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INTRODUCTION
We have made an attempt to build an automatic machine which can sense the right / desired path, reach the destination and perform the desired operation. The basic working of the machine is based on the sensor circuit which is supported by the microcontroller. The machine consists of the sensor circuit placed at the base. The signals from the sensor board is given to signal conditioner circuitry and then to the microcontroller. The microcontroller is preprogrammed to react to different conditions. Depending upon the feedback from the sensor board the microcontroller diverts the machine to reach the destination. After reaching the destination the microcontroller gives signal to the winding motor to lift the tray consisting of 4 fuel balls and then put it in to the desired bucket. The machine is 1.5m in height, weighing approximately 10kg. It is power by a lead acid battery of 12 V, 4.5 Ahr.

Modules ..
Power Supply SENSOR CONDITIONING CIRCUIT 12v Lead Acid Battery.

Motor Control
MOTOR RELAY CARD

Sensor Unit
WHITE LINE SENSOR

Processor unit / The Brain

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OBJECTIVES
The primary design criteria for this robot were as follows: - minimal cost - incorporate already-owned components - use cheap and easily-worked materials for platform - minimize weight to make use of cheaper servos - robustness - solid design and construction - able to be implemented in stages - modular design - room for expansion The objectives for this semester were: - design and construct the platform - implement a simple, neural netwok based learning routine. - implement minimal sensors for obstacle avoidance - if time allows, implement a more intelligent moving algorithm

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Microcontroller: Atmega16 is a low-power CMOS 8-bit Micro controller based on the AVR
RISC architecture. By executing powerful instructions in a single clock cycle, the Atmega16 achieves throughputs approaching 1 MIPS per MHz allowing the system designer to optimize power consumption versus processing speed. The AVR core combines a rich instruction set with 32 general-purpose working registers. All the 32 registers are directly connected to the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), allowing two independent registers to be accessed in one single instruction executed in one clock cycle. The resulting architecture is more code efficient while achieving throughputs up to ten times faster than conventional CISC Micro controller. The ATmega16 provides the following features: 16K bytes of In-System Programmable Flash Program memory with Read-While-Write capabilities, 512 bytes EEPROM, 1K byte SRAM, 32 general purpose I/O lines, 32 general purpose working registers, a JTAG interface for Boundary-scan, On-chip Debugging support and programming, three flexible Timer/Counters with compare modes, Internal and External Interrupts, a serial programmable USART, a byte oriented Two-wire Serial Interface, an 8-channel, 10-bit ADC with optional differential input stage with programmable gain (TQFP package only), a programmable Watchdog Timer with Internal Oscillator, an SPI serial port, and six software selectable power saving modes. The Idle mode stops the CPU while allowing the USART, Two-wire interface, A/D Converter, SRAM, Timer/Counters, SPI port, and interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power-down mode saves the register contents but freezes the Oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next External Interrupt or Hardware Reset. In Power-save mode, the Asynchronous Timer continues to run, allowing the user to maintain a timer base while the rest of the device is sleeping. The ADC Noise Reduction mode stops the CPU and all I/O modules except Asynchronous Timer and ADC, to minimize switching noise during ADC conversions. In Standby mode, the crystal/resonator Oscillator is running while the rest of the device is sleeping. This allows very fast start-up combined with low-power consumption. In Extended Standby mode, both the main Oscillator and the Asynchronous Timer continue to run.

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INTELLIGENT PATH FINDER__________________________________________ The device is manufactured using Atmels high-density nonvolatile memory technology. The On-chip ISP Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed insystem through an SPI serial interface, by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer, or by an On-chip Boot program running on the AVR core. The boot program can use any interface to download the application program in the Application Flash memory. Software in the Boot Flash section will continue to run while the Application Flash section is updated, providing true Read-While-Write operation. By combining an 8-bit RISC CPU with In-System Self-Programmable Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel ATmega16 is a powerful microcontroller that provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications. The ATmega16 AVR is supported with a full suite of program and system development tools including: C compilers, macro assemblers, program debugger/simulators, in-circuit emulators, and evaluation kits.

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Figure 1: Block Diagram

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Features:
High-performance,

Low-power AVR 8-bit Microcontroller

Advanced RISC Architecture 131 Powerful Instructions Most Single-clock Cycle Execution 32 x 8 General Purpose Working Registers Fully Static Operation Up to 16 MIPS Throughput at 16 MHz On-chip 2-cycle Multiplier Nonvolatile Program and Data Memories 16K Bytes of In-System Self-Programmable Flash Endurance: 10,000 Write/Erase Cycles Optional Boot Code Section with Independent Lock Bits In-System Programming by On-chip Boot Program True Read-While-Write Operation 512 Bytes EEPROM Endurance: 100,000 Write/Erase Cycles 1K Byte Internal SRAM Programming Lock for Software Security JTAG (IEEE std. 1149.1 Compliant) Interface Boundary-scan Capabilities According to the JTAG Standard Extensive On-chip Debug Support Programming of Flash, EEPROM, Fuses, and Lock Bits through the JTAG Interface Peripheral Features Two 8-bit Timer/Counters with Separate Prescalers and Compare Modes One 16-bit Timer/Counter with Separate Prescaler, Compare Mode, and Capture Mode Real Time Counter with Separate Oscillator Four PWM Channels 8-channel, 10-bit ADC 8 Single-ended Channels 7 Differential Channels in TQFP Package Only SARDAR PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING -6-

INTELLIGENT PATH FINDER__________________________________________ 2 Differential Channels with Programmable Gain at 1x, 10x, or 200x Byte-oriented Two-wire Serial Interface Programmable Serial USART Master/Slave SPI Serial Interface Programmable Watchdog Timer with Separate On-chip Oscillator On-chip Analog Comparator Special Microcontroller Features Power-on Reset and Programmable Brown-out Detection Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator External and Internal Interrupt Sources Six Sleep Modes: Idle, ADC Noise Reduction, Power-save, Power-down, Standby and Extended Standby I/O and Packages 32 Programmable I/O Lines 40-pin PDIP, 44-lead TQFP, and 44-pad MLF Operating Voltages 2.7 - 5.5V for ATmega16L 4.5 - 5.5V for ATmega16 Speed Grades 0 - 8 MHz for ATmega16L 0 - 16 MHz for ATmega16 Power Consumption @ 1 MHz, 3V, and 25 for ATmega16L C Active: 1.1 mA Idle Mode: 0.35 mA Power-down Mode: < 1 A

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Figure 2. Pinouts ATmega16

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INTELLIGENT PATH FINDER__________________________________________ Pin Description: Vcc GND Port A (PA7..PA0 ) Digital supply voltage. Ground Port A serves as the analog inputs to the A/D Converter. Port A also serves as an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port, if the A/D Converter is not used. Port pins can provide internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit). The Port A output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source capability. When pins PA0 to PA7 are used as inputs and are externally pulled low, they will source current if the internal pull-up resistors are activated. The Port A pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running. Port B is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit). The Port B output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port B pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port B pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running. Port B also serves the functions of various special features of the ATmega16. Port C is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit). The Port C output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port C pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port C pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running. If the JTAG interface is enabled, the pull-up resistors on pins PC5(TDI), PC3(TMS) and PC2(TCK) will be activated even if a reset occurs. Port C also serves the functions of the JTAG interface and other special features of the ATmega16. Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit). The Port D output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port D pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port D pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running. Port D also serves the functions of various special features of the ATmega16.

Port B (PB7..PB0)

Port C (PC7..PC0 )

Port D (PD7..PD0 )

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RESET

XTAL1 XTAL2 AVCC AREF

Reset Input. A low level on this pin for longer than the minimum pulse length will generate a reset, even if the clock is not running. The minimum pulse length is given in Table 15 on page 36. Shorter pulses are not guaranteed to generate a reset. Input to the inverting Oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit. Output from the inverting Oscillator amplifier. AVCC is the supply voltage pin for Port A and the A/D Converter. It should be externally connected to VCC, even if the ADC is not used. If the ADC is used, it should be connected to VCC through a low-pass filter. AREF is the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter

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16-bit Timer/Counter:
The 16-bit Timer/Counter unit allows accurate program execution timing (event management), wave generation, and signal timing measurement. The main features are: True 16-bit Design (i.e., Allows 16-bit PWM) Two Independent Output Compare Units Double Buffered Output Compare Registers One Input Capture Unit Input Capture Noise Canceler Clear Timer on Compare Match (Auto Reload) Glitch-free, Phase Correct Pulse Width Modulator (PWM) Variable PWM Period Frequency Generator External Event Counter Four Independent Interrupt Sources (TOV1, OCF1A, OCF1B, and ICF1) Overview Most register and bit references in this section are written in general form. A lower casen replaces the Timer/Counter number, and a lower case x replaces the output compare unit channel. However, when using the register or bit defines in a program, the precise form must be used (i.e., TCNT1 for accessing Timer/Counter counter value and so on). A simplified block diagram of the 16-bit Timer/Counter is shown below in Figure. CPU accessible I/O Registers, including I/O bits and I/O pins, are shown in bold. The device specific I/O Register and bit locations are listed in the 16-bit Timer/Counter Register Description are given below.

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16-bit Timer/Counter Block Diagram.

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Timer/Counter Clock Sources: The Timer/Counter can be clocked by an internal or an external clock source. The clock source is selected by the Clock Select logic which is controlled by the Clock Select (CS12:0) bits located in the Timer/Counter Control Register B (TCCR1B). For details on clock sources and prescaler, see Timer/Counter0 and Timer/Counter1 Prescalers. Modes of Operation The mode of operation, i.e., the behavior of the Timer/Counter and the output compare pins, is defined by the combination of the Waveform Generation mode (WGM13:0) and1 Compare Output mode (COM1x1:0) bits. The Compare Output mode bits do not affect the counting sequence, while the Waveform Generation mode bits do. The COM1x1:0 bits control whether the PWM output generated should be inverted or not (inverted or non-inverted PWM). For non-PWM modes the COM1x1:0 bits control whether the output should be set, cleared or toggle at a compare match. For detailed timing information refer to Timer/Counter Timing Diagrams 16-bit Timer/Counter Register Description: Timer/Counter1 Control Register A TCCR1A:

Bit 7:6 COM1A1:0: Compare Output Mode for Channel A Bit 5:4 COM1B1:0: Compare Output Mode for Channel B The COM1A1:0 and COM1B1:0 control the Output Compare pins (OC1A and OC1B respectively) behavior. If one or both of the COM1A1:0 bits are written to one, the OC1Aoutput overrides the normal port functionality of the I/O pin it is connected to. If one or both of the COM1B1:0 bit are written to one, the OC1B output overrides the SARDAR PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING - 13 -

INTELLIGENT PATH FINDER__________________________________________ normal port functionality of the I/O pin it is connected to. However, note that the Data Direction Register(DDR) bit corresponding to the OC1A or OC1B pin must be set in order to enable the output driver. When the OC1A or OC1B is connected to the pin, the function of the COM1x1:0 bits is dependent of the WGM13:0 bits setting. Table 44 shows the COM1x1:0 bit functionality when the WGM13:0 bits are set to a normal or a CTC mode (non-PWM). Compare Output Mode, non-PWM

Table shows the COM1x1:0 bit functionality when the WGM13:0 bits are set to the fast PWM mode. Compare Output Mode, Fast PWM

Note : A special case occurs when OCR1A/OCR1B equals TOP and COM1A1/COM1B1 is set. In this case the compare match is ignored, but the set or clear is done at TOP. Table shows the COM1x1:0 bit functionality when the WGM13:0 bits are set to the phase correct or the phase and frequency correct, PWM mode. Compare Output Mode, Phase Correct and Phase and Frequency Correct PWM SARDAR PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING - 14 -

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Note: A special case occurs when OCR1A/OCR1B equals TOP and COM1A1/COM1B1 is set. Bit 3 FOC1A: Force Output Compare for Channel A Bit 2 FOC1B: Force Output Compare for Channel B The FOC1A/FOC1B bits are only active when the WGM13:0 bits specifies a nonPWM mode. However, for ensuring compatibility with future devices, these bits must be set to zero when TCCR1A is written when operating in a PWM mode. When writing a logical one to the FOC1A/FOC1B bit, an immediate compare match is forced on the Waveform Generation unit. The OC1A/OC1B output is changed according to its COM1x1:0 bits setting. Note that the FOC1A/FOC1B bits are implemented as strobes. Therefore it is the value present in the COM1x1:0 bits that determine the effect of the forced compare. A FOC1A/FOC1B strobe will not generate any interrupt nor will it clear the timer in Clear Timer on Compare match (CTC) mode using OCR1A as TOP. The FOC1A/FOC1B bits are lways read as zero.

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INTELLIGENT PATH FINDER__________________________________________ Bit 1:0 WGM11:0: Waveform Generation Mode Combined with the WGM13:2 bits found in the TCCR1B Register, these bits control the counting sequence of the counter, the source for maximum (TOP) counter value, and what type of waveform generation to be used, see table Modes of operation supported by the Timer/Counter unit are: Normal mode (counter), Clear Timer on Compare match (CTC) mode, and three types of modes. Waveform Generation Mode Bit Description(1) pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

Note: 1. The CTC1 and PWM11:0 bit definition names are obsolete. Use the WGM12:0 definitions. However, the functionality and location of these bits are compatible with previous versions of the timer.

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INTELLIGENT PATH FINDER__________________________________________ Timer/Counter1 Control Register B TCCR1B

Bit 7 ICNC1: Input Capture Noise Canceler Setting this bit (to one) activates the Input Capture Noise Canceler. When the Noise canceler is activated, the input from the Input Capture Pin (ICP1) is filtered. The filter function requires four successive equal valued samples of the ICP1 pin for changing its output. The Input Capture is therefore delayed by four Oscillator cycles when the Noise Canceler is enabled. Bit 6 ICES1: Input Capture Edge Select This bit selects which edge on the Input Capture Pin (ICP1) that is used to trigger a capture event. When the ICES1 bit is written to zero, a falling (negative) edge is used as trigger, and when the ICES1 bit is written to one, a rising (positive) edge will trigger the capture. When a capture is triggered according to the ICES1 setting, the counter value is copied into the Input Capture Register (ICR1). The event will also set the Input Capture lag (ICF1), and this can be used to cause an Input Capture Interrupt, if this interrupt is enabled. When the ICR1 is used as TOP value (see description of the WGM13:0 bits located in the TCCR1A and the TCCR1B Register), the ICP1 is disconnected and consequently the Input Capture function is disabled. Bit 5 Reserved Bit This bit is reserved for future use. For ensuring compatibility with future devices, this bit must be written to zero when TCCR1B is written. Bit 4:3 WGM13:2: Waveform Generation Mode

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INTELLIGENT PATH FINDER__________________________________________ Bit 2:0 CS12:0: Clock Select The three Clock Select bits select the clock source to be used by the Timer/Counter Clock Select Bit Description

Clock Select Bit Description

If external pin modes are used for the Timer/Counter1, transitions on the T1 pin will clock the counter even if the pin is configured as an output. This feature allows software control of the counting. Timer/Counter1 TCNT1H and TCNT1L

The two Timer/Counter I/O locations (TCNT1H and TCNT1L, combined TCNT1) give direct access, both for read and for write operations, to the Timer/Counter unit 16-bit counter. To ensure that both the high and Low bytes are read and written simultaneously when the CPU accesses these registers, the access is performed using an 8-bit temporary High Byte Register (TEMP). This temporary register is shared by all the other 16-bit registers. Modifying the counter (TCNT1) while the counter is running introduces a risk missing compare match between TCNT1 and one of the OCR1x Registers. Writing to the TCNT1 Register blocks (removes) the compare match on the following timer clock for all compare units.

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INTELLIGENT PATH FINDER__________________________________________ Output Compare Register 1 A OCR1AH and OCR1AL

Output Compare Register 1 B OCR1BH and OCR1BL

The Output Compare Registers contain a 16-bit value that is continuously compared with the counter value (TCNT1). A match can be used to generate an output compare interrupt, or to generate a waveform output on the OC1x pin. The Output Compare Registers are 16-bit in size. To ensure that both the high and Low bytes are written simultaneously when the CPU writes to these registers, the access is performed using an 8-bit temporary High Byte Register (TEMP). This temporary register is shared by all the other 16-bit registers. Input Capture Register 1 ICR1H and ICR1L

The Input Capture is updated with the counter (TCNT1) value each time an event occurs on the ICP1 pin (or optionally on the analog comparator output for Timer/Counter1). The Input Capture can be used for defining the counter TOP value. The Input Capture Register is 16-bit in size. To ensure that both the high and Low bytes are read simultaneously when the CPU accesses these registers, the access is performed using an 8-bit temporary High Byte Register (TEMP). This temporary register is shared by all the other 16-bit registers.

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INTELLIGENT PATH FINDER__________________________________________ Timer/Counter Interrupt Mask Register TIMSK

Note: 1. This register contains interrupt control bits for several Timer/Counters, but only Timer1 bits are described in this section. The remaining bits are described in their respective timer sections. Bit 5 TICIE1: Timer/Counter1, Input Capture Interrupt Enable When this bit is written to one, and the I-flag in the Status Register is set (interrupts globally enabled), the Timer/Counter1 Input Capture Interrupt is enabled. The corresponding Interrupt Vector is executed when the ICF1 Flag, located in TIFR, is set. Bit 4 OCIE1A: Timer/Counter1, Output Compare A Match Interrupt Enable When this bit is written to one, and the I-flag in the Status Register is set (interrupts globally enabled), the Timer/Counter1 Output Compare A match interrupt is enabled. The corresponding Interrupt Vector is executed when the OCF1A Flag, located in TIFR, is set. Bit 3 OCIE1B: Timer/Counter1, Output Compare B Match Interrupt Enable When this bit is written to one, and the I-flag in the Status Register is set (interrupts globally enabled), the Timer/Counter1 Output Compare B match interrupt is enabled. The corresponding Interrupt Vector is executed when the OCF1B Flag, located in TIFR, is set. Bit 2 TOIE1: Timer/Counter1, Overflow Interrupt Enable When this bit is written to one, and the I-flag in the Status Register is set (interrupts globally enabled), the Timer/Counter1 Overflow Interrupt is enabled. The corresponding Interrupt Vector is executed when the TOV1 Flag, located in TIFR, is set.

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INTELLIGENT PATH FINDER__________________________________________ Timer/Counter Interrupt Flag Register TIFR

Note: This register contains flag bits for several Timer/Counters, but only Timer1 bits are described in this section. The remaining bits are described in their respective timer sections. Bit 5 ICF1: Timer/Counter1, Input Capture Flag This flag is set when a capture event occurs on the ICP1 pin. When the Input Capture Register (ICR1) is set by the WGM13:0 to be used as the TOP value, the ICF1 Flag is set when the counter reaches the TOP value. ICF1 is automatically cleared when the Input Capture Interrupt Vector is executed. Alternatively, ICF1 can be cleared by writing a logic one to its bit location. Bit 4 OCF1A: Timer/Counter1, Output Compare A Match Flag This flag is set in the timer clock cycle after the counter (TCNT1) value matches the output Compare Register A (OCR1A). Note that a Forced Output Compare (FOC1A) strobe will not set the OCF1A Flag. OCF1A is automatically cleared when the Output compare Match A Interrupt Vector is executed. Alternatively, OCF1A can be cleared by writing a logic one to its bit location. Bit 3 OCF1B: Timer/Counter1, Output Compare B Match Flag This flag is set in the timer clock cycle after the counter (TCNT1) value matches the Output Compare Register B (OCR1B). Note that a forced output compare (FOC1B) probe will not set the OCF1B Flag. OCF1B is automatically cleared when the Output compare Match B Interrupt Vector is executed. Alternatively, OCF1B can be cleared by writing a logic one to its bit location.

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INTELLIGENT PATH FINDER__________________________________________ Bit 2 TOV1: Timer/Counter1, Overflow Flag The setting of this flag is dependent of the WGM13:0 bits setting. In normal and CTC modes, the TOV1 Flag is set when the timer overflows. Refer to Table 47 on page 111 for the TOV1 Flag behavior when using another WGM13:0 bit setting. TOV1 is automatically cleared when the Timer/Counter1 Overflow interrupt vector is executed. Alternatively, TOV1 can be cleared by writing a logic one to its bit location.

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SENSORS :
Sensors are used as the eyes of the robot. They keep informing the position of the robot on the track. There are two types of the sensors used, infrared sensors and colour sensors. Sensing is based on the reflection of light from the surface. INFRARED SENSOR : Infrared sensors are operated in the infrared light rays. The working principle of IR sensor is that infrared rays will get reflected from the silver surface and will not get reflected from the black surface, because black surface will absorb the maximum amount light rays falling on it. IR sensors include infrared transmitter (IR Led) and infrared receiver. IR led and IR receiver is placed side by side. These sensors are placed at the bottom surface of the robot facing toward the ground. IR led will emit the infrared light rays. These rays will fall on the surface and reflected by the surface. These reflected rays will fall on the IR receiver. When sufficient amount of light falls on the IR receiver, it will start conducting. When IR transmitter receiver is on the black surface most of the light will be absorbed by the surface and receiver is open and when they are on silver strip the receiver gets enough light and starts conducting. IR led is connected to VCC through resistance of small value. IR receiver is connected to VCC through 10K resistance. The output is taken across the receiver and the ground. This output voltage is not enough for the microcontroller to take the decisions. So the signal conditioning is required. The signal conditioner includes a comparator circuit and a reference voltage. The reference voltage is generated with potentiometer. The reference voltage level is arranged in such a way that it is in between the two voltage levels that were get from the black and silver surface. When sensor is on the black surface receiver is open the voltage get pulled up to VCC and when it is on silver surface receiver will shorted and the voltage is pulled down to GND. The circuit used for the IR detector is shown below. Quad OP-AMP LM324 is used as a comparator. Supply voltage is 5V. Inverting terminal of LM324 is connected to the reference voltage through the variable potentiometer of 10M. non-inverting terminal is connected to the output from the IR receiver.

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5V V C C

120 120 10k LE D

+

O PAM P
OU T

IR LE D

T O M IC R O C O N T R O LLE R

IR R E C E IV E R 10M V A R R E S IS T O R

Circuit diagram of IR sensor Drawbacks of IR sensor: The response of IR sensors is good only on silver track on black surface. On the other type of track its response is not good enough. COLOUR SENSOR: The color of the objects which we see are largely due to the way those objects interact with light and ultimately reflect or transmit it to our eyes. The color of an object is not actually within the object itself; rather, the color is in the light which shines upon it that ultimately becomes reflected or transmitted to our eyes. We know that the visible light spectrum consists of a range of frequencies, each of which corresponds to a specific color. When visible light strikes an object and a specific frequency becomes absorbed, that frequency of light will never make it to our eyes. Any visible light which strikes the object and becomes reflected or transmitted to our eyes will contribute to the color appearance of that object. So the color is not in the object itself, but in the light which strikes the object. The only role that the object plays is that it might contain atoms capable of absorbing one or more frequencies of the visible light which shine upon it. So if an object absorbs all of the frequencies of visible light except for the frequency associated with green light, then the object will appear green in the presence of SARDAR PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING - 24 -

INTELLIGENT PATH FINDER__________________________________________ ROYGBIV. And if an object absorbs all of the frequencies of visible light except for the frequency associated with blue light, then the object will appear blue in the presence of ROYGBIV. Colour sensor includes a colour led and phototransistor. Colour sensors are operated in the visible light rays. An LED is a solid-state semiconductor, similar electrically to a diode, except that it emits a small amount of light when current flows through it in the forward direction. LEDs can be built to emit green, blue, blue-green, yellow, red, or infrared light. In applications which sense color contrasts, the choice of LED color can be important. Because LEDs are solid-state, they will last for the entire useful life of a sensor. LED sensors can be totally encapsulated and sealed, making them smaller yet more reliable than their incandescent counterparts. Unlike incandescent light sources, LEDs are not easily damaged by vibration and shock, and worry about filament sag is also eliminated. There is a tradeoff, however, in the area of light intensity: in general, LEDs produce only a small percentage of the light generated by an incandescent bulb of the same size. Laser diodes are a recent exception to this. New sensor designs that incorporate laser diodes can produce many times the light intensity (and sensing range) of ordinary LEDs. The Phototransistor has a high power output for a photo-electric device and gives good response to a rapidly fluctuating light source. It is particularly sensitive to the wavelengths of light given off by ordinary incandescent light bulbs, and is well suited to operate with these easily available sources with good fidelity. Another virtue is the devices low impedance. Colour led used is ultra bright led. They are much brighter than normal led. Phototransistors used are L14G.

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Phototransistor L14G

Symbol of photo transistor

Spectral Response of phototransistor A phototransistor is a transistor whose collector and emitter currents are directly related to the light incident on the base region of the transistor. Although any transistor will respond to light, the phototransistor has some features that make it more sensitive at certain wavelengths of light. When the base is illuminated with the correct wavelength of light, electron-hole pairs are formed in the base which creates a base current, with the current flow directly related to the brightness of the light. The main region for the electron-hole pair formation is the base-collector junction. The photo-induced base current appears as though an external diode was connected between the base and collector of the transistor, see Figur SARDAR PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING - 26 -

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The phototransistor and the equivalent circuit with a reverse biased diode

The principle of operation of colour sensor is based on the amount of reflection of light from different colour surfaces. Colour sensors can be used to track any type of track. Led and phototransistor is arranged side by side. To track any type of path four sensors are more than enough. They are arranged in plus format as shown below. If the width of track changes we have to just change the distance a. This arrangement is placed at the bottom of the robot facing towards track. F denotes front, L denotes left, R denotes right, B denotes back sensor. The robot will try to arrange itself in such a way that F and B will be on the track and L and R are off the track. The distance of the arrangement from the ground is critical. According to this distance we have to change the reference voltage.

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Arrangement of led and phototransistor F

a L R

Tx B

Rx

Arrangement of sensors Robot can get off the track due to some obstacle. With this arrangement of sensors, to follow the path atleast one sensor has to be there on the track. If all the sensors are get off the track then robot may not follow the desired path. For this extra sensors has been added to the above arrangement. An array of sensors have been added beside the left and right sensor to increase the range of robot. SARDAR PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING - 28 -

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B Modified arrangement of sensors The circuit diagram of the colour sensor is as shown below. Transmitter is connected to the supply through resistor of 1K. Phototransistor is connected in series with 47K resistor. The output voltage is taken across the collector of phototransistor and GND. This voltage is connected to the signal conditioning circuitry. Single conditioning circuitry includes reference voltage, buffers and subtractor. Reference voltage and the output from phototransistor are buffered through unity gain amplifier. These buffered signals are subtracted and the output is buffered. Reference voltage level is adjusted in between the two voltage levels that are obtained from two different colours.

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Circuit Diagram of colour sensor

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Motor:
How does a motor work? Let's consider a permanent magnet brushed motor. The piece connected to the ground is called the stator and the piece connected to the output shaft is called the rotor. The inputs of the motor are connected to 2 wires and by applying a voltage across them, the motor turns. The torque of a motor is generated by a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field. The right hand rule states that if you point your right hand fingers along the direction of current, I, and curl them towards the direction of the magnetic flux, B, the direction of force is along the thumb.

The bar magnet represents the armature and the coil of wire represents the field. The arrow shows the direction of the armature's rotation. Notice that the arrow shows the

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INTELLIGENT PATH FINDER__________________________________________ armature starting to rotate in the clockwise direction. The north pole of the field coil is repelling the north pole of the armature, and the south pole of the field coil is repelling the south pole of the armature.

(a) Magnetic diagram that explains the operation of a DC motor. The rotating magnet moves clockwise because like poles repel. (b) The rotating magnet is being attracted because the poles are unlike. (c) The rotating magnet is now shown as the armature coil, and its polarity is determined by the brushes and commutator segments.

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INTELLIGENT PATH FINDER__________________________________________ As the armature begins to move, the north pole of the armature comes closer to the south pole of the field, and the south pole of the armature is coming closer to the north pole of the field. As the two unlike poles near each other, they begin to attract. This attraction becomes stronger until the armature's north pole moves directly in line with the field's south pole, and its south pole moves directly in line with the field's north pole. When the opposite poles are at their strongest attraction, the armature will be "locked up" and will resist further attempts to continue spinning. For the armature to continue its rotation, the armature's polarity must be switched. Since the armature in this diagram is a permanent magnet, you can see that it would lock up during the first rotation and not work. If the armature is an electromagnet, its polarity can be changed by changing the direction of current flow through it. For this reason the armature must be changed to a coil (electromagnet) and a set of commutator segments must be added to provide a means of making contact between the rotating member and the stationary member. One commutator segment is provided for each terminal of the magnetic coil. Since this armature has only one coil, it will have only two terminals, so the commutator has two segments. Since the armature is now a coil of wire, it will need DC current flowing through it to become magnetized. This presents another problem; since the armature will be rotating, the DC voltage wires cannot be connected directly to the armature coil. A stationary set of carbon brushes is used to make contact to the rotating armature. The brushes ride on the commutator segments to make contact so that current will flow through the armature coil. DC voltage is applied to the field and to the brushes. Since negative DC voltage is connected to one of the brushes, the commutator segment the negative brush rides on will also be negative. The armature's magnetic field causes the armature to begin to rotate. This time when the armature gets to the point where it becomes locked up with the magnetic field, the negative brush begins to touch the end of the armature coil that was previously positive and the positive brush begins to touch the end of the armature coil that was negative. This action switches the direction of current flow through the

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INTELLIGENT PATH FINDER__________________________________________ armature, which also switches the polarity of the armature coil's magnetic field at just the right time so that the repelling and attracting continues. The armature continues to switch its magnetic polarity twice during each rotation, which causes it to continually be attracted and repelled with the field poles. This is a simple two-pole motor that is used primarily for instructional purposes. Since the motor has only two poles, the motor will operate rather roughly and not provide too much torque. Additional field poles and armature poles must be added to the motor for it to become useful for industry. You might be able to notice that the direction of rotation is changing every half cycle. To keep it rotating in the same direction, we have to switch the current direction. The process of switching current is called commutation. To switch the direction of current, we have to use brushes and commutators. Commutation can also be done electronically (Brushless motors) and a brushless motor usually has a longer life. The following diagram shows how brushes and commutators work.

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Disassembly of motor and gearhead

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Motor Controller:
The motor controller is responsible for taking appropriate logic signals from the uC , and power from the power controller, controlling both motors accordingly. The motor controller is capable of independently controlling each motor, in a stopped condition, forwards or backwards optionally at different speeds using the onboard commands from the uC.

This circuit can control the two small DC motors, in the robot. When both the points A & B are "HIGH" Q1 and Q2 are in saturation. Hence the bases of Q3 to Q6 are grounded. Hence Q3,Q5 are OFF and Q4,Q6 are ON . The voltages at both the motor terminals are the same and hence the motor is OFF. Similarly when both A and B are "LOW" the motor is OFF. When A is HIGH and B is LOW, Q1 saturates, Q2 is OFF. The bases of Q3 and Q4 are grounded and that of Q4 and Q5 is HIGH. Hence Q4 and Q5 conduct making the right terminal of the motor more positive than the left and the motor is ON. When A is LOW and B is HIGH, the left terminal of the motor is more positive SARDAR PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING - 37 -

INTELLIGENT PATH FINDER__________________________________________ than the right and the motor rotates in the reverse direction. The diodes protect the transistors from surge produced due to the sudden reversal of the motor. Two such circuits are required to control the robot. These are the following action that the robot would result on the requisite motor status.
Left Motor: OF Right Motor: OF Left Motor:OB Right Motor:OB

Left Motor:OB Right Motor: OF

Left Motor: OF Right Motor:OB

Left Motor: OFF Right Motor: OFF

STOP

OF : On Forward OB : On Backward OFF : Switched Off

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Shaft Encoder :
The key question to be answered by the high-level control system for a motor is, when should the next step be taken? While this almost always depends on the application, the similarities between different applications are sufficient to justify the development of fairly complex general purpose motor controllers. DC motor control may be based on open loop or closed loop models., we will treat closed loop models briefly because they are somewhat simpler: So long as the model is sufficiently accurate, the behavior of the motor controlled by this model will be the same as the behavior of the motor controlled by a closed loop system! we can use feedback to control and regulate the speed of motors (or anything else that rotates). Let's say that you want your robot to travel at a steady speed that uses 60% power to the motors. Shaft encoders use infra red emitters and detectors that are placed fairly close to each other (about half an inch or less). When there is a direct line of sight between them the detector is 'on' and produces a voltage (normally around 1 to 3 volts). When the line of sight is blocked the detector doesn't pick up any infra red light so is 'off', producing 0 volts. For a perfect example of how shaft encoders work take a look inside your mouse. You will see a disk with holes around the edges. On either side of the disk are an infra red emitter and infra red detector. When you move the mouse, the mouse ball's rotation causes the perforated disk to rotate. As the disk rotates the path between the IR emitter and detector is made and broken, causing the detector to create a string of electrical pulses. By monitoring the frequency of the pulses you can deduce how far the wheel has turned and the time it took. A card disk similar to the one on the right can attached to the drive shaft of the wheel and used to break an IR beam between the emitter and detector. A good feature of using shaft encoders to monitor wheel movement is that they are totally friction free, SARDAR PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING - 39 -

INTELLIGENT PATH FINDER__________________________________________ meaning that there is no loss of drive power when they are used. The emitter and detector may need to be shielded with some black card or something similar to prevent them from detecting any ambient infra red. Rotary and linear optical encoders are common in position and motion sensing. Here, a disc or plate containing opaque and transparent segments passes between an IR emitter and detector to interrupt a light beam. All rotary encoders consist of a light source, light detector, code wheel, and signal processor. There are two basic encoder styles: absolute and incremental. Absolute encoders contain multiple detectors and up to 20 tracks of segment patterns. For each encoder position, there is a different binary output -- shaft position is absolutely determined. Tracks on absolute encoders often are arranged to produce a binary output called Gray code. The advantage of Gray code over straight binary is that only one bit changes at a time. Thus, the maximum error (if the encoder stops halfway between transitions) is only 0.5 bit. In absolute encoders, this information is available even if the encoder is turned off and on. This suits them for low-speed applications, as in telescopes, or where encoders may be temporarily shut down, as in highway bridges. Absolute encoders are available in single and multiturn versions. Multiturn devices are primarily used with measuring screws. Incremental encoders are preferred when low cost is important, or when only relative position is needed. Their output typically consists of two square waves, each corresponding to an increment of rotation. Incremental encoders often have a third channel with a single segment slot or reference which is used to zero or home the device. Single-channel encoders, also called tachometers, are inherently less accurate than dual-channel versions and cannot register direction. Inaccurate readings often result when the code wheel stops on or near a slot's edge and vibrations move the code wheel back and forth. If the slot edge interrupts the light beam, the counter increments with each transition.

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INTELLIGENT PATH FINDER__________________________________________ Other common encoder versions include standard, modular, and kit. Standard encoders are those that have their own shaft and bearing assembly. The encoder shaft couples to the motor shaft with a belt, coupling, or gear train. Hollow shaft encoders are similar, but the motor shaft fits into the encoder shaft bore. Examining a modular rotary encoder used on a motor reveals a code wheel attached directly to the motor shaft. This makes the encoder sensitive to motor shaft runout and axial movement. A large amount of play can break the code wheel or push it into the stationary parts of the encoder, forcing the optics out of alignment. These problems beset even large, high-resolution encoders that sometimes cost as much as the motor they attach to. If the encoder also can withstand high temperatures (above 70C), motors may also be sized smaller and run hotter than would otherwise be acceptable. Most improvements in modular encoders concern the encoder optics and electronics. For example, until recently, encoder light emitters (usually LEDs) and detectors were relatively large compared with the slots in the disk. As a result, a stationary mask is placed between the detector and code wheel to increase accuracy by sharpening the edges of light pulses falling on the detectors. But the mask presents problems. It increases component and assembly costs. It also increases the chance of interference with the spinning disk, and attenuates light reaching the detector. To solve these problems, several manufacturers have designed encoders that need no mask. Eliminating the mask allows more space between the disk and detectors, increasing the tolerance for phase error and edge jitter between channels. The key developments that make maskless encoders feasible are miniaturized LEDs and detectors and the use of special lenses. Eliminating the mask entails drawbacks as well. The biggest drawback is that detectors on maskless encoders work only with specific code-wheel resolutions. Encoders with masks, on the other hand, can be adjusted to fit wheels having different resolutions.

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INTELLIGENT PATH FINDER__________________________________________ A shaft encoder is attached to the drive shaft of a permanent magnet DC motor, and the output of this encoder is used to directly generate the control vector for the motor driver. Rotary shaft encoders are typically rated in output pulses per channel per revolution; for this example to be useful, for a motor with n steps per revolution

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INTELLIGENT PATH FINDER__________________________________________ Hacking a Mouse for Encoders

Incremental optical encoders can be quite expensive. The bottom two photos are commercially available units. Taking apart the ubiquitous Rs. 250/- PC mouse (top left), however, can give you two cheap but quite reliable encoders plus two infrared (IR) emitter-detector pairs

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INTELLIGENT PATH FINDER__________________________________________ Cannibalizing the Mouse

Figure 1 shows the internal circuit once the mouse's screws are removed. You should see two black-colored plastic encoder disks. Each disk is surrounded by 4 LEDs (two IR emitters and two detectors). This particular mouse has 43 slot encoder disks.

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Signal conditioning for Shaft Encoder

Output after signal conditioning

General description:
The robot is designed to track the path through colour sensors and deliver the balls into a predefined destination. The dimensions of the robot is 40cm x 40cm x 1.5m .The robot is designed with the height of 1.5m which goes up to 1.8m on extension. The SARDAR PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING - 45 -

INTELLIGENT PATH FINDER__________________________________________ main function of the robot is to track the path with the help of the sensors placed at the bottom of the robot and reach the destination. When the destination is reached the microcontroller gives signal to winding motor to start. The winding motor is connected to the trolly with preloaded balls through two strings. As the motor rotates it wounds the string which in turn pulls the trolly upwards. Trolly contains 4 balls. The diameter of each ball is 15cm and the dimensions of the trolly is 32cm x 32cm. The trolly moves up and down on the specific path due to the guidance provided by the pulley. First we used the simple guides made up of Aluminium to guide the trolly. But it was not able to guide the trolly on a consistent path. Thus we decided to use pulleys and fix the trolly to the sides of the frame.

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Construction and mechanics:

Locomotion:
The robot has two wheels, each connected to a separate electric DC motor. The wheels are placed on the rear axis and steering is achieved by differential steering i.e. steering is accomplished by adjusting the power and direction of the motors separately. The speed and direction of each wheel are controlled individually. This setup gives an easy control of the robots movements and at the same time is both efficient and easy to implement.

Mechanical construction:
The robot is built around square aluminum frames connected by four vertical. Aluminum bars and fastened together with screws. This gives us a good platform to build upon with good access to the components inside. The motors were placed centrally in the lower section. The shape of the robot, seen from the top together with the heavy batteries placed on the bottom frame to give us a low point of gravity.

Design Considerations:
Structural Integrity: In early runs it became evident that initial designs were not strong enough to handle the forces of the robot's frequent stops and starts at reasonable speeds. To reinforce the structure we added two aluminium bars running down the length of the structure to help prevent the motors from breaking away from the frame.

Rear point of contact: The first design included two rear wheels on the frame to provide balance for the robot. It worked, but it's behavior was not consistent enough to work with a robot operating with sensors. After many frustrating attempts to get the wheel to turn smoothly on every run, it was decided that two small castors should be fitted on the front side of the frame i.e. exactly opposite to the rear wheels. SARDAR PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING - 47 -

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Wheels:
The goal in choosing wheels was to find the pair that provided the most consistent performance on turns and the least drift in forward motion. In general, wheels larger in both width and diameter seemed to provide the least consistent behavior. The smaller treaded wheels were unreliable when dirty, but performed the best as long as dirt was wiped away often. So we decided to manufacture wheels of aluminium that were light in weight and also the diameter and width were according to our requirements.

Motor Attachment:
Initially we connected the motor to the axle of each wheel through a system of interlocking gears. We found, however, that the gear teeth would slip every so often, causing excess variation and drift in the robot's movement. Because the gears seemed unnecessary in our design and caused such slippages, it was decided that the motors should connected to the wheel directly.

Power/Speed:
In our early trials we ran the motors at slower rates of speed, believing that the slower speeds would be more consistent in turns and would help prevent the robot from drifting. Because of the skid however, it often took time for the motors to overcome the static friction. The skid was also more likely to catch on floor imperfections at the lower speeds. Both of these factors contributed to inconsistencies between runs. We found that at higher speed settings the robots behavior was more predictable. We also determined that turns were more consistent when the robot pivoted around it's center than around one of the wheels. Accordingly, turns were performed with the motors running in opposite directions rather than leaving just one wheel running.

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Power Supply:
Due to the digital nature of the circuit a 5V regulated power supply was needed . To provide the supply two Batteries of 9v were used one for the motors and one for the circuit . Earlier it was found that the one battery was easily depleted in a few minutes of operation and low battery resulted in processor reset leading to erratic behavior. Power Supply 12V Batt ery + _ 1000 uF 7805 + 1000 uF To uC

12v Batt ery

To the Motor Driver and Sensor Circuit

A common ground was given to both supplies for there coexistence. The Power supply was simply fabricated on an all-purpose PCB which made the assembly easy. Two pin connectors were used to identify positive and negative so as to avoid mixing of the negative and positive terminals for the various modules as simple switch switches the supply on and off accordingly. The two 9V batteries are joined together by a tape and then there input is given to the power supply the status of the power supply is denoted by a simple green LED telling weather it is on or off.

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Programmer:
A Programmer was required as the program which the uC needs to execute was to be loaded. First A Programming Hardware was considered by me to be built but due to lack of funds and in a way easier programmability using the ATMELS ISP interface An ISP cable was built. Instead of using development board such STK500 or AVRISP Cable, which allows programming of all AVR devices, but which are costlier many programmers design their own software for DOS, Window or Linux platform. The popular one is the Pony Prog by Claudio Lanconelli and AT-prog-30 by Johann Aichinger. The Pony Prog is capable of writing HEX code into the chip with many serial protocols.

Serial Port Programmer:

Pony Prog The Software Used to Load the program was Pony Prog which is available for free from the internet. A requisite hardware cable was built using an RS-232 port at one end and the IC at the Other End.

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INTELLIGENT PATH FINDER__________________________________________ The Programmer was built and tested the MISO, MOSI and the SCK Pins were not used as required by the programming interface being used, Due to the further complication of the circuit if they were used.
Working:

It is very simple the programmer is switched on and the circuit is connected to and switched on. The program is executed the Intel hex file is loaded and the program is told it to upload it into the IC. This is done within a minute. The programming cable is removed and then the uC starts to execute the Code. Special attention has to be paid to the reset function in the ATMEL series of the ICs which is reseted when the voltage falls below 4.7 v or when Negative bias is applied at the Reset pin. Also Large number of writes and rewrites was to be avoided due to the limit set of approximate 1000 write/erase cycles . PonyProg - Serial Device Programmer Version 1.17h

Parallel Port Programmer:

AT-prog-30 AVR Programmer - Parallel Port Device Programmer. This software is available from http:/jaichi.virtualave.net SARDAR PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING - 51 -

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AT-prog-30 Parallel Port Device Programmer This is the simple parallel port programmer and can be made with a simple 5 wires and two 1K resister used as the current limiters. Connection configuration of the programmer is given below. Parallel port (PIN) Reset Pin5 Data Out Pin2 Clock Pin3 Data In Pin10 GND Pin25 Target MCU (PIN) ---------------------------------- Reset Pin1 -------------MOSI Pin17 1K --------------------------SCK Pin19

1K ----------------------------------------------- MISO Pin18 ---------------------------------- GND Pin10

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Software Used:
AVR Studio is an Integrated Development Environment (IDE) for writing and debugging AVR applications in Windows 9x/Me/NT/2000/XP environments. AVR Studio provides a project management tool, source file editor, chip simulator and Incircuit emulator interface for the powerful AVR 8-bit RISC family of microcontrollers. In addition, AVR Studio supports the development board such STK500 or AVRISP Cable, which allows programming of all AVR devices, and the new JTAG interface on-chip emulator. AVR Studio 4 has a completely new modular architecture which allows even more interaction with 3rd party software vendors.

Simulator Overview:
Description: This section describes how some of the functionality of AVR Studio's built in simulator varies from default behavior as described in the AVR Studio User's Guide. The simulator supports all existing new AVR devices. It simulates not only the CPU, but nearly all the on-chip I/O modules and memory, as well as the I/O ports.

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INTELLIGENT PATH FINDER__________________________________________ Special care has been taken to ensure proper simulation of the device, and there are only small differences between simulated and actual behaviour. The simulator does not connect to outside hardware and has to be stimulated from pre-calculated stimuli files. But as the device is simulated entirely inside the PC memory, the user has extended visibility of all the on-chip functions. Some I/O modules are not fully supported. See below simulator option for an overview of the supported modules. When AVR Studio is launched, the simulator will reset all program memories, SRAM and EEprom to 0xFF. IO locations are set to 0x00. The full functionality of the memory/IO windows is supported by the simulator. But the following should be noted: The memory contents will not be updated when the simulator is running. The simulator must break before the memory window can be updated. The memory contents can not be modified when the simulator is running. The simulator must break before new values can be written into the data area. When simulating Target Devices supporting External Data Memories, the entire external memory is regular SRAM. If the object file contains initial data for the external memories, this memory will be written to external memory when the project is opened. A target Reset will NOT restore these initial memory settings.

Simulator modules:
Most of the I/O modules are supported in simulation. Below is a short summary of different modules and how they will act in simulation Instruction Set All instructions are simulated including spm and sleep. Sleep does only support IDLE mode. Interrupts All interrupts are supported and setup as described in the part description .xml file.

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INTELLIGENT PATH FINDER__________________________________________ Ports Ports are simulated as on the real device. This includes the 1.5 clock cycle debouncing delay found in the standard port logic hardware in actual AVR parts. When an I/O module take control over a pin, the value read from the PINx register is the value generated by that I/O module. Timers/Counters 0/1/2/3 Timers/Counters are supported by the Simulator. The Timer/Counter interrupt vectors and the external counter(s) pin are set as described in the part description .xml file. Asynchronous operation is not supported.

UART/USARTS The UART/USART is supported by the Simulator. The UART/USART interrupt vectors and the Receive/Transmit pins are set up as described in the part description .xml file. Writing to the UART Data Register (UDR) will not initiate a data transfer. The Data Register must be written by the target application. SPI The SPI is supported by the Simulator. The SPI Data Register shows the SPI receive Register. Editing the SPI Data Register will not initiate a data transfer, even if the SPI is enabled in Master mode. The Data Register must be written by the target application. External Interrupts, Pin change interrupts All external and pin change interrupts are supported by the Simulator. EEPROM The EEPROM is supported by the Simulator, including WE and WEE interrupts. For simplicity, the write timeout has been set to 22 clock cycles, which is significantly shorter than the actual device. SARDAR PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING - 55 -

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ADC/AC/TWI/USI These modules are not supported by the simulator at the moment, but the interrupts are initiated.

Development Environment (Assembly): AVR Studio for windows version 4.10

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Circuit diagram of robot

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START
IS PIND = 20 INPUT PORT C STATUS

YES

TURN 2 CLOCKWISE

NO NO

IS PIND = 00
YES

IS PIND = 30 INPUT PORT D STATUS

NO

YES

TURN LEFT

1
NO NO

IS PIND = 40 IS PIND = 10 IS PIND = 05

YES YES

GO FORWARD GO FORWARD

2 2

YES

GO FORWARD

NO

IS PIND = 06
NO

YES

TURN CLOCKWISE

A A

IS PIND = 07

YES

TURN CLOCKWISE

NO YES

IS PIND = 08
NO

TURN ANTICLOCKWISE

IS PIND = 09

YES

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TURN RIGHT

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NO

YES

GO FORWARD

NO

YES

GO FORWARD

NO YES

TURN ANTICLOCK WISE

NO YES

TURN ANTICLOCK WISE

NO

B B

IS PIND = E0
NO

YES

GO FORWARD

YES

IS PIND = F0
NO

GO FORWARD

GO FORWARD

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INITIALISE COUNTER AND SET COUNT VALUE

4
FETCH DATA FROM MEMORY

YES

IS DATA = 00
NO

GO FORWARD

C C

YES

IS DATA =01
NO YES

TURN ANTICLOCK WISE

IS DATA =02
NO

TURN CLOCKWISE

TURN ON LIFT

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STOP

TAKE INPUT FROM PORT B

IS COUNT = SET VALUE

YES

NO

INCREMENT MEMORY ADDRESS

PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD

Printed circuit boards are a piece of art. various steps in the design of PCB are The performance of an explained. The general

electronic circuit depends upon the layout design of PCB. In this chapter, consideration, while preparing Art work are devises computer aided design of PCB is mentioned. Printed circuit boards are used to note electrical currents and signals through copper tracks which are firmly boarded to an insulating base. Materials used for preparing PCB:

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INTELLIGENT PATH FINDER__________________________________________ The base materials for PCB are paper phenol . Paper phenol is less costly and used in consumer electronics circuits, paper phenol is more resistant to moisture but difficult to machine & drill as compared to glass epoxy. Ferric chloride is the electrochemical etchings used in the manufacturing of glass epoxy PCB. The choice of etching should be such that it should match with the etc. resistant used. Ferric chloride is recommended for etching small number of boards. It is not used in high volume production because it cannot be regenerated and it attacks metal etc resistant. Production Of PCB: The conductor pattern which is on the master film is transferred on copper clad laminate by two methods :1) Photo resist Printing 2) Screen Printing

Properties required for a good PCB's The boards must have good mechanical and electrical properties. preferred `acceptable' and `reject' properties. Basic properties are (i) Colour, (ii) resistance (iii) Current carrying capacity (iv) Inductance and Capacitance (v) Characteristic impedance (vi) Cross talk and ring. Colour :The colour of the material commonly used is usually It should have

`natural' which is a translucent yellowish green or an opaque pale yellowish brown for epoxy glass.

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INTELLIGENT PATH FINDER__________________________________________ Resistance & Current carrying capacity :Most of the tracks on

boards used with integrated circuits will be carrying a few mill amperes only but power & earth most be distributed to all boards. Inductance & capacitance: The inductance & capacitance of a track depend on its environment, the proximity of earth plane, the presence of other tracks etc. Characteristic Impedance: To achieve adequate transmission lines properties, the earth pale does not need to be continuous. A single isolated track can be run over an earth backing of more than three times the track width. Soldering : Soldering is a process used for joining metal parts. It is necessary to use molten metal known as solder. The melting temperature of solder is below that of the metal joined so that its surface is only wetted without melting. During soldering, relative positioning of the surfaces to be joined, wetting of these surfaces with molten solder & cooling time for solidification is important. For wetting of surface of metal to be joined, it is very necessary that atoms of solder must come down within atomic distances from the surface. It is necessary that the surface should be clean for a good electric contact. There are basically two soldering techniques. i) ii) Manual Soldering with iron.

Mass soldering. i) Iron soldering: - The iron consists of an insulation handle,

connected via a metal shank to the bit. SARDAR PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING - 64 -

INTELLIGENT PATH FINDER__________________________________________ The function of the bit is to i) ii) iii) Store heat & deliver it to the component. To store & deliver molten solder & flux.

To remove surpass solder from joint. Soldering with Iron: - The surface to be soldered must be cleaned &

fluxed.

The soldering iron is switched on & allowed to attain soldering

temperature. The solder in form of wire is applied near the component to be soldered & heated with iron. The surfaces to be soldered are filled, iron is removed & the joint is cooled without disturbing.

PCB DESIGN RULES Following steps were observed wile preparing PCBs for our .project 1. Using EXPRESS SCH we drew a schematic circuit diagram for the project. It saves time while designing PCB and reduces the possibility of wiring errors. 2. We used EXPRESS PCB program to draw PCB layout. 3. After calculating the size of the PCB we placed all the components that needed to be in specific locations. SARDAR PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING - 65 -

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4. Care was taken to place components in such a way so as to minimize trace length. 5. After placing the components, a print out of the layout was taken to ensure that all components have enough space to rest with out touching each other. 6. After the components were placed the next step was to lay power and ground traces. It is essential while with Ics to have solid power and ground lines, using wide traces that connect to common rails for each supply. It is very important to avoid snaking or daisy chaining the power lines from part to part. 7. While placing traces it is always a good practice to make them as short and direct as possible. Traces that carry significant current should be wider than signals traces. The table below gives rough guideline of how wide to make a trace for a given amount of current.

Trace width(inch) 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.050 0.100 0.150

Current(ampere) 0.3 0.4 0.7 1.0 2.0 4.0 6.0

8. It is to be ensured that thers is sufficient space between two traces. 9. Then a print out of the entire PCB layout is taken. 10.A silk screen(negative) for the same is produced on tracing paper paper (vinyl sheet) 11. This silk screen is given to PCB manufacturer for actual PCB production.

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PCB layout of white line sensor

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PCB layout of conditioner circuit of white line sensor

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PCB layout of microcontroller board

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Application :
It can place the pre loaded object to any desired predefined location at height higher than its own height. It can work in an enviroment which is hazardous for human being. It can track any path of distinct colours without using cameras.

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Conclusions:
The design, implementation, testing and demonstration of a working project proved to be very challenging. Given a specific set of requirements, we strove to produce a final product which was accurate, effective, no more complex than necessary, and most importantly, fulfilled the design goals. The difficulties in project management as well as those brought to light during experimentation provided an opportunity to work on ours problem-solving abilities . Despite the many problems encountered, we found this experience a rewarding and educational one. Faced with a delivery deadline and a limited budget, we acquired new technical skills while improving ours analytical and reasoning abilities The project met many of ours project goals. It is highly reactive and mobile during the path tracking. It emulates an actual insect in many respects, including the shell exoskeleton, the ability to respond to stimuli immediately, and the memory/thinking feature which stems from the fact that we used a microcontroller. Given time, we are confident that our design could be further improved and streamlined for optimal performance.

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Future modifications :
We believe our design should contain many strengths, however, there are some areas that could be modified, and the following are some suggestions for any attempts at reproducing or improving upon the project described in this report Improve power efficiency: As a dual 12V battery drives all circuitry and the motor, we found it had to be replaced frequently during testing. Reverse movement: The original design included driving the motor in both the forward and reverse directions. This idea was rejected for the sake of simplicity, however, it should be simple to add the reverse feature to the existing design. Motor Tracking : The Usage of stepper motors will greatly simplify the tracking and position detection of the robot rather that the currently tried out shaft encoder system. Speed control : Speed control of a DC motor can be achieved using choppers. Sensing : Sensing ,detection of obstacles and target can be made more efficient with the use of cameras. Algorithm : Detection can be made more accurate and precise using enhanced or modified algorithm.

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Bibliography :
BOOKS: Basics Of Robotics : Robot schilling Infra Red: - Documentation for IR ranging system http://www.Electronicsforu.com - IR sensors and proximity detector. ATMEL: http://www.Atmel.com - Data sheets and avrasm for programming http://www.avr-asm-tutorial.net - Documentation on various programming modes and interrupts Components : http://us.st.com/stonline/books/pdf/docs/2143.pdf - 7805 5V Voltage Regulator TO-220 package www.Seattleroboticssociety.com - Various circuits

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