Respiratory System

Introduction
Respiration is the movement of oxygen from the external environment into the cell and the removal of carbon dioxide from the cell to the external environment. Respiration is the improvement in oxygenation of the tissues.

Upper Respiratory Tract

Nose, mouth, nasal cavity, pharynx Responsible for moistening, warming and filtering incoming air Passageway for air Receptors of smell, resonating chamber for voice

Upper respiratory tract cleansing sneeze reflex

Lower Respirator y Tract

Larynx maintains open airway and assists in sound production Trachea (ciliated) transports air to and from the lungs Lungs (covered by parietal and visceral pleura) contain alveoli for gaseous exchange between the air and blood Bronchi, primary -> secondary -> tertiary -> bronchioles -> terminal bronchioles Alveoli are branches of respiratory bronchioles and function in external respiration. Some open into an alveolar sac which produces a surfactant that reduces surface tension of the fluids surrounding the alveoli

Lower respiratory tract cleansing cough reflex

Respiratory Cycle
Inspiration Diaphragm contracts -> pulls muscle down -> intercostal muscles contract -> elevates chest wall -> expands volume of chest cavity -> lowers pressure in lungs -> pulls in air Expiration Diaphragm relaxes -> resumes dome shape -> intercostal muscles relax -> lowers chest wall -> decreases volume of chest cavity -> increases pressure in lungs -> pushes out air

Respiration Processes
Pulmonary ventilation, air in and out of lungs External respiration, gas exchange between air and blood Internal respiration, gas exchange between blood and tissues Cellular respiration, oxygen used to produce ATP with carbon dioxide as the waste product 1

Respiration phases occur because of pressure gradients between atmospheric pressure and intrathoracic pressures.

Lung Volumes and Vital Capacity

Lungs
The right lung consists of three lobes while the left is composed of two; each lung is enclosed in both a visceral and parietal pleura. Inside the pleural cavity is the pleural fluid, it exerts a negative pressure. The negative pressure increases the elasticity of the lung.

Alveoli
Gas exchange occurs across the alveolar capillary membrane. There are two types of alveolar cells: Type I numerous and line alveolar walls, main sites of gaseous exchange Type II contain microvilli; secrete alveolar fluid which contains surfactant. Fluid keeps the surfaces between air and cells moist; surfactant lowers the surface tension of alveolar fluid and thus prevents lung collapse.

Blood Supply to Lungs

There are two sets of arteries; pulmonary arteries which carry deoxygenated blood from the right side of the heart and bronchial arteries which carry oxygenated blood to the lungs. Oxygenated blood returns to the heart via the four pulmonary veins. Pulmonary vessels constrict in response to hypoxia; diverting blood from poorly ventilated to well ventilated areas of the lung. This phenomenon is called ventilation-perfusion coupling

Ventilation -Per fusion

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Ventilation movement of air in and out of the lungs Perfusion blood supply to lungs In the standing position there is more blood in the bases of the lungs and more air in the upper segments. Therefore the upper segments have a high V/Q ratio and the bottom segments have a low V/Q ratio. If there is more air than blood in a segment then the V/Q ratio is said to be high, if there is more blood however it is said to be low. The V/Q ration is affected by body position (pull of gravity) and disease.

Composition of Air
Air is composed of: 21% oxygen 78% nitrogen 1% carbon dioxide

Only oxygen and carbon dioxide are involved in normal respiration

Gaseous Exchange
Oxygen is transported by being either bound to haemoglobin in red blood cells or diffused into the blood plasma. Carbon dioxide is transported in the same manner with the inclusion of the fact that it may be moved in the form of plasma bicarbonate too. Gaseous exchange occurs during both internal and external respiration. Pulmonary (external) gas exchange involves the process of diffusion of oxygen from the air on the alveoli to pulmonary capillaries and the diffusion of carbon dioxide from deoxygenated blood into the alveoli. Oxygen diffuses from the alveolar air at the partial pressure of 105mmHg into the blood in the pulmonary capillaries where the partial pressure of oxygen is 40mmHg. Diffusion continues until the PO of the capillary blood matches that of the alveolar air. The partial pressure of carbon dioxide in deoxygenated blood continues to diffuse into the alveoli until PCO decreases to 40 mmHg. Systemic (internal) respiration occurs in tissues throughout the body. As cells constantly use O to produce ATP for their metabolic needs the PO of blood pumped by the systemic capillaries is higher (100mmHg) than that in the tissue cells (40mmHg). While O diffuses into the tissue cell, CO diffuses into the capillaries. Tissue cells need 25% of the O in oxygenated blood at rest, deoxygenated blood retains 75% of the initial O content. During exercise more oxygen is taken from the blood to fuel ATP, thus the oxygen content in deoxygenated blood drops.

Centers that Control Breathing

Medullary rhythmicity area (medulla oblongata) Pneomotaxic area (pons) Apneustic area (pons)

Physical Factors that Affect Lung Compliance

Scarred lung tissue (emphysema) Lung tissue filled with fluid or air (pulmonary edema) Deficient surfactant (ARDS) Deficient expansion (paralysis of intercostal muscles)

Breathing Patterns
Eupnea normal Apnea Inability to breathe Dyspnea shortness of breathe Tachypnea increased breathing rate Orthopnea inability to breathe when supine

Pulmonary Pathologies
Bronchitis Emphysema Bronchial asthma Occupational lung diseases Cystic fibrosis Cigarette smoking