.5 2.7 2.9 3.1 3.3 3.5
400 kV Line
V
w
= 343 K
s
857.5 926 995 1063 1132 1200
V
50
= V
w
/ 0.85 986 1065 1144 1223 1302 1381
d = (V
50
/900)
1.667
1.164 1.324 1.492 1.67 1.85 2.04
750 kV Line
V
w
= 612.4 K
s
1531 1653.5 1776 1898 2021 2143
V
50
1761 1902 2042 2183 2324 2465
d 3.06 3.48 3.92 4.38 4.86 5.36
Fig. 14.4 Conduct or -conduct or clear ance (Table 14.3),.
These ar e plot t ed in Figur e 14.4
The phase t o phase clear ance is gaining gr eat impor t ance since t he advent of chainet t e
t ype of const r uct ion for e.h.v. lines, Figur e 14.5, wher e t he conduct or s ar e suppor t ed in an
inver t ed configur at ion by means of st r ings of insulat or s. The t ower st r uct ur e is r emoved t o
2.5 2.9 3.5 3.3
P.U. S.S. Ks
d
,

m
5
6
4
3
2
1
0
750-kV
400-kV
Phase-Phase
t he sides and except for t he out er phases, t he line-t o-gr ound swit ching sur ge does not det er mine
t he insulat ion clear ance bet ween phases.
Fig. 14.5 Chainet t e const r uct ion of e.h.v. and u.h.v. 3-phase lines wit h inver t ed delt a configur at ion of
conduct or s.
14.8.3 Air Gap Clearance for Power Frequency and Lightning
The equat ions for t he st r engt h of a long r od-plane air gap for power fr equency and light ning ar e
as follows:
Power Frequency: V
50
= 652. d
0.576
, kV, cr est (14.31)
Light ning: V
50
= 500. d, kV, cr est (14.32)
We must not e t hat t he minimum clear ance t o t ower occur s at maximum swing of t he
insulat or fr om ver t ical if an I-st r ing is used wher eas wit h a double90 V-st r ing, t he swing
may not be pr esent at t he t ower .The swing depends upon wind velocit y and in violent st or ms
could be as much as 60. Dur ing t hunder st or ms, clear ances for insulat ion for light ning can be
based on a maximum swing of 30 as compar ed t o power fr equency which is on cont inuously.
Exa mp le 14.1. For 400 kV and 750 kV lines, calculat e t he r equir ed conduct or -t o-t ower
clear ances given t he followings dat a: Maximum p.u. value of light ning impulse is 2.8 p.u. for
bot h lines. The st andar d deviat ions ar e 5% for bot h power fr equency and light ning. The gap
fat cor for conduct or -t ower is 1.3.
(a) For Power Frequency
400 kV line. V
w
= 343 kV, cr est . V
50
= 343/0.85 = 403.5 kV.
The 50% flashover volt age is 1.3 652 d
0.576
Ther efor e d = (403.5/1.3 652)
1.7361
= 0.276 met r e.
750 kV Line. V
w
= 612.4 kV, cr est . V
50
= 612.4/0.85 = 720.5 kV.
Ther efor e d = (720.5/1.3 652)
1.7361
= 0.754 met r e.
(b) For Light ning
400 kV line. V
w
= 2.8 343 = 960.4 kV, cr est .
V
50
= 960.4/0.85 = 1130 kV.
Ther efor e d = (1130/1.3 500) = 1.74 met r es.
750 kV Line. V
w
= 2.8 612.4 = 1714.7 kV, cr est .
Ther efor e V
50
= 1714.7/0.85 = 2017.3 kV.
d = 2017.3/1.3 500 = 3.1 met r es.
1. In design Examples I-III for t he 400 kV line, t he mar gin bet ween cor ona-incept ion
gr a dient a nd ma ximum sur fa ce volt a ge gr a dient on t he out er conduct or s a t 420 kV
is t o be maint ained at 30% Select a pr oper conduct or size wit h r oughness fact or
m = 0.75.
2. Then r e-wor k t he t hr ee examples using t his conduct or size.
3. Check t he Design Example IV for t he 750 kV line.
15.1 INTRODUCTION
Over head line volt ages for commer cial use have incr eased t o 1200 kV, a.c., wit h t he bulk power
t r ansmit t ed fr om lar ge cent r al st at ions t o load cent r es far away upt o t he r eceiving st at ions. In
or der t o int er connect t r ansfor mer s and ot her swit chyar d equipment , t o feed dist r ibut ion
subst at ions in over -congest ed met r opolit an indust r ial and domest ic ar eas, and for ot her special
sit uat ions such as under -r iver or under -sea t r ansmission, e.h.v. cables for t hese ver y high
volt ages and power s ar e necessar y. In t his chapt er t he ver y impor t ant t opic of e.h.v. cable
t r ansmission will be descr ibed and discussed for a.c. volt ages bet ween 138 kV and 1200 kV.
Cables ar e classified accor ding t o t he mat er ial used for t heir major insulat ion. These ar e br oadly
of four var iet ies:
(1) High Pr essur e Oil Filled (HPOF) Paper Insulat ed Cables;
(2) Cables wit h Ext r uded Insulat ion such as Cr oss-Linked Polyet hylene (XLPE), Et hylene
Pr opylene Rubber (EPR), et c;
(3) Composit e Laminat ed Insulat ion, having plast ic films laminat ed wit h Kr aft Paper in
4060% r at io, wit h names such as Polypr opylene Laminat ed Paper (PPLP), et c; and
(4) High Pr essur e SF
6
Gas-Insulat ed Cable or t r ansmission line designat ed as GIL.
Typical insulat ion t hicknesses for e.h.v. cables ar e as follows:
HPOF: 138 kV13mm; 275 kV20 mm; 400500 kV25 mm; 1100 kV35 mm.
XLPE: 69 kV16 mm; 275 kV27 mm; 500 kV32 t o 35 mm;
PPLP: 500 kV25 mm; 765 kV30.5 mm.
S F
6
: 275 kV125 t o 160 mm clear ance; 500 kV200 mm; 750 kV275 mm.
The r elat ive per mit t ivit ies of t he dielect r ics ar e:
HPOF: 3.5; XLPE: 2.3; PPLP: 2.75; S F
6
:1.
15.1.2 Typical Construction and Cross-Sections of Cables
Figur e 15.1 shows cr oss-sect ional views of t en e.h.v. cables of differ ent t ypes and volt age
levels used in pr act ice. Det ails of t heir const r uct ion ar e given below.
No. 1: 69 kV XLPEFigur e 15.1(a)
15
Ex t ra Hi gh Vol t a ge Ca bl e Tra n s m i s s i on
Part No. Descript ion
(1) 2000 kilo cir cular mil (MCM) 1013 mm
2
concent r ic r ound Aluminium conduct or .
Diamet er : 36 mm = 1.413 inches.
(2) Ext r uded XLPE semi-conduct ing shield (inner ) 0.053" (1.33 mm) t hickness.
(3) Unifilled XLPE major insulat ion 0.625 inch (15.9 mm) t hick.
(4) Ext r uded XLPE semi-conduct ing out er shield 0.07" (1.8 mm) t hickness. The inner
and out er shields ar e ext r uded along wit h t he major insulat ion by a t r iple-ext r usion
pr ocess.
(5) Uncoat ed copper t apes. 2 of 1" 0.005" (25.4 0.13 mm).
(6) PVC jacket 0.14" (3.56 mm) t hickness.
No. 2: 138 kV Oil-Filled. Figur e 15.1 (b)
(1) Spir al suppor t cor e 0.69" 0.79" (17.5 20 mm).
(2) Concent r ic st r anded copper conduct or . 175 st r ands 0.1195 "diamet er (3.03 mm).
Over all diamet er : 1.985" (50.5 mm).
(3) Scr een of car bon black paper t ape t o make conduct or sur face smoot h.
(4) Oil-impr egnat ed paper insulat ion 0.505" (13 mm) t hickness.
(5) Shield of per for at ed met allized paper t ape.
(6) Lead sheat h of 0.155" (3.95 mm) t hickness r einfor ced by
(7) Neopr ene-fibr e glass t apes, cover ed and pr ot ect ed by Polyet hylene (PE) jacket of
0.125" (3.17 mm) t hickness. Over all diamet er of cable 3.82" (97 mm).
No. 3: 275kV Oil-Filled Pipe Type Cable. Figur e 15.1 (c)
Each single-cor e cable of a 3-phase syst em immer sed in cooling oil in a lar ger pipe consist s
of:
(1) Conduct or : 1000 1400 mm
2
four -segment ed copper . Diamet er 40 47 mm.
(2) Binder : St ainless st eel t ape 0.15 mm t hick and car bon black paper t apes 2 0.15 mm
t hickness.
(3) Major insulat ion: Paper 19.5 mm t hickness along wit h shield of met allized paper
t ape.
(4) Ant i-moist ur e layer : Met allized polyest er t ape, 0.2 mm.
(5) Reinfor cement : Two layer s of st ainless st eel t ape int er laced wit h polyest er t ape.
(6) Skid or slide wir es: 4 D-shaped st ainless st eel st r ips 2.5 mm high 5 mm wide.
Appr oximat e diamet er of cables: 88 mm placed in pipe of 250 mm diamet er .
No. 4: 275 kV XLPE Cable. Figur e 15.1 (d)
(1) Conduct or : 7-segment Milliken t ype.
(2) Ext r uded inner semi-conduct ing layer .
(3) 27 mm XLPE major insulat ion.
(4) Ext r uded out er semi-conduct ing layer .
(5) Semi-conduct ing t ape.
(6) Cor r ugat ed Aluminium sheat h.
(7) Ant i-cor r osion PVC jacket .
Tr iple ext r usion pr ocess.
Extra High Voltage Cable Transmission 431
No. 5: 400-kV Oil-Filled. Figur e 15.1 (e)
This cable is self-cont ained wit h oil r eser voir s at ends.
(1) Cent r al oil duct 12 mm diamet er . (Inner cooled).
(2) St r anded copper conduct or 23 mm out er diamet er cover ed by car bon-black t ape.
(3) Insulat ion: Oil-impr egnat ed Kr aft paper 26.4 mm t hick.
Fig. 15.1(Cont d.)
1 2 3 4
( ) e ( ) f
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5 6
( ) a
( ) b ( ) c
1 2 3
4
5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
( ) d
1 2 3 4 5
6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8
( ) g
( ) h
1 2 3 4
F i g.15.1 Cr oss-sect ional views of t ypical e.h.v. cables.
(a) 69 kV, XLPE;
(b) 138 kV oil-filled, self-cont ained;
(c) 275 kV oil-filled, pipe t ype; (d) 275 kV, XLPE;
(e) 400 kV oil-filled, self-cont ained; (f) 525 kV, HPOF'
(g) 500 kV oil-filled, wit h PPLP composit e insulat ion;
(h) 500 kV, XLPE; (i ) 1100 kV oil-filled;
(j), (k) SF
6
gas-insulat ed line. All cr oss-sect ional views ar e r easonably t o
scale t o show compar ison of dimensions.
(4) Pr ot ect ion: Lead alloy sheat h, met allic r einfor cement and PVC jacket of t ot al t hickness
14.5 mm.
Over all diamet er of cable: 105 mm.
Oil pr essur e 200 p.s.i.g. (1.38 MPa).
No. 6: 525 kV HPOF. Figur e 15.1 (f)
(1) Oil duct : 12 mm inside t he conduct or .
(2) Conduct or : 7-segment Milliken t ype st r anded copper 5000 MCM (2500 mm
2
).
(3) Insulat ion: Oil-impr egnat ed Kr aft cellulose paper . 33.8 mm t hickness.
(4) Sheat h: Cor r ugat ed aluminium.
(5) J acket : High densit y polyet hylene (HDPE).
No. 7: 500 kV OF Cable with Composite Insulation. Figur e 15.1 (g).
(1) Oil channel: Inside conduct or 25 mm diamet er and 1.5 mm t hickness. (28 mm t ot al).
(2) Conduct or : 7-segment Milliken t ype. Out er diamet er 68 mm.
(3) Conduct or shield: Car bon paper 2 sheet s and met allized paper 1 sheet . Tot al t hickness
0.375 mm.
(4) Insulat ion:
mm. 24.5 : t hickness Tot al
mm 4 200
mm 7 m 220
mm 8 m 170
mm 5 . 5 PPLP t hick m 120
'

1 2 3 4 5 6
( ) i
Enclosure
Enclosure
SF
6
Epoxy
Epoxy Supports
Post Star Cone
( ) j ( ) k
(5) Insulat ion shield: Car bon and met allized paper s 0.375 mm.
(6) Copper wir e woven wit h clot h t ape 0.5 mm t hickness.
(7) Aluminium sheat h: 3 mm t hickness
(8) Ant i-cor r osion PVC jacket 6 mm t hickness. Over all diamet er of cable: 153 mm.
No. 8: 500 kV XLPE. Figur e 15.1 (h)
(1) Conduct or : 2000 mm
2
st r anded copper wit h ext r uded semi-conduct ing shield.
(2) Insulat ion: XLPE 35 mm t hickness. (Reduced t o 32 mm in lat er design by impr egnat ion
with SF
6
gas.)
(3) Ext er nal shield: Ext r uded by t r iple ext r usion pr ocess along wit h conduct or shield and
XLPE insulat ion.
(4) PVC jacket .
No. 9: 1100 kV Oil-Filled Cable. Figur e 15.1 (i)
(1) Inner oil duct 24 mm diamet er .
(2) Conduct or 2000 mm
2
ar ea, 57.3 mm out er diamet er .
(3) Insulat ion: Medium densit y cellulose Kr aft paper 35 mm t hick.
(4) Lead alloy sheat h 6 mm t hick.
(5) Reinfor cement t apes.
(6) PVC ant i-cor r osion jacket 6 mm t hick.
Over all diamet er of cable: 152 mm.
Oil pr essur e: Inner cooled 1.3 MPa.
Out er cooling over jacket wit h wat er .
Power t r ansmit t ed: 3000 MVA 3-phase wit h only inner cooling.
8000 MVA wit h bot h inner oil cooling of conduct or and out er wat er cooling of sheat h.
No. 10: Gas Insulated Lines. S F
6
gas bet ween 2 t o 4 At mospheres. Figur es 15.1 (j) and (k)
Maximum volt age, kV: 300 525 765
Conduct or dia. in mm: 150 250 250
Enclosur e dia. in mm: 400 600 700
Insulat ion clear ance, mm: 125 175 225
Gas pr essur e, at mospher es: 24 34 34
15.1.3 Power Ratings and Environment of Cable
The power r at ing (or , cur r ent -car r ying capacit y for a given volt age level) of a cable depends
ver y much on t he envir onment in which t he cable is locat ed which det er mines t he heat -
disssipat ion fr om t he out er sheat h and t he inner conduct or . A st udy car r ied out by t he B.I.C.C.
of t he U.K. on oil-filled cables for 230 kV, 345 kV, and 525 kV has r evealed t he following det ails
under sever al t ypes of envir onment of t he cable. (C.A. Ar kell, B. Gr egor y, G.J . Smee, Tr ans.
IEEE, PAS. 1978, pp. 349-357).
The following t ypes of envir onment for an e.h.v. cable ar e usually encount er ed: (See
Figur e 15.2).
(1) Nat ur al cooling wher e t he cable is laid dir ect ly in soil which usually has a high t her mal
r esist ivit y. This is usual in ur ban and r ur al sit uat ions.
(2) Nat ur al cooling wher e cable is laid in a backfill of lower t her mal r esist ivit y and bet t er
heat conduct ing pr oper t ies t han nor mal soil. This is car r ied out in t r oughs or t r enches
along r ailways and in st at ion swit chyar ds.
(3) Cable is laid in duct s filled wit h air wit hout cir culat ion. Air has ver y poor heat -
conduct ion pr oper t y as compar ed t o good t her mal backfill or soil. This t ype of cable
laying is nor mal for r iver cr ossings, in swit chyar ds, under gr ound power plant s, t unnels,
and sever al ot her sit uat ions.
(4) Forced Cooling: Ther e ar e four main t ypes of for ced cooling.
(a) Separ at e cooling-wat er pipes ar e inst alled adjacent t o cable;
(b) Cable is laid inside a wat er pipe inst ead of alongside;
(c) Int er nal cooling of conduct or which is made hollow; and
(d) A combinat ion of (b) and (c).
In pipe-t ype cables, (see Figur e 15.6), t he lar ger pipe in scheme (b) car r ies high-pr essur e
oil inst ead of wat er .
F i g. 15.2 Dependence of power r a t ing of ca ble in differ ent envir onment s.
0 500 1000 2000 2500
Cross section, mm
2
200
0
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
Duct
Good back fill
Air
Ducts
Back fill
In air
Integral
sheath
cooling
MVA
3 Phase
Separate
cooling
pipes
525
kV
230
kV
It has been obser ved t hat for a 4000 MCM ) mm 2000 (
2
conduct or at 525 kV, t he following
3-phase r at ings apply:
(1) Wit h a cent r al oil-duct of 50 mm in diamet er 4000 MVA (2.2 A/mm
2
).
(2) Integral sheath cooling (schem e (b))1700 MVA (0.935 A/mm
2
).
(3) Separ at e cooling pipes adjacent t o cable1500 MVA (0.825 A/mm
2
).
(4) Cable laid in air wit h cir culat ion1300 MVA (0.715 A/mm
2
).
(5) Cable laid dir ect in good backfill1050 MVA (0.578 A/mm
2
).
(6) Cable laid dir ect in soil of high t her mal r esist ivit y or in duct s wit hout air cir culat ion
900 MVA (0.5 A/mm
2
).
The t emper at ur e r ise of t he conduct or is gover ned ent ir ely by t he heat s pr oduced in
conduct or due t o it s r esist ance, t he dielect r ic loss in t he insulat ion, and any heat pr oduced in
t he met allic sheat h and ar mour ing due t o t he flow of eddy cur r ent . Refer r ing t o Figur e 15.1, we
obser ve t he following when t he pr esence of ar mour is neglect ed:
Let I = cur r ent flowing in conduct or ,
R = a.c. r esist ance of conduct or per unit lengt h, cm or m,
W
d
= dielect r ic loss, see equat ion (15.22) lat er on, per unit lengt h,
= r at io of loss in sheat h t o t he I
2
R loss of conduct or ,
T
1
= t her mal r esist ance for flow of heat fr om conduct or in t he insulat ion,
C/W-cm or C/W-m,
T
2
= t her mal r esist ance for flow of heat fr om insulat ion t o sheat h,
T
3
= t her mal r esist ance for flow of heat fr om sheat h t o t he sur r ounding
medium in which t he cable is laid.
Then IEC St andar d No. 287 gives t he t emper at ur e r ise of conduct or above t he ambient ,
when any ar mour ing is neglect ed, t o be
= ) ( ) ( ) (
3 2 1
2
1
3 2
2
3 2 1
2
T T T W T T R I T T T R I
d
+ + + + + + + ...(15.1a)
Ther efor e, t he cur r ent -car r ying capacit y of t he cable is
I =
2 / 1
3 2 2 2 1
3 2 1 2
1
)] ( ) [(
) (
'
'
+ + + +
+ +
T T T T T R
T T T W
d
...(15.1b)
15.2 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF E.H.V. CABLES
Impor t ant elect r ical char act er ist ics t hat gover n t he per for mance of an e.h.v. cable ar e br oadly
t he following:
(1) Conduct or cr oss sect ion and r adius (or diamet er ), A
c
, r
c
, or d
c
;
(2) Insulat ion t hickness, t
i
;
(3) Radius (or diamet er ) t o t he inside of sheat h or out side of insulat ion, r
sh
= r
c
+ t
i
,
(d
sh
= d
c
+ 2t
i
);
(4) The r a t io ; / /
c sh c sh
r r d d
(5) The dielect r ic const ant , or t he r elat ive per mit t ivit y of t he insulat ion, ;
r
(6) Specific r esist ivit y of insulat ion, ;

i

(7) Dielect r ic loss, P
i
;
(8) Loss angle or t an ;
i
(9) Elect r ic st r ess in t he insulat ion. Maximum st r ess E

max
; aver age E
av
; and minimum
E
min
.
(10) Wor king volt age V at power fr equency;
(11) Maximum volt age V
max
at power fr equency for t he volt age class of cable;
(12) Ma ximu m wit h st a n d volt a ge V
ac
du r i n g di el ect r i c t es t s a t power fr equ en cy;
); ) 4 t o 3 ( (
max ac
V V
(13) Time dur at ion of applicat ion of t est volt age V
ac
, t ;
(14) Life expect ancy of cable t
0
, gener ally in year s;
(15) Basic Impulse Level BIL of insulat ion for t he volt age class;
(16) Impulse level of insulat ion, V
imp
, which is used dur ing fact or y impulse t est s. V
imp
>
BIL by a fact or r anging fr om 1.2 t o 2;
(17) Number of shot s given dur ing impulse t est s;
(18) Volt-tim e withstand or breakdown characteristics called the (V
n
t = const ant ) law
based on pr obabilist ic aspect s gover ned by a Weibull t ype of dist r ibut ion for wit hst and
or br ea kdown volt a ge (or elect r ic st r ess) for t he insula t ion st r uct ur e ba sed on
exper iment s; (see Sect ion 15.4);
(19) Capacit ance per km;
(20) Char ging cur r ent per km;
(21) Char ging kVAR or MVAR per km; and
(22) Par t ial dischar ges fr om voids in dielect r ic mat er ial.
As is usual wit h ever y t ype of elect r ical appar at us or equipment , mechanical and t her mal
fact or s as well as economic fact or s and t echnical know-how influence t he elect r ical char act er ist ics
and manufact ur ing t echniques of cables, which ar e ver y pr onounced at e.h.v. levels. Thus, t he
conduct or t emper at ur e, eddy-cur r ent loss in met allic par t s including t he conduct or and sheat hs,
shor t -cir cuit cur r ent , envir onment , inst allat ion pr act ice, t ype of cooling, lengt h of cable, bending
and winding on r eels and dr ums, joint s and splices, and sever al ot her fact or s peculiar t o t he
cable gover n t he choice of t he most suit able cable for t he par t icular applicat ion. We will consider
sever al impor t ant examples of act ual cables used in pr act ice or which ar e in design and
development st ages t o illust r at e elect r ical char act er ist ics of cables fr om an engineer ing point
of view. A br ief descr ipt ion of manufact ur e of cables will be given in lat er sect ions as well as
pr oper t ies of mat er ials used for t he dielect r ic, which is mor e a descr ipt ion of mat er ial science
and chemical pr oper t ies, based on t he most advanced t echniques t o dat e.
15.2.2 Electrical Stresses in Dielectric
Figur e 15.3 shows t he cr oss-sect ional view of a cable wit h cylindr ical cent r al conduct or of
r adius r
c
separ at ed fr om a met allic sheat h of r adius r
sh
by a dielect r ic of t hickness t
i
and r elat ive
per mit t ivit y .
r
The volt age applied bet ween inner conduct or and out er sheat h is V. Consider
a lengt h of 1 met r e of such a cable wit h a char ge of Q coulombs/met r e. By Gauss's Law, for a
cylinder of r adius ) (
sh c
r x r x < < in t he dielect r ic, t her e r esult s.
Fig. 15.3 Cr oss-sect ional view of concent r ic cable for calculat ion of
elect r ic st r esses in insulat ion.
Q E x
x r

0
. . 2 ...(15.2a)
wher e E
x
= elect r ical st r ess at x in t he insulat ion.
Thus, E
x
= ) / 1 )( 2 / (
0
x Q
r
...(15.2b)
Over a differ ent ial t hickness dx of t he insulat ion at x, t he pot ent ial differ ence is
dV
x
= ) / )( 2 / ( .
0
x dx Q dx E
r x
...(15.3)
Since t he t ot al p.d. bet ween conduct or of r adius r
c
and sheat h of r adius r
sh
is V, we obt ain
V =
) / ln( ). 2 / (
0 c sh r
r
r
x
r r Q dV
sh
c

...(15.4)
This yields t he char ge Q or t he quant it y ) 2 / (
0 r
Q t o be
) 2 / (
0 r
Q = ) / ln( /
c sh
r r V ...(15.5)
Fr om equat ions (15.2) and (15.5), t he elect r ic st r ess in t he insulat ion in t er ms of t he
applied volt age is
E
x
=
,
1
.
) / ln( x r r
V
c sh
Volt /met r e ...(15.6)
The maximum st r ess occur s when x is minimum, which is clear ly on t he sur face of t he
conduct or , while t he minimum st r ess occur s at t he out er sur face of t he insulat ion wher e x =
r
sh
. These st r esses ar e:
E
max
= ) / ( ln . /
c sh c
r r r V ...(15.7)
and E
min
= ) / ( ln . /
c sh sh
r r r V ...(15.8)
Thus, E
max
/E
min
= r
sh
/r
c
. ...(15.9)
V
rc
x
rsh
E d
x x
,
r
Fig. 15.3
A lar ge insulat ion t hickness t
i
yields a lar ge value of ), / 1 ( /
c i c sh
r t r r + so t hat t he
insulat ion is not used opt imally because t he st r ess eveywher e is not as unifor m as it would be
when r
sh
/r
c
is small. In some cable designs, as for example, No. 7 in Sect ion 15.1.2, a mat er ial
wit h higher wit hst and st r ess is used adjacent t o t he conduct or such as t hinner paper t ape or
composit e insulat ion (KP or PPLP).
A quant it y widely used in design of insulat ion t hickness is t he aver age st r ess defined by
E
av
= V/t
i
. In t er ms of t his quant it y we obt ain
E
max
= ) / ( ln / ). / .(
av c sh c i
r r r t E
and E
min
= ) / ( ln / ) / .(
av c sh sh i
r r r t E ...(15.10)
We will now examine numer ical values of t hese elect r ical st r esses for cables wit h var ious
t ypes of dielect r ics and for differ ent e.h.v. levels in or der t o obt ain an idea of aver age values
used in pr act ice. These can pr ofit ably be used for pur poses of compar ison befor e pr oceeding t o
ot her salient elect r ical char act er ist ics, and t o gr asp some basic but impor t ant pr oper t ies of
cable designs at e.h.v. levels used all over t he wor ld.
Refer r ing back t o equat ion (15.7), for a fixed sheat h r adius r
sh
, t he maximum st r ess var ies
wit h t he r at io (r
sh
/r
c
). Ther e exist s a value for t his r at io at which t he maximum st r ess can be
minimized as follows:
E
max
=
.
) / ( ln
1
.
1
) / ( ln
c
sh
c sh sh c c sh
r
r
r r r
V
r r r
V
Let y = ). ln / ).( / ( t hat so ), / (

max
y y r V E r r
sh c sh

Then,
dy
dE
max
= , 0
) (ln
1 ln
.
2

y
y
r
V
sh
giving
y = r
sh
/r
c
= ant i log
e
1 = 2.7183. (15.11)
If t his r at io for sheat h r adius t o conduct or r adius is maint ained by choosing a t hickness
for t he dielect r ic t
i
= (e 1) r
c
= 1.7183 r
c
, t hen t he r esult ing elect r ic st r ess in it at t he sur face
of t he conduct or will be lower t han at any ot her value for t
i
/r
c
. Designer s aim for t his r at io but
in pr act ice it cannot be at t ained in cables for all volt ages and insulat ion t hicknesses r equir ed.
For example, a lar ge conduct or cr oss sect ion in a cable for a given volt age would have a smaller
r at io for (r
sh
/r
c
) t han one wit h a smaller cr oss sect ion for conduct or at t he same volt age level.
15.2.3 Examples of Cable Dimensions and Electric Stresses
Table 15.1 below gives salient dimensions of cables for volt age levels fr om 69 kV t o 1100 kV
wit h differ ent t ypes of dielect r ic manufact ur ed in some par t s of t he wor ld. The elect r ic st r esses
ar e also wor ked out , which t he r eader should st udy car efully in or der t o obt ain a good idea of
cable designs for e.h.v. levels, and wor k t hem out for her self or himself.
Ta ble 15.1 Di men si on s a n d Elect r i ca l Ch a r a ct er i st i cs
Voltage Insulation Cond. S heath r
sh
/r
c
ln t
i
S tresses* kV/ mm
Class Type Rad.r
c
Rad. r
sh
(r
sh
/r
c
) mm E
max
E
a v
E
min
69 kV XLPE 19.3 mm 35.2 mm 1.82 0.6 15.9 3.43 2.5 1.88
138 kV 0-F 25.25 38.5 1.525 0.42 16 7.86 5.2 5.15
150 kV EPRM** 13.2 37.5 2.844 1.045 24.3 6.3
275 kV HPOF 20 40 2 0.693 19.5 12 8.5 5.36
HPOF 23.5 43 1.83 0.6 19.5
XLPE 20 47 2.35 0.854 27 9.7 6.14 4.13
XLPE 23.5 50.5 2.15 0.765
400 kV HPOF 23 49.5 2.15 0.765 26.4 13.8 9.2 6.43
500 kV HPOF 34 58.5 1.72 0.543 24.5 17.2 13 10
XLPE 21.1 53.1 2.52 0.923 32 16.3 9.9 6.5
765 kV KP-OF 17.9 54.7 3.06 1.12 36.8 22 12 8
PPP-OF 17.9 48.4 2.7 0.995 30.5 24.8 14.5 9.2
1100 kV HPOF 29 64 2.23 0.8 35 29 19 13
Opt imum 2.718 1
15.2.4 Capacitance, Insulation Resistance and Loss Factor tan
i
Fr om equat ions (15.4) and (15.5) t he capacit ance per met r e lengt h is, wit h
0
= (1000/3) 10
12
Far ad/met r e,
C = F/km ), / ( ln 18 / ) / ( ln / 2 /
0

c sh r c sh r
r r r r V Q ...(15.12)
The char ging cur r ent per phase at fr equency f is
I = fCV 2 ...(15.13)
wher e V = line-t o-neut r al volt age. This gives a char ging r eact ive power per phase of
Q
c
= ) / ( ln / 4 2
0
2 2 2
c sh r
r r fV fCV VI ...(15.14)
We obser ve t hat an insulat ing mat er ial wit h higher r elat ive per mit t ivit y
r
yields a higher
char ging power t han one wit h lower
r
. It is for t his r eason t hat plast ic mat er ials XLPE, PPLP
and so on ar e bet t er t han oil-filled Kr aft paper insulat ion whose
r
's ar e on t he aver age 2.3,
2.75, and 3.5 r espect ively. Designer s of cable insulat ion ar e consequent ly looking for mat er ials
wit h low
r
and high dielect r ic st r engt h.
The insulat ion r esist ance of t he dielect r ic per met r e is
R
i
= ) / ( ln ) 2 / (
c sh i
r r ...(15.15)
*These st r esses ar e calculat ed at t he following maximum wor king volt ages:
69 kV 138 kV 275 kV 400 kV 500 kV 765 kV 1100 kV
69 145 287 420 550 765 1100
**EPRMEt hylene Pr opylene Rubber Moulded.
wher e
i
= specific r esist ance in ohm-met r e. This equat ion is der ived below as also t he
fact t hat t he insulat ion r esist ance decr eases inver sely wit h t he lengt h of cable. Thus, longer
t he cable lower is it s insulat ion r esist ance. Refer r ing t o Figur e 15.4 we obser ve t hat t he cur r ent
in t he insulat ion flows fr om conduct or t o sheat h since t his is t he dir ect ion of t he applied volt age
V. At r adius x in t he dielect r ic, t he ar ea for cur r ent flow is ) 2 ( xL for a cable of axial lengt h L.
Consider a cylinder wit h differ ent ial t hickness dx at x along t he dir ect ion of cur r ent flow. It s
r esist ance is
dR
i
= L x dx
i
. 2 / . ...(15.16)
Fig. 15.4 Calculat ion of insulat ion r esist ance of cable.
The t ot al r esist ance of t he insulat ion will t hen be
R
i
=

sh
c
sh
c
r
r
r
r
c sh
i i
i
r r
L x
dx
L
dR ) / ( ln
2 2
...(15.17)
showing t hat . / 1 L R
i

Fr om equat ions (15.12) and (15.15), t he t ime const ant for decay of any t r ansient applied
bet ween conduct or and sheat h (usually gr ounded) is
i
=
r i i
CR
0
...(15.18)
Since C var ies dir ect ly wit h lengt h of cable L and R
i
inver sely wit h L t he t ime const ant
i
is independent of L. However , t he pr opagat ion delay of a t r ansient such as light ning t hr ough a
cable depends on cable lengt h.
The sur ge impedance of t he cable is
Z
c
= 1/v C ...(15.19)
wher e v = velocit y of pr opagat ion of sur ge
= , / 10 3 / 1
8
0 0 r r
met r es/second. ...(15.20)
Z
c
=

,
`
.
|

c
sh
r
r c sh r
r
r
r r ln
2
1
2 / ) / ( ln
0
0
0 0 0
= . / ) / ( ln 60
r c sh
r r ...(15.21)
rc
x
r
sh
dx
L
We obser ve t hat 377 /
0 0
ohms, t he impedance offer ed t o a wave pr opagat ing in
vacuum. The velocit y of pr opagat ion in and t he sur ge impedance of a cable ar e bot h inver sely
pr opor t ional t o .
r
The power loss in t he dielect r ic per unit lengt h of cable is due t o t he r esist ance R
i
. This is
P
i
= ) / ( ln . / 2 /
2 2
c sh i i
r r V R V ...(15.22)
Thus, t he power fact or of t he insulat ion is, fr om Figur e 15.5,
i
cos = ,. /
2 2
c i i
Q P P + wit h Q
c
P
i
.
This gives
i
t o be near ly 90 as shown in t he phasor diagr am of Figur e 15.5. In an ideal
cable wit h P
i
= 0, t he cur r ent flowing is pur ely capacit ive and so
i
= 90. In pr act ical cables t he
value of ) 003 . 0 2 / (
i
r adians so t hat it is mor e convenient t o use t he complement ar y
angle . 90
i i
Then,
i
cos =
c i i i
Q P / t an sin
or ,
i
t an =
r i i
f fCR
0
2 / 1 2 / 1 ...(15.23)
Fig. 15.5 Cha r ging cur r ent , loss a ngle cur r ent , power fa ct or , a nd
loss angle
i
of a cable. Phasor diagr am.
In cont r ast t o t he cable capacit ance, char ging cur r ent and power which ar e pr opor t ional
t o ,
r
t he insulat ion loss fact or t an
i
is inver sely pr opor t ional t o .
r
Thus, a lower value for
,
r
as for t he plast ics, yields a higher dielect r ic loss t han in Kr aft -paper insulat ed cables which
r eflect s in r ise in t emper at ur e of t he cable dielect r ic for t he same value of .
i
In spit e of it s
lower
, r
on account of t he compact ness of ext r uded plast ics and t he addit ion of de-oxidat ion
agent s, t he value of
i
is higher t han for oil-impr egnat ed Kr aft paper giving a lower value of
t an .
i
Aver age values of t an
i
ar e as follows:
Kr aft paper in oil: 0.002 (0.2%);
XLPE: 0.0002 t o 0.0005 (0.02% t o 0.05%);
V
I
c
I
I
R
i
i
Composit e PPLP: 0.0007 (0.07%);
SF
6
: 0.
Table 15.2 shows values of capacit ance, char ging cur r ent , and MVAR of some t ypical
cable designs used in pr act ice.
Ta ble 15.2. C, I , Q
c
of Some Typ i ca l Ca b le De si gn s
Qc
Type and Voltage In (r
sh
/r
c
) C,
F/k m I, A/k m MVAR MVAR

km-ph km-3-ph
Category I: HPOF C= 3.6/ 18 ln (r
sh
/ r
c
)
138 kV (145 kV Maximum) 0.422 0.46 12.12 1.015 3.045
275 kV (287 kV) 0.693 0.28 14.5 2.314 6.942
500 kV (550 kV) 0.5427 0.358 35.74 11.35 34
1100 kV (1150 kV) 0.8 0.246 51.3 34 102
Category 2: XLPE C = 2.3/ 18 ln (r
sh
/ r
c
)
275 kV (287 kV) 0.854 0.15 7.89 1.29 3.87
500 kV (550 kV) 0.923 0.1384 13.8 4.39 13.17
Category 3: PPLP C = 2.7/ 18 ln (r
sh
/ r
c
)
765 kV (765 kV) 0.995 0.1508 20.925 9.38 28.14
Fr om t he infor mat ion pr ovided in Tables 15.1 and 15.2, t he r eader might have obser ved
many of t he salient pr oper t ies of cables and t heir insulat ion as used in pr act ice. A summar y of
salient point s is wor t h not ing in or der t o effect a compar ison bet ween O-F cables, XLPE cables
and PPLP (oil filled) cables, which now consist all e.h.v. cables manufact ur ed wit h solid insulat ion.
275 kV 500 kV 765 kV 1100 kV r
sh
/ r
c
HPOF t
i
= 19.5 mm 24.5 mm 35 mm 1.722.23
PPLP t
i
= 30 mm
XLPE t
i
= 27 mm 32-35 mm 2.152.52
(1) XLPE cables have higher (r
sh
/r
c
)-r at io t han HPOF cables.
(2) XLPE cables have lar ger insulat ion t hickness t han HPOF cables.
The differ ence is 7.5 t o 10 mm in 275 kV and 500 kV cables.
(3) XLPE cable has a lower char ging cur r ent t han HPOF cable in t he r at io of near ly 2 t o
1. (Table 15.2).
(4) Aver age elect r ic st r ess (E
av
= V/ t
i
) in t he insulat ion for power fr equency is as follows
at maximum wor king volt ages:
275 kV (287 500 kV 765 kV 1100 kV
kV maxm.) (550 kV) (1150 kV)
HPOF 8.5 kV/mm 13 14 19
= MV/m
XLPE 6.1 10
(5) Maximum values of elect r ic st r ess E
max
= E
av
(t
i
/r
c
)/ ln (r
sh
/r
c
) for power fr equency at
maximum wor king volt ages ar e as follows:
275 kV 500 kV 765 kV 1100 kV
HPOF 12 17.2 2225 29
XLPE 9.7 16.3
Exa mp l e 15.1 The oil pr essur e in a HPOF cable is 1 MPa (Mega Pascal). Calculat e t he
pr essur e in (a) Lbs/in
2
; (b) At mospher es; (c) Lbs/in
2
-gauge; (d) kg/cm
2
.
Sol u t i on .
1 Pascal = 1 Newt on/sq.m.
1 Newt on = for ce r equir ed t o acceler at e 1 kg by 1 m/s
2
;
1 Lb = for ce r equir ed t o acceler at e 1 Lb by 32.2 ft /s
2
= 0.454 kg 32.2/3.28 m/s
2
= 0.454 9.81 = 4.457 N.
(a) 1 MPa = 10
6
/(4.457 39.36
2
) = 144.83 Lbs/in
2
.
(b) 1 At mospher e = 14.7 Lbs/in
2
. 1 MPa = 9.8524 At m.;
(c) 1 MPa = 144.83 Lbs/in
2
= 130.13 Lbs/in
2
gauge,
(d) 1 kg/cm
2
= 2.54
2
/0.454 Lbs/in
2
= 14.21 Lbs/in
2
( 1 At m.)
1 MPa = 10.192 kg/cm
2
.
Not e : Nor mal oil pr essur e used in HPOF cables r anges fr om 100 t o 250 Lbs/in
2
, or , 0.69
t o 1.725 MPa.
Exa mp le 15.2. An XLPE cable for 275 kV wor k is r at ed as follows:
(i) Maximum wor king volt age of 287 kV, line-t o-ine;
(ii) 805 kV (line-t o-neut r al) wit hst and for 1 hour at ambient t emper at ur e (50 Hz volt age);
(iii) 735 kV (l-t o-n) 50 Hz wit hst and for 1 hour at 90C for conduct or t emper at ur e; and
(iv) 1590 kV peak (l-t o-n) light ning impulse volt age of 1.2/50
s
double-exponent ial shape.
Ot her det ails ar e:
r
= 2.3 for XLPE; t
i
= 27 mm t hickness for t he insulat ion, conduct or
r adius r
c
= 23.5 mm f = 50 Hz.
Calculate the following quantities:
(a) Aver age elect r ic st r ess in t he insulat ion at t he maximum wor king volt age, t est volt ages
of 735 kV and 805 kV, and 1590 kV impulse.
(b) E
max
and E
min
in t he insulat ion at 287 kV (l-t o-l ) and 805 kV (l-t o-n) at power fr equency;
(c) Velocit y of pr opagat ion of light ning sur ge in t he cable;
(d ) The sur ge impedance, Z
c
;
(e) Capacit ance, char ging cur r ent and MVAR at maximum wor king volt age per km of
cable in ser vice;
(f ) The t r ansfor mer capacit y for t est ing t he cable at 805 kV;
(g) If t an
i
= 0.0005, calculat e t he dielect r ic loss and insulat ion r esist ance per km, and
t he specific r esist ivit y of t he dielect r ic;
(h) Assume t hat t he quant it y V
2
t = const ant and V = 805 kV (l-t o-n) for t = 1 hour .
Calculat e t he life of t he cable t
0
in year s when V = 287 kV (l-t o-l);
(i) Using 735 kV (l-t o-n) and t = 1 hour at t he elevat ed t emper at ur e of 90C, det er mine
t he life of t he cable in year s if it is oper at ed cont inuously at t his t emper at ur e inst ead
of at r oom t emper at ur e.
Sol u t i on .
(a) V = kV/mm. 14 . 6 27 / 7 . 165 . , kV 3 / 287 , kV 287
av
E n l l l
V = kV/mm. 8 . 29 27 / 805 . , kV 805
av
E n l
V = kV/mm. 22 . 27 27 / 735 . , kV 735
av
E n l
V = kV/mm. 9 . 58 27 / 1590 . , kV 1590
av
E n l
Not e t hat for power fr equency t he aver age st r ess at maximum value of volt age used in
t he 1-hour t est is 30 kV/mm while it is 60 kV/mm under impulse condit ion. This is for XLPE
insulat ion.
(b) Sheat h r adius r
sh
= 23.5 + 27 = 50.5 mm. ln (r
sh
/r
c
) = 0.765.
At 287 kV, ll = 165.7 kV, ln, E
max
= V/r
c
. ln (r
sh
/r
c
) = 9.22 kV/mm,
At 805 kV, ln, E
max
= 44.8 kV/mm 1.5 E
av
.
At 287 kV, ll, E
min
= E
max
.r
c
/r
sh
= 4.29 kV/mm.
At 805 kV, ln, E
min
= 20.85 kV/mm.
(c) v =
r

0 0
/ 1 =
3 . 2 / 10 3
8
= 1.98 10
8
m/s = 66% of light velocit y.
(d) Z
c
=
6 . 248 3 . 2 / 377
ohms
(e) C = ) / ln( / 2
0 c sh r
r r = 765 . 0 18 / 3 . 2 10
9

= 0.167 nF/m = 0.167 F/km.

Char ging cur r ent , I = 314 0.167 10
6
165.7 10
3
= 8.69 A/km. Q
c
= 8.69 165.7 = 1440
kVAR/phase = 4.32 MVAR/3-phase per km.
(f ) At 805 kV and 1 km of cable, char ging cur r ent = 314 0.167 10
6
805 10
3
= 42.23
Amp.
Capacit y of t r ansfor mer should be at least 805 kV and 42.23 Amp. and 34 MVA. Such
lar ge t r ansfor mer s for t est ing pur poses ar e not nor mally available so t hat only shor t er
lengt hs of cable must be used dur ing fact or y or labor at or y t est s. It is alo usual t o
pr ovide r esear ch fact or s of 1.3 for such t r ansfor mer s.
(g) Dielect r ic loss: P
i
= Q
c
t an
i
= 4.32 10
3
0.0005 = 2.16 kW/km-3 phase.
t an . 2 / 1 /
i c i i
fCR Q P
14 . 38 ) 0005 . 0 10 167 . 0 314 /( 1
6

i
R Megohms/km.
Also, t an . 2 / 1 2 / 1
0 r i i i
f fCR

i =
i r
i r
f
f

t an 10 ) 36 / 1000 ( 2
1
) t an 2 /( 1
12
0
=
) 0005 . 0 3 . 2 1000 50 /( 10 18
12

=
12
10 313 . 0
ohm-met r e.
(h) Since V
9
t = const ant , at 805 kV for 1 hour t est , t her e is
1 ) 10 805 (
9 3

=
life.
9 3
) 10 7 . 165 ( t
0 life
t t = year s. 172 hours ) 7 . 165 / 805 (
9
(i) At t he elevat ed t emper at ur e, life of cable is

t
0
=
76
24 365
1
7 . 165
735
9

,
`
.
|
year s.
15.3 PROPERTIES OF CABLE-INSULATION MATERIALS
Mat er ials used for insulat ion in e.h.v. cables ar e:
(1) Oil-impegnat ed Kr aft cellulose paper . The oil used is eit her miner al or most ly synt het ic
of low viscosit y;
(2) Ext r uded r ubber or plast ic, chiefly Et hylene Pr opylene Rubber (EPR), Polyolefin gr oup
t he most impor t ant of which ar e Cr oss-Linked Polyet hylene (XLPE) and Polypr opylene
(PP);
(3) Composit e insulat ion consist ing of paper and plast ic films. These have t he chemical
names such as Kr aft -XLPE, Kr aft -PP also called PPLP, Polymet hyl Pent een (PML),
and non-polyolefin gr oup consist ing of Fluor inat ed Et hylene-Pr opylene copolymer s
(FEP/C) in which a Fluor ine molecule r eplaces Hydr ogen of Polyet hylene (PE);
(4) Gas. This is mainly Sulphur Hexafluor ide, SF
6
.
Each t ype offer s cer t ain advant ages and disadvant ages when used for e.h.v. applicat ions
for cables. We shall enumer at e t he chemical, elect r ical, t her mal and mechanical pr oper t ies
ver y br iefly of t he above mat er ials in so far as t hey concer n cable insulat ion. The lit er at ur e on
t hese mat er ials is so ext ensive t hat t he r eader is st r ongly ur ged t o follow it fr om ot her sour ces.
15.3.1 Oil-Filled Paper Insulated Cables
The OF cable has highest dielect r ic st r engt h of all t ypes of insulat ed cables. Volt ages of OF
cables have incr eased ut p 1200 kV. Ther e ar e t hr ee main t ypes of OF cables; (1) The pipe-t ype
HPOF cable used mainly in t he U.S.A.; (2) Flat -t ype or Mullehj cable of Denmar k and used
ear lier ; and (3) Low-pr essur e OF cable. Ther e ar e sever al var iat ions of t hese, t he most impor t ant
being t he self-cont ained HPOF var iet y.
The paper used is Kr aft cellulose paper , de-ionized and wat er -washed dur ing manufact ur e.
Unimpr egnat ed Kr aft paper has a specific gr avit y of 1.5 and r elat ive per mit t ivit y . 5 . 5
r
These pr oper t ies give r ise t o high dielect r ic loss, high capacit ance, high char ging cur r ent , and
mor eover it is hygr oscopic. But when impr egnat ed wit h low-viscosit y, low-densit y synt het ic
oils composed mainly of alkyl benzene and hydr ogenat ed polybut ene oil (DDB ) and some miner al
oils t he per mit t ivit y falls t o 4 . 3
r
and a loss angle t an
i
=0.002 (0.2%). When plast ic films
ar e used along wit h Kr aft paper and wit h impr ovement s t aking place in oil pr oper t ies, as of
1986, for 765 kV cables alr eady manufact ur ed, 7 . 2
r
and t an %. 07 . 0
i
The paper for such
applicat ion is made of low densit y which nor mally absor bs moist ur e easier t han high densit y
paper . But when impr egnat ed wit h oil, it exhibit s high imper meabilit y t o moist ur e.
The chief disadvant age of t his t ype of insulat ion is t he differ ent ial expansion bet ween
paper and met allic conduct or so t hat dur ing load cycling especially dur ing cooling, voids ar e
cr eat ed. This is avoided by using high oil pr essur e (> 200 p.s.i. = 1.38 MPa). High pr essur e OF
cables wit h bot h int er nal cooling of conduct or and ext er nal cooling of sheat h has r esult ed in
cables suit able upt o 1100 kV, 8000 MVA, 3-phase.
The impulse st r engt h of paper cables is a limit ing fact or in t heir design. Higher densit y of
paper and higher viscosit y of impr egnant yield higher impulse st r engt h. But t his r esult s in
higher
r
which incr eases dielect r ic loss, capacit ance and so gives r ise t o higher insulat ion
t emper at ur e and char ging cur r ent . This shows t hat incr easing t he per mit t ivit y also incr eases
impulse st r engt h, but t he incr eased t emper at ur e gives r ise t o t her mal inst abilit y (r un-away
condit ion). These ar e minimized wit h laminat ed polypr opylene film (PPLP) as will be discussed
la t er on.
Usual paper t hickness is 56 mils (0.1270.1524 mm), but 3-mil paper is used for inner
layer s near t he conduct or . The t hickness of paper is r elat ed t o t he dielect r ic st r engt h; t he
t hinner it is t he higher t he kV/mm it can st and. In cables oper at ing at ext r emely high st r esses
0.75-mil paper has also been used. A paper wit h lower densit y gives lower power fact or , losses
and lower char ging cur r ent , but because of loose packing of molecules and fibr es, allows gas t o
per meat e easily which affect s t he elect r ic st r engt h. Thus, elect r ic st r engt h and dielect r ic loss
act in opposit e dir ect ions, lower ing of dielect r ic loss is accompanied by weakness of dielect r ic
pr oper t ies.
The cr oss sect ion of a 3-phase pipe-t ype cable is shown in Figur e 15.6. The high oil pr essur e
used (1.51.7 MPa) not only is effect ive in r emoving heat but also pr event s for mat ion of voids in
t he insulat ion and t her efor e par t ial dischar ges (cor onas) as well as pr event ing moist ur e ingr ess.
Fig. 15.6 Cr oss sect ion of t ypical 3-phase pipe-t ype oil-filled cable.
Self-Contained Oil-Filled Cables
The self-cont ained OF cable has no pipe in which t he t hr ee single-cor e cables ar e laid but only
an oil duct inside t he conduct or . This is pr efer r ed when t he cable has t o be laid in an inclined or
ver t ical dir ect ion as in shaft s. The advant ages over pipe-t ype cables ar e as follows:
(a) Smaller conduct or cr oss sect ion due t o bet t er cooling since t he 3 single-cor e cables
can be laid wit h any dist ance of separ at ion unlike in a pipe. Sheat h power losses can
be minimized by pr oper bonding of cables.
Pipe with
Pressure Oil
(b) Due t o dist ur bances caused dur ing laying, pipe-t ype cables r equir e lar ger insulat ion
t hickness t han self-cont ained OF cables.
(c) No pumps ar e necessar y. Only oil t anks ar e sufficient .
(d) Obst acles can be jumped easier t han wit h heavy pipes.
(e) Self-cont ained OF cables ar e cheaper t han pipe-t ype cables.
(f ) When a damage occur s t o pipe-t ype cable, all 3-phases ar e r emoved out of ser vice.
(g) In sit es wher e laying condit ions ar e sever e, self-cont ained OF cables ar e pr efer r ed as
has been t he exper ience in giant power st at ions, such as t he Gr and Coulee Dam in
t he U.S.A.
A cr oss sect ion of 400-kV self-cont ained OF cable is shown in Figur e 15.1(e) ha ving 8
component s (See p. 431):
(1) Oil duct 12 mm diamet er ; (2) 9-segment copper conduct or 300 mm
2
ar ea; (3) Int er nal
shielding; (4) Insulat ion 26.4 mm t hick; (5) Ext er nal shielding; (6) Lead-alloy sheat h; (7) Br onze
r einfor cement ; and (8) PVC jacket .
Many under sea dc cables in t he wor ld also use t he self-cont ained OF syst em. Some examples
ar e:
(1) Got landSweden Link
t
100 kV, 20 MW;
(2) Fr anceEngland Link
t
100 kV, 160 MW;
t
270 kV, 2000 MW;
(3) Vancouver Island, Canada
t
300 kV, 500 MW;
(4) Skager r ak St r ait
t
250 kV, 500 MW.
Ot her dc cable inst allat ions exist in It alySar dinia, Nor t h and Sout h Islands of New Zealand,
and sever al ot her places.
Aver age elect r ical st r esses used in HPOF cables have been given in Table 15.1 for power
fr equency at maximum volt ages used at a specified volt age level. However , design st r esses ar e
usually higher t han at wor king volt ages when t he cables ar e t o be t est ed at t he fact or y. These
t est volt ages ar e agr eed bet ween manufact ur er and buyer so t hat t hey do not r epr esent st andar d
values.
Power Frequency Impulse
275 kV: t
i
= 19.5 mm 41 kV/mm (805 kV t est ) 81 kV/mm (1590 kV t est )
400 kV: t
i
= 26.4 mm 31 kV/mm (830 kV) 56 kV/mm (1475 kV)
500 kV: t
i
= 24.5 mm 44 kV/mm (1087 kV) 92 kV/mm (2250 kV)
765 kv: t
i
= 30.5 mm 55.3 kV/mm (1150 kV) 144 kV/mm (3000 kV)
15.3.2 Cross-Linked Polyethylene CablesXLPE
The sear ch for an insulat ing mat er ial wit h low r elat ive per mit t ivit y, low dielect r ic loss, high
elect r ic st r engt h, wit hout t he necessit y for an oil or impr egnat ing fluid, easy inst allat ion, bet t er
fir e-r esist ant pr oper t y, and at t ack against chemicals has r esult ed in t he design of cables wit h
cr oss-linked polyet hylene, XLPE, as insulat ion. As of now t his mat er ial has been ut ilized upt o
500 kV in cables used ext ensively in Eur ope and J apan alt hough t hey ar e used all over t he
wor ld t o gr eat er or less ext ent .
Polyet hylene (PE) is a hydr ocar bon t her moplast ic mat er ial which by it self is a good insulant .
It is obt ained by using et hylene gas, a by-pr oduct of coal, and was invent ed by I.C.I. in t he U.K
pr ior t o t he 1939-45 war . It s molecular r epr esent at ion is . )
|
|
|
|
(
2 2 n
CH CH It has a soft ening
point of 70C and melt ing point of 115C, a specific gr avit y of 0.91.0, high br eakdown st r engt h
of 60 kV/mm, low t an
i
of 0.0002 t o 0.0005, low dielect r ic const ant of 2.22.5, high insulat ion
r esist ivit y, low t her mal r esist ance of 30Ccm/wat t , and r esist s at t ack by chemicals, bot h acids
and alkalis. Nor mally t he maximum oper at ing t emper at ur e of conduct or used in cables is 80C
but 90C is allowed. The main disadvant age of PE is it s vulner abilit y for being affect ed by
par t ial dischar ges in t he pr esence of moist ur e.
The hydr ogen molecule in PE gives undesir able pr oper t ies such as easy at t ack fr om oxygen
in moist ur e. In cr oss-linking, many bonds bet ween C and H
2
ar e r emoved, r esult ing in mor e
bonds bet ween car bon at oms. The r esult ing mat er ial is Cr oss-Linked Polyet hylene, XLPE. It s
densit y incr eases t o 0.94 t o 0.96 because of r emoval of light er hydr ogen. It s ot her pr oper t ies ar e
r
= 2.25 t o 2.35, t an
i
= 0.05%. The molecular chain is r epr esent ed as
. )
|
|
|
|
|
|
(
2 2 n
CH
C
C
C
CH
The amount of cr oss-linked car bon bonds usually var ies bet ween 7 and 10% of t he t ot al bonds,
but t his is sufficient t o yield insulat ing pr oper t ies super ior t o nor mal High Densit y Polyet hylene
(HDPE, 0.95 gm/cc) and Low Densit y Polyet hylene (LDPE, 0.92 gm/cc). HDPE is used for
pr ot ect ive jacket s over t he cable in place of PVC. XLPE has an impulse br eakdown st r engt h of
400 kV/mm at 90C which falls t o 200 kV/mm at 130C due ent ir ely t o t he loss of cr yst al
st r uct ur e at t he elevat ed t emper at ur e. At r oom t emper at ur e it incr eases t o 450 kV/mm giving
t he t emper at ur e coefficient
K
1
=
. 125 . 1
400
450
t emp. cond. maxm. at st r ess Br eakdown
e t emper at ur r oom at st r ess Br eakdown

This is an impor t ant fact or in design of cable-insulat ion t hickness. In compar ison, LDPE
of 0.92 gm/cc has an impulse br eakdown st r engt h of 400 kV/mm at 90C and HDPE of 0.95 gm/
cc gives 520 kV/mm. But as has been point ed out ear lier , higher densit y gives higher dielect r ic
loss and char ging cur r ent while also being mor e st iff and less flexible t o handle t han XLPE.
Lower densit y is mor e per meable t o moist ur e. Thus, XLPE is a good compr omise bet ween
HDPE and LDPE.
The r eader should r efer t o lit er at ur e on Polymer Science for det ails of manufact ur e of
t his mat er ial. A shor t descr ipt ion of t he cr oss-linking pr ocess is given her e. Ther e ar e essent ially
t hr ee t ypes of pr ocesses.
(1) Chemical Cross-Linking: Her e, a compound of LDPE and some per oxide r eagent as
cat alyst ar e used. At about 250C, t he fr ee et hylene r adicals (CH
2
) r eact wit h each
ot her in t he pr esence of t he cat alyst t o for m a vulcanized or cr oss-linked mat er ial
under high t emper at ur e and pr essur e.
(2) Nuclear Irradiation: This is a ver y expensive pr ocess and is used for insulat ion in
special applicat ions such as in nuclear plant s t hemselves. The plast ic mat er ial is
bombar ded in an at omic pile or nuclear r eact or by t her mal neut r ons. A high-ener gy
beam of elect r ons pr oduced in an acceler at or is also used commer cially. This gives a
pr oper doze of ir r adiat ion t o t he finished PE cable.
(3) Vulcanizing: The manufact ur ed cable wit h ext r uded PE mat er ial on t he met allic
conduct or is passed t hr ough a vulcanizing t ube. In t he old pr ocess (discont inued now)
t his was done under st eam which int r oduced micr ovoids so t hat dr y cur ing pr ocess is
used at pr esent in cable manufact ur e. The heat ing under high pr essur e is car r ied out
in an at mospher e of Nit r ogen or ot her inser t gas. Ot her pr ocesses use Silicone oil,
salt bat hs, or by impar t ing ener gy r equir ed for cr oss-linking t hr ough ult r a-sonic waves.
Some laser t echniques ar e under development . The pr ocess of cr oss-linking was
int r oduced by t he Gener al Elect r ic Co. of U.S.A. in 1953, but XLPE cables have found
mor e widespr ead use out side U.S.A.
The high qualit y of XLPE cables is a pr oduct of impr oved design and manufact ur ing
t echniques and pr ocesses, chief among which ar e:
(a) Assur ing unifor mit y in insulat ion;
(b) Reduct ion of voids, cont aminant s and moist ur e cont ent . Cont aminant s include met allic
par t icles, fibr ous mat er ials and ot her impur it ies;
(c) Impr oved adhesion and smot t h sur face at t he int er face bet ween insulat ion and semi-
conduct ing layer on t he conduct or as well as t he inner sur face of t he sheat h.
Fig. 15.7 Schemat ic diagr am of cr oss-linking pr ocess of XLPE.
These have r esult ed fr om t he following pr ocesses:
(i) The dr y cur ing pr ocess which is shown schemat ically in Figur e 15.7;
(ii) Tr iple co-ext r usion pr ocess wher e t he semi-conduct ing layer s and t he r esin making
up t he XLPE insulat ion ar e ext r uded t oget her in a specially-shaped nipple die; and
(iii) Select ing ext r a pur e mat er ials (r esins) by st r ict qualit y cont r ol met hods t o exclude
cont aminant s and voids, and using highly sophist icat ed met hods of packing dur ing
t r anspor t at ion fr om r esin manufact ur er t o t he cable fact or y.
The ult imat e aim is t o r educe t he insulat ion t hickness which at pr esent is 10 mm t hicker
t han in HPOF cables for t he same volt age. As ment ioned befor e, XLPE should not lose it s
N gas out
2 N gas in
2
out in
Heaters
Water
Heating Zone Cooling Zone
Pre-cooling
Zone
Packing
Packing
Cable
cr yst alline st r uct ur e and become amor phous if it s impulse st r engt h is t o be pr eser ved and not
degr aded badly wit h r ise in t emper at ur e. However , t he ac br eakdown st r engt h is not affect ed
by t he loss of cr yst allinit y or change in densit y.
Fig. 15.8 Illust r at ing wat er -t r ee for mat ion in XLPE,
The cause for br eakdown of XLPE insulat ion is "wat er t r eeing" and "bow-t ie t r eeing",
r epor t ed fir st by Lawson and Vohlst r om in 1973. These ar e due t o a combinat ion of elect r ical
a nd mecha nica l st r esses, moist ur e ingr ess, a nd t emper a t ur e a s well a s t he pr esence of
cont aminant s, voids and pr ot r usions. The act ual mechanism of wat er -t r ee init iat ion and gr owt h
ar e st ill impr oper ly under st ood. Ther e exist sever al t heor ies t he main one being r elat ed t o t he
elect r ic char ge accumulat ed in t he XLPE. Figur e 15.8 shows a pict ur e of a wat er t r ee wher e
bubbles or voids ar e for med along t he dielect r ic lines of for ce, which ar e r adial in a concent r ic
cylindr ical elect r ode syst em. Wat er -t r ee r esist ant mat er ials ar e used t o combat t his and ar e
known as "volt age st abilizer s" or elect r olyt es. Such addit ives ar e compounds having names like
Fer r ocene, 8-Hydr oxyquinoline a nd Siloxa ne oligomer . These a r e polymer s of et hylene.
Figur e 15.9 shows an example of number of wat er t r ees in 5 mm t hickness of insulat ion wit h
differ ent lengt hs of t r ees in XLPE wit h and wit hout t hese "st abilizer s". No t r ees over 240
m
(0.24 mm) ar e for med wit h addit ives. It is believed t hat wat er t r ees ar e init iat ed at t he
int er face of t he shield, wr apped on t he conduct or , and t he XLPE insulat ion. If t his int er face is
made per fect ly smoot h and cylindr ical, wat er -t r ee for mat ion due t o any absor pt ion of moist ur e
is difficult t o init iat e. This is why t he t r iple-ext r usion pr ocess assumes gr eat impor t ance. Wat er -
t r ee r esist ant XLPE is known as WTR-XLPE. Any met hod used for measur ing t he char ge in
t he insulat ion is a valid diagnost ic pr ocedur e for pr edict ing wat er -t r ee for mat ion and consequent
det er ior at ion of t he insulat ion. A par t ial dischar ge level of 100 pC is gener ally consider ed t he
upper limit for good insulat ion.
F i g. 15.9 Typical illust r at ion of number of wat er t r ees and t heir lengt h in XLPE cables
wit h and wit hout addit ives.
10
5
0
80 100 200 280
N
o
.

o
f

t
r
e
e
s

i
n

5

m
m
Without additives
WTR-XLPE with voltage
stabilizer
Length of Trees, m
Due t o const ant impr ovement s, t he volt age of XLPE cables has r eached 500 kV (550 kV
maximum), t he cont inuous wor king elect r ic st r ess has incr eased fr om 5 kV/mm for 66-kV
cables t o 10 kV/mm for 500 kV cables. Insulat ion t hicknesses have incr eased fr om 10 mm at 66
kV t o 32-35 mm at 500 kV.
Bow-t ie t r ees ar e gener at ed fr om micr ovoids or cont aminant s in t he insulat ion, and ar e
pr esent even in dr y-cur ed (r adiant cur ing pr ocess for cr oss-linking) XLPE cables if wor ked at
high t emper at ur e in a humid at mospher e or under wat er . Ther efor e, a wat er -imper meable
met al sheat h is usually adopt ed or else a wat er -pr oof layer under t he ant i-cor r osion PVC jacket
is given. WTR-XLPE is also less suscept ible t o bow-t ie t r ee for mat ion. The wat er -pr oof layer
usually consist s of a t hin lead or ot her met allaminat ed plast ic t ape applied over t he insulat ion
or below t he PVC jacket . The number of t r ees is t her eby decr eased t o below 1 per cc and t heir
lengt h does not exceed 0.15 mm. On t he ot her hand, nor mal XLPE develops 100/mm
3
and t he
lengt h can exceed 0.25 mm (250 m).
The following values of maximum elect r ical st r esses ar e found in XLPE cables. (See also
Table 15.1).
Voltage Insulation Power Frequency Impulse
(Maximum) t hickness, t
i
275 kV (287 kV) 27 mm 30 kV/mm (805 kV) 59 kV/mm (1590 kV)
500 kV (550 kV) 32 mm 34 kV/mm (1087 kV) 70 kV/mm (2250 kV)
As compar ed t o t his, OF paper cable t akes higher elect r ical st r esse. For power fr equency
it is higher by 10 kV/mm and for impulse by 20 kV/mm.
15.3.3 Composite Laminated Insulation
Det ails of a 500 kV and 765 kV OF cable wit h composit e insulat ion wer e given in Sect ion 15.1.1,
and Figur e 15.1(g). The insulat ion consist ed of PPLP and PML (Polypr opylene Laminat ed Kr aft
Paper and Polymet hyl Pent ene Laminat ed Kr aft Paper ). XLPE-laminat ed paper is also used.
Impr egnat ed Kr aft paper has
r
= 3.5 while XLPE has
r
= 2.3. A laminat ed Kr aft paper and
plast ic film has
r
= 2.7. t an
i
values ar e also int er mediat e bet ween t he t wo wit h 0.0007 t o
0.001. The plast ic films ar e laminat ed wit h paper on bot h sides by chemical bonding or by
ext r usion. The r at io of plast ic/paper gover ns kV/mm, ,
r
and t an .
i
For lower ing t he dielect r ic
loss, t he plast ic cont ent is incr eased. Nor mal r at io of plast ic/paper is 40/60%. For a 500 kV
cable, 25 mm t hickness for laminat ed insulat ion is sufficient which is t he same as for paper -
insulat ed cables wher eas a t hickness of 33 mm is necessar y for XLPE insulat ion.
The elect r ic st r esses used dur ing high-volt age t est s on a 500-kV cable ar e as follows:
Power Frequency840 kV t est , E
ac
= 45 kV/mm, maximum;
Lightning Impulse2360 kV t est , E
imp
= 130 kV/mm, peak.
Some of t he laminat ed paper s and t heir det ails ar e shown below (See Figur e 15.10 for
sket ch):
Polyolefin Group
(1) Kraft -XLPE: Densit y0.94 t o 0.96 gm/cc
Melt ing point 130C
Fi g. 15.10 Laminat ed Kr aft paper and plast ic films for composit e insulat ion in cables.
r
= 2.25 t o 2.35 (for power fr equency)
t an % 05 . 0 <
i
Laminat ion by ext r usion.
for m sheet in st r ess Br eakdown
kV/mm 260 : St r ess Imp.
kV/mm 120 : St r ess AC
'
B
B
E
E
(2) Kraft -Polypropylene:
n
]
]
]
CH
CH CH
3
2
Densit y0.91 gm/cc
Melt ing point 170C
% 03 . 0 t an , 25 . 2 <
i r
Laminat ed by ext r usion
for m sheet In
'
B
B
E
E
(3) Kraft -Polymet hyl Pent een (TPX). Also PMLP:
CH
2
CH
|
CH
|
2
CH
|
CH
3
|
CH
3
n
Densit y0.83 gm/cc
Melt ing point 235C
% 03 . 0 t an , 1 . 2 <
i r
for m sheet In
'
B
B
E
E
KP
KP
XLPE
PP
TPX
PMLP has higher melt ing point t han KP-XLPE and KP-PP so t hat it may be used adjacent
t o t he conduct or . In a 500-kV cable t he 25 mm t hickness is made up of 4 mm of PMLP adjacent
t o t he conduct or and 21 mm of PPLP on t op of t he PMLP.
For making t he cable imper vious t o moist ur e, a met al such as Pb, Al, or Cu in foil for m is
used which is about 50 t o 100
m
(0.05 t o 0.1 mm) t hin. This is sandwiched bet ween t wo layer s
of plast ic films each of 100
m
t hickness. Such a composit e t ape is 250 t o 300
m
(0.25 t o 0.3
mm) t hick. The wat er -imper vious layer eliminat es bow-t ie t r ee for mat ion in t he cable near ly
complet ely.
15.4 BREAKDOWN AND WITHSTAND ELECTRICAL STRESSES IN SOLID
INSULATIONSTATISTICAL PROCEDURE
In Chapt er 11, br eakdown and wit hst and volt ages of a long air gap wit h sever al elect r ode
geomet r ies wer e discussed such as conduct or -t ower , r od-plane, et c. These wer e done fr om
st at ist ical consider at ions. For long air gaps, t he 50% br eakdown volt age was an impor t ant quant it y.
The problem was to ascertain the wit hst and volt age fr om exper iment al r esult s of breakdown
volt ages, and it was ment ioned t her e t hat t he accept ed value of wit hst and volt age is % 50 ) 3 1 (
Flashover Volt age or Cr it ical Flashover Volt age (C.F.O.), wher e = st andar d deviat ion. This
value of "wit hst and volt age" act ually gives a pr obabilit y of 0.2% br eakdown when t he pr obabilit y
dist r ibut ion of br eakdown follows a Gaussian dist r ibut ion. Ideas similar t o t hese ar e applied t o
br eakdown and wit hst and volt ages and elect r ical st r ess of solid insulat ions used in cables,
t r ansfor mer s, et c. The pr oblem is always t he following: By per for ming a set of t est s ext ending
over a shor t per iod of t ime (a few hour s at most ) in a labor at or y and fact or y, can we pr edict t he
long-dur at ion (t heor et ically infinit e t ime but 30 t o 50 year s in pr act ice) per for mance of t he
insulat ion st r uct ur e? In t his connect ion, we will encount er t he Volt -Time (Vt ) char act er ist ics
of t he insulat ion st r uct ur e at a given volt age (or elect r ic st r ess) following t he Weibull dist r ibut ion
inst ead of t he Gaussian or Nor mal.
15.4.1 The Weibull Probability Function for Breakdown Gradient
Fr om a vast exper ience gained wit h br eakdown char act er ist ics of solid insulat ion st r uct ur es of
many t ypes and bet ween elect r odes of many geomet r ies, it has been est ablished t hat t he
pr obabilit y of br eakdown at a cer t ain level of volt age gr adient or elect r ic st r ess in t he insulat ion
is given ver y well by t he following funct ional r elat ionship : ) 1 ) ( 0 E P
P(E) =
b
L
E E E } / ) ( exp{ 1
0
...(15.24)
*
wher e P(E) = fr act ional pr obabilit y of br eakdown of t he insulat ion st r uct ur e at a
given elect r ic st r ess E,
E = elect r ic st r ess
E
L
= maximum wit hst and elect r ic st r ess, or t he least st r ess for
commencement of br ea kdown,
E
0
= a scale fact or having unit s of elect r ic st r ess,
and b = br eakdown exponent .
* In t he or iginal paper of Weibull (Ref. 41 under Ot her J our nals) t he pr obabilit y funct ion is t aken as F(x)
= 1exp{(xx
0
)
m
/x
0
}. Wit h x
0
and m const ant , t he expr ession is equivalent t o (15.24).
Bot h E
0
and b depend on t he shape of t he elect r odes and t he waveshape of t he applied
volt age. For cable insulat ion, we shall be concer ned wit h t hr ee t ypes of volt age waveshapes,
namely, power -fr equency ac, double-exponent ial light ning impulse of 1.2/50
s
t imings, and
swit ching sur ges also of double exponent ial shape wit h 250/2500
s
t imings. Of t he t hr ee, t he
fir st t wo ar e of gr eat concer n dur ing t est ing.
In equat ion (15.24) it is evident t hat when t he act ual st r ess E in t he insulat ion equals E
L
,
i.e., when E = E
L
, t he pr obabilit y of br eakdown P(E) equals 0, showing t hat E
L
is t he maximum
value for t he wit hst and st r ess which is ver y impor t ant for design, since solid insulat ion should
never be per mit t ed t o br eakdown even once dur ing it s ser vice life like air gap insulat ion can. It
is t he det er minat ion of E
L
, E
0
and b fr om exper iment s t hat is cr ucial for design of cables,
par t icular ly E
L
. If, for a given cable geomet r y, t he maximum st r ess on t he conduct or sur face is
used t hr oughout for E, t hen E
L
is also t he maximum st r ess used in designing t he cable insulat ion
t hickness. If E is t he aver age st r ess t hen E
L
is also t he aver age st r ess, E
av
= V/ t
i
. These
st r esses have been defined in equat ion (15.7) and in Sect ion 15.2.2.
In discussing t he br eakdown of long air gaps, it was evident t hat since an air gap is r e-
sealable, any number of br eakdowns could be t oler at ed so t hat exper iment al pr ocedur e is
st r aight -for war d for det er mining t he pr obabilit y of flashover or br eakdown of t he insulat ion
st r uct ur e. The same gap could be used over and over again and subject ed t o flashover s. However ,
for a solid-insulat ion st r uct ur e once a br eakdown t akes place, t he insulat ion is damaged. It
cannot be r e-used. Ther efor e, as many samples of cables as ar e going t o be br oken down under
t he volt age shot s in t est ing must be available. Thus, if at a cer t ain volt age level 10 shot s ar e
used and if t he volt age is r aised in 10 st eps bet ween P(E) values of 0 and 1, t hen near ly 100
samples may be r equir ed, t he number of cour se r educed by t he number of non-flashover s
which equals t he number of flashover s near ly. Her e we use t he pr inciple t hat t he aver age over
many samples is t he aver age behaviour al char act er ist ic of one sample. We now discuss t he
met hod of det er mining E
L
, E
0
and b in equat ion (15.24) fr om available br eakdown-pr obabilit y
r esult s.
As has been t he exper ience in t est ing labor at or ies and r esult s obt ained, since t he pr obabilit y
of br eakdown does not exact ly follow t he Weibull dist r ibut ion at high values of P(E), when E
L
is
set equal t o zer o t he funct ion P(E) = exp (E/E
0
)
b
does not yield a st r aight line on pr obabilit y
paper as shown in Figur e 15.11. However , if t he same funct ion wit h t he int r oduct ion of a
suit able value for E
L
is plot t ed t he cur ve begins t o st r aight en out and finally for t he cor r ect
value of E
L
becomes st r aight . This value of E
L
is t he wit hst and volt age gr adient used for designing
t he insulat ion t hickness for t he cable. These t est -volt age magnit udes and t heir dur at ion of
applicat ion ar e decided fr om t he Volt -Time char act er ist ics which will be discussed in t he next
Sect ion 15.4.2.
Fi g. 15.11 Weibull pr obabilit y dist r ibut ion of br eakdown st r esses of solid insulat ion st r uct ur es.
E
L
= 0
E
L
0
P E ( ) %
E E
L
Rever t ing t o equat ion (15.24), we obser ve t hat t her e ar e t hr ee unknowns (E
L
, E
0
, and b) t o
be det er mined fr om exper iment al values. Ther efor e, we r equir e t hr ee set s of known values for
P and E. We might also obser ve t hat .
] ln ) ( [ln
1
1
ln ln
0
E E E b
P
L

]
]
]
...(15.25)
This shows t hat a st r aight line r esult s on a pr obabilit y paper wher e t he or dinat e is m = ln
]
]
]
P 1
1
ln
and t he abscissa is ln (E E
L
). It is t hen easy t o find t he value of b gr aphically since
t he slope of t he st r aight line is b. We shall now set for t h an analyt ical pr ocedur e in or der t o find
E
L
, E
0
, and b. Let t he pr obabilit ies of br eakdown be P
1
, P
2
, P
3
at volt age gr adient s E
1
, E
2
, and E
3
which ar e obt ained fr om exper iment s. The gr adient s ar e of cour se calculat ed fr om t he br eakdown
volt ages. Then we have:
and
'

] ln ) ( [ln )}] 1 /( 1 { [ln ln
] ln ) ( [ln )}] 1 /( 1 { [ln ln
] ln ) ( [ln )}] 1 /( 1 { [ln ln
0 3 3 3
0 2 2 2
0 1 1 1
E E E b P m
E E E b P m
E E E b P m
L
L
L
...(15.26)
Eliminat ing b and E
0
, t her e r esult s
) ( ln ) ( ln
) ( ln ) ( ln
2 3
1 2
2 3
1 2
L L
L L
E E E E
E E E E
m m
m m

...(15.27)
This equat ion can be solved by t r ial and er r or for E
L
, t he elect r ic gr adient at init ial
br eakdown or t he maximum value of wit hst and volt age. Having det er mined t his, t he values of
exponent b and scale fact or E
0
can be calculat ed fr om any t wo of t he t hr ee equat ions in (15.26),
t hus:
b =
)} /( ) {( ln )} /( ) {( ln
2 3
2 3
1 2
1 2
L L L L
E E E E
m m
E E E E
m m

...(15.28)
Then, fr om equat ion (15.25),
m =
b b
L
E E E
0
ln ) ( ln ...(15.29)
giving
b
E
0
ln = )}] 1 /( 1 { [ln ln ) ( ln P E E
b
L

=
)} 1 /( 1 { ln
) (
ln
P
E E
b
L
or , E
0
= . )}] 1 /( 1 { /[ln ) (
/ 1 b
L
P E E ...(15.30)
Ther efor e, using any one of t he set s of values for P and E out of t he t hr ee, t he value of E
o
is finally det er mined. Some examples will not only make t he pr ocedur e clear but also give t he
r eader an incling of values for all par amet er s useful for cable designs in pr act ice.
Exa mp le 15.3. A ser ies of power -fr equency t est s conduct ed on samples of 187-kV XLPE
cable gave t he following br eakdown pr obabilit y figur es and cor r esponding elect r ic st r esses: P
1
= 20% at E
1
= 35.2 kV/mm; P
2
= 50% at E
2
= 38 kV/mm; and P
3
= 90% at E
3
= 43 kV/mm.
Calculat e E
L
for t his t ype of XLPE cable insulat ion which will event ually for m t he basis for
design of a 500-kV cable.
Sol u t i on . m
1
= ; 5 . 1 ) 25 . 1 (ln ln )}] 1 /( 1 { [ln ln
1
P
Similar ly, m
2
= ln (ln 2 ) = 0.366513,
and m
3
= ln (ln 10) = + 0.834
) /( ) (
2 3 1 2
m m m m = 0.9441,
and fr om equat ion (15.27),
0.9441 = ln {(38 E
L
)/(35.2 E
L
)}/ln {(43 E
L
)/(38 E
L
)}.
A t r ial and er r or solut ion gives E
L
= 31 kV/mm.
Exa mp le 15.4. In t he pr evious example, calculat e t he values of b and E
0
of equat ion
(15.24), and t hen wr it e t he Weibull br eakdown pr obabilit y funct ion under ac st r esses.
Sol u t i on . Fr om equat ion (15.28)
b =
. 2274 . 2
)} 31 38 /( ) 31 43 {( ln
) 2 (ln ln ) 10 (ln ln
Finally, fr om equat ion (15.30), E

0
= (43 31)/(ln 10)
1/2.2274
= 8.252 kV/mm.
It is left as an exer cise for t he r eader at t he end of t he chapt er t o check t he values of b and
E
0
by using a differ ent set of values of E and P out of t he dat a. The ac br eakdown pr obabilit y
funct ion is
P
ac
(E) = . } 252 . 8 / ) 31 ( { exp 1
2274 . 2
E
Exa mp le 15.5. For t he 187-kV XLPE consider ed befor e, when t est ed under 1.2/50
s
light ning impulse wave, t he following t hr ee set s of E and P wer e obt ained for br eakdown:
. 90 , 9 . 0 and ; 85 , 5 . 0 ; kV/mm 2 . 81 , 2 . 0
3 3 2 2 1 1
E P E P E P Calculat e t he values of E
L
,
b, and E
0
under impulse volt ages, and wr it e t he Weibull br eakdown pr obabilit y funct ion for t his
t ype of volt age.
Sol u t i on . ) /( ) (
2 3 1 2
m m m m = 0.9441, as calculat ed ear lier .
9441 . 0 = )}] 85 /( ) 90 {( /[ln )} 2 . 81 /( ) 85 { ln
L L L L
E E E E
and by t r ial and er r or , E
L
= 65 kV/mm.
Then, b =
, 38 . 5
)} 65 85 /( ) 65 90 {( ln
) 366513 . 0 ( 834 . 0

and E
0
= kV/mm. 41 . 21 ) 10 /(ln ) 65 90 (
/ 1

b
Finally, t he pr obabilit y funct ion for impulse br eakdown is
P
imp
(E) =
. 38 . 5
} 41 . 21 / ) 65 ( exp{ 1 E
15.4.2 Volt-Time Characteristics of Solid Insulation
The br eakdown volt age (or elect r ic st r ess) of an insulat ion st r uct ur e depends upon t he t ime of
applicat ion of t his volt age, when it s magnit ude exceeds a t hr eshold value which causes t he
br eakdown in t he fir st inst ance. A cable must wor k at t he maximum oper at ing volt age over it s
pr oject ed lifet ime wit hout failur e which may be 30 t o 50 year s, depending upon t he design. In
or der t o ascer t ain t hat t his be so, suit able shor t -t ime t est s in t he fact or y must be per for med
which will adequat ely simulat e t he sever it y of elect r ic st r ess over t he cable's lifet ime. Usually
power -fr equency t est s ar e given for 15 minut es t o one hour at elevat ed volt ages, and in some
cases as long as 24 hour s. Needless t o say, a design office must have dat a supplied fr om Resear ch
and Development sect ion of t he fact or y about t he r esult s of t est s per for med for ot her t ime
int er vals, namely, t he Volt -Time char act er ist ics wit h a high degr ee of confidence level so t hat
minimum safet y fact or s may be applied.
As a r esult of a ver y lar ge number of t est s per for med over a number of year s on a lar ge
var iet y of solid insulat ion st r uct ur es at a ver y lar ge number of cable and elect r ic equipment
manufact ur es' and ot her r esear ch labor at or ies all over t he wor ld, confident exper ience shows
t hat t he volt age V and t ime t t o br eakdown ar e r elat ed by t he equat ion
V
n
t = const ant . ...(15.32)
For a given elect r ode geomet r y, t his also means t hat
E
n
t = const ant . ...(15.33)
Her e, n is an exponent which usually has a value bet ween 9 and 12 for solid insulat ions
used in cables.
Exa mp le 15.6. A 3-phase 275 kV cable syst em consist ing of 3 single-cor e cables is designed
t o oper at e at a maximum volt age of 287 kV, line-t o-line. It s life is expect ed t o be 30 year s. In
t he fact or y, a 15-minut e t est is int ended t o be given. Taking n = 12, calculat e t he magnit ude of
t est volt age t o be applied bet ween conduct or and sheat h t hat will simulat e ser vice condit ions
using maximum cont inuous volt age as t he basis for design.
Sol u t i on . The volt -t ime char act er ist ic gives
12
s
V 30 year s = minut es 15
12
t
V
wher e V
s
= ser vice volt age =
kV. 7 . 165 3 / 287
and V
t
= r equir ed t est volt age.
15 60 24 365 30 7 . 165
12 12

t
V
giving V
t
=
3 / 287 1755 . 3 ) 4 24 365 30 ( 7 . 165
12 / 1

= 562 kV, line-t o-gr ound.
The r at io K
2
=
volt age oper at ing cont inuous maximum
t est minut e 15 a in volt age wit hst and r equir ed
= 3.1755 = (30 year s/15 minut es)
1/12
.
Thus, K
2
= , ) / (
/ 1
0
n
w
t t (15.34)
wher e t
0
= expect ed life of cable.
t
w
= t ime-dur at ion of wit hst and t est ,
and n = life exponent .
The coefficient K
2
is known as t he "det er ior at ion coefficient of t he insulat ion st r uct ur e
under st r ess".
We not e t hat for light ning impulse volt age t his t ype of Volt -Time char act er ist ic does not
apply. However , exper ience indicat es t hat wit h pr ogr ess of t ime when t he insulat ion st r uct ur e
det er ior at es, it will wit hst and only 90% of t he peak value of impulse volt age as it does when
newly manufactured. Therefore, the factor K
2
under impulse condit ions is usually chosen t o be
1.1 t o 1.2. In ot her wor ds, t he t est volt age in t he fact or y on a new cable must be 10% t o 20%
higher t han t he nor mal impulse level or BIL due t o det er ior at ion of insulat ion aft er year s of
ser vice.
Ther e ar e fact or s ot her t han K
2
which ar e used for design of cable insulat ion, but t hese
will be t aken up for discussion in Sect ions 15.4.3, 15.4.4 and 15.5 under "Design of Cable
Insulat ion". Ver y br iefly t hese ar e:
K
1
=
) C 90 ( e t emper at ur conduct or maximum at st r engt h br eakdown
) C 25 20 ( e t emper at ur r oom at st r engt h br eakdown

...(15.35)
and K
3
= a fact or of safet y.
Aver age values for t hese t wo fact or s ar e as follows:
K
1
= 1.1 for power fr equency, and 1.2 for impulse;
K
3
= 1.1 for bot h power fr equency and impulse.
The choice of values for t hese fact or s as well as for K
2
will, of cour se, depend upon t he
exper ience of t he designer .
Exa mp le 15.7. A 500-kV XLPE cable is t o be t est ed in t he fact or y under power fr equency
and impulse volt ages. The life of t he cable is chosen by t he designer as t
0
= 30 year s and t he life
exponent n = 12. The maximum oper at ing volt age is 550 kV, line-t o-line = 550 /
3
kV, line-t o-
neut r al. The BIL for t his volt age class is 1550 kV, peak, 1.2/50
s
wave. The dur at ion of power -
fr equency t est is t
w
= 1 hour . Take K
1
= 1.1 for bot h t ypes of volt ages at 90C conduct or
t emper at ur e, and K
2
= 1.2 for impulse. The safet y fact or K
3
= 1.1 for bot h t ypes of volt ages.
Calculat e t he t est volt ages t o be used for t his cable insulat ion in t he fact or y.
Sol u t i on .
(a) Power-Frequency Test Volt age: Fr om equat ion (15.34), t he det er ior at ion coefficient is
K
2
= (
. 829 . 2 ) 1 / 24 365 30
12 / 1

ac
V = 3 / 550 1 . 1 829 . 2 1 . 1 . . .
max 3 2 1
V K K K
= 3.423 317.54 = 1087 kV, r .m.s., line-t o-neut r al.
(b) Impulse Test Voltage
V
imp
= 1550 452 . 1 1550 1 . 1 2 . 1 1 . 1 BIL . . .
3 2 1
K K K
= 2250 kV, peak.
This example shows t he fact or s by which t he t est volt ages ar e higher t han t he volt ages
exper ienced in pr act ice.
Now, t he volt -t ime r elat ion is given by
V
n
t = const ant , K' , say
Also E
n
.t = const ant , K", say.
V
n
= K'/ t , and E
n
= K"/ t , ...(15.36)
or , n.log V = log K' log t , and n. log E = log K" log t
or , log V =
t
n
K"
n
E t
n
' K
n
log
1
log
1
log and , log .
1
log .
1

...(15.37)
This shows t hat when V and t (or E and t ) ar e plot t ed on log log gr aph paper , st r aight
lines r esult wit h slopes (1/n) wit h int er cept (1/n) log K' and (1/n) log K". If t her efor e t est
r esult s of br eakdown volt ages or st r esses ver sus t ime obt ained on cable samples ar e plot t ed on
suit able log-log paper a st r aight line should r esult or , t he best fit st r aight line should be dr awn.
Such a gr aph is shown in Figur e 15.12 for many samples of XLPE cables upt o 275 kV subject ed
t o t est s. In pr act ice, t he best -fit st r aight line is dr awn by choosing sever al values for t he life-
exponent n.
Fi g. 1512 Illust r at ing Volt -Time char act er ist ics of solid insulat ion.
15.4.3 Effect of Temperature on Breakdown Stress
Wh en t h e con du ct or t emper a t u r e on loa d r ises a bove t h e a mbien t t emper a t u r e, some
det er ior at ion of insulat ion occur s r esult ing in r educt ion of dielect r ic st r engt h. Nor mally, fact or y
t est s on cables eit her on t he finished pr oduct or dur ing sever al st ages of manufact ur e ar e
car r ied out at ambient t emper at ur es of 2025C, or at t he exist ing t emper at ur e of t he t est beds
unless t he buyer of t he cable specifies t hat t he cable should be heat ed t o maximum oper at ing
t emper at ur e by cir culat ing a pr oper value of cur r ent pr ior t o t he applicat ion of t est volt age.
This heat r un will t ake upt o 48 hour s befor e final t emper at ur e of t he conduct or is r eached so
t hat t his involves a lot of t est ing t ime and cost . In t he design st age, t he designer will have dat a
of br eakdown volt ages and st r esses of a lar ge number of samples which can only be obt ained at
r oom t emper at ur e, wit h some spot checks on t he st r ess degr adat ion char act er ist ics wit h
t emper at ur e fr om labor at or y t est s. Such a cur ve is shown in Figur e 15.13 for power fr equency
and impulse volt ages. Fr om such gr aphs t her e r esult s t he t emper at ur e degr adat ion fact or
ment ioned befor e:
conduct or of e t emper at ur elevat ed at st r engt h br eakdown
e t emper at ur r oom at st r engt h br eakdown
1
K
...(15.38)
In t he case of XLPE, t he change in mor phology of t he mat er ial wher e t he polyet hylene
loses some of it s cr yst al st r uct ur e is r esponsible for t his t emper at ur e-det er ior at ion of elect r ic
st r engt h.
E
l
e
c
t
r
i
c

S
t
r
e
e
s
k
V
/
m
m
100
50
30
10
5
3
2
1
0.1 1 10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
1 Year
Time to breakdown, hrs
E
n
= const. t
n = 9
n = 12
Fi g. 15.13 Temper at ur e-det er ior at ion char act er ist ics of cable insulat ion under
impulse and power -fr equency ac excit at ions.
15.4.4 Selection of Insulation Thickness
We ar e now in a posit ion t o det er mine t he r equir ed t hickness of insulat ion in a cable for a given
volt age level. The maximum or highest volt age which a cable is subject ed t o cont inuously is
dur ing it s nor mal ser vice life. However , t he t est volt age exceeds t his maximum by a fact or
) . . (
3 2 1
K K K as given in Sect ion 15.4.2. The t est volt age also yields t he highest possible elect r ic
stress. This is the withstand stress E
L
discussed in Sect ion 15.4.1 which is obt ained fr om t he
Weibull Pr obabilit y dist r ibut ion.
The maximum volt ages under power fr equency and impulse can be wr it t en as
'

Level) Impulse (Basic
and
volt age) wor king cont inuous (Maximum
3 2 1 imp
3 2 1 ac
i i i
K K K V
K K K V
(15.39)
wher e K
1
,K
1i
= t emper at ur e det er ior at ion coefficient s of equat ion (15.38) for power
fr equency and impulse, r espect ively,
K
2
=
n
w
t t
/ 1
0
) / ( for power fr equency, equat ion (15.34),
K
2i
= det er ior at ion coefficient for impulse
=
cable of life of end at st r engt h impulse
new is insulat ion when st r engt h impulse
1.2,
K
3
,K
3i
= safet y fact or s for power fr equency and impulse, r espect ively ). 1 . 1 (
Fr om a knowledge of t hese t est volt ages and t he wit hst and st r ess E
L
, t he r equir ed insulat ion
t hickness is det er mined.
Exa mp le 15.8. The following dat a apply t o an XLPE cable: Nominal volt age = 500 kV,
line-t o-line, 550 kV maximum.
Dur at ion of power -fr equency t est = 1 hour .
Fr om Examples 15.3 and 15.5 t her e r esult ed E
L
(ac) = 31 kV/mm,
and E
L
(imp) = 65 kV/mm.
200
150
100
50
0
kV/mm
Impulse
50 Hz
25 50 90 125
Temperature, C
829 . 2 , 1 . 1 . kV 1550 BIL
2 1 1
K K K
i
fr om Example 15.7,
K
2i
= 1.2, K
3
= K
3i
= 1.1
Det er mine t he t hickness of XLPE insulat ion r equir ed if t he values of E
L
r epr esent t he
aver age st r ess.
Sol u t i on . Fr om example 15.7, t he maximum volt ages impr essed on t he cable insulat ion
wer e calculat ed t o be
V
ac
= 1087 kV, r .m.s., bet ween conduct or and sheat h,
V
imp
= 2250 kV peak.
Thickness r equir ed for power fr equency = 1087/31 = 35 mm and t hickness r equir ed for
impulse = 2250/65 = 34.7 mm. The lar ger of t he t wo, namely, t
i
= 35 mm, will be used for t he
insulat ion t hickness. Not e t hat in t his example, bot h t hicknesses ar e near ly equal. As will be
discussed lat er , t his is t he r esult of select ing t he dur at ion of power -fr equency t est in such a way
t hat t he t wo values of insulat ion t hickness ar e equal.
15.5 DESIGN BASIS OF CABLE INSULATION
The pr inciples on which insulat ion t hickness is select ed have been illust r at ed t hr ough a few
examples in Sect ion 15.4. Det ails of design pr ocedur e ar e set for t h in t his sect ion. They involve
decisions r egar ding t he t ime dur at ion and magnit ude of volt age applied dur ing a power -fr equency
t est in t he fact or y when t he cable is new, t he maximum (or aver age) elect r ic st r ess allowable
for t he insulat ion. This immediat ely det er mines t he insulat ion t hickness r equir ed for power
fr equency. Then t he impulse volt age level used dur ing t est s and per mit t ed elect r ic st r ess will
gover n t he insulat ion t hickness r equir ed fr om impulse point of view. These volt age levels will
depend fur t her on t he choice of t he four fact or s
i i
K K K K
2 1 2 1
and , , of equat ions (15.34) and
(15.38), and a safet y fact or K
3
(and K
3i
). These will also r equir e a decision on what t he value of
t he life-exponent n and t he expect ed life span of t he cable ar e. The best design will be such t hat
t he insulat ion is used opt imally by making t he maximum elect r ic st r ess in t he insulat ion on
t he conduct or sur face t he least possible, and by making t he t hicknesses of insulat ion r equir ed
under power fr equency and impulse t o become equal. We will discuss t hese fact or s in det ail,
alt hough t hey have been descr ibed befor e t o some ext ent .
15.5.1 Voltages
At power fr equency and impulse condit ions t he following wor king volt ages ar e used for nominal
volt ages fr om 132 kV t o 1100 kV.
Nominal kV
138
132

230
220
275 345 400 500 750 1100
Maximum kV 145 245 287 362 420 550 1150
BIL, l-n, kV 650 950 1050 1175 1425 1550 1950 2400
(Highest values)
15.5.2 Temperature Deterioration Coefficient, K
1
An insulat ing mat er ial shows degr adat ion in it s dielect r ic pr oper t ies when oper at ed at high
t emper at ur e. Nor mally t he conduct or in a cable is at t he highest t emper at ur e adjacent t o t he
lower sur face of insulat ion. This t emper at ur e in most cases is 90C. Figur e 15.13 shows t he
lower ing of allowable elect r ic st r ess as a funct ion of t emper at ur e under power fr equency and
impulse condit ions of excit at ion. The impor t ant fact or , namely, t he t emper at ur e-det er ior at ion
fact or or coefficient is defined in equat ions (15.35) and (15.38). For 90C t emper at ur e it has a
value of 1.1 for usual insulat ing mat er ials and r ises t o 1.3 at 130C.
15.5.3 Life Expectancy Factor, K
2
, for Power Frequency
A cable must be capable of oper at ing at it s maximum cont inuous volt age over it s expect ed life
span which is usually select ed t o be 30 t o 50 year s, depending on t he agr eement bet ween
manufact ur er and buyer . It should also oper at e at r at ed full load (ampacit y) eit her cont inuously
or on a pr escr ibed load cycle which det er mines t he heat ing and cooling condit ions. While t he
heat ing of conduct or affect s t he dielect r ic st r engt h of t he insulat ion at elevat ed t emper at ur e,
per iodic cooling gives r ise t o differ ent ial expansion of conduct or and insulat ion r esult ing in void
for mat ion and t hus giving r ise t o a lower ing of dielect r ic st r engt h.
In or der t o ascer t ain whet her or not t he insulat ion will funct ion wit hout a failur e over 30
t o 50 year s of it s lifet ime, a suit able t est at t he fact or y at a higher volt age t han it s maximum
oper at ing volt age has t o be given for a shor t dur at ion. This is usually car r ied out at t he ambient
t emper a t ur e of t he t est bed but ma y be done in specia l ca ses a t t he eleva t ed conduct or
t emper at ur e. Fr om Volt -Time char act er ist ics, fir st pr oposed by Kr euger , and subsequent ly
used by all cable manufact ur er s, t her e r esult s as ment ioned ear lier ,
, . .
0 0
t V t V
n
w
n
w
...(15.40)
wher e V
w
= volt age applied dur ing shor t -t ime wit hst and t est ,
V
0
= maximum cont inuous cable volt age,
t
w
= t ime dur at ion of wit hst and t est in fact or y,
t
0
= expect ed or pr oject ed life of cable dur ing design,
Ta ble 15.3. Va lu es of K
2
for Ca lcu la t i n g Test Volt a ges Requ i r ed a t P ower F r equ en cy
Testing Minutes Hours
Time 15 30 1 2 3 4 5 10 24
Life 30 n = 9 4.6674 4.3214 4 3.705 3.541 3.43 3.35 3.1 2.81
Years n = 12 3.1755 2.997 2.83 2.67 2.58 2.52 2.47 2.335 2.17
40 n = 9 4.82 4.4 4.13 3.825 3.66 3.54 3.45 3.2 2.9
n = 12 3.25 3.07 2.9 2.735 2.64 2.58 2.53 2.4 2.22
50 n = 9 4.94 4.574 4.235 3.92 3.75 3.63 3.54 3.28 3.0
n = 12 3.313 3.13 2.95 2.79 2.69 2.63 2.58 2.44 2.26
and n = life-expect ancy exponent = 9 t o 12 usually, or ot her values depending
on t he exper ience of t he designer .
Thus, K
2
=
n
w w
t t V V
/ 1
0 0
) / ( / ...(15.41)
2
Log K =
). / ( Log
1
0 w
t t
n
...(15.42)
Ther efor e, on a log-log gr aph, t he var iat ion of K
2
wit h ) / (
0 w
t t is a st r aight line wit h t he
slope (1/n). Table 15.3 shows t he value of K
2
when t he life expect ancy is 30, 40, and 50 year s,
and t he t est dur at ion fr om 15 minut es t o 24 hour s.
Fr om t hese r esult s and equat ion (15.41) it is clear t hat t he shor t er t he select ed t est t ime
t he higher should be t he magnit ude of t est volt age for t he same life expect ancy of t he cable.
This will incr ease t he t hickness of dielect r ic. Also, for t he same t ime dur at ion used in t he
power -fr equency t est , t he longer t he life expect ancy becomes wit h a higher value for t he t est -
volt age magnit ude. Figur e 15.14 shows values of K
2
plot t ed accor ding t o equat ion (15.42).
Fi g. 15.14 Va lues of K
2
, t he det er ior at ion coefficient , against t est ing t ime for life
expect ancy of 30 t o 50 year s of cable.
15.5.4 Deterioration Factor under Impulse Voltages
Dur ing t he lifet ime of a cable, wit h lapse of t ime t he impulse st r engt h of insulat ion decr eases
due t o chemical decomposit ion which affect s t he densit y of paper or ext r uded insulat ion, due t o
imper cept ible for mat ion of voids, loss of cr yst allinit y, and ot her causes. In or der t o t ake car e of
t his effect t he volt age used dur ing fact or y t est s on t he new insulat ion is higher t han t he BIL by
a mar gin of 1020%. Thus t he fact or K
2
for impulse condit ion is t aken t o be 1.1 t o 1.2.
15.5.5 Safety Factors
Since no insulat ion is ideal but cont ains some impur it ies and imper fect ions, however car efully
manufact ur ed, a safet y fact or is used which has been denot ed befor e as K
3
. It s value is 1.1
under bot h power fr equency and impulse excit at ion t est s in t he fact or y.
15.5.6 Voltages Used During Factory Tests and Design of Cable
The final choice of t est and design volt ages is as follows:
V
ac
=
3 2 1 wac
. . K K K V (Maximum oper at ing volt age),
and V
imp
= . . .
3 2 1 wimp
i i i
K K K V (Basic Impulse Level).
4
3
2
1
K
2
5
= Deterioration Coefficient
Life,
years
50
30
50
30
Life-Expectancy
Exponent
n = 9
n = 12
0.25 0.1 0.5 1 2 3 5 10 24
Testing duration, hours
40
15.5.7 Withstand Electric Stresses
As descr ibed in Sect ion 15.4.1, fr om a Weibull Pr obabilit y Dist r ibut ion for t he br eakdown elect r ic
st r esses, t he highest value of wit hst and volt age gr adient s for power fr equency and impulse ar e
evaluat ed fr om r esult s of t est s obt ained fr om cable samples at lower volt ages which have
alr eady been manufact ur ed and t r ied, or at t he same volt age on samples if possible, over a long
t ime. These a r e E
L
(ac) and E
L
(imp). Values of aver age elect r ic st r esses ar e as follows:
Power Frequency Impulse 1.2/50
s
275 kV 500 kV 765 kV 275 kV 500 kV 765 kV
Oil Filled
Paper Cables 40 45 70 80
kV/mm kV/mm kV/mm kV/mm
XLPE 30 35 60 70
Composit e
PPLPOF 45 55 130 140
15.5.8 Choice of Test Voltages
The final choice of power -fr equency t est volt age magnit ude and dur at ion of applicat ion on a
cable will in most cases be based on t he cr it er ion t hat it should yield t he same t hickness of
insulat ion as is r equir ed for impulse volt ages. This is shown by some examples which follow.
Ther e ar e ot her cr it er ia which will be discussed in Sect ion 15.6, which ar e based on t he
exper iences of cable manufact ur er s.
Exa mp le 15.9. A 275 kV XLPE cable has t he following det ails:
Maximum cont inuous power -fr equency volt age287 kV, line-t o-line;
Life of cable40 year s. Use n = 9 for t he value of life-exponent ;
BIL = 1050 kV; E
L
(ac) = 30 kV/mm; E
L
(imp) = 60 kV/mm; (Aver age values)
Temper at ur e det er ior at ion fact or sK
1
(ac) = K
1
(imp) = 1.1;
Dur at ion of power -fr equency t est 15 minut es;
Det er ior at ion fact or under impulse K
2i
= 1.2;
Safet y fact or sK
3
= K
3i
= 1.1.
Calculat e t he following:
(a) Test volt ages r equir ed under power fr equency and impulse;
(b) Thickness of insulat ion r equir ed under t he t wo t ypes of excit at ion volt ages;
(c) Thickness of insulat ion t o be used if t he power -fr equency t est is lengt hened t o 24
hour s inst ead of 15 minut es.
Sol u t i on .
(a) For impulse, V
w
(imp) = 1.1 1.2 1.1 1050 = 1525 kV, peak.
For power fr equency, fr om Table 15.3, t he value of K
2
= 4.819.
r .m.s. kV, 966 7 . 165 831 . 5 3 / 287 1 . 1 819 . 4 1 . 1 ) ( ac V
w
(b) t
i
(imp) = 1525/60 = 25.4 mm;
t
i
(ac) = 966/30 = 32.2 mm.
The insulat ion t hickness incor por at ed in t he cable should be t he lar ger of t he t wo,
namely, 32.2 mm. Not e t hat t he t hickness for impulse will t hen be t oo much and so
is over -designed.
(c) For a 24-hour t est t he t est volt age t o be used at power fr equency will be lower t han in
t he 15-minut e t est , i.e. 966 kV, r .m.s. Fr om Table 15.3, if a 24-hour t est is used, K
2
=
2.9 inst ead of 4.819. Ther efor e,
kV. 5 . 581 7 . 165 509 . 3 7 . 165 1 . 1 9 . 2 1 . 1 ) ac (
w
V
Then, t
i
= 581.5/30 = 19.4 mm.
We now obser ve t hat t he impulse volt age used gover ns t he insulat ion t hickness which is
25.4 mm. Thus, it is impor t ant t o select t he dur at ion and magnit ude of power -fr equency t est
volt age such t hat it yields t he same insulat ion t hickness as dict at ed by impulse condit ions
which cannot be alt er ed, except by inst alling light ning ar r est er s.
Exa mp le 15.10. Select t he dur at ion and magnit ude of power -fr equency volt age t o be used
in a fact or y t est in t he pr evious example if t
i
(ac) 25.4 mm, t he same as r equir ed for impulse.
Sol u t i on . Since t
i
(ac) = 25.4 mm and E
av
(ac) = 30 kV/mm,
V
w
(ac) = 30 25.4 = 762 kV.
This yields . 8 . 3 giving , 200 3 / 287 . . . 762
2 2 3 2 1
K K K K K For a 40-year span of life,
fr om Table 15.3 we obser ve t hat t he t ime dur at ion of t est volt age should be near ly 2 hour s for
n = 9. Thus a balance must be st r uck bet ween cost of insulat ion and cost of t est . A shor t er
dur at ion of applicat ion of power -fr equency t est volt age might r educe t he cost of t est ing but
might event ually yield an incr eased t hickness of insulat ion and hence t he cost of cable. Such
fact or s must be invest igat ed case by case.
The exact dur at ion of t est volt age in t his example is given by (40 365 24/ t
w
)
1/9
= 3.8
which yields t
w
= (40 365 24)/3.8
9
= 2.12 hour s.
Exa mp le 15.11. Repeat Examples 15.9 and 15.10 if t he life expect ancy of cable is 30 year s,
wit h all ot her det ails same.
Sol u t i on .
(a) For impulse t he insulat ion t hickness r equir ed is unalt er ed.
mm. 4 . 25 ) imp (
i
t
For power fr equency t est of 15 minut es and t
0
= 30 year s, fr om Table 15.3, K
2
=
4.6674.
, , kV 936 3 / 287 1 . 1 6674 . 4 1 . 1 ) ac ( n l V
w

giving t
i
(ac) 936/30 = 31.2 mm. Ther efor e, t he t hickness of insulat ion has t o be 31.2
mm, t he higher of t he t wo values.
(b) If t he insulat ion t hickness is t o be pr eser ved at 25.4 mm, t hen K
2
= 762/(1.1 1.1
165.7) = 3.8, as calculat ed befor e. Fr om Table 15.3, cor r esponding t o n = 9, K
2
= 3.8
and t
0
= 30 year s, t he dur at ion of t est volt age will be bet ween 1 hour and 2 hour s. The
exact value is t
0
= (30 365 24)/3.8
9
= 1.59 hour s = 1 hour and 36 min.
The magnit ude of t est volt age is st ill 762 kV.
15.6 FURTHER EXAMPLES OF CABLE DESIGNS
The design pr ocedur e for cable insulat ion descr ibed in pr evious sect ions depends ver y much on
t he select ion of magnit ude and dur at ion of t est volt ages used under power fr equency and impulse
excit at ions. The Weibull Pr obabilit y Dist r ibut ion for init ial br eakdown of insulat ion obt ained
fr om cables for lower volt ages, along wit h t he Volt -Time char act er ist ics, for med t he basis for
select ion of maximum value of wit hst and st r ess and t he cor r esponding t hicknesses of insulat ion
r equir ed for t hese t est volt ages. These of cour se wer e also based on maximum oper at ing volt age
and Basic Impulse Level for t hat volt age class. It was clear t hat t he power -fr equency t est
volt age and it s dur at ion can be mat ched t o t he impulse t est volt age in or der t o yield t he same
insulation thickness. Som e cable designers use E
ac
and E
imp
fr om t he Weibull dist r ibut ion
cor r esponding t o 50% or even 63% pr obabilit y of br eakdown inst ead of t he init ial br eakdown,
based on t heir exper ience and t he r eader must examine t hese values wit h car e.
Having select ed t
imp
for insulat ion t hickness based on t he r elat ion
t
imp
=
, ) BIL .( . . /
imp 3 2 1 imp imp
E K K K E V
i i i
(15.43)
t he select ion of V
ac
and it s dur at ion t
w
will follow t he st eps indicat ed in Examples 15.10
and 15.11. Ot her decisions t o be made ar e t he life t
0
of t he cable in year s and t he value for t he
life-exponent , n. Fr om Example 15.10 t he following st eps for design accor ding t o t he above
pr ocedur e ar e evident :
S t ep 1. Select t he t est volt age for impulse:
V
imp
= . kV 1525 1050 1 . 1 2 . 1 1 . 1 BIL . . .
3 2 1

i i i
K K K
S t ep 2. Fr om t he Weibull Pr obabilit y Dist r ibut ion Funct ion, select t he init ial br eakdown
st r ess, E
imp
. This was 60 kV/ mm for t he aver age value.
S t ep 3. Then t he r equir ed insulat ion t hickness is
t
imp
= mm. 4 . 25 60 / 1525 /
imp imp
E V
S t ep 4. Aga in fr om t he Weibull Pr oba bilit y Dist r ibut ion Funct ion for power fr equency,
ascer t ain t he init ial br eakdown st r ess E
ac
. This was 30 kV/mm.
S t ep 5. Then t he power -fr equency t est volt age will be
V
ac
= . r .m.s. kV. 762 4 . 25 30 .
imp
n l t E V
ac w

S t ep 6. Decide on t he life of cable t
0
in year s. This is bet ween 30 and 50 year s. This decision
is usually made bet ween manufact ur er and buyer .
S t ep 7. Decide on t he life-exponent n. n = 9 t o 12 and should be based on t he exper ience of
t he designer fr om values of Volt -Time char act er ist ics obt ained in r esear ch labor at or ies.
S t ep 8. Decide on t he values of K
1
and K
3
, t he t emper at ur e-degr adat ion fact or and safet y
fact or , r espect ively. Nor mally, . 1 . 1 and 1 . 1
3 1
K K
S t ep 9. Calculat e t he value of K
2
, t he det er ior at ion coefficient , fr om t he r elat ion
V
ac
= . . .
3 2 1
K K K (Maximum line-neut r al wor king volt age).
Fr om Examples 15.10 and 15.11, t he value of K
2
was
K
2
= . 8 . 3 ) 3 / 287 1 . 1 1 . 1 /( 762
S t ep 10. The t ime-dur a t ion of power -fr equency t est is t hen obt a ined fr om Ta ble 15.3 or
Figur e 15.14 cor r esponding t o t he ant icipat ed cable life t
0
and t he life-exponent , n. It
can also be calculat ed fr om t he r elat ion
t
w
= , ) / . . (
0 3 1 0
n
ac
V V K K t (15.44)
wher e V
0
= maximum cont inuous oper at ing volt age. For t he Examples consider ed
ea r lier , t
w
= 2.12 hour s for t
0
= 40 year s and n = 9.
Fr om t he discussion pr esent ed so far , we obser ve t hat sever al impor t ant fact or s wer e
not consider ed such as:
(a) Conduct or diamet er or cr oss sect ion;
(b) The r at io (sheat h diamet er )/(conduct or diamet er );
(c) Maximum value of elect r ic st r ess per mit t ed in t he insulat ion on t he conduct or
sur face;
(d) Allowable dielect r ic loss and t an ;
i
(e) Char ging cur r ent ; and so on.

Design pr ocedur es based on a combinat ion of any of t hese par amet er s can be adopt ed, as
is t he pr a ct ice wit h some ca ble ma nufa ct ur er s who ba se t heir designs on t he qua nt it y
7183 . 2 ) / (
c sh
r r as a gover ning cr it er ion in or der t o obt ain least value of maximum elect r ic
st r ess in t he insulat ion. When t he cr oss-sect ion of conduct or and it s diamet er ar e small and
volt age is high necessit at ing lar ge insulat ion t hickness, a r at io of 7183 . 2 ) / ( e r r
c sh
can be
achieved; but wit h 3-phase cables having t r ansmission capabilit y of 1000 MVA or mor e and t he
necessit y for using a cent r al oil duct inside t he conduct or , even at 500 kV and higher , which
r equir e lar ge insulat ion t hicknesses, t he insulat ion is st ill not t hick enough t o give a r at io
, ) / ( e r r
c sh
or near ly so. Ther efor e, e.h.v. cables ar e not always opt imized for t he insulat ion
dielect r ic st r esses, but based on t he necessit y for r emoval of heat ,
Consider Figur e 15.15 showing a gener al cable configur at ion. Her e,
d
o
= diamet er of inner oil duct = 2 r
0
,
d
c
= out side diamet er of conduct or = 2 r
c
,
d
i
, d
sh
= diamet er t o out side sur face of insulat ion or t he inner sur face of met allic
sheat h = 2 r
sh
.
Fi g. 15.15 Gener al cable cr oss sect ion for design st eps.
d
i
dc
d
o
Oil duct
Conductor
Insulation
A
c
= conduct or cr oss-sect ion,
t
i
= insulat ion t hickness = ), (
2
1
c i
d d
V = volt age applied bet ween conduct or and sheat h,
E
av
= V/t
i
= aver age elect r ic st r ess in insulat ion,
and E
max
= maximum elect r ic st r ess in insulat ion on conduct or sur face
= ). / ( ln . /
c sh c
r r r V
Then, t her e r esult t he following r elat ions:
A
c
= ) ( 4 / ) (
2
0
2 2
0
2
r r d d
c c
...(15.45)
giving d
c
=
2 / 1 2
0
) / 4 ( 2 d A r
c c
+ ...(15.46)
For least value of elect r ic st r ess on conduct or sur face,
c sh
d d /
= 7183 . 2 / e r r
c sh
...(15.47)
and E
max
= . /
c
r V ...(15.48)
Then t he wit hst and volt age is V
w
= r
c
. E
max
, and is gener ally lot higher t han t he maximum
wor king volt age, which is chosen for t est ing pur poses in t he fact or y. Based upon exper ience of
t he manufact ur er , t he elect r ic st r ess in insulat ion at maximum conduct or t emper at ur e should
be used since it is lower by a fact or of 1.2 fr om t hat at r oom t emper at ur e. Fr om impulse point
of view,
E
max
(imp) = . / ) /(
imp imp i c sh
t V r r V ...(15.49)
As examples of design based on t he above seps, consider a HPOF cable and an XLPE
cable.
Exa mp l e 15.12. A 500-kV HPOF cable has t he following det ails: Maximum power -
fr equency wor king volt age = 525 kV, line-t o-line; 3-phase MVA = 1050 MVA giving a cur r ent =
1155 Amper es.
Cur r ent densit y r equir ed, J
c
= 0.89 Amp/mm
2
.
BIL = 1550 kV, t he same as t r ansfor mer pr ot ect ed by light ning ar r est er .
Diamet er of inner oil duct , d
0
= 50 mm.
AC wit hst and t est volt age = 1.2 525 = 630 kV, l-n, for 6 hour s;
Impulse wit hst and t est volt age = 1.2 1550 = 1860 kV, peak.
E
imp
= 100 kV/mm, maximum, E
av
= 60 kV/mm.
AC wor king st r ess = 15 kV/mm, aver age, at 90C;
= 20 kV/mm, aver age, at r oom t emper at ur e.
Det er mine t he following:
(a) Requir ed t hickness of insulat ion; (b) The r at io ; /
c i
d d (c) If t he act ual t hickness of
insulat ion used is 31 mm for t his cable, calculat e t he aver age st r ess under AC excit at ion
and t he r at io . /
c i
d d (d) If t he cable life is 30 year s, calculat e t he life-expect ancy
exponent , n, in t he V-t char act er ist ic.
Sol u t i on . Conduct or cr oss sect ion, A
c
= 1155/0.89 = 1300 mm
2
.
(a) Conduct or diamet er :
d
c
= mm. 5 . 64 ) 50 / 1300 4 (
2 / 1 2
+
Conduct or t hickness = mm. 25 . 7 2 / ) (
0
d d
c
If a r at io of ) / (
c i
d d = e is assumed, t hen mm. 2 . 175 7183 . 2
c i
d d The cor r esponding
insulat ion t hickness is
t
i
= mm. 4 . 55 2 / 5 . 64 7183 . 1 2 / ) (
c i
d d
The maximum elect r ic st r ess on t he conduct or sur face is
E
max
= kV/mm. 53 . 19 ) 5 . 64 5 . 0 /( 630 /
c w
r V
and E
av
= kV/mm. 4 . 11 4 . 55 / 630
These ar e wit hin t he given values of 20 kV/mm and 15 kV/mm.
(b) Rat io ) / (
c i
d d = 2.7183
(c) Since under impulse condit ions t he necessar y t hickness of insulat ion is 1860/60 = 31
mm, t he value given, t he AC st r esses ar e as follows:
Aver age st r ess dur ing t est = 630/31 = 20.3 kV/mm.
Aver age st r ess dur ing oper at ing life = ) 3 31 /( 525 = 9.8 kV/mm, r .m.s.
i c i
t d d 2 + = mm. 5 . 126 31 2 5 . 64 +

c i
d d / =
. 2 5 . 64 / 5 . 126
(d)
) 24 365 30 ( ) 3 / 525 ( 6 630
n n
or (630/303.11)
n
= 30 365 4
giving . 6 . 14
) 078 . 2 log(
) 4 365 30 log(

n
Exa mp le 15.13. A 500 kV XLPE cable is r equir ed t o be designed under t he following
cont inuous wor king and t est ing condit ions:
Maximum wor king volt age = 550 kV, r .m.s., line-t o-line;
Test volt ages: V
ac
= 1100 kV, r .m.s., line-t o-neut r al;
V
imp
= 2250 kV, peak, wit hout light ning ar r est er s;
Aver age elect r ic st r esses:E
ac
= 30 kV/mm, E
imp
= 65 kV/mm;
Ar ea of conduct or , A
c
= 2000 mm
2
. No cent r al oil duct .
(a) Calculat e d
i
, t he diamet er t o t he out side of insulat ion, for least value of maximum
st r ess and t he magnit ude of t he st r ess on t he conduct or sur face;
(b) If t he act ual value of t
i
is 35 mm based on impulse st r engt h, calculat e t he
maximum and aver age st r esses in t he insulat ion and compar e wit h E
av
(ac) of 30
kV/mm;
(c) At a cur r ent densit y of 0.8 Amp/mm
2
, find t he power t r amsmit t ed at 550 kV.
Sol u t i on .
(a) d
c
= mm. 5 . 50 ) / 2000 4 ( ) / 4 (
2 / 1 2 / 1

c
A
d
i
= mm. 4 . 43 2 / ) 5 . 50 3 . 137 ( and mm, 3 . 137 7183 . 2
i c
t d
Maximum st r ess E
max
= . r .m.s kV/mm, 8 . 43 25 . 25 / 1100 /
c
r V
Aver age st r ess E
av
= kV/mm. 35 . 25 4 . 43 / 1100 /
i
t V
(b)For impulse condit ion, t
i
= mm. 35 mm 6 . 34 65 / 2250
Aver age ac st r ess = 1100/35 = 31.43 kV/mm. This is near ly 30 kV/mm.
Now, d
i
= mm. 5 . 120 35 2 5 . 50 2 + +
i c
t d
Maximum st r ess = )] 5 . 50 / 5 . 120 ln( 25 . 25 /[ 1100 ) / ln( /
c i c
d d r V
= r .m.s. kV/mm, 50 ) 3 . 2 ln 25 . 25 /( 1100
(c) Cur r ent t r ansmit t ed = kA. 6 . 1 Amper es 1600 8 . 0 2000
3-phase MVA = MVA. 1525 6 . 1 550 3
Exa mp le 15.14. In t he pr evious example wit h t
i
= 35 mm, calculat e t he char ging cur r ent
and discuss what t he lengt h of cable is for zer o load-cur r ent car r ying capacit y. Take
r
= 2.3, f
= 50 Hz, V = 550 kV, l l, r .m.s. va lue.
Sol u t i on .
C = 3 . 2 ln 18 / 10 3 . 2 ) / ln( / 2
9
0

c i r
d d
= 0.1534 10
9
F/m = 0.1534 F/km.
I
c
=
6 3
10 1534 . 0 314 ) 3 / 10 550 (

= 15.3 Amp/km.
The full cur r ent t hat can be car r ied at 0.8 A/mm
2
is 1600 Amps. Ther efor e, t he lengt h of
cable whose char ging cur r ent alone amount s t o 1600 Amper es will be 1600/15.3 = 104.6 km
105 km.
(Not e t hat wit h HPOF cable of t he same dimensions wit h 5 . 3
r
, t he per missible cable
lengt h will be 104.6 2.3/3.5 = 70 km for zer o load-cur r ent capabilit y).
15.7 TESTS ON CABLE CHARACTERISTICS
When an e.h.v. cable has been in ser vice for some t ime, many diagnost ic t est s have t o be
per for med t o ascer t ain t hat it has not det er ior at ed wit h age. Such t est s ar e oper at ing t est s and
compr ise oil t est s for HPOF cables, wat er -t r eeing t est s for XLPE cables, par t ial-dischar ge t est s
for all cables, insulat ion t est s, and sever al ot her s. Her e we shall only descr ibe t he met hod of
measur ing capacit ances using t he Scher ing Br idge which also measur es t he t an
i
. The met hod
of measur ing capacit ances in a 3-phase cable will also be discussed.
15.7.1 The Schering Bridge
As in all four -ar m br idges, t he Scher ing Br idge is a null indicat ing br idge. Figur e 15.16 shows
t he four ar ms
3 2 1
, , Z Z Z and Z
4
br idged by a null det ect or . The high-volt age sour ce is connect ed
bet ween t he high-volt age t er minal H and gr ound G. It is ext r emely impor t ant t hat t he low-
volt age ar ms Z
3
and Z
4
, t he null det ect or D and most impor t ant ly t he oper at or should not
exper ience high volt ages. This is achieved by having t he high-volt age ar ms Z
1
and Z
2
be of ver y
Fi g. 15.16 The high-volt age Scher ing Br idge.
high impedance as compar ed t o t he l.v. ar ms Z
3
and Z
4
. Mor eover , t hese ar e pr ot ect ed by
par allel gas t ubes which gr ound t he point s A and B in t he event of a high volt age. It should be
clear t hat t he h.v. ar ms should never be per mit t ed t o br eakdown so t hat t heir volt age r at ing
should be ver y liber al as compar ed t o t he applied volt age.
The cable under t est is used as ar m Z
1
which has it s capacit ance C
c
in par allel wit h it s
insulat ion r esist ance R
i
. These ar e denot ed as C
1
and R
1
, whose values ar e t o be measur ed. In
t he commer cial var iet y of t he Scher ing Br idge, t he capacit ance and t an ar e calibr at ed dir ect ly
in ar ms Z
3
and Z
4
. Ar m Z
2
is a lossless st andar d capacit or r at ed for t he high volt age of t he
supply. It is filled wit h Nit r ogen or S F
6
at ver y high pr essur e in or der not t o give par t ial
dischar ges. The sour ce of a.c. supply, usually a high-volt age t r ansfor mer , as well as all t er minals
a nd lea ds should be fr ee of discha r ges upt o t he volt a ge used in t he t est . As shown in
Figur e 15.16, t he ar m Z
4
consist s of a non-induct ive r esist or while ar m Z
3
is made up of a
capacit or and r esist or in par allel. Balancing is usually car r ied out , as in all a.c. br idges, in t wo
st ages, since t wo quant it ies have t o be measur ed, namely C
1
and R
1
or t a n . Fir st , t he
r eading of t he null det ect or is br ought t o minimum value by adjust ing C
3
and t hen fur t her
minimized by changing R
3
. Most null det ect or s of t oday have built -in amplifier and ar e of
elect r onic t ype so t hat ver y accur at e balancing at ext r emely high sensit ivit ies ar e possible.
The four impedances at fr equency f and f 2 ar e as follows:
Z
1
=
; / 1 ); 1 /(
/ 1
1
2 2 1 1 1
1 1
C j Z C R j R
C j R
+
+
Z
3
= ) 1 /(
3 3 3
C R j R + ; and Z
4
= R
4
. Also, t an
1 1
/ 1 C R .
When t he br idge is ba la nced wit h zer o cur r ent t hr ough t he det ect or t her e r esult s
4 2 3 1
Z Z Z Z Mult iplying and collect ing r eal and j-t er ms, t her e r esult t he following r elat ions:
2 3 1
C R R j = . )] ( 1 [
4 2 3 1 1 3 1 3 1
2
R C R C R j C C R R + + ...(15.50)
H
B
G
A
C
1
Z
1
R
4
Z
4
C
3
Z
3
R
3
Z
2
C
2
R
1
V
D
At e.h.v. levels, t her e ar e ver y few 3-cor e designs but t her e ar e some designs wher e such
ar r angement is pr efer r ed. In a single-cor e cable wit h met allic sheat h t her e will exist some
eddy-cur r ent loss which is eliminat ed in a 3-cor e cable. However , when t hr ee single-cor e cables
ar e laid t oget her , by pr oper bonding of t he met allic sheat hs t he sheat h cur r ent is made near ly
zer o. The following aver age values of sheat h losses exist :
(a) 3 single-cor e cables: 132 kVTot al cable losses 100 wat t s/m br oken down int o conduct or
losses 82 w, dielect r ic losses 7 w, and sheat h eddy-cur r ent losses 11 w, per met r e
lengt h.
(b) Pipe-t ype cable3-cor e cable. Loss in pipe amount s t o near ly 20 t o 30 wat t s/met r e in
765 kV syst em; 10% lower for 345 kV syst em.
In symmet r ically manufact ur ed 3-phase cables, such losses ar e nor mally not pr esent .
However , in ever y t ype of cable, t he sheat h must be made wit h a definit e cr oss-sect ion in or der
t o car r y t he shor t -cir cuit cur r ent in t he event of a phase-t o-gr ound fault . The design of met allic
sheat h and pipe is not consider ed her e.
Refer r ing t o Figur e 15.17, t he 3-cor e cable r epr esent s an equivalent capacit ive net wor k
as shown in Figur e 15.18 (a), wher e C
c
= capacit ance bet ween any t wo cor es, and C
g
= capacit ance
bet ween any conduct or and sheat h. It will be assumed t hat t hese ar e balanced so t hat all t hr ee
C
c
's ar e equal and all t hr ee C
g
's ar e also equal. In or der t o measur e C
c
and C
g
individually, t wo
t est s ar e given. In t he fir st t est , shown in Figur e 15.18(b), t wo of t he cor es a r e connect ed
t oget her and ar e bot h connect ed t o t he sheat h. If t he measur ed capacit ance on a Scher ing
Br idge is C
1
, t hen obviously,
C
1
= 2C
c
+ C
g
. ...(15.55)
Next , a s shown in Figur e 15.18(c), a ll t hr ee cor es a r e connect ed t oget her a nd t he
capacit ance bet ween t hese and t he sheat h is measur ed as C
2
. Then
C
2
= 3C
g
. ...(15.56)
Fr om equat ions (15.55) and (15.56), t he values of C
c
and C
g
ar e
C
g
= C
2
/3, and C
c
= 6 / 2 /
2 1
C C . ...(15.57)
In t his t r eat ment , dielect r ic losses have been neglect ed.
Fi g. 15.18 Capacit ance net wor k of 3-phase cable.
15.8 SURGE PERFORMANCE OF CABLE SYSTEMS
E.H.V. cables near ly always have one end connect ed t o an e.h.v. over -head line and t he ot her
t o t he e.h.v. bushing and winding of a t r ansfor mer of ver y lar ge capacit y. A light ning sur ge
Cg Cg
Cg
Cc Cc
Cc
( ) a
Cg
Cc Cc
( ) b
C C + C
1
= 2
c g
Cg
Cg Cg
( ) c
C C
2
= 3
g
or iginat ing in t he over head line is br ought t hr ough t he cable and st r ikes t he t r ansfor mer . Due
t o t he low sur ge impedance offer ed by t he cable it s volt age becomes low init ially but by r epeat ed
r eflect ions, t he volt a ge ha s a cha nce of building up t o high va lues. Thus, ea ch syst em
configur at ion has t o be analyzed on a case by case basis in or der t hat pr oper class of light ning
ar r est er s can be inst alled if necessar y. Usually t hese ar r est er s ar e pr ovided for t r ansfor mer
pr ot ect ion so t hat t he BIL of t he cable is made t he same as t hat of t he t r ansfor mer . In t his
sect ion, an analysis of a t ypical case will be pr esent ed of t he t r avelling wave volt ages in a cable-
connect ed syst em bet ween an over head line and a t r ansfor mer . It will be assumed t hat t he
winding shows a t r avelling wave pat t er n for t he sur ge in pr esent ing a sur ge impedance t o a
volt age wave. Det ails of volt age pr opagat ion pr oper t ies in a winding cannot be dealt wit h her e
since at t he fir st incidence of t he sur ge it behaves as a pur e capacit ive net wor k so t hat t he
sur ge r eaches t he far end (usually gr ounded) pr act ically inst ant aneously. Aft er t he capacit ive
net wor k is fully char ged, cur r ent commences t o flow in t he induct ance of t he winding so t hat
t he concept of sur ge impedance can be used. For t he sake of illust r at ing t he build up of volt age
we will use a sur ge-impedance model of t he t r ansfor mer and it s value will be t aken as 1000
ohms.
Consider t he t hr ee-component syst em of Figur e 15.19, consist ing of an over head line of
sur ge impedance Z
0
connect ed t o a cable of lengt h L wit h a sur ge impedance Z
c
= 1/C a nd a
dielect r ic wit h r elat ive per mit t ivit y
r
.
Fi g. 15.19 Over head line connect ed t o t r ansfor mer h.v. winding t hr ough e.h.v.
cable for illust r at ing sur ge per for mance.
Thus, t he velocit y of pr opagat ion of sur ge in t he cable is v = light velocit y/
r
, wit h t he
t r ansit t ime v L t
c
/ . For inst ance, consider ing an XLPE cable wit h
r
= 2.25, t he velocit y is
(2/3) light velocit y = 2 10
5
km/sec. The t ime delay for 1 km lengt h is 5 s. The last component
is t he t r ansfor mer e.h.v. winding wit h a sur ge impedance Z
t
offer ing a t r avel t ime t
t
for t he
sur ge fr om t he bushing t o t he gr ounded end. A light ning sur ge of peak value V
w
is assumed t o
t r avel on t he line when it st r ikes t he junct ion J
cl
of t he cable and line. For t he sake of analysis
t he st ep r esponse will be discussed, and t he line so long t hat r eflect ions ar r iving fr om it s far
end will be neglect ed. Also, all at t enuat ions will be neglect ed.
Refer r ing t o Figur e 15.19, t he r eflect ion and r efr act ion (t r ansmission) fact or s ar e as follows:
At j u n c t i on J
cl
:
(a) For a wave coming fr om line:
Reflect ion coefficient , K
r
=
0
0
Z Z
Z Z
c
c
+
Refr act ion coefficient , K

t
=
0
2
Z Z
Z
c
c
+
Line
Trans.
Cable
Z
o
Z
c
,

r
,
V, t
c
,
Z
t
, t
t
J
cl
J
ct G
(b) For a wave coming fr om t r ansfor mer :
K
r
=
c
t
c
c
Z Z
Z
K
Z Z
Z Z
+
0
0
0
0
2
,
At j u n c t i on J
ct
(bet ween cable and t r ansfor mer ):
(c) For a wave coming fr om cable:
K
r
=
0
2
,
Z Z
Z
K
Z Z
Z Z
t
t
t
c t
c t
+
(d) For a wave coming fr om t r ansfor mer :

K
r
=
t c
c
t
t c
t c
Z Z
Z
K
Z Z
Z Z
+
+
2
,
At t h e gr ou n d e d e n d of t h e t r a n s for me r : K
r
= 1; K
t
= 0.
A few examples will make t he Bewley Lat t ice Diagr am clear for t he build-up of volt age at
t he t wo ends of t he cable and t he t r ansfor mer t er minal.
Exa mp le 15.16. A 500 kV over head line wit h sur ge impedance Z
0
= 275 ohms is connect ed
t o an XLPE cable wit h v = 2 10
5
km/sec and 1 km in lengt h. Fr om Table 15.2, it s sur ge
impedance is 36 ohms. The far end of t he cable connect s a t r ansfor mer wit h Z
t
= 1000 ohms
whose ot her end is solidly gr ounded. The t r ansit t ime of sur ge t hr ough t he winding is also 5 s,
t he same as for t he cable. See Figur e 15.20. A st ep volt age of 1 per unit is t r avelling on t he line.
Fi g. 15.20 Det ails of syst em for Example 15.16
(a) Calculat e t he t en r eflect ion and r efr act ion coefficient s;
(b) Dr aw t he Bewley Lat t ice Diagr am for t he t r avel of sur ge in t he cable and t r ansfor mer
upt o 50 s;
(c) On a volt -t ime diagr am, sket ch t he volt ages at t he t wo ends of t he cable upt o 50 s.
Sol u t i on .
(a) At j u n c t i on J
cl
:
For a wave coming fr om line:
K
r
= (36 275)/(36 + 275) = 0.7685
K
t
= 1 + K
r
= 0.2315 (= 72/311)
For a wave coming fr om t r ansfor mer end or junct ion J
ct
:
K
r
= (275 36)/(275 + 36) = + 0.7685, and K
t
= 1.7685.
At j u n c t i on J
ct
:
For a wave coming fr om cable int o t r ansfor mer :
K
r
= (1000 36)/(1000 + 36) = + 0.9305, and K
t
= 1.9305
For a wave coming fr om t r ansfor mer int o cable:
K
r
= (36 1000)/(36 + 1000) = 0.9305, and K
t
= 0.0695.
275 ohms
V
w
= 2400 kV
Step
V
c
Zc
Cable
Vt = 1725 kV
1100 ohms
5 km
Trans.
At gr ou n d e n d : K
r
= 1, and K
t
= 0.
These 10 coefficient s ar e shown on Figur e 15.21.
(b) The Bewley Lat t ice Diagr am can now be dr awn. All salient values ar e shown on
Figur e 15.21, and ar e explained below:
Fi g. 15.21 Bewley Lat t ice Diagr am for per for mance of sur ge in Example 15.16.
Since t he t r avel t ime t hr ough bot h cable and t r ansfor mer ar e equal t o 5 s, t hr ee ver t ical
lines ar e dr awn wit h dist ances of separ at ion equal. 5 s int er vals ar e mar ked ver t ically t o some
scale. The following sequence of event s t akes place: The incident sur ge of + 1 per unit ent er s
t he cable fr om t he line and has t he value 0.2315 in t he cable. This st r ikes t he t r ansfor mer aft er
5 s. The t r ansmit t ed volt age int o t he winding is 1.9305 0.2315 = 0.447, while t he r eflect ed
J
cl
J
ct 5 s 5 s
1
1
1
1
1
1
1.7685
.7685
.2315
.9305
.0695
.9305
1.9305
0
G
.2315
+1
.6125
.885
.951
.893
.746
0,
10,
20,
30,
40,
50,
.447
.736
.868
.863
.755
.2
315
.1
655
.094
6
.02
48
.02
5
0
.64
.08
3
.0
23
.8
63
.03
3
.0
27
.86
8
.03
7
.0
88
.73
6
.123
.154
.4
47
.21
54
.06
.0
60
.0
51
.031
.8
03
.0
4
8
.05
5

.1
8
2
6
.3
2
.8
0
8
.6
8
5
.4
16
.4
4
7
.755
.7
5
5
.8
6
3
.8
6
8
.7
3
6
0
0
0
0
0
.7685
wave int o t he cable is 0.9305 0.2315 = 0.2154, st ill posit ive. The lat t er wave t r avels back t o
the junction J
cl
t o t he line wher e t he r eflect ed value is 0.2154 0.7685 = 0.1655. The fur t her
pr ogr ess of t his volt age wave is indicat ed on t he figur e. In t he meanwhile, t he fir st wave of
amplit ude 0.447 ent er ing t he t r ansfor mer fr om t he cable hit s t he gr ounded end and r eflect s
t ot ally negat ive wit h 0.447 p.u. This volt age st r ikes t he cable at J unct ion J
ct
and r eflect s wit h
a value ( 0.447 0.9305) = 0.416 which t r avels back t o t he gr ounded end. The volt age
ent er ing t he cable is ( 0.447 0.0695) = 0.031 which now t r avels t o junct ion J
cl
of cable and
line, and r eflect s wit h t he value ( 0.031 0.7685) = 0.0238.
At t his inst ant , namely at 20 s fr om t he st ar t , t he t ot al volt age of junct ion J
cl
is (0.2315
+ 0.2154 + 0.1655 + 0.123 + 0.0946) = 0.885. At 10 s, it s value was (0.2315 + 0.2154 + 0.1655) =
0.6125. (Also, 0.885 = 0.6125 + 0.123 + 0.0946). Volt ages at t he t r ansfor mer t er minal ar e as
follows: At 5 s, 0.447; At 15 s, 0.447 0.447 + 0.3196 0.416 = 0.0964.
A summar y of volt ages is given below:
LineCable J unction, J
ct
s CableTransformer J unct ion,
Per Unit Volt age J
ct
s

Per Unit Volt age
0 0.2315 5 0.447
10 0.2315 + 0.2154 + 0.1655 = 0.6125 15 0.447 0.031 + 0.32 = 0.736
20 0.6125 + 0.123 + 0.0946 = 0.885 25 0.736 0.051 + 0.183 = 0.868
30 0.885 + 0.037 + 0.0284 = 0.951 35 0.868 0.06 + 0.055 = 0.863
(1.7585 0.037)
40 0.951 + 1.785 ( 0.033) = 0.893 45 0.863 0.06 0.048 = 0.755
50 0.893 1.785 0.083 = 0.746
(c) The Volt -Time diagr ams for t he t wo junct ions ar e shown in Figur e 15.22.
Fi g. 15.22 Volt -Time diagr am for volt ages at linecable (J
cl
) and cablet r ansfor mer
(J
ct
) junct ions in Example 15.16.
Exa mp le 15.17. Repeat Example 15.16 if t he t r avel t ime in t he t r ansfor mer winding is
10 s inst ead of 5 s.
Sol u t i on . As shown in Figur e 15.23, t he spacing bet ween t he t hr ee ver t ical lines ar e
pr opor t ional t o 5 and 10 s. The pr ogr ess of t he volt age waves is given and t he final volt ages
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
1.0
0.5
.2315
.447
.6125
.736
.868
.755
.746
.893
.951
.885
P.u. voltage
J
cl
Jct
Voltages
s
ar e summar ized below:
t , s Volt age at J
cl
, P. U. t , s Volt age at J
ct
, P.U.
0 0.2315 5 0.447
10 0.2315 + 1.7685 0.2154 = 0.6125 15 0.447 + 0.32 = 0.767
20 0.6125 + 1.7685 0.154 = 0.885 25 0.767 0.031 + 0.229 = 0.967
30 0.885 + 1.7685 0.079 = 1.025 35 0.967 0.0222 + 0.1172 = 1.06
40 1.025 1.7685 0.02 = 1.0853 45 1.06 0.045 + 0.051 = 1.066
50 1.0853 1.7685 0.02 = 1.05 55 1.066 0.029 0.03 = 1.006
60 1.05 1.7685 0.0436 = 0.972
The Volt -Time diagr ams ar e shown in Figur e 15.23.
Fi g. 15.23 Bewley Lat t ice Diagr am and Volt -Time diagr am for Example 15.17.
15.9 GAS INSULATED E.H.V. LINES
15.9.1 General
E.H.V. lines insulat ed wit h SF
6
gas ar e being used ext ensively all over t he wor ld for volt ages
upt o 1200 kV and for lengt hs upt o 5 km. The longer lengt hs exist in oil fields. Gas insulat ed
lines (GIL) also known as Bus Duct s, ar e not flexible but t hey can be inst alled in t unnels or
above gr ound, in hor izont al, ver t ical or inclined posit ions. Typical dimensions of inner cylindr ical
conduct or and out er coaxial cylindr ical enclosur e ar e given in Table 15.4 as well as gas pr essur e,
maximum elect r ic st r ess on t he conduct or sur face for single-phase lines, and t he capacit ance
and sur ge impedance values. They car r y cur r ent s in t he r ange 2,000 t o 10,000 Amper es.
P.u. voltage
1.0
0.5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
.2315
.447
.6125
.787
.885
.965
1.025
1.06
1.085
1.05
1.006
.972
Voltages
s
J
cl
Jct
.2315
.6125
.885
1.025
1.085
1.05
1.006
.972
0,
10,
20,
30,
40,
50,
60,
.447
.767
.965
1.06
1.066
J
cl
J
ct
5 s 10 s
.4
4
7
.
2
3
1
5
.1
6
5
5 .3
2
.1
1
8
4
.6
4
5
.0
6
.4
1
5
0
2
6
.
6
5
1
.
0
1
6
.
3
5
6
.
0
3
4
.2
15
4
.4
47
.1
54
0
.3
2
.07
9
.6
45
.0
34
.41
5
.0
2
.6
51
.35
6
.0
4
4
G
Ta ble 15.4 Typ i ca l P r op er t i es of E.H.V. GI L' s
Voltage Rated, kV 220 275 345 500 750
Maximum, kV 245 300 362 525 765 (Also 800)
Conductor Diameter, cm 10 15 12 25 15 (25)
Enclosure Diameter, cm 40 40 50 60 70 (70)
Insulation Clearance, cm 15 12.5 19 17.5 27.5 (22.5)
ln (R
e
/ r
c
) 1.386 0.981 1.435 0.875 1.54 (1.03)
E
max
=
cm k V
r R r
V
c e c
/ ,
) / ln( .
3 /
max
10.2 11.8 12.14 13.86 19.1 (17.9)
Capacitance, nF/ km 40 56.6 38.7 63.5 36 (53.9)
C = 55.55/ln (R
e
/r
c
)
S urge Impedance, Z
0
83.3 59 86 52.5 92.6 (62)
Gas Pressure, Atm . 24 24 34 34 34
Thus, t he GIL has a capacit ance of r oughly five t imes t hat of an over -head line but 30% of
t hat of a cable wit h solid insulat ion. It s sur ge impedance is near ly double t hat of cables. In a
GIL, t he inner t ubular conduct or is suppor t ed by epoxy r esin spacer s which may be of t he post ,
disc, or cone t ypes. These ar e shown in Figur e 15.1 (j) and (k). The elect r ic st r ess on t hese
spacer s is kept below 30 kV/cm (3 kV/mm). The inner conduct or and out er enclosur e ar e made
fr om Aluminium alloy. While t hese ar e most ly st iff, some designs for ext r emely high volt ages
(1200 kV) use flexible inner conduct or . The maximum allowable t emper at ur e of t he insulat or s
is 90C while t he gas t emper at ur e is much lower .
15.9.2 Properties of SF
6
Gas
Technical lit er at ur e on pr oper t ies and uses of S F
6
gas as an insult ant in cables, swit chgear and
ot her elect r ical equipment is so ext ensive and voluminous t hat only a few salient point s need
be given her e for complet eness. SF
6
is five t imes heavier t han air wit h a specific gr avit y (densit y)
of about 6 gr ams/lit r e. It liquifies at 40C at 3.6 at mospher es pr essur e, and at 10C at about
10 at mospher es. The pr essur e used in GIL's is bet ween 2 t o 4 at mospher es (1 kg/cm
2
= 14.2
Lbs/in
2
= 0.966 At m 1 At m.). Thus, t he gaseous phase exist s at t emper at ur es in excess of
35C at t hese pr essur es, and at or dinar y t emper at ur es S F
6
is a gas. It is colour less, odour less,
non-t oxic, non-combust ible, chemically ext r emely st able, and iner t upt o 500C. S F
6
is called
elect r onegat ive as it capt ur es fr ee elect r ons t o for m heavy negat ive ions which ar e r elat ively
immobile in t he usual applied elect r ic fields in GIL's which gives t he gas a ver y st able insulat ing
pr oper t y even in t he event of small dischar ges. This pr oper t y of capt ur e of fr ee elect r ons is
ext r emely impor t ant in ar cing chamber s of cir cuit br eaker s, and dur ing phase-t o-gr ound (or ,
conduct or -t o-enclosur e) fault s in GIL's. The dielect r ic st r engt h of S F
6
is 2 t o 3 t imes t hat of air
at t he same pr essur e. Table 15.5 gives t he compar ison bet ween t he elect r ic st r engt hs of air ,
insulat ing oil, and S F
6
gas.
Ta ble 15.5 Typ i ca l Di elect r i c St r en gt h s of Ai r , Oi l, a n d S F
6
Pressure, Atm. 1 2 3 4 5 6
Air, kV/ mm 1 1.3 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.5 (Linear )
Oil, kV/ mm 3 3 3 3 3 3 (Const ant )
S F
6
, kV/ mm 2 2.9 3.68 4.5 5 5.4 (Nonlinear )
Since t he pr essur e used in GIL's is quit e low but above at mospher ic, seals ar e easy t o
make and t he leakage of gas, if any, is fr om t he inside of t he GIL int o t he ext er nal air .
For ext r emely lar ge cur r ent s of t he or der of 10 kA, liquid cooling of t he ext er nal housing
is used by laying pipes alongside t he housing. In some inst allat ions t he S F
6
gas is cir culat ed
and cooled. Because of t r anspor t at ion limit at ions, bus duct s (GIL's) ar e made in shor t lengt hs
and t her e ar e numer ous joint s eit her of t he welded or t he bolt ed t ype or plug-in joint s in a long
lengt h, for bot h t he int er nal conduct or and t he ext er nal housing or enclosur e.
1. (a) Upt o what e.h.v. levels ar e cables manufact ur ed t o dat e? List t he volt age levels
used.
(b) Name t he four classificat ions of cables accor ding t o t he insulat ions used.
(c) Give br iefly t he pr oper t ies of t hese four dielect r ics giving examples.
(d) Expand t he following abbr eviat ions: O-F, HPOF, KP, MPa, XLPE, EPR, PP,
PMP, PPLP, PMPLP, GIL.
(e) What ar e t he possible causes of init iat ion of wat er t r ees in XLPE insulat ion?
What ar e t he har mful effect s of t hese? How ar e t hey suppr essed or minimized?
(f ) What ar e t he aver age values of
r
, t an , and wit hst and kV/mm of t he following?
(1) un-impr egnat ed Kr aft paper , (2) impr egnat ed Kr aft paper in cables, (3) PPLP,
(4) XLPE, (5) S F
6
.
2. A GIL for 500 kV has a conduct or diamet er of 20 cm and enclosur e diamet er of 60 cm.
Calculat e t he following:
(a) Insulat ion clear ance;
(b) Aver age elect r ic st r ess at 525 kV, line-t o-line;
(c) Maximum elect r ic st r ess at 525 kV, l-l;
(d) Capacit ance per 100 met r es;
(e) Char ging MVAR for 1 km at 525 kV, l-l;
(f) If t he br eakdown st r ess of S F
6
at t he pr essur e used is 4.5 kV/mm, what is t he
fact or of safet y used?
3. In a Scher ing Br idge exper iment , a 10-met r e specimen of 400-kV O-F cable wit h a
designed value of capacit ance of 0.3 nF/m and t an = 0.2% is t est ed at full r at ed
volt age of 400 kV, l-l (230 kV l-n). The values of component s at 50 Hz in Figur e 15.16
ar e as follows at balance : C
2
= 1 nF, R
4
= 1 K, R
3
= 3 K, and C
3
= 2 nF. Calculat e
(a) t he capacit ance of t he cable sample per met r e,
(b) t an ,
(c) insulat ion r esist ance per met r e, and
(d) t he volt age acr oss t he l.v. ar m of br idge at 230 kV.
Der ive t he equat ions which you have used.
4. Descr ibe t he t est s r equir ed t o measur e C
c
and C
g
of a 3-phase unbelt ed cable wher e
C
c
= int er -cor e capacit ance and C
g
= cor e-t o-sheat h capacit ance. If t he t wo measur ed
values ar e 1.2 F and 0.9 F, calculat e C
c
and C
g
. (Ther e ar e t wo set s of values).
5. (a) A sample of XLPE when t est ed at 50 Hz gave br eakdown st r esses of 40 kV/mm
at 1 hour and 50 kV/mm at 6 minut es. Assuming E
n
.t = const ant , calculat e t he
value of exponent n.
(b) Discuss t he significance of t his pr oper t y in designing t he insulat ion of a cable
t hat is t o wor k sat isfact or ily for many year s.
(c) If t he t est is given for 15 minut es what value of st r ess will cause br eakdown
init ially?
6. (a) In t he wor ked examples 15.3, 15.4, and 15.5, check t he values of exponent b and
scale fact or E
0
by ut ilizing a differ ent set of values for P and E out of t he given
dat a.
(b) Der ive all equat ions used in solving t he design pr oblems.
(c) Discuss t he significance of t he br eakdown-pr obabilit y dist r ibut ion of t he Weibull
t ype on cable designs.
7. In a lar ge power st at ion for which a 275-kV XLPE is r equir ed t o be inst alled, t he
following design specificat ions ar e used: Lifet ime-30 year s; AC t est wit hst and dur at ion-
3 hour s; V
0
= maximum oper at ing volt age = 1.05 r at ed volt age. BIL = 1050 kV.
Temper at ur e det er ior at ion coefficient s: K
1
(ac) = 1.1; K
1
(imp) = 1.25. Maximum
oper at ing t emper at ur e of conduct or = 80C. K
2
(ac) = 3.54. K
2
(imp) = 1.1. Safet y
fact or s K
3
= 1.1 for bot h t ypes of volt age. Calculat e t he following:
(a) Life exponent n;
(b) Volt age t o be used in impulse and ac t est s;
(c) If t he ac t est is conduct ed at t he elevat ed t emper at ur e of 80C, what would be
t he value of t est volt age used dur ing t he 3-hour t est ?
8. A 400-kV over head line wit h Z
0
= 312 ohms is connect ed t o a gr ounded-neut r al
t r ansfor mer winding wit h Z
t
= 1250 ohms and having a t r avel t ime of 7.5 s for t he
sur ge, t hr ough a 400 kV cable. The cable has t he following det ails: conduct or diamet er
= 50 mm, sheat h diamet er = 100 mm, per mit t ivit y
r
= 3.6. A sur ge of 1000 kV peak
is t r avelling on t he line when it hit s t he junct ion of cable and line. Calculat e or dr aw
t he following:
(a) Sur ge impedance of cable;
(b) Tr avel t ime of sur ge t hr ough cable if it s lengt h is 395 met r es;
(c) Dr aw t he Bewley Lat t ice diagr am upt o 30 s;
(d) Dr aw t he volt -t ime diagr ams for volt ages at t he t wo ends of t he cable and give
t he maximum at t ained wit hin t he 30 s dur at ion;
(e) If t he t r ansfor mer had been connect ed dir ect ly t o t he over head line, what would
have been t he volt age at t he high-volt age t er minal of t he t r ansfor mer ?
( f ) If t he BIL of t he t r ansfor mer is 1425 kV and t he pr ot ect ive r at io of light ning
ar r est er is 1.4, will t he ar r est er dischar ge wit h t he cable in and wit hout t he
cable?
Books
1. Alst on, L.L.: High Volt age Technology. Oxfor d Univer sit y Pr ess, 1968. (Har well Post -
Gr aduat e Ser ies).
2. Aselt ine, J .A.: Transform Met hods in Linear S yst em Analysis . Mc-Gr aw-Hill, 1980.
3. Bewley, L.V.: Travelling Waves in Transmission S yst ems. J ohn Wiley, (1933, 1951),
Dover , 1963.
4. Bewley, L.V.: Two-Dimensional Fields in Electrical Engineering. (McMillan), Dover ,
1963.
5. Bowdler , G.W.: Measurements in High Voltage Test Circuits. Oxfor d, Per gamon Pr ess,
1973.
6. Considine, D.M.: Handbook of Energy Technology. McGr aw-Hill Book Co., 1977.
7. Cr aggs, J .D., and Meek, J .M.: High Volt age Laborat ory Technique. But t er wor t h
Scient ific Publicat ions. 1954.
8. Cr aggs, J .D., and Meek, J .M.: Electrical Breakdown of Gases. Oxfor d Clar endon Pr ess.
1953.
9. Cr aggs, J .D., and Meek, J .M.: Electrical Breakdown of Gases. (Ed.). Chichest er , J ohn
Wiley, 1978.
10. Edison Elect r ic Inst it ut e : E.H.V. Transmission Reference Book. (Gener al Elect r ic
Co.), 1968.
11. Elect r ical Power Resear ch Inst it ut e. (Palo Alt o, Calif.): Transmission Line Reference
Book Above 345 kV. 1975.
12. Gr eenwood, A.: Elect rical Transient s in Power S yst ems. Wiley-Int er science, 1971.
13. Hayashi, Shigenor i : S urges on Transmission S yst ems. Denki-Shoin, Kyot o, J apan.
1955.
14. Kind, Diet er : An Int roduct ion t o High-Volt age Experiment al Technique. (Tr anslat ed
by Y.Nar ayana Rao). Wiley East er n, 1979.
15. Kuffel, E. and Abdullah, M.: High Voltage Engineering. Oxfor d Per gamon Pr ess. 1970.
Bi bl i ogra ph y
Bibliography 483
16. Kuffel, E. a nd Za engel, W.S.: High Volt age Engineering Fundament als. Oxfor d
Per gamon Pr ess. 1984.
17. Lee, T.H.: Physics and Engineering of High Power S wit ching Devices. M.I.T. Pr ess,
Cambr idge, Mass. 1975.
18. Lewis, W.W.: Prot ect ion of Transmission S yst ems Against Light ning. J ohn Wiley
and Sons, 1950.
19. Loeb, L.B.: Basic Processes of Gaseous Elect ronics. Univer sit y of Califor nia Pr ess,
Ber keley, 1960.
20. Loeb, L.B.: Electrical Coronas , U. of Calif. Pr ess, 1965.
21. V.N. Maller and M.S. Naidu : Advances in High Voltage Insulation and Arc Interruption
in S F
6
and Vacuum. Per gamon Pr ess, 1981.
22. McAllist er , D. (Ed.) : Elect ric Cables Handbook. Gr anada Publishing Co., London. (8
Gr aft on St ., W1X 3LA), 1987.
23. Naidu, M.S. and Kamar aju, V.: High Voltage Engineering. Tat a-McGraw-Hill Publishing
Co., 1982.
24. Radzevig, D.K.: High Voltage Engineering. (Tr anslat ed fr om Russian by M. Chaur asia).
Khanna Publisher s, New Delhi.
25. Ragaller , K. (Ed.): S urges in High-Volt age Net works. Plenum Pr ess, New Yor k a nd
London, 1979.
26. Ragaller , K. (Ed. Br own Bover ia Co.): Current Interruption in High-Voltage Networks.
Plenum Pr ess, 1977.
27. Rudenber g, R.: Transient Performance of Elect ric Power S yst ems. McGr aw-Hill Book
Co., 1950.
28. Rudenber g, R.: Elect ric S hock Waves in Power S yst ems. Har var d Univer sit y Pr ess,
Cambr idge, Mass. 1968.
29. Scot t , E.J . : Transform Calculus. Har per and Row, New Yor k. 1955.
30. St evenson, W.D., J r .: Elements of Power S ystem Analysis . 2nd and 4t h Edit ions.
McGr aw-Hill Int er nat ional Book Co., 1982.
31. T. Tanaka and A. Gr eenwood: Advanced Power Cable Technology.
Vol. 1: Basic Concepts and Testing, 1983.
Vol. 2: Present and Fut ure, 1983. C.R.C. Pr ess, Flor ida.
32. West inghouse Trans and Dist ribut ion Ref Book. IBHOxfor d. 1950.
33. Zahn, M: Elect romagnet ic Field TheoryA Problem-S olving Approach. J ohn Wiley
and Sons. 1979.
34. T.J . Gallagher and A.T. Pier main : High Volt age Measurement : Test ing and Design.
Chichest er , Wiley. 1983.
35. N. Hylt en-Cavallius: High Voltage Laboratory Planning. H.V. Test Syst ems (Emile
Haefely).
36. EPRI: Wind-Induced Conduct or Mot ion, 1979.
Begamudre, Rakosh Das
1 Successive r efr act ion of t r avelling waves on mult i-conduct or t r ansmission lines.
J our nal, Inst it ut ion of Engineer s (India), Apr il 1957.
2. Invest igat ion of cor ona loss and RI fr om h.v. over head dc t r ansmission lines. Wit h
R.M. Mor r is. Tr ans. IEEE, PAS, J an., 1964, pp. 1017.
3. Cor ona pulses and RI under h.v. dc. ibid, May 1964, pp. 483491.
4. Radio noise levels of dc t r ansmission lines. Bull. of t he Radio and EE Div., Nat ional
Res. Council of Canada, Ot t awa. Sept . 1964.
5. Cor ona pulses and RN levels fr om a wat er dr op under sever al t ypes of excit at ion.
Let t er t o Edit or , Pr oceedings IEEE, 1967, p. 2164.
6. RI levels of t r ansmission lines and cor ona pulse char act er ist ics. Tr ans. Canadian
Eng. Inst ., Oct ., 1970, pp. 17.
7. The absolut e met hod of pr e-det er minat ion of RN levels of e.h.v. ac and dc Tr ansmission
lines. Symposium on Select ion of Next EHV Tr ansmission Volt age for India. Cent r al
Boar d of Ir r igat ion and Power , New Delhi. Publicat ion No. 142, May 1980.
8. Volt age gr adient calculat ion of 345 kV t o 1500 kV t r ansmission line conduct or s. ibid.
9. Next higher t r ansmission volt age for India. C.B.I.P. Publicat ion No. 162, Dec. 1980.
10. Swit ching sur ge t est ing of t r a nsfor mer s. I ndia n Tr a nsfor mer Ma nufa ct ur er s'
Associat ion. Symposium, Dec. 1980.
11. Design of coils for r epr esent ing long lines on a TNA. Par t I : Theor et ical consider at ions.
Par t II: Pr act ical consider at ions. C.B.I.P. 49t h Resear ch Meet ing Pr oceedings. Sept .
1981.
12. Effect of line-coil r epr esent at ion in a TNA on swit ching t r ansient s of t r ansmission
lines. (Wit h S. Subhash, K.S. Meer a, and M.Kanya Kumar i). C.B.I.P. Publicat ion No.
170, 51st Resear ch Meet ing, Vadodar a, 1984.
13. Impulse gener at or s for light ning and swit ching sur ges. Design and per for mance.
Technical Repor t No. 106, Cent r al Power Resear ch Inst it ut e, Box 1242, Bangalor e
560 012.
14. Design of cages for cor ona st udies. Technical Repor t No. 109, C.P.R.I., Bangalor e.
15. Limit s for int er fer ence fields fr om e.h.v. and u.h.v. power t r ansmission lines: RI,
AN, and E.S. fields. C.B.I.P. Publicat ion No. 170, 1984. (Malcha Mar g, Chanakyapur i,
New Delhi, 110021.)
16. For mulas for calculat ion of excit at ion funct ion of cor ona fr om RN fields of long e.h.v.
lines. Confer ence on E.H.V. Technology. IEEE-IISc-IE (Ind.), Bangalor e. Aug. 1984.
17. E.S. field, AN, and RI of 400 kV t o 1300 kV lines, exist ing and pr oposed for India, and
compar ison of AN levels of single-phase and t hr ee-phase t est lines. (Wit h R. Ar or a
and J . Sent hil). ibid. (Volume of Confer ence Paper s).
18. Effect of conduct or size on e.h.v. t r ansmission-line pr oblems for 750 kV, 1000 kV and
1150 kV. (Wit h S. Ganga). Pr oceedings, 2nd Nat ional Power Syst ems Planning
Confer ence, J awahar lal Nehr u Technical Univer sit y, Saifabad, Hyder abad, India. Sept .
1983.
Bibliography 485
19. Pr ocedur es for e.h.v. line-insulat ion designs based upon t r ansient over volt ages.
C.B.I.P. Publicat ion No. 177. 52nd Resear ch Meet ing, Aur angabad. 1985.
20. Pr ocedur es for e.h.v. line designs based upon st eady-st at e oper at ing limit s. ibid.
21. A met hod of solving sur ge phenomena on e.h.v. lines including at t enuat ion caused by
cor ona loss and r esist ance. ibid.
22. Ener gy and elect r ical power equipment development . St at e of t he ar t speech. 1st
Nat ional Power Syst ems Planning Confer ence, Annamalai Univer sit y, India. Sept .
1982.
23. Ener gy development and human pr ogr ess. Keynot e addr ess, Inst it ut ion of Engineer s
(India), Kanpur Br anch. 15 Sept . 1983.
24. Sur ge t r ansfer in mult i-winding t r ansfor mer s: Failur es and r emedies. (Wit h P.
Sivakumar ). Elect r ical India, 31 Dec. 1984.
25. Invest igat ion of over volt age condit ions in mult i-winding t r ansfor mer s by calculat ion
and model st udies. (Wit h P. Shivakumar ). Pr oc. of 52nd R. & D. Session, C.B.I.P.
Publicat ion No. 177, Aur angabad. Febr uar y 1985.
Monographs and Catalogues
1. ALCOA: Conduct or Mot ion Cont rol. Feb. 1976. (Massena, N.Y.).
2. Elect r ical Manufact ur ing Co. Calcut t a, Cat alogue on Line Material and Hardware.
3. High Volt a ge Test Syst emsASEA, Ha efely, Mica fil. High Volt age Laborat ory
Equipment.
4. I.E.E. Monogr aph Ser ies 18: Comput at ion of Power S yst em Transient s. J .P. Bickfor d
(Ed.), Pet er Per egr inus Pr ess, London, U.K., 1976.
5. I.E.E.E. Br own Book: Indust rial and Commercial Power S yst em Analysis . IEEE
St andar d399; 1980.
6. Int ernat ional S ymposium on Cont rolled React ive Compensat ion. IREQEPRI. 1979.
7. Mor ched, A.S.: Transmission Line Energizat ion Transient s. Division of High Volt age
Syst ems. The Univer sit y of Tr ondheim, Nor way. 1972.
8. Siemens Power Engineer ing: S pecial Issue on High Volt age Technology, Vol. III,
1981.
9. UPS EB S tatistics at a glance. Planning Wing, Ut t ar Pr adesh St at e Elect r icit y Boar d,
Shakt hi Bhavan, Ashok Mar g, Lucknow, U.P., India. 1984.
Brown Boveri Review
1. J . Glavit sch: Power Frequency Overvolt ages in Ehv S yst ems. 1964, pp. 2132.
2. W. Fr ey: Considerat ions Governing Choice of Volt age Level for Longdist ance High-
capacit y Transmission S yst ems. ibid, pp. 59.
3. P. Alt hammer and R. Pet it pier r e: S witching Operations and S witching S urges in
S yst ems Employing EHV. ibid, pp. 3346.
4. A. Goldst ein: Coordination of Insulation and Choice of Lightning Arresters. ibid, pp.
4755.
5. E. Ruoss and P. Djur djevic: Net work Analyzer for S t udying Transient Phenomena in
H.V. Net work s. 1968, pp. 734739.
6. A. Br aun, A. Eidinger , and E. Ruoss: Int errupt ion of S hort -Circuit Current s in H.V.
AC Net works. 1979. pp. 240254.
7. J . Kopainsky and E. Ruoss: Interruption of Low Inductive and Capacitive Currents In
H.V. S yst ems. ibid, pp. 255261.
8. E. Ruoss: Overvolt ages on Energizing H.V. Lines. 1979, pp. 262270.
9. U. Bur ger : Insulat ion Coordinat ion and S elect ion of S urge Arrest er. 1979, pp. 271
280.
10. A. Eidinger and R. Schaumann: S ulphur Hexafluoride S F
6
. 1979, pp. 303307.
Emile Haefely Publications
1. K. Feser : Transient Behaviour of Damped Capacitive Dividers of S ome M.V. IEEE
Transact ions, PAS93, 1974, pp. 116121. (Repr int by E. Haefely et cie).
2. K. Feser : A new type of voltage divider for the measurement of high impulse and ac
volt ages. (Tr anslat ed fr om Bullet in ASE, Nr . 19, pp. 929935).
3. K. Feser : Problems Relat ed t o S wit ching Impulse Generat ion of H.V. Test Plant s.
Bullet in ASE, (SAE), vol. 65, 1974, pp. 496508.
4. A. Rodewald: Transient Phenomena in the Marx Multiplying Circuit after Firing the
First Coupling S park Gap. Bullet in ASE, vol. 60, 1969, pp. 3744.
5. K. Feser : Influence of Corona Discharges in the Breakdown Voltage of Airgaps . Pr oc.
IEE, vol. 118, No. 9, Sept . 1971, pp. 13091313.
6. K. Feser : Mechanism t o Explain t he S wit ching Impulse Phenomena. Schweiz Tech.
Zeit . 1971, pp. 937946.
7. P. Mat hiessen: La Product ion de haut es t ensions d' essais. ' Le Mont eur-Elect ricien',
No. 4, 1972, pp. 1122.
8. W. Muller , A. Rodewald, and H. St einbigler : S t ro S t rom Labor.
9. G. Reinhold: U.H.V. dc Power S upplies for Large Current s.
10. Th. Pr aehauser : Measurement of Partial Discharges in H.V. Apparatus With Balanced
Circuit . Bullet in ASE, 1973, pp. 11831189.
11. Th. Pr a eha user : Locat ing Part ial Discharges in H.V. Equipment. Bullet in ASE
(Associat ion of Swiss Elect r ical Engineer s), 1972, pp. 893905.
I.E.E.E. TransactionsPower Apparatus and Systems
1. G.E. Adams: Volt age Gradient s on H.V . Transmission Lines. 1955, pp. 511. (A.I.E.E.
Tr ansact ions).
2. A.S. Timascheff: Fast Calculation of Gradients of a 3-phase Bundleconductor Line
wit h Any Number of S ub-conduct ors. 1971, pp. 157164, Also, 1975, pp. 104107, and
1961 (AIEE Tr ans.), pp. 590597.
Bibliography 487
3. S.P. Mar uvada and W. J anischewskyj: Elect rost at ic Field Calculat ion of Parallel
Cylindrical Conductors. 1969, pp. 10691079.
4. M.S. Abou-saeda and E. Nasser : Digital Computer Calculation of Potential and Its
Gradient of a Twin Cylindrical Conductor. 1969, pp. 18021814.
5. C.H. Gar y: Corona Inception Field Calculation. Generalization of Peek' s Law. 1972,
pp. 22622263.
6. R.M. Mor r is and P.S. Mar uvada: Conductor S urface Voltage Gradients on Bipolar
H.V. DC Transmission Lines. 1976, pp. 19341945.
7. IEEE Cor ona and RN Wor king Gr oup: A S urvey of Methods for Calculating Voltage
Gradient s. 1979, pp. 19962014.
8. IEEE RN Subcommit t eeAN Task For ce. A Guide for the Measurement of Audible
Noise from Transmission Lines. 1972, pp. 853856.
9. D.E. Per r y: An Analysis of AN Levels Based Upon Field and 3Phase Test Line
Measurement s. 1972, pp. 857865.
10. H. Kir kham and W.J . Gajda, J r .: A Mathematical Model of Transmission Line AN ,
1983, pp. 710728.
11. V.L. Char t ier and R.D. St ear ns: Formulas for Predict ing AN from Overhead H.V. AC
and DC Lines. 1981, pp. 123128.
12. IEEE Task For ce on Cor ona: A Comparison of Methods for Calculating Audible Noise
from H.V. Transmission Lines, 1982, pp. 40904099.
13. N. Kolcio, J . Diplacido, and F.M. Diet r ich: Apple Grove 750 kV Project2-year S tatistical
Analysis of AN . 1977, pp. 560570.
14. G.W. J uet t e and L.E. Zaffanella: RN, AN, and Corona Loss of E.H.V. and U.H.V.
Lines Under Rain: Pr edet er minat ion based on cage t est s. 1970, pp. 11681178.
15. G.W. J uet t e and L.E. Zaffanella: RN Current s and AN on S hort S ect ions of U.H.V.
Bundled Conduct ors. 1970, pp. 902913.
16. C.H. Gar y: The Theory of t he Excit at ion Funct ion. 1972, pp. 305310.
17. M.R. Mor eau and C.H. Gar y: Pre-det erminat ion of RI Level of H.V. Transmission
Lines. IPre-det erminat ion of t he Excit at ion Funct ion. IIField Calculating Methods.
1972, pp. 284-304.
18. IEEE RN Subcommit t ee: A Field Comparison of RI and TVI Instrumentation. 1977,
pp. 863875.
19. N. Gia o Tr inh a nd P. Sa r ma Ma r uva da : A Met h od of Pred i ct i n g T h e Coron a
Performance of Conduct or Bundles Based Upon Cage Test Result s. 1977, pp. 312325.
20. W.C. Guyker , J .E. O'Neil, and A.R. Hileman: Right of Way and Conductor S election
for t he Alleghany Power S yst em, 500-kV Transmission S yst em. 1966, pp. 624632.
21. P. Sar ma Mar uvada and N. Giao Tr inh: A Basis for S et t ing Limit s t o RI from H.V.
Transmission Lines. 1975, pp. 17141724.
22. IEEE RN Noise and Cor ona Subcommit t ee: Review of Technical Considerations on
Limit s of Int erference from Power Lines and S t at ions. 1980, pp. 365384.
23. B. Bozoki: Effect of Noise on Transfer-trip Carrier Relaying. 1968, pp. 173179.
24. W.R. Lauber : Amplitude Probability Distribution Measurements at the Apple Grove
775 kV Project . 1976, pp. 12541266.
25. CIGRE/IEEE S urvey on E.H.V. Transmission Line Radio Noise, and Comparison of
RN Prdict ion Met hods wit h CIGRE/ IEEE S urvey Result s. 1972, pp. 10191042.
26. IEEE Wor king Gr oup on E.S. Effect s: Elect rost at ic Effect s of Over-head Transmission
Lines. Par t I: Hazards and Effects. Part II: Methods of Calculation. 1972, pp. 422444.
27. IEEE Wor king Gr oup on E.M. and E.S. Effect s: Electromagnetic Effects of Overhead
Transmission Lines. Practical Problems, S afeguards, and Methods of Calculation,
1973, pp. 892904.
28. IEEE Wor king Gr oup on E.S. and E.M. Effect s: Measurement of Electric and Magnetic
Fields from AC Power Lines. 1978. pp. 11041114.
29. T.M. McCauley: EHV and UHV Electrostatic Effects: S implified Design Calculations
and Prevent ive Measures. 1975, pp. 20572073.
30. IEEE Wor king Gr oup on E.S. and E.M. Effect s: Electric and Magnetic Field Coupling
From H.V. AC Power Transmission LinesClassification of S hort-term Effects on
People. 1978, pp. 22432252.
31. J . Pat r ick Reilly: Elect ric Field Induct ion on Long Object sA Met hodology for
Transmission Line Impact S tudies. 1979, pp. 18411849.
32. J . Pat r ick Reilly and M. Cwiklewski: Raingut t ers Near H.V. Power Lines: A S t udy Of
Electric-field Induction. 1981, pp. 20682076.
33. J . Pat r ick Reilly: Electric Field Induction on S ailboats and Vertical Poles. 1978, pp.
13731383.
34. W.T. Kaune, C.H. Allen, J .L. Beamer , J .R. Decker , M.F. Gillis, R.D. Phillips, and
R.L. Richar dson: Biological Effect s of 60-Hz Elect ric Fields on Miniat ure S wine:
Exposure Facility. 1980, pp. 120128.
35. S.A. Sebo, J .T. Heibel, M. Fr ydman, and C.H. Shih: Examination of Ozone Emanating
from E.H.V. Transmission Line Corona Discharges. 1976, pp. 693703.
36. C.F. Wagner and A.R. Hileman: The Lightning S troke-II. 1961, pp. 622642. (AIEE
Tr ans.).
37. C.F. Wagner and A.R. Hileman: Mechanism of Breakdown of Laboratory Gaps . 1961,
pp. 604622. (AIEE Tr ans.).
38. E.C. Sakshaug, J .S. Kr esge, and S.A. Miske, J r .: A New Concept in S t at ion Arrest er
Design. 1977, pp. 647656.
39. E.C. Sakshaug: Current Limiting Gap ArrestersS ome Fundamental Considerations.
1971, pp. 15631573.
40. J .R. Hammann, S.A. Miske, J r ., I.B. J ohnson, and A.R. Cour t s: A Zinc Oxide Varistor
Prot ect ive S yst em for S eries Capacit ors. 1981, pp. 929937.
41. M. Kobayashi, et al.: Development of ZnO Non-linear Resist ors and Their Applicat ion
t o Gapless S urge Arrest ers. 1978, pp. 11491158.
42. J . Sabat h, H.M. Smit h, and R.C. J ohnson: Analog Computer S tudy of S witching S urge
Transient s for a 500-kV S yst em. 1966, pp. 19.
Bibliography 489
43. D.D. Wilson: Phase-phase and Phase-neutral S witching S urges on 500-kV Open-ended
Lines. 1969, pp. 660665.
44. IEEE Wor king Gr oup on Swit ching Sur ges. Par t IV: Cont rol and Reduct ion on AC
Transmission Lines. 1982, pp. 26942702.
45. C.L. Wagner and J .W. Bankoske: Evaluation of S urge-suppression Resistors in H.V.
Circuit Breakers. 1967, pp. 698707.
46. IEEE Wor king Gr oup 78.1 of Subst at ion Commit t ee: S afe S ubst at ion Grounding
Part II. 1982, pp. 40064023.
47. L.O. Ba r t hold, I .B. J ohnson, a nd A.J . Schult z: S wi t chi ng S urges and Arrest er
Performance on H.V. S t at ions. 1956, pp. 481491, (AIEE Tr ans.).
48. E.W. Kimbar k: Bibliography on S ingle-pole S witching. 1975, pp. 10721077.
49. IEEE Wor king Gr oup on Insulat or Swit ching Sur ges: Guide for Application of Insulators
t o Wit hst and S wit ching S urges. 1975, pp. 5867.
50. G. Gallet , G. Ler oy, R. Lacey, and I. Kr omer : General Expression for Positive S witching
Impulse S trength Valid Upto Extra Long Air Gaps . 1975, pp. 19891993.
51. L. Pa r is: Influence of Airgap Charact erist ics on Line-t o-ground S wit ching-surge
S t rengt hs, 1967, pp. 936947.
52. H.S.H. Goff, D.G. McFar lane, and F.J . Tur ner : S wit ching-surge Test s on Peace River
Transmission Line Insulation. 1966, pp. 601613.
53. J .K. Dillar d and A.R. Hileman: UHV Transmission Tower Insulat ion Test s. 1970, pp.
17721784.
54. C. Menemenlis, H. Anis, and G. Har bec: Phase-to-phase Insulation. Part IGeneralized
Effect s of S t ress Paramet ers and Gap Gemomet ry. 1976, pp. 643650.
55. Part IIRequired Clearances and Coordination with Phase-to-ground Insulation. 1976,
pp. 651659.
56. C. Menemenlis and G. Har bec: S witching Impulse Breakdown of E.H.V. Transmission
Towers, 1974, pp. 255263.
57. Y. Wat anabe: S witching S urge Flashover Characteristics of Extremely Long Air Gaps .
1967, pp. 933936.
58. F.S. Young, E.M. Schneider , Y.M. Gut ma n, a nd N.N. Tikhodeyev: US A-US S R
Investigation of 1200 kV Tower Insulation. 1980; pp. 462470. (Also, Elect r ical Tech.,
USSR, 1979, No. 2, pp. 4558).
59. S. Annest r and, E.F. Bossuyt , and N. Dag Reppen: Insulat ion Performance Analysis of
a 500 kV Transmission Line Design. 1970, pp. 429437.
60. R. Cor t ina, M. Sfor zini, and A. Taschini: S trength Characteristics of Air Gaps S ubjected
t o Int erphase S wit ching S urges. 1970; pp. 448452.
61. A.R. Hilema n, P.R. Lebla nc, a nd G.W. Br own: Est imat ing t he S wit ching S urge
Performance of Transmission Lines. 1970, pp. 14551469.
62. T. Udo: S parkover Characteristics of Long Air Gaps and Long Insulator S trings.
1964, pp. 471483.
63. IEEE Commit t ee Repor t : Report on Indust ry S urvey of Prot ect ive Gap Applicat ions
in H.V. S yst ems. 1967, pp. 14321437.
64. N. Giao Tr inh and Clair e Vincent : S t at ist ical S ignificance of Test Met hods for Low
Probability Breakdown and Withstand Voltages, 1980, pp. 711719.
65. J .G. Kassakian and D.M. Ot t en: On the S uitability of a Gaussian S tress Distribution
for a S tatistical Approach to Line-insulation Design. 1975, pp. 16241628.
66. J .W. Kalb, J r .: How t he S wit ching S urge Family Affect s Line Insulat ion. 1963, pp.
10241033.
67. R.G. Far mer , A.L. Schalb, and E. Kat z: Navajo Project Report on S S R Analysis and
S olut ions. 1977. pp. 12261232.
68. IEEE SSR Wor king Gr oup: Count ermeasures t o S S R Problems. 1980, pp. 18101818.
69. IEEE SSR Task For ce: First Benchmark Model for Comput er S imulat ion of S S R.
1977, pp. 15651572.
70. S. Goldber g and W.R. Schmus: S S R and Torsional S t resses In T-G S haft s. 1979, pp.
12331237.
71. J .R. St ewar t and D.D. Wilson: High Phase Order TransmissionA Feasibility Analysis.
Part I S t ead y S t at e Con si d erat i on s. Part I I Ov erv ol t ages an d I n su l at i on
Requirement s. 1978. pp. 23002317.
72. R. Malewski, D. Tr ain, and A. Dechamplain: Cavity Resonance Effect in Large H.V.
Laboratories Equipped with Electromagnetic S hield. 1977, pp. 18631871.
73. R. Malewski and A. Dechamplain: Digit al Impulse Recorder for H.V. Laborat ories,
1980, pp. 636649.
74. D.C. Er ickson: The Use of Fibre Optics for Communications, Measurement and Control
within H.V. S ubstations. 1980, pp. 10571065.
75. D.R. Augood: Performance of Extruded Dielectric (XLPE) Cable. 1978, pp. 659668.
76. G. Bazzi, M. Mar iani, A.G. Or donez and F. Hawley: 400-kV Cable Installation in Mexico.
1978, pp. 669677.
77. C.A. Ar kell, B. Gr egor y, and G.J . Smee: S elf-contained Oil-filled Cables for High
Power Circuit s 1978, pp. 349357.
78. T. Takagi, H. Hayashi, Y. Dohmae, E. Kusakabe, H. Mor it a, H. Hat a, T. Higashino,
K. It aka, and T. Ar aki: Development of Gasspacer Cable. Part ICharact erist ics of
Current-carrying Capacity. 1978, pp. 17321739. Part IIThe Voltage Characteristics
and Const ruct ion. ibid, pp. 17401748.
79. T. Tanaka and A. Gr eenwood: Effect s of Charge Inject ion and Ext ract ion on Tree
Init iat ion in Polyet hylene. 1978, pp. 17491759.
80. K. Hir ose, M. Takada, K. Kikuchi, M. Tsumot o, and Y. Wat anabe: Development of
500-kV OF S ubmarine Cable, 1979, pp. 716723.
81. E.M. Allam, W.H. Cor t elyon, and F.A. Tet i: Low-loss 765 kV Pipe Type Power Cable
Part II. 1979, pp. 20832088.
Bibliography 491
82. R.H . Auerbach, S.M . Gilbert, N . Noda, S. Kitai, H. Kom ori, and T. M atsui:525 kV
S elf-contained Oil-filled Cable S ystems for Grand Coulee Third Power Plant: Design,
Tests, Manufacture and Installation. 1980, pp. 17221733.
83. K. Kojima, et al., Development and Use of 275 kV XLPE Cable. 1981, pp. 203209.
84. K. Hir ose, et al., Development and Installation Techniques for a 500 kV OF Cable on
a Long-span S uspension Bridge. 1981, pp. 17181728.
85. Y. Wat anabe, et al., Construction of First Gas-insulated Transmission Line in J apan ,
1981, pp. 43194329.
86. T. Sakur ai, et al., 275 kV OF Cable Insulated with PPLP. 1981, pp. 25752583.
87. P.C. Bolin, A.H. Cookson, P.R. Kommineni, and K.H. Yoon: Mechanical Design and
Test of 1200-kV S emi-flexible S f
6
Insulat ed Transmission Line. 1982, pp. 16301637.
88. E. Occhini, P. Met r a, G. Por t inar i, B. Vecellio: Thermal, Mechanical and Electrical
Propert ies of EPR Insulat ion in Power Cables. 1983, pp. 19421953.
89. G. Bahder , M. Sosnowski, R. Eat on, and K Klein: Electrical Breakdown Characteristics
and Testing of H.V. XLPE and EPR Insulated Cables. 1983, pp. 21732185.
90. N. Memit a , et a l., Devel opment and I nst al l at i on of 275 k V S F
6
Gas-i nsul at ed
Transmision Line. 1984, pp. 691698.
91. J .H. Dableh and R.D. Findlay: An Annot at ed S ummary of Analysis and Design
Techniques for Pipe-t ype Cable S yst ems. 1984, pp. 27862793.
92. M.M.A. Salama, A. Nossier , R. Hackam, A. Solmian, and T. El-Shiekh: Met hods of
Calculation of Field S tresses in a 3-core Power Cable. 1984, pp. 34343441. Also pp.
34423447.
93. S.J . Dale, et al., 1200-kV S emi-flexible S f
6
-insulat ed Transmission Line Having
Corrugated Aluminium Enclosure: Dielectric Design and Testing. 1983, pp. 400409.
94. B. Yoda, C. Ikeda, Y. Sekii, and M. Kanaoka: Development of 500 kV XLPE Insulated
Power Cable. 1985, pp. 3238.
95. T. Kobayashi, et al., Development of 275-kV Internally Water-cooled XLPE Cable.
1985, pp. 775784.
96. T. Nakabasami, T. Kar asaki, Y. Sekii, and S. Kit ai: Invest igat ion for Commercial Use
of 275 kV XLPE Cables and Development of Ext rusion Type Moulded J oint . 1985, pp.
19381944.
97. T. Takahashi, H. Oht suka, H. Takehana, and T. Niwa: S t udy on Improvement s t o
The Dielect ric Breakdown S t rengt h of Ext ruded Dielect ric Cables. 1985, pp. 1945
1950.
98. IEEE Power Syst ems Relaying Wor king Gr oup Repor t : E.H.V. Prot ect ion Problems,
1981, pp. 23992406.
99. IEEE Commit t ee Repor t : Review of Recent Practices and Trends in Prot ect ive Relaying.
1981, pp. 40544064.
100. IEEE Power Syst ems Relaying Commit t ee Repor t : Fault-induced Wave Dist ort ion of
Int erest t o Relay Engineers. 1985, pp. 35743584.
101. T. Ta ka gi, J . Ba ba , K. Uemur a , a nd T. Sa ka guchi: Faul t Prot ect i on Based on
Travelling-wave Theory. Part I Theory. Summer Power Meet ing. Mexico Cit y.
Paper No. A777503. Part IIS ensitivity Analysis and Laboratory Test. Confer ence
paper No. A782206, Wint er Power Meet ing, New Yor k, J an/Feb, 1978.
102. B.J . Mann and I.F. Mor r ison: Relaying a 3-phase Transmission Line with Digital
Comput er. 1971, pp. 742750.
103. M.T. Yee and J . Eszt er galyos: U.H.S . Relay for EHV/ UHV Lines-Installation S taged-
fault Test and Operational Experience. 1978, pp. 18141825.
104. M. Chamia and S. Liber man: U.H.S . Relay for EHV/ UHV Line: Development , Design
and Application. 1978, pp. 21042116.
105. R.O. Ber glund, et al.: One-cycle Fault Interruption at 500 kV-S ystem Benefits and
Breaker Design. 1974, pp. 12401253.
106. P.A. Cr ossley and P.G. McLar en: Dist ance Prot ect ion Based on Travelling Waves.
1983, pp. 29712983.
107. S. Rajendr a and P.G. McLar en: Travelling-wave Techniques Applied to the Protection
of Teed Circuit s. 1985, pp. 35443557.
108. F. Engler , et al.: Transient S ignals and Their Processing in an U.H.S . Directional
Relay for EHV/ UHV Transmission-line Prot ect ion. 1985, pp. 14631473.
109. M. Vit ins: A Correlat ion Met hod for Transmission Line Prot ect ion. 1978, pp. 1607
1617.
110. G.W. Swift : The S pect rum of Fault -induced Transient s. 1979, pp. 940947.
111. F.W. War bur t on, T.W. Liao, N.H. Hoglund: Power Line Radiat ion and Int erference.
1969, pp. 14921501.
112. M.O. Loft ness: Locat ion of Power Line TVI: S ome Reduct ion Considerat ions. 1970,
pp. 893901.
113. C.F. Clar k and M.O. Loft ness: S ome Observat ions of Foul-weat her E.H.V. Television
Int erference. 1970, pp. 11571168.
114. N. Giao Tr inh and J .B. J or dan: Modes of Corona Discharges in Air . 1968, pp. 1207
1215.
115. G.W. J uet t e: Evaluation of TVI from High Voltage Transmission Lines. 1972, pp.
865873.
116. P.D. Ber nar delli: RI and TVI Performance of Cap and Pin Insulator S trings and
Clean or Polluted S ingle Insulators. 1973, pp. 1424.
117. F.W. War bur t on: Power Line TVI Measurement Requirements and E.H.V. Foul-weather
Aspects. 1975, pp. 1096.
118. W. J anischewskyj, E.B. Har vey and M.G. Comber : Assessment of TV Pict ure Qualit y.
1983, pp. 10391049.
119. K. Ar ai, W. J anischewskyj and N. Miguchi: Micro-gap Discharge Phenomena and
TVI. 1985, pp. 221232.
Bibliography 493
I.E.E.E. Transactions on Power Delivery
1. S tatistical Analysis of Audible Noise and Corona Loss Data for a 10-conductor VHV
Bundle by T.Vin and J .V. King. 1987, pp. 217224.
2. Effect of High Alt it ude on H.V. A.C. Transmission-Line Corona Phenomena by V.L.
Char t ier , L.Y. Lee, L.D. Dickson and K.E. Mar t in. 1987, pp. 225237.
3. Development of 1200kV Compressed Gas-Insulated Transmission and S ubstation
Equipment in t he U.S . by S.P. Waldor f Sr . and P.A. Gnadt . 1987, pp. 374383.
4. Electric Field Exposure from Electric Blankets by H.V. Flor ig, J .E. Hobur g and M.G.
Mor gan. 1987, pp. 527536.
5. Development and Inst allat ion of BPA' s New Generat ion Transmission Conduct ors by
J .L. Reading. 1987, pp. 917923.
6. Measurement of Power Frequency Magnet ic Fields Away from Power Lines by IEEE
Magnet ic Field Task For ce of t he AC Fields Wor king Gr oup of t he Cor ona and Field
Effect s Subcommit t ee of t he T. & D. Commit t ee. 1990, pp. 901911.
7. Results from AC Transmission Line Audible Noise S tudies at the Anneberg EHV Test
S t at ion by J . Lindquist . 1990, pp. 317323.
8. New Developments in the Field of HV and EHV Cables by R.J oct eur . 1990, pp. 854
858.
9. Power Frequency Magnet ic Fields in t he Home by M.Siva, N. Hammon, D.Rut t er and
C. Hooper . 1989, pp. 465478.
10. A Model for S witching Impulse Leader Inception and Breakdown of Long Air-Gaps by
F.A.M. Rizk. 1989, pp. 596606 and pp. 21872195.
11. Long Term Audible Noise and Radio Noise Performance from an Operat ing 400kV
Transmission Line by C. Lar sson, B. Hallber g and S. Isr aelsson. 1988, pp. 18421846.
12. An Evaluation of Instrumentation Used To Measure AC Power S ystem Magnetic Fields
by IEEE Magnet ic Fields Task For ce of t he AC Fields Wor king Gr oup of t he Cor ona
and Field Effect s Subcommit t ee of t he Tr ansmission & Dist r ibut ion Commit t ee. 1991,
pp. 373383.
13. Comparison of S everal Methods for Calculating Power Line EM Interference Levels
and Calibration with Longterm Data by R.G. Olsen, S.D. Schennum and V.L. Char t ier .
1992, pp. 903913. (See t he excellent and ext ensive bibliogr aphy).
14. A Comparison of Int ernat ional Resident ial Grounding Pract ices and Associat ed
Magnetic Fields by G.R. Rauch, A. St amn, G. J ohnson and J . Swanson. 1992, pp. 934
939.
15. Characteristics of Low-Frequency Electric and Magnetic Fields in the Vicinity of Electric
Power Lines by R.G. Olsen and P.S. Wong. 1992, pp. 20462055.
16. Analysis of Magnet ic Fields Produced Far from Elect ric Power Lines by W.T. Kaune
and L.E. Zafanella. 1992, pp. 20822091.
17. Modelling of the Hydro-Quebec-New England HVDC S ystem and Digital Controls
with EMTP by G. Mor in, L.X.Bui, S.Casor ia and J .Reeve. 1993, pp. 559566.
18. Characterization of Power-Frequency Magnetic Fields in Different Environments by
P. Sar ma Mar uvada. 1993, pp. 598606.
19. Magnet ic Field Reduct ion Using High Phase-order Lines by J .R. St ewar t , S.J . Dale
and K.W. Klein. 1993, pp. 628636.
20. Computation of EM Fields Produced by Electric Power Lines and Residential Electrical
Wiring by F.P. Dawalibi. 1993, pp. 12851294.
21. The Performance of Reduced Magnetic Field Power Lines: Theory and Measurements on
an Operating Line by R.G. Olsen, D.C. J ames and V.L. Chart ier. 1993, pp. 14301442.
22. An IEEE S urvey of U.S . and Canadian Overhead Transmission Outages at 230 kV
and Above. (Upt o 765 kV). IEEE Wor king Gr oup. 1994, pp. 2139.
23. EHV Transformer Dielect ric S pecificat ion Improvement s by L.B. Wagenaar , J .M.
Schneider and J .A. Fleeman. 1994, pp. 265284.
24. Effect of Bundle Orient at ion on Transmission Line Audible Noise and Radio Noise by
V.L. Char t ier , D.E.Blair , R.D. St ear ns and D.J . Lamb. 1994, pp. 15381544.
25. Modelling of Corona Dynamics for S urge Propagat ion S t udies by Clia de J esus and
M.T. Cor r eia de Ber r os. 1994, pp. 15641569.
26. 5 Years of Magnetic Field Management by C. J . Dakin, R.P. Foger t y, T.M. Heller an,
D.A. Mar k and A.. Mukhopadhyay. 1995, pp. 219228.
27. Improved Overhead Line Conduct ors Using Aluminium Alloy 1120 by K. W. Bar ber
and K.J . Callaghan. 1995, pp. 403409.
28. Development and Validation of S oftware for Predicting ELF Magnetic Fields Near
Power Lines by R.G. Olsen, S.L. Backus and R.D. St ear ns. 1995, pp. 15351540 (Also
see t he Refer ences in t his Paper ).Magnet ic Fields Due t o S econdary Ut ilizat ion of
Transmission-line Corridors by P.S. Mar uvada, A. Tur geon and D.L. Goulet . 1995,
pp. 15411548.
29. S t udy of Populat ion Exposure t o Magnet ic Fields Due t o S econdary Ut ilizat ion of
Transmission-Line Corridors by P.S. Mar uvada, A. Tur geon and D.L. Goulet . 1995,
pp. 15411548.
30. Magnet ic Field-Induced Current s in t he Human Body in Proximit y of Power Lines by
Mar ia A. St uckly and S.Zhao. 1996, pp. 102109.
31. Reduction of Audible Noise Using Asymmetrical Bundles for 1000 kV Transmission
Lines: FullS cale Test Result s of Akagi Test Line by K. Tanabe, T. Takebe and M.
Isozaki. 1996, pp. 14821491.
32. Mitigation of Magnetic Field Near Power Lines by A.R. Memani, W. J anischewskyj.
1996, pp. 15771586.
33. Principles in Transmission Line Magnet ic Field Reduct ion by P. Pet t er sson. 1996, pp.
15871593.
34. Comparison Between XLPE and EPR as Insulating Materials for HV Cables by G.M.
Mazzant i and G.C. Mont anar i. 1997, pp. 1528.
35. Worldwide Underground Transmission Cable Pract ices by H.E. Or t on and R. Samn.
1997, pp. 533541.
36. Power Line RFI S ounds, Pat t erns and Myt hs by M.O. Loft ness, 1997, pp. 934940.
Bibliography 495
37. Power Line Int erference A Pract ical Handbook by M.O. Loft ness. (Nat ional Rur al
Elect r ic Power Associat ion, 1800 Massachuset t s Avenue, N.W., Washingt on, D.C.,
20036, 1992.)
38. Audible-Noise Performance of S ix-Rail Conductors on a 765-kV Double-Circuit Test
Line by D.I. Lee, J .B. Kim, K.Y. Shui, K.H. Yang, H.S. Ahan and J .Y. Koo. 1997, pp.
13431351.
39. High-Resolut ion Organ Dosimet ry for Human Exposure t o Low-Frequency Elect ric
Fields by T.W. Dawson, K. Caput a and M.A. St uckly. 1998, pp. 366373.
40. Electro-Thermal-Mechanical Computation in ZnO Arrester Elements by St even Boggs,
J inbo Kuang and Susumu Nishiwaki. 2000, pp.
41. An Invest igat ion t o Ident ify Possible S ources of EM Field Transient s Responsible for
Exposures Report ed in Recent Epidemiological S t udies by P. Sar ma Mar uvada, Paul
J ut r as, and Michael Plant e. 2000, pp. 266271. (Radio Communicat ion Devices ar e
Responsible for Affect ing Inst r ument s and not Power Syst em Har monics).
42. S witching Overvoltage Analysis and Air Clearance Design on the KEPCO 765-kV D/ C
Transmission S yst em. (Kor ean Elect r ic Power Resear ch Inst it ut e). By J .Boo Kim, E
Bo Shuin and J Woon Shim. 2000, pp. 381386. (Air Clear ance in a Tower is 4.95 m at
3.3 p.u.).
Other Technical and Scientific Journals
1 G.D. Fr iedlander : UHV-Onward and Upward. IEEE SPECTRUM, Feb. 1977, pp.
5665.
2. Progress Report on Development s in Elect rical Equipment , Energy, and Power
Transmission. IEEE SPECTRUM. J anuar y issues.
3. The S wedish 800-k V S yst em. CIGRE Pr oceedings, 1974, Paper No. 3111. Also 1978,
Paper No. 3103.
4. A S t udy of t he Design Paramet ers of Transmission Lines Above 1000 kV. Same. 1972,
Paper No. 3115.
5. Bonneville' s (B.P.A.' s) 1200-kV Transmission Line Project . Same. 1978, Paper No.
3109.
6. Design of E.H.V. 1150 kV AC Transmission Line of t he US S R . Same. 1976, Paper No.
3103.
7. Yu. N. Ast a khov, V.A. Venikov, a nd V.M. Post ola t yi: Ext ra High Capacit y AC
Transmission Line Designs. Elect r ical Technology, USSR, 1981, No. 3, pp. 8494.
8. V.V. Yer shevich and L.F. Kr ivushkin: First Results of Mastering 750-kV Transmissions.
Same. 1983, No. 2, pp. 17.
9. D.O. Ash, P. Dey, B. Gaylor d and R.R. Gibbon: Conduct or S yst ems for Overhead
Lines: S ome Considerat ions in Their S elect ion. Pr oceedings IEE, London, Vol. 126,
No. 4, pp. 333341.
10. J .F. Adam, J . Br adbur y, W.R. Char man, G. Or awski, and M.J . Vanner : S ome Aspect s
of Design and Const ruct ion of Overhead Lines. Same. Vol. 131, Par t C, No. 5, 1984,
pp. 149187.
11. J .R. Car son: Wave Propagat ion in Overhead Wires wit h Ground Ret urn. Bell Syst em
Technical J our nal (B.S.T.J .). Vol. 5, Oct ober 1926, pp. 539544.
12. S.Y. King: The Elect ric Field Near Bundled Conduct ors and Their Elect rost at ic
Propert ies. Pr oc. IEE (London), Par t C: Monogr aph 338S, J une 1959, pp. 200206.
Also, 1963, pp. 10441050.
13. H. Par ekh, M.S. Selim, and E. Nasser : Comput at ion of Elect ric Field and Pot ent ial
Around S t randed Conduct or. Same. 1975, pp. 547550.
14. G. Quilico: The Elect ric Field of Twin Conduct ors. CIGRE Pr oceedings, 1956, Paper
No. 214.
15. N.N. Tich odev: On t he Cal cul at i on of I ni t i al Vol t ages of Tot al Corona on DC
Transmission Lines. Elect r ichest vo, No. 10, 1957.
16. G. Veena: Voltage Gradient CalculationS election of Conductor S ize and Configuration
for E.H.V. Transmission Lines. Technical Repor t No. 91, Cent r al Power Resear ch
Inst it ut e (C.P.R.I.), Bangalor e, 560 012, India. 1979.
17. S. Ganga: S urface Volt age Gradient Dist ribut ion on Bundled Conduct ors. 52n d
Research Meeting. Cent r al Boar d of Ir r igat ion and Power (C.B.I.P.), Aur angabad,
1985. (Also, C.P.R.I. Tech. Rep. No. 118). (C.B.I.P., Malcha Mar g, Chanakyapur i,
New Delhi110021).
18. Sujat ha Subhash: Computation of Radio Noise Levels of Existing and Proposed E.H.V.
Lines in India. C.P.R.I. Tech. Rep. No. 101, 1980.
19. P.R. Emt age: The Physics of Zinc Oxide Varist ors. J our nal of Applied Physics, Vol.
48, No. 10, Oct . 1977, pp. 43724384.
20. L.M. Levinson and H.R. Philipp: The Physics of Met al-oxide Varist ors. Same, Mar ch
1975, pp. 13321341.
21. M. Mat suoka: Nonohmic Propert ies of Zinc Oxide Ceramics. J apanese J our nal of
Applied Physics, Vol. 10, No. 6, J une 1971, pp. 736746. (In English).
22. S. Subhash, K.S. Meer a, and M. Kanya Kumar i: S wit ching Over-volt age S t udy on
Transmission Lines with Complex Terminations by TNA models and digit al calculat ion.
C.B.I.P. Publicat ion No. 162, 1983, pp. 7381.
23. S. Subhash, K.S. M eera, and K.S. Jyothi: Digit al Comput at ion and Model TNA
Investigation of S witching S urges on 3phase Transmission S ystems. Same. pp. 6371.
24. N. Hylt enCavallius and P. Gjer lov: Distortion of Travelling Waves in High-voltage
Power Lines. ASEA Resear ch, No. 2, 1959, pp. 147180. Also see discussion by N.
Hylt en-Cavallius t o t he paper "Cor ona char act er ist ies of conduct or bundles under
impulse volt ages" by P. Sar ma Mar uvada, H. Menemnelis and R. Malewski. IEEE
Tr ans. PAS96, 1977, pp. 102115.
25. S wit ching of Transformers, React ors, and Long Transmission Lines. Field t est s in
Ger man 400-kV net wor ks. CIGRE Pr oceedings, 1980, Paper No. 1308.
26. Brit ish Invest igat ions on t he S wit ching of Long E.H.V. Transmission Lines. Same.
1970, Paper No. 1302.
Bibliography 497
27. B.J . Tr aeger , et al.: Cont rol of S wit ching-surge Overvolt ages: Met al Oxide S urge
Arresters Versus Circuit-breaker Resistors. Pr oceedings, Amer ican Power Confer ence.
1982, pp. 769775.
28. W.T. Kaune, et al: A method of Exposure of Miniature S wine to Vertical 60-Hz Fields.
IEEE Tr ans. on Biomedical Engineer ing, Vol. BME-25, No. 3, May 1978, pp. 276283.
29. R.L. Ret allack: The Chainet t e S t ruct ure Concept . Pr oceedings, Amer ica n Power
Confer ence, Chicago. 1982, pp. 660664.
30. J .E. Dulius and R.Y. Shuping: Desi gn of 500-k V Transmission Line Cross-rope
S uspension S t ruct ures. Same. pp. 665670.
31. S.H. Sar kinen, and D.A. Br adley: Impulse Tests on UHV Airgap Configurations. Same.
pp. 678682.
32. E.M. Bazelyan: On Estimation of the Voltages Withstandable by Long Air Clearances.
Elect r ic Technology, USSR, 1977, No. 3, pp. 2738.
33. N. Aleksandr ov and Yu. A. Ger asimow: Elect ric S t rengt h of S ubst at ion Air Insulat ion
During S witching S urges. Same. 1979, No. 1, pp. 118.
34. M. Gut man, N.N. Tikhodev, S. Young. and E.M. Schneider : S ame as Reference 58
Under IEEE. Same. No. 2, pp. 4558.
35. N. Aleksandr ov, E.K. Menemnelis, and V. Podpor kin: On the Mechanism of Breakdown
on Long Air S pacings in Power Transmission. Same. No. 3, pp. 114.
36. G. N. Ki t a ev, M. I . Gol ' ds t ei n , V. N. Mor ozov, a n d A. V. Zu br i l i n : Di s ch ar ge
Characteristics of Large Asymmetrical Air Gap. Same. 1980, No. 1, pp. 96104.
37. A.Z. Ponizovski: Breakdown of Air Gaps Under Alternating Inputs. Same. 1982, No.
3, pp. 1622.
38. G.N. Aleksandr ov and G.V. Podpor kin: Increase of Elect ric S t rengt h of Conduct or-
Earth Air Gaps . Same. 1982, No. 4, pp. 4957.
39. B.F. Hampt on, D.N. Br owning, and R.M. Mayes: Outline of a Flexible S F
6
Insulat ed
E.H.V. Cable. Pr oceedings IEE (London), Vol. 123, No. 2, Feb. 1976, pp. 159164.
40. F.J . Mir anda, and P. Gazzana Pr ior oggia: S elf-contained oil-filled CablesA review of
Progress. Same. No. 3, Mar . 1976, pp. 229238.
41. Waloddi Weibull: A S tatistical Distribution Function of Wide Applicability. J our na l of
Applied Mechanics. (Tr ans. A.S.M.E.). Sept . 1951, pp. 293297.
42. C.A. Ar kell, R.B. Hust on, and J .A. Nicholson: Development of Internally Oil-cooled
Cable S yst ems. Pr oc. IEE, Vol. 124, No. 3, Mar . 1977, pp. 315325.
43. W. Br ot her t on, H.N. Cox, R.F. Fr ost , and J . Selves: Field Trials of 400-kV Internally
Oil-cooled Cables. Same. pp. 326333.
44. C.V. Albr echt , G. Mainka, H. Br akelmann, and W. Rasquin: High Power Transmission
with Conductor-cooled Cables. Pr oceedings CIGRE 1978, Paper No. 2110.
45. A. Semlyn : Nat u ral Frequ en ci es of T ran smi ssi on Li n es . Ca n a dia n Elect r ica l
Engineer ing J our nal, Vol. 7, No. 4, 1982, pp. 2328.
46. D.T. Poznaniak, E.R. Taylor , J r ., and R.T. Byer ly: S t at ic React ive Compensat ion for
Power Transmission S yst ems. Pr oceedings Amer ican Power Confer ence, 1982, pp.
671677.
47. A. Amr ut hakala: EHV and UHV Transmission Line Design Using Computer Graphics.
C.B.I.P. Publicat ion No. 162, 1983, pp. 95100.
48. G. Ler oy, J .G. Bouillar d, G. Gallet et M. Simon: Essais dielect riques et t res haut es
t ensions. Le Labor at oir es a Tr es Haut e Tension des Renar dier es. Revue Gener ale de
L'Elect r icit e, Tome 81, No. 10, Oct obr e 1971, pp. 768777.
49. G. Ler oy, J . Fr oidefond, G. Gallet , G. Gr uber , M. Simon et B. Vdovenko: Le Labor at oir e
a Tr es Haut e Tension du cent r e des Renar dier es D'Elect r icit e de Fr ance. Same.
1972, Tome 81, No. 10, Oct obr e, pp. 665675.
50. IEE (London) Confer ence on Design Cr it er ia and Equipment for Tr ansmission at 400
kV and Higher Volt ages. Par t I: 1960. Par t II: 1962. (Paper s and discussions).
51. A.T. J ohns: New Ultra-high-speed Directional Comparison Technique for the Protection
of E.H.V. Transmission Lines. IEE Pr oceedings, Vol. 127, Pt . C, No. 4, J uly, 1980, pp.
228239. Discussion: Vol. 128, Pt . C, 1981, pp. 169172.
52. J .P. Bickfor d, et al., Development s in t he Calculat ion of Waveforms and Frequency
S pectra for Transient Fault Currents and Voltages, Same. Pt . C, 1980, pp. 145152.
53. J .P. Bickfor d and M.H. Abdel-Rahman: Application of Travelling Wave Methods to the
Calculat ion of Transient Fault Current s and Volt ages in Power-syst em Net works.
Same. pp. 153168.
Chapter 2
1. 66, 132, 220 400 kV.
3. V 400 kV 750 kV
L, km 200 400 600 800 200 400 600 800
P, MW 1222 611 407 306 5170 2585 1723 1292.5
I, Amp 1767 884 589 442 3984 1992 1328 996
4. 1150 kV280 km: P = 0.5 1200
2
/280 0.231
= 11, 131 MW/cir cuit
800 km: P = 3896 MW/cir cuit wit hout ser ies capacit or
= 7792 MW/cir cuit wit h 50% compensat ion
750 kV280 km: P = 0.5 750
2
/280 .327 = 3071 MW/cct .
3 cir cuit s ar e r equir ed.
Power loss = 50 r/X = 2.5%
Tot al loss = 250 MW
5. Power , MW 2500 3000 4000 5000 12000
Lengt h, km 250 300 400 300 250 450 1000
Alt er nat ives 1 of
600 kV, 2 of
400 kV 2 of
400 kV 2 of
500 kV
3 of
400 kV, 2 of
600 kV 5 of
600 kV.
Chapter 3
1. R = 0.0617 ohm
2. (a) R = 0.0153 ohm
(b) 3.75 per cent incr ease
3. Equat ion : 273 + t = 10
2
(771.46 12.69t )
0.25
; t = 52C
4. (a)
[P] =
98 . 4
85 . 0 , 98 . 4
38 . 0 , 85 . 0 , 98 . 4
An s wers t o Probl em s
(b) [L]
ut
= 0.2[P] mH/km, L
s
= 0.996 mH/km,
L
m
= 0.139 mH/km.
[C]
ut
=
nF/km 1.332
nF/km 10.783
nF/km
7 . 10
738 . 1 , 95 . 10
52 . 0 , 738 . 1 , 7 . 10
=
=

m
s
C
C
(c) L
0
= 1.274 mH/km, L
1
= L
2
= 0.857 mH/km
C
0
= 8.12 nF/km, C
1
= C
2
= 12.115 nF/km
(d) [R
g
] = 0.75 [D] ohm/km, [L
g
] 0.4 [D] mH/km
5. (a)
[P] =
Bot t om
Bot t om
Top
339 . 4 , 59 . 0 , 94 . 0
59 . 0 , 339 . 4 , 94 . 0
94 . 0 , 94 . 0 , 03 . 5
(b) [L]
ut
= 0.2[P] mH/km
[C]
ut
=
nF/km
49 . 13 , 33 . 1 , 27 . 2
33 . 1 , 49 . 13 , 27 . 2
27 . 2 , 27 . 2 , 9 . 11

L
s
= 0.914 mH/km, L
m
= 0.165 mH/km
C
s
= 12.96 nF/km, C
m
= 1.96 nF/km
(c) L
0
= 1.244 mH/km, L
1
= L
2
= 0.7492 mH/km
C
0
= 9.046 nF/km, C
1
= C
2
= 14.917 nF/km
(d) [R
g
] 1[D] ohm/km.
[L
g
]
mH/km
28 . 0 , 1 . 0 , 1 . 0
1 . 0 , 28 . 0 , 1 . 0
1 . 0 , 1 . 0 , 14 . 0
6. See equat ion (3.85)

8. (a) 12.157, 10.6, 8.043
(b)
[T]
1
=
1
] [ ] .[
5383 . 0 , 6563 . 0 , 5286 . 0
7055 . 0 , 0251 . 0 , 7083 . 0
4358 . 0 , 7587 . 0 , 4842 . 0
t
T T
9. 750 kV: I
e
= 659 A/ph; 1150 kV: I
e
= 1244 A/ph.
12. (a)
[T]
1
=
3
1
1 , 0 , 1
0 , 1 , 1
1 , 1 , 1
Answers to Problems 501

(b) [T]
n
=
6
1
2 , 1 , 1
1 , 2 , 1
2 , 2 , 2
1
] [

n
T =
6 3
1
3 , 0 , 3
3 , 3 , 3
2 , 2 , 2
(f) No.
Chapter 4
1. (a) Q
1
= 5.55 10
9
coul
'
1
Q = 0.125 Q
1
,
' '
Q
1
= 0.031Q
1
,
' "
Q
1
= 0.0045 Q
1,
S
1
= 0
'
S
1
= 0.1875,
"
S
1
= 0.1909,
' "
S
1
= 0.191, et c.
Q
2
= 0.333 Q
1
,
'
Q
2
= 0.0476 Q
1
,
"
Q
2
= 0.0118 Q
1
,
" '
Q
2
= .00172 Q
1
,
S
2
= 0.1667 m,
'
S
2
= 0.1905,
"
S
2
=0.191,
" '
S
2
=0.191
(b) 311 V/m.
(c) 964.3 kV.
2. E
out
= 16.17 kV/cm, r .m.s., E
cen
= 17.075 kV/cm. r .m.s.
3. E
or
= 18.593 kV.
Margins. out er = 13 per cent ; cent r e = 8.16 per cent .
4. 0,25 1000,15 2000,5 3000,0
= 0.9832 0.917 0.8459 0.7554
E
os
= 25.88 24.3 22.6 20.43 kV/cm, r .m.s.
5.
ref
E
E
=
C, 25 and m 1000 at 8862 . 0 ,
. 0301 . 0
. 0301 . 0
=
+
+
ref
ref
ref r
r
(a) =
r
r
E
E
ref
a
9414 . 0 0301 . 0
9753 . 0 0301 . 0
036 . 1 . 9513 . 0
+
+
=
(b) =
r
r
E
E
ref
b
9414 . 0 0301 . 0
9036 . 0 0301 . 0
96 . 0 . 8165 . 0
+
+
=
(r in met r e).
6. (a) Gr adient fact or = E
r
/V = 12.78 volt /met r e per volt .
(b) C = 0.426 nF; (c) Z
0
= 234.7 ohms.
7. (a) g
f
= 13.75 volt /met r e per volt .
(b) C = 0.834 nF; (c) Z
0
= 120 ohms.
Chapter 5
4. (a) 105.12 10
6
kW-h, (b) 11.68 10
6
kW-h, (c) 11.1 per cent .
6. 51.45 dB (A).
7. 56.2 dB (A).
Chapter 6
2. Rat io = 20/1
3. f, MHz 0.5 0.75 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
S t at ion,
dB 50 60 75 70 65 52 80 75 60
f
1.5
, dB +9 +3.75 +1.37 0 1.23 2.38 3.4 4.37 5.28
Allowed
Noise 57 51.75 49.4 48 46.8 45.6 44.6 43.6 42.7
S / N rat io 7 8.25 25.6 22 18.2 6.4 35.4 31.4 17.3
St at ions at 0.5, 0.75, 1.1, 1.2, 1.5 MHz have S /N r at io below 22 dB.
4. d/ H =0 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
F
1a
2.22 2.21 2.2 2.13 2.04 1.89 1.7 1.14 .72 .48 .33
F
2a
0 .12 .24 .45 .62 .72 .72 .51 .3 .18 .11
F
3a
.78 .76 .68 .45 .18 .06 .2 .21 .12 .06 .03
5. F
1d
1.8 1.79 1.76 1.65 1.47 1.26 1.05 .65 .42 .285 .2
F
2d
0 .11 .2 .34 .4 .38 .33 .19 .11 .065 .04
6. RI
1
= 50.66 dB, RI
2
= 48.9 dB, RI
2
= 40.2 dB
RI = 51.28 dB at 0.5 MHz = 45.28 at 1 MHz.
Wit h
6 dB disper sion, RI = 51.28 t o 39.28 at 1 MHz.

This is just sufficient if limit is set at 40 dB at 1 MHz.
7. (a) L
f
= 4.532 mH, R
f
= 14.84 kilohms
(b) 46.5 dB at 1.5 MHz; 36.5 dB at 0.8 MHz.
Chapter 7
3. 47.86 kV
4. 8.565, 14.96, 1.87 kV/m at 26, 39, 52 m r espect ively.
5. (a) 28.4, 9.85, 7.32 kV; (b) 12.77, 13.72, 14.25 kV;
(c) 21.5, 15.2, 14.74 kV.
Answers to Problems 503
7. Neglect ground Consider ground ret urn
Tot al r esist ance 0.03 0.3 ohm/km
induct ance 0.9 1.5 mH/km
capacit ance 12.33 12.33 nF/km
Velocit y 3 10
5
2.325 10
5
km/sec
= 77.5% light velocit y
Tr avel t ime, T 1.667 2.15 ms
Sur ge impedance Z
0
270 349 ohms
At t enuat ion
0
2 /
0
Z r
e A = 0.9973 0.61
Maximum volt age, 2A
0
1.9946 1.22 per unit
Chapter 8
1. 1800 kV, 585 kV
2. 994.5 kV
3. (a) light velocit y; (b) 300 ohms; (c) 0.2667 N, 2.317 dB; (d) 1.532 p.u.
4. K
t
= 1.25, K
r
= + 0.25
7. Z
0
= 66.3 ohms, V
c
= 800 kV, BIL
Chapter 9
1. 140 t o 188 for 400 km per year .
3. 280 kiloamps cr est .
6. (a) I
w
= 9.09 kA, cr est . (b) I
a
= 12.73 kA. (c) R
a
= 117.9 ohms.
Chapter 10
1. I
sc
= 7.7 kA, r .m.s. = 2.5 p.u.
5. (a) = 15. (b) w
0
= 1000. f
0
= 159 Hz. T = 6.28 ms. (c) 2.82 p.u. (d) 0.91.
6. (a) 1005. (c) 1. p.u.
7. (a) v = 2.325 10
5
km/sec = 77.5% light velocit y.
T = 2.15 ms.
(b) Z
0
= 348.7 ohms. 8065 . 0
215 . 0
0
= =

e A
Chapter 11
1. (1) 6.16 m. (2) 6.1 m. (3) 5.96 m.
5. . kV 2585 kV. 2439
3 . 33 50
= = V V
Chapter 12
2. (a) A = D = 0.81 1.13,
B = 159 86.6, C = 2.1665 10
3
89.1.
(b) I
C
= CV
R
= 938 Amps/phase
Q
0
= 987 MVAR, 3-phase
(c) x
c
= 182 MW, y
c
= 2314 MVAR,
(d) SIL = 2076.4 MW
3. E
r
= 838 kV
4. 838 kV
6. 38.7 Hz (0.775 f )
Chapter 13
2. E/V
P
= 1.68, = 3.466 10
6
, = 21.9 10
6
Volt age developed acr oss 1 ohm by posit ive cor ona pulse.
3. R
f
= 77 ohms, R
t
= 555 ohms.
6. (a) 30 kJ , (b) 30 kJ . (c) 30 kJ .
7. (a) R = 9 ohms, L = 62.5 H.
(b) 350 kV.
9. C
1
= 0.49 . F volt age r at ing 2.5 kV
Chapter 15
2. (a) 20 cm; (b) 2.8 kV/mm; (c) 2.55 kV/mm; (d) 0.05 nF/m; (e) 4.327 MVAR/3-
phasekm;
(f) 1.6.
3. (a) C
1
= 0.3 nF/m = 3 nF/10 m; (b) t an = 0.00188 = 0.188%;
(c) 531 Megohms/10 m = 5310 Megohms/m; (d) 216.8 volt s.
4. C
c
= 0.45 , F C
g
= 0.3 ; F or , C
c
= 0.25 , F C
g
= 0.4 . F
5. (a) n = 10.32; (c) 45.75 kV/mm.
7. (a) n = 9; (b) 714 kV, ln, r .m.s., 1590 kV, peak.
8. At J
cl
: Fr om line t o cable : K
r
= 0.868, K
t
= 0.132;
Fr om cable t o line: K
r
= +0.868, K
t
= 1.868;
At J
ct
Fr om cable t o t r ansfor mer : K
r
= 0.9654, K
t
= 1.9654;
Fr om t r ansfor mer t o cable: K
r
= 0.9654, K
t
= 0.0346.
Volt -Time values (t ime
, s
amplit ude p.u.)
V
cl
: (0,0.132), (5, 0.37), (10, 0.57), (15, 0.737), (20, 0.86), (25, 0.947), (30, 1.01), (35,
1.034).
V
ct
: (2.5, 0.26), (7.5, 0.477), (12.5, 0.679), (17.5, 0.821), (22.5, 0.926), (27.5, 0.999),
(32.5, 1.042), (37.5, 1.054).
A
ACAR, 22
ACSR, 22
A.E.P. (Apple Gr ove), 136
ANSI , 313
A-Weight ing Net wor k, 126
Acoust ic Power Level (See SPL), 127
Aeolian Vibr at ion, 18
Air -blast br eaker , 261, 262, 265
Air -densit y fact or , 301
Air -gap clear ance, 6
Alexander Gr aham Bell, 127
Alexandr ov, 304, 306, 307
Alexandr ov's model, 298, 304
Alt er nat ive sour ces of power , 2
Amet a ni, 285
Amr ut hakala, 378
AN levels, examples fr om EHV lines, 136
AN Measur ement and Met er s, 127
Ar c r esist ance, 262
Ar c volt age, 262
Ar r est er r at ing, 247
Ar t ificial r ain equipment , 92
At t enuat ion, 270
At t enuat ion const ant , 320
At t enuat ion fact or for RI, 156, 159
At t enuat ion of t r avelling waves, 61, 119, 269
Audible noise, AN, 76, 92, 113, 126
Audible noise for mulas, 131
AN model in r ain (Kir kham and Gajda), 133
Avalanche Theor y (Townsend and Raet her ), 299
Aver age line height , 74
In d ex
B
Back flashover , 237
Bar t hold and Car t er , 285
Becht el Cor por at ion, 309
Ber ger , K., 308
Ber ger on, 232, 285
Bessel funct ions, 25
Bewley, L.V., 213
Bewley Lat t ice Diagr am, 213
Biomass ener gy, 2
Bonneville Power Administ r a t ion (B.P.A.), 126,
131, 136
Bow-t ie t r ees, 450
Br ahmaput r a River , 13, 14
Br eakdown char act er ist ics, 296
at at mospher ic pr essur e, 301
Br eakdown exponent , 453-456
Br eakdown models, 302
Br eakdown phenomena, 306
Br eakdown pr obabilit y funct ion, 453-456
Br eak-even dist ance, 17
Br east cancer , 200
Br oad-band noise, 129
Br uce, C.E.R., 238
Bulb t ur bines, 4
Bundled conduct or s, 28
equivalent r adius, 29, 40
geomet r ic mean r adius, 29
inside cylinder , 95
pr oper t ies, 28
r adius, 28
spacing, 28, 40
vibr at ion, 17, 18
Bus duct s (see GIL), 478
506 Index
C
Cable t r ansmission, 429
Cage, 92
Cage for cor ona st udies, 92
Canadian exper ience, 14
Cancer , 200
Capacit ance calculat ion, 38
mat r ix, 39
mult i-conduct or s, 41
t wo conduct or s, 38
Capacit ance incr ease (due t o cor ona), 61
Capacit ance of lines, 75
Capacit ance of long object s, 173
Capacit ances of t ypical loads on impulse
gener at or s, 383
Capacit ive volt age divider , 396
Car r ier equipment , 47
Car son, J .R., 51, 52
Cascade-connect ed t r ansfor mer s, 390
elect r odes, enclosur es, 391
power fact or , 391
pr inciples of const r uct ion, 390
r eact ive compensat ion, 391
shor t -cir cuit r eact ance, 390
t ank and insulat ing cylinder s, 392
Cascade connect ion of syst em component s, 330
Cavit y r esonance in EHV labor at or ies, 406
Ceiling volt age (for a.c. t r ansmission), 307
CFO (V
50
), 305-308
Chain r ule, 331
Chainet t e t ype of line const r uct ion, 296
Char act er ist ic impedance, 94, 96
Char ging cur r ent , 330
Char ging MVAR, 333
Char ge of conduct or s, 174
Char ge mat r ix, 72
Cha r ge-pot ent ia l r ela t ion (for mult i-conduct or
line), 72
Char ge-volt age r elat ionship, 118, 121
Chur chill Falls (Canada), 309
CIGRE, 5, 115
CIGRE For mula for RI, 151
addit ion of RI (r ules), 152
D/C line, 153
S/C line, 152
Cir cle of inver sion, 99
Cir cuit br eaker , 6
closing span of cont act s, 289
Clar ke Tr ansfor mat ion, 47
Coal, 2
Coal gasificat ion and liquefact ion, 3
Co-axial cylindr ical elect r ode, 61
Cockr oft -Walt on gener at or , 393
(see also Gr einacher Chain),
Component s of magnet ic field, 196
hor izont al, 196, 197, 199
t ot a l, 196
ver t ical, 196, 197, 199
Compensat ion, 10
Complement fr equency (SSR pr oblem), 342
Comsa a nd Ren, 173
Concent r ic cylindr ical cage, 93
Conduct or -conduct or gap, 61
Conduct or -gr ound clear ance, 316
Conduct or oscillat ion and vibr at ion, 17, 61
Conduct or -t ower clear ance, 315
Convect ion loss, 27
Cor ona envelope (long air gap), 298
Cor ona incept ion (non-unifor m field), 301
Cor ona-incept ion gr adient , 97
for bundles (numer ical values), 93, 94
in cages, 94
Cor ona-incept ion volt age, 94, 114
Cor ona power loss, 113
cur r ent , 114, 116
for mulas, 114
Cor ona pulses, 138
Cor ona pulse t r ain, 142
filt er r esponse, 142
Cor ona sheat h, 238
Cosine Law (dist r ibut ion of volt age gr adient ), 79
Cost of lines and equipment , 15
Count er measur es for SSR, 340
Coupling fact or s, 241
incr ease due t o cor ona, 118
Cr aggs and Meek, 303
CRIEP I (J a pa n), 115
Cr it ical gr adient for air , 67
Cr it ical leader lengt h, 304
Cr it ically-damped cir cuit , 271
Index 507
Cur r ent -car r ying capacit y, 26
Cur r ent chopping, 6, 259, 264
Cur r ent -limit ing ar r est er s, 246
Cur r ent zer o, 261
Cylindr ical cages for cor ona st udies, 92
D
D'Alember t , 232
D.C. Tr ansmission, 1
Damper s, 19
Day, S., 285
Day-night equivalent of AN, 135
D/c 3-phase line, 195
Design of cable insulat ion, 461-470
Design of EHV lines (see also EHV line design), 7,
409
Det er ior at ion, 461, 463
Diagonalizat ion of mat r ix, 158, 159
Diagonalizat ion pr ocedur e, 44
Digit al Comput er , 43, 48
Digit al r ecor ding device, 7, 402
(EHV labor at or y and shielding), 403
Dischar ge cur r ent , (of light ning ar r est er ), 252
Dist or t ion of waves, 123
Dist r ibut ed-par amet er line, 273
effect of gr ound r et ur n, 274
gener alized equat ions for 1-phase syst em, 276
gener alized equat ions for 3-phase syst em, 280
line par amet er s in modal for m, 282
par t icular cases, 276-278
r esolut ion int o modes of pr opagat ion, 281
sine-wave r esponse, 275
st ep r esponse, 273
volt ages and cur r ent s in modal for m, 281
Dist r ibut ion of volt age gr adient , 92
gener al expr ession, 91
Doeppel, 285
Dommel, H., 282, 285
Double-exponent ial wave, 361, 363
for cur r ent , 363
for volt age, 361
pr oper t ies, 363
Dr opping of lines, 259, 265
Dr opping of t r ansfor mer s, 259, 264
Dynamic volt age r ise, 250
Dwight , H.B., 25, 244
E
Ear t h fault fact or , 246, 247
Ear t hing coefficient , 246, 247
Eccent r icit y of conduct or in cage, 95, 96, 99
gener al pr ogr amme st eps, 102-105
Edge effect in cages, 92
Edison, 1
Effect of high e.s. field on, 183
a nima ls, 184
human beings, 184, 200
plant life, 184
vehicles, 184
Effect ive capacit ance of line, 119
Effect ive dia met er (r a dius) of conduct or under
cor ona, 118, 119
Effect ive shunt conduct ance (for cor ona loss), 223
EHV AC Tr ansmission, 1
pr oblems, 4
r ole, 1
EHV cable t r ansmission, 429
EHV ca bles, 429
ampacit y, 435
capacit ance, 439, 470-473
char ging cur r ent , 439
char ging MVAR, 439
classificat ion, 429
composit e insulat ion, 429, 451
const r uct ion, 429 - 433
cr oss sect ions (69 kV-1100 kV), 429-433
d.c., 447
dielect r ic loss, 444
elect r ic st r ess, 436-439
elect r ical char act er ist ics, 435
HPOF, 429, 432, 445
insulat ion r esist ance, 439
insulat ion t hickness, 460
least value of maximum elect r ic st r ess, 438
life expect ancy, 462
loss fact or t an , 439
par t ial dischar ges, 450
power fact or , 441
power r at ing and envir onment , 33 - 435
r elat ive per mit t ivit ies, 429
sur ge impedance, 440
508 Index
sur ge per for mance, 473
velocit y of pr opagat ion, 440
XLPE, 429, 447-451
EHV Labor at or ies, 359
cavit y r esonance, 406
clear ances, 405
e.m. shielding, 406
gener al layout , 405
gr ounding gr ids, 406
EHV Line Design, 409
conduct or sur face volt age gr adient , 411
cor onaincept ion gr adient , 412
cor ona loss, 412
cur r ent densit y, 410
e.s. field, 413
insulat ion for power fr equency, 427
EHV line-insulat ion design, 423
conduct or -gr ound, 425
conduct or -t ower , 425
light ning, 427
phase-phase, 425
r od-plane gap, 423
r od-r od gap, 425
swit ching sur ges, 425
EHV Test ing, 401
EHV-UHV Pr oject (EPRI), 315
Eigenvalue mat r ix, 49
Eigenvalues, 48, 50
Eigenvect or (also nor malized), 45
int er pr et at ion of mat r ix, 46
Elect r ic shock, 172
Elect r ocut ion equat ion, 172
Elect ode t ypes, 295, 296
E.M. int er fer ence, 190
in low-volt age cir cuit s, 189
Elect r ost at ic field, 5, 61, 175
D/C 3-phase line, 181, 186
effect on human beings, et c., 184
S/C 3-phase line, 175
6-phase line, 182
Elect r ost at ic induct ion, unener gized cir cuit of D/C
line, 186
Elect r ost at ics, 61
Ener gizing long line, 259
Energy, 1
Ener gy of impulse volt age gener at or s, 381-385
Ent r ance of line, 319
cur r ent , 319
volt age, 319
EPR insulat ion, 429
Equipment pr ot ect ion by ar r est er s, 254
Equipot ent ial lines, 72
Equivalent cir cuit of line model, 43, 59
Excit at ion t ypes, 295
Expanded ACSR conduct or , 28
Exper iment al line, 71
Excit at ion funct ion of RI, 156-166
bipolar d.c. line, 159 - 161
fr om CIGRE for mula, 161
r-f char ge dist r ibut ion, 158, 159
t hr ee-phase line, 158
Euler 's number , 51
F
Far aday, 1
Fat igue life of shaft , 341
Fer r ant i effect , 320
Fer r o-r esonance, 5, 6
Feser , K., 297
FI det ect or (RN met er ), 144
Fibr e opt ics, 7, 347, 403
Field fact or for RI, 149-151
Field int ensit y, 191
Filt er for RIV measur ement for cage st udies, 166
Filt er r esponse in RI met er , 142-146
Fir ing angle of t hyr ist or s (gener at ion of har monics),
348
Fir st pole t o clear (r ecover y volt age), 263, 266
Flut t er inst abilit y (see wake-induced oscillat ion),
19
For t escue, C.L., 43, 44
Four -legged r eact or , 288
Four ier Tr ansfor m, 224-226
Foust and Menger For mula, 115
Fr equency spect r um, 140
cor ona pulse, 138 - 140
RI field of line, 147
Fuel-cell ener gy, 3
Index 509
G
Galloping, 18
Ganga, S., 74, 83
Gap fact or (Par is's t heor y), 314, 315
Gapless met al-oxide ar r est er , 253
Gas pr essur e, 300, 479
Gaussian dist r ibut ion, 310
Gauss's Law, 38, 62, 68
Gener alized const ant s (wit h), 318, 331
int er mediat e st at ion, 332
ser ies capacit or , 334
ser ies capacit or and shunt r eact or s, 330, 335
shunt r eact or s, 332
Gener at ing funct ion (see Excit at ion funct ion), 156
Gener at ion of high t est volt ages,
A.C., 389
D.C., 393
Gener at ion of impulse cur r ent s, 385
Gener at ion of impulse volt age, 368
(see waveshaping cir cuit s), 368
Gener at or br eaker , 262
Geo-t her mal power , 2
GIL, t ypical dimensions, 479
Golde, B.H., 238
Gr adient fact or s, 87, 95
Gr einacher chain (Cockr oft -Walt on gener at or ), 7,
393
Gr iscom, H.B., 238
Gr ound Level field, 199
Gr ound plane, 35
Gr ound r et ur n, 50
Gr ound-r et ur n cur r ent s, 50, 262
Gr ound wir es, 189
induced volt age, 189
insulat ed, 189
Guidelines for limit ing fields, 201
H
Har monics (inject ed by TCR), 346-355
inject ed int o EHV lines, 349
maximum amplit udes, 350
suppr ession, 351
Healt h hazar ds, 201
Heat balance equat ion, 26
Hedman, D.H., 283
High A.C. volt ages (gener at ion), 389
High D.C. volt age (see Gr einacher chain), 393
High phase or der t r ansmission, 6, 355
gr ound-level gr adient , 358
insulat ion clear ances, 356
maximum sur face volt age gr adient , 358
power -handling capacit y, 357
volt age bet ween conduct or s, 356
High-volt age D.C., 15
High-volt age r eact or s (cur r ent chopping), 264
Hileman, A., 238
Himalayan Mount ain valleys, 14
Homopolar mode, 46
HPOF cable, 429, 445
Humidit y cor r ect ion, 314
Hydr o-elect r ic power , 2
Hydr ogen power , 2
Hydr o-Quebec (Canada), 14, 137
I
Icing of conduct or s, 19
Impulse gener at or s, 368-389
analysis of cur r ent gener at or , 386
cur r ent gener at or , 385
ener gy, 381
limit at ions on component values, 370
volt age gener at or s, pr act ical cir cuit s, 378
wave shaping cir cuit s, 368
wit h induct ance (lead, divider , et c.), 373, 375
Impulse st r engt h (of cable insulat ion), 447, 451
Impulsive noise, 147
Indian r equir ement s of EHV lines, 14
Induct ance, 30
ext er nal flux, 33
int er nal flux, 32
mult i-conduct or line, 35
non-unifor m cur r ent dist r ibut ion (skin effect ),
24, 32
t wo conduct or line, 33
t wo-conduct or s, 31
I n du ct i on gen er a t or effect (s u bs yn ch r on ou s
r esonance), 340, 342
Induct ive r eact ance compensat ion of line, 330
510 Index
Inject ion of har monics, 349
Insulat ed gr ound wir es, 189
induced volt age, 189
Insulat ion coor dinat ion (light ning), 254
Insulat or flashover , 242
Insulat or st r ing, 315
double-V, 315
single-I, 315
Int er fer ence (AN, RI, Car r ier , TV), 138
Int er mediat e swit ching st at ion (shunt r eact or s),
332
Int er phase mode of RI, 47
Int er pr et at ion of eigenvect or mat r ix, 46
Int er r upt ion of low cur r ent , 259-266
capacit ive, 265
induct ive, 264
Inver se Four ier Tr ansfor m, 285
IREQ, 15
Isoker aunik level, 236
J
J ames Bay ar ea (Canada), 14
J ones (air -gap flashover ), 304
J yot hi, K.S., 282
K
Kalb, J .W., J r ., 305
Kanya Kumar i, M., 282
Kar r enbauer mat r ix, 60
Ker aunik level, 236
Komelkov, 238
Kr euger Volt -Time char act er ist ic, 462
L
Labor at or ies, EHV, 7
La Gr ande River (Canada), 14
L-C filt er , 351-355
Laplace Tr ansfor m, 209, 267
Lat er al pr ofile of RI, 147
bipolar d.c. line, 149
single conduct or a.c., 148
t hr ee-phase a.c. line (modes of pr opagat ion),
149
Leader , 238, 298
channel, 238, 298
char ge, 238
column, 238
cor ona, 238, 298
pr opagat ion, 238
t ip, 238
t ip pot ent ia l, 238
velocit y of pr opagat ion, 238
Lemke's model, 298
Ler oy and Gallet , 297, 317
Les Renar dir es, 115, 315
Let -go cur r ent , 172
Life-expect ancy fact or (cable), 462, 466
Light ly-damped cir cuit , 268
Light ning, 6, 236
Light ning ar r est er s, 246
cur r ent -limit ing t ype, 246
dischar ge cur r ent , 248
ear t h-fault fact or , 250
ear t hing coefficient , 250
gap t ype, 6, 252
gapless t ype, 6, 253
impulse spar kover of gap, 246
non-cur r ent -limit ing t ype, 246, 252
oper at ing char act er ist ics, 246, 248
pr ot ect ive r at io, 246
r at ed volt age, 250, 252
r esidual volt age, 248
Silicon Car bide (SiC), 252
spar kover char act er ist ics, 252
st andar ds, 249
t est s, 252
volt age wit hst and of gap, 254
Zinc Oxide (ZnO), 6, 253
Light ning cur r ent in ar r est er s, 255
Light ning impulse, 361
Light ning pr ot ect ion, 240
Light ning st r oke mechanism, 237
Limit ing value of minimum swit ching sur ge, 289
Limit s for
audible noise, 126
elect r ost at ic field, 183, 200
RI noise fields, 144
Line char ge and field, 68
Index 511
Line ener gizing and r e-ener gizing, 260, 291
Line-t o-gr ound mode, 46
Line-t o-line mode, 46
fir st kind, 46
second kind, 47
Line height , 35, 74
Line insulat ion, 315
line-gr ound clear ance, 316
line-line clear ance, 316
line-t ower clear ance, 316
st at ist ical met hod, 6, 308
Line lengt h (effect on swit ching sur ge), 290
Line losses, 11
Line par amet er s, 5, 11
wit h gr ound r et ur n, 55
LMFBR, 3
Load dr opping, 318
Load fact or , 190
Loeb and Meek, 299, 301, 302
Long air gaps, 295
br eakdown, 296
cr it ical flashover volt age, 297
flashover , 6
models of br eakdown, 298, 302
wit hst and volt age, 307
Low induct ive-cur r ent int er r upt ion, 6, 259, 264
Lumped-par amet er cir cuit , 267 - 273
cr it ical damping, 270, 273
init ial volt age on capacit or , 267, 271
nat ur al impedance, 271
r educt ion of over volt age, 270
shor t -cir cuit power , 273
sinusoidal excit at ion, 270
M
Magnet ifc field, 190-200
Magnet ic field efect s, 190
MHD or fluid dynamic gener at or , 2, 3
Mangoldt for mula, 83, 86
Mar kt -Mengele for mula, 83, 86
Maximum volt age gr adient s on lines, examples, 87
Maxwell's pot ent ial coefficient s, 35, 36, 39, 72, 107,
173
McEachr on, 238
Mean value (flashover ), 310
Measur ement of AN, 127-131
Measur ement of high t est volt ages, 394
digit al r ecor der , 402
oscilloscope, 400
peak volt met er , 401
spher e gap, 401
volt age divider , 395-400
Measur ement of excit at ion funct ion, 162, 164
cages 165
design of filt er 166
Measur ment of RI, RIV, and excit at ion funct ion,
162
Mechanical consider at ions, 17
Meek and Cr aggs, 303
Meer a, K.S., 282
Mega Pascal, 443
Menemenlis and Har bec, 305
Met er s and measur ement of e.s. fields, 185
fields, 185
calibr at ion, 185
dipole, 185
pa r a llel pla t es, 185
spher ical dipole, 185
Met hod of successive images, 61, 66
METIFOR, 309
Micr o-hydel, 2
Micr ophones, 128
fr equency r esponse, 128
gr azing and per pendicular incidence, 128
Micr o voids in cables, 451
Minimum S/N r at io, 144-147
Modes of pr opagat ion, 44-50
t r ansposed line, 44
unt r ansposed line, 48
Mullineux, 285
Mult iple int er r upt er s, 262
Mut ual pot ent ial coefficient s, 41
N
Nancy Wer t heimar and Ed Leeper , 201
Nat ur al fr equencies of long lines, 215
512 Index
Nat ur al fr equency wit h ser ies capacit or
337compensat ion, 337, 345
Nat ur al gas, 3
Navajo Pr oject (SSR), 6, 341
(see Pr oject Navajo),
Nigol's for mula for RI met er , 162
Nigol and Cassan for mula, 115
Nit r ogen, 449
Noise met er ,
audio, 127
r adio, 162
Non-synchr onous closur e (of cir cuit -br eaker poles),
291, 293
Non-unifor m field, 302
br eakdown models, 302
br eakdown t heor ies, 303 - 305
cor ona incept ion, 301
Nor mal dist r ibut ion, 310
Nor t h-East er n Region (India), 13
Nuclear ener gy, 3
fission and fusion, 2
Number densit y of molecules, 300
Number of cir cuit s for power t r ansmission, 13
Number of collisions, 299
O
Ocean ener gy, 2, 3
Ocean t her mal gr adient power , 2, 4
Occupat ional hazar d, 201
Oct ave band,
Oil, 3
Once-in-a-lifet ime t or que limit , 341
Ont ar io Hydr o (Canada), 115
Open-cir cut ed line, 210
double-exponent ial r esponse, 211, 219
sinusoidal r esponse, 211, 220
t r avelling-wave concept , 212
wit h t r apped char ge, 221
Oscilloscope, 7, 400
Out ages due t o light ning, 236
Over volt ages, 259
ener gizing open-ended line, 291
or igin, 259
r e-ener gizing, 291
r emedies against , 259
t ypes, 259
P
Par is, L., 314
Par is's t heor y (long air gaps), 314
applicat ion for design, 315
gap fact or , 314
Par t ial dischar ges, 404
Pa sca ls, 443
Paschen's Law, 301
Peak volt met er , 7, 401
Peek J r ., F.W., 114
Peek's for mula, 114
Per r y Cr it er ion for AN, 126
Pet er son's for mula, 114
Phase-phase mode, 46
Phase-shift const ant , 320
Phot o-volat ic power , 2, 3
Pipe-t ype cable, 430, 446
Point char ge (field), 61
Pot ent ial coefficient s, 39
mut ual, 39
numer cial values, 74, 79
self, 36, 39
Pot ent ial gr adient , 103
comput er pr ogr amme, 102
dur ing spar kover , 304
Power Cir cle diagr am, 323
geomet r ical r elat ions, 325
maximum power , 325
r eceiving end, 324
Power -fr equency over volt ages, 6, 259
Power -fr equency volt age, 318
Power -handling capacit y, 11, 12, 13
Power impar t ed by wind t o conduct or , 17-20
Power loss in t r ansmission, 11, 12
Power pools (major Indian), 14
PPLP insulat ion (cable), 429, 442, 451-453
Pr e-dischar ge cur r ent , 238, 239
Pr essur e var iat ion (wit h alt it ude and t emper at ur e),
106
Pr ice, J .W., 309
Pr imar y avalanche elect r ons, 300
Pr imar y shock cur r ent , 172
Index 513
Pr inz's for mula, 115
Pr obabilist ic philosophy, 309
Pr obabilit y gr aph paper , 311
Pr obabilit y of flashover , 310
Pr obabilit y of light ning cur r ent , 245
Pr oject EHV for mula, 115
Pr oject Navajo, 341
Pr opagat ion fact or , 207, 210
Pr opagat ion of swit ching sur ges, 52
Pr oper t ies of cable insulat ion mat er ials, 445-453
Pr ot ect ive char act er ist ics ( of light ning ar r est er s),
246
Pr ot ect ive level, 247
Pr ot ect ive r at io, 246
Psycho-acoust ics, 5, 125
Pulseless or glow cor ona, 138
Pulse t ype cor ona, 138
equat ions for + and pulses, 138
fr equency spect r a, 140
mechanism of gener at ion, 138
r epet it ion r at es, 139
t r ain of pulses, 139, 142
Pur e t one AN 129
Q
Quar t er wavelengt h line, 321
Quasi-peak det ect or (QP), 144, 162
R
Radiant cur ing pr ocess
(XLPE), 448
Radiat ion loss, 26, 27
Radio Int er fer ence, 92, 138
Radio noise, 7, 138
Radio noise met er , 162
Raet her , 299
Random noise, 147
Rat e of r ise of r ecover y
volt age (RRRV), 263
Rat ed cur r ent , 190
React ive compensat ion, 330
React ive power , 10
React ive power gener at ed by TCR, 350
React or -loaded t r ansfor mer , 264
Recover y volt age, 263
mult iple fr equency, 263
single fr equency, 263, 267
2-par amet er definit ion, 263
4-par amet er definit ion, 263
Reduct ion of swit ching-sur ge
over volt ages, 6, 270, 287
dr aining of t r apped char ge, 287
elect r onic sensing, 289
ser ies-r esist ance swit ching, 288
Reed, 285
Reflect ion of t r avelling waves, 227
Refr act ion of t r avelling waves, 227
Relat ion bet ween 1-phase and
3-phase AN levels, 314
Relat ive air densit y (cor r ect ion for swit ching sur ge),
314
Relat ive insulat ion st r engt h, 314
Remedy for count er ing SSR, 340
induct ion gener at or effect , 342
t or sional int er act ion, 342
t r ansient t or que pr oblem, 344
Residual volt age of ar r est er , 248
Residues (Inver se Laplace Tr ansfor m), 216
Resist ance of conduct or s, 22
at t enuat ion of t r avelling waves, 23
cur r ent -car r ying capacit y (r educt ion of), 23
power loss, 24
Resist ive-capacit ive volt age divider , 397
cr it ically-damped, 398
low-damped, 398, 400
Resist ive volt age divider , 395
Rest r ike, 6, 265, 291
Rest r ike-fr ee br eaker , 265
Rest r iking volt age, 259
Resonance fr equency (wit h ser ies capacit or ), 33
elect r ical, 337
Rheinau 400-kV FGH, 115
RI (Radio Int er fer ence), 138
D/C line, 153
fr equency spect r um, 140
lat er al pr ofile, 147
limit at edge of R-O-W, 144
measur ement , 162
Right -of-way (R-O-W), 126, 144
514 Index
RIV measur ement , 162
Rod-plane gap, 61
Rod-r od gap, 61
Roughness fact or , 97, 101, 109
Rur al loads (fed fr om insulat ed over head gr ound
wir es), 189
Russian scient ist s on cancer , 201
Ryan-Henline for mula, 114
S
Safet y fact or (cable), 460-463
Saha, M.N., 304
Scale fact or (Weibull funct ion), 453-459
Scher ing Br idge, 470
Schonland, B.F.J ., 238
Secondar y phenomena, 300
Secondar y shock cur r ent , 172
Self-cont ained O-F cables,
Self-excit at ion of gener at or s, 318
Self-pot ent ial coefficient s, 39
Sequence induct ances and capacit ances, 41
Ser ies capacit or , 337
compensat ion, 6, 292, 330, 334
pr ot ect ive schemes, 339
volt age, 335
Ser ies capacit or s, 334
Ser ies r esist ance in br eaker , 265, 288
Ser ies-r esist ance swit ching, 288
inser t ion t ime, 288, 291
value, 288, 291
SF
6
br eaker , 261, 265
SF
6
gas, 429, 478
Shaft failur e condit ion, 341
Shor t -cir cuit cur r ent , 6, 260, 261, 338
ac, dc component s and offset , 260, 262
incr ease due t o ser ies capacit or , 338
Shor t cir cuit s, 259, 260
int er r upt ion over volt ages, 259
single-phase, 262
t hr ee-phase, 260, 262
Shunt r eact or s, 264, 287, 318
Single-phase r eclosing, 288
Six-phase t r ansmission (see High Phase Or der ), 6,
199, 355
Skilling's for mula, 114, 123
Skin effect , 24, 25
S/N r a t io, 144-147
Soil r esist ivit y, 51, 244
Solar cells, 2, 3
Solar ir r adiat ion, 27, 28
Solar t her mal ener gy, 2
Sound-pr essur e level (SPL), 127
Sound-pr essur e waves, 125
Spacer s, 19, 20
Spar kover -dischar ge char act er ist ics, 248
Spher e gap, 63, 401
Spher e-plane gap, 61, 68
Spher e-spher e gap, 61, 64
St andar d at mospher ic condit ions, 313
St andar d deviat ion, 310-313
St andar d deviat ion, as per IEC and IEEE, 313
St andar d specificat ions, 9, 359
St andar d swit ching sur ge, 306
St andar d volt ages, 9, 359
St andar d waveshapes for t est ing, 361
light ning cur r ent , 363
light ning volt age, 361
swit ching sur ge, 362
for line equipment , 362
for t r ansfor mer s, 362
St andar ds for light ning ar r est er s, 360
St anding waves, 6, 215
at power fr equency, 206
St at ic VAR compensat or s, 6, 318, 345
har monics int r oduced, 348
St at ist ical pr ocedur e, 308
cable insulat ion design, 453
St at ist ical pr oper t ies of br eakdown, 307
St ockbr idge damper , 20
St r anding effect , 22
St r eamer t heor y, 301, 303
St r oke cur r ent , 238
St r okes t o midspan, 239
t o t ower , 239
Subspans on phase, 17
Sub-synchr onous r esonance (SSR), 6, 337
pr oblems and count er measur es, 340
Successive image char ges, 66
Sujat ha Subhash, 153, 282
Suppr ession of har monics, 351
Index 515
Sur face volt age gr adient , 76 - 88
aver age gr adient , 80
aver age maximum gr adient , 81
dist r ibut ion on conduct or s, 79, 89
maximum gr adient , 81
minimum gr adient , 79
single conduct or , 76
t wo-conduct or bundle, 77
Sur ge absor ber s, 246
Sur ge impedance of line, 94, 97
of light ning, 240
Sur ge impedance load, 323
Sur ge per for mance of cables, 473
SVS (see st a t ic VAR compensa t or s), 345
Swit ched capacit or s, 6
Swit ching impulses, waveshaping, 368
Swit ching-sur ge fr ont t ime, 306
Swit ching-sur ge gener at ion, 362, 365
(for t r ansfor mer t est ing),
Swit ching-sur ge over volt age, 6
Swit ching sur ges, 50, 267
calculat ion, 267
dist r ibut ed par amet er line, 273
lumped-par amet er net wor k, 267, 270
oper at ion of br eaker , 259
single-fr equency cir cuit , 267
sinusoidal r esponse, 271, 275
t r apped char ge, 271
Symmet r ical component s, 41
Synchr onous condenser s, 328
(synchr onous phase modifier ),
T
TCR inject ion of har monics, 348-355
Temper at ur e det er ior at ion fact or (cables), 461
Temper at ur e r ise (of conduct or s), 26
Ter minal fault , 6, 259, 263
Test s on cable char act er ist ics, 470
Thir d-oct ave band, 129
Thr eshold cur r ent s, 172
Tidal power , 2, 4
Tissues, 200
Tor sional fr equencies of shaft s, 318, 341, 344
Tor sional int er act ion, 342, 344
Tot al magnet ic field, 192
Tower -foot ing r esist ance, 243, 244
Townsend, 299, 301
fir st ionizat ion coefficient , 299
second ionizat ion coefficient , 300
Tr ansfor mat ion mat r ix (and it s inver se), 44
Tr ansfor mer over volt ages due t o cur r ent chopping,
259, 264
Tr ansient Net wor k Analyzer , 58
Tr a n s i en t r es pon s e (l u mped a n d di s t r i bu t ed
element s), 230
Tr ansient t or que pr oblem, 340, 344
Tr ansposed line, 41, 43
Tr apped char ge, 271
Tr avelling-wave pr ot ect ion, 232
Tr avelling waves, 206
r eflect ion fact or , 227-230
r efr act ion or t r ansmission fact or , 227-230
Tr ip-out s, 243
TVI, 167
Two-conduct or line (elect r ost at ic field), 69
Two-par amet er definit ion of r ecover y volt age, 263
U
UHV Pr oject of E.P.R.I., 136
Unifor m-field br eakdown, 299
Unt r ansposed line, 44
Uppsala (Sweden), 115
Ur am, Miller , Feer o, 282
USSR 1150-kV line, 309
V
Vapour pr essur e, 314
Velocit ies of modal pr opagat ion, 47
Video display t er minals, 201
effect on eye r ash, 201
spont aneous abor t ions, 201
Vir t ual zer o, 361
Voids in insulat ion, 404, 463
Volt age cont r ol by synchr onous condenser s, 328
Volt age divider , 7, 375, 395-400
act ing as ant enna, 397
capacit ive, 396
cr it ically damped, 398
fibr e opt ics used in, 403
516 Index
low-damped 400
r esist ive, 395
r esist ive-capacit ive, 397
Zaengel divider , 375
Volt age gr adient (see also sur face volt age
gr adient ), 5, 76-78
Volt -t ime char act er ist ic, 302
solid insulat ion, 453
W
Wake-induced oscillat ion,19
Wagner and Hileman, 238
Wat er t r eeing, 450
Wat er s, 298, 303
Wat er s and J ones mechanism, 304
Wa t er s model, 298, 305
Wave power , 2
Wavelengt h, 207, 320
Waveshape of swit ching sur ge, 310
Waveshaping cir cuit s for
impulse gener at or s, 368
appr oximat e met hod, 371
quick est imat ion, 371
r igor ous met hod, 366
Weibull pr obabilit y funct ion, 453
Weight ing net wor ks (AN), 129
WHO and IRPA
guidelines, 201
Widt h of t ower st r uct ur e, 305, 306
Wind energy, 2, 3
X
XLPE pr oper t ies, 429, 430, 447-451
Z
Zaengel volt age divider , 375

Extra High Voltage Ac Transmission 3rd Edition (Rakosh Das Re

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Extra High Voltage Ac Transmission 3rd Edition (Rakosh Das Re

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

This page

500 kV (2000 MW) and

600 kV (2400 MW). These power -handling capacit ies

400 kV dc line and 400 kV ac lines.

Calculation of Line and Ground Parameters 33

ln (2H/r); By symmet r y, t he mid-plane GG

863 . 5 , 0664 . 1 , 525 . 0

176 . 0 , 0298 . 0 , 0104 . 0

(b) For t he complet ely t r ansposed line,

Consequent ly, t he induct ance offer ed t o zer o-sequence cur r ent s is

542 . 0 , 6422 . 0 , 542 . 0

542 . , 7071 . , 454 .

which check wit h

Give eigenvalues and eigen-vect or mat r ices.

(a) Find t he 3 eigenvalues of t he mat r ix, (

, Newt on/Coulomb ...(4.2)

= E.r = 600 kV [using equat ions 4.2 and 4.4]

Pot ent ial at P due t o Q

Fi g. 4.3 Point cha r ge Q

= 4.673 V/m per volt

volt s/met r e ...(4.48)

. In comput ing t he for ce due t o t he

The char ge of each bundle is c/m

. In gener al, for an N-conduct or bundle,

is found fr om t he given volt age. If t he r .m.s. value of phase volt age t o

and t he volt age is

For unit volt age,

242.5 = 5.37 kV/cm

t o conver t snowfall int o equivalent r ainfall r at e is given as follows :

The unit s ar e wat t s/km-volt

Corona Effects-I: Power Loss and Audible Noise 125

3, t he for mula becomes

3 : AN(i) = 120 log E

V/m 500 kHz Dr y weat her

V/m 500 kHz Air humidit y <80%

V/m is specified at a par t icular fr equency and weat her

146 Extra High Voltage AC Transmission Engineering

V/m) wit h fr equency of measur ement . The fr equency-

V/m) by t he r elat ion.

176 Extra High Voltage AC Transmission Engineering

Electrostatic and Magnetic Fields of EHV Lines 177

178 Extra High Voltage AC Transmission Engineering

)] 120 ( sin ) ( ) 120 ( sin

)] 120 ( sin ) ( ) 120 ( sin

14755 . , 0297 . , 0159 .

Tesla) occur s at x/h = 1.1.

= 0) is shown in Fig. 10.1(b). The

and t he magnit ude is V

. Due t o t ot al r eflect ion at t he open end, t he volt age will be

= 0. This usually gives t he maximum st r ess on line insulat ion.

...(10.66)The t er minat ing impedance needs special

K. Then, at 20C (T = 293 K),

wit h gas pr essur e p and elect r ic field int ensit y

and st andar d deviat ion .

(e) The number , n, of insulat or st r ings st r essed simult aneously on t he line.

1 cosh ), 1 (cosh sinh

350 Extra High Voltage AC Transmission Engineering

for t he har monic. In t he pr evious sect ion t his limit

for a swit ching impulse.

0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.8

EHV Testing and Laboratory Equipment 377

3, AN(k) = 120 log E

V/m at 1 MHz in fair weat her at t he edge of