Stem cell research is a relatively new technology that takes primitive human cells and develops them into

most any of the 220 varieties of cells in the human body, including blood cells and brain cells. Some scientists and researchers have great hope for stem cell research and its ability to uncover treatments and possibly even cures for some of the worst diseases including heart disease, diabetes, and neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's. Along with these hopeful possibilities, stem cell research engenders fears of human cloning and serious concerns over the ethics of conducting scientific research on, which includes the destruction of, human embryos. Human stem cells primarily come from embryos or adult tissue. Embryonic stem cells can be created solely for the purpose of stem cell research or they can be the leftover embryos from other processes, most likely from in-vitro fertilization (IVF). Fertility treatments usually result in the creation of multiple embryos. Since only the most viable embryos are selected for implantation, some embryos are leftover. The leftover embryos can be discarded, donated to others seeking fertility assistance, preserved, or donated to research. Most commonly, leftover embryos are discarded. Adult stem cells can be harvested from adult tissue with minor, if any, harm to the adult. Embryonic stem cells, however, are said to be generally easier to extract than the adult stem cells, and embryonic stem cells are said to have more uses than their adult counterparts. Because of their potential uses, and because of questions about when life begins, embryonic stem cells are the primary subject of the stem cell research debate. The overall debate over the ethics of stem cell research involves two major ethical concerns: (1) the potential for human cloning, and (2) whether these embryos, or pre-embryos as some refer to them, are human life. Perhaps the initial controversy over stem cell research related to the possibility of human cloning. Especially when stem cell research first gained popularity, researchers were concerned with the potential for using stem cells to clone humans. Proponents make many arguments in support of human cloning including the possibility of creating another you should body parts or tissues be needed later in life as one may develop illnesses and diseases. Opponents primarily argue that it is not within mans purview to manufacture, manipulate, or destroy human life. The other major ethical issue related to stem cell research involves the ongoing debate over when life begins. Some say that life begins at conception and that the use of humans, even immature ones, for research purposes is unethical. Others claim that the embryos are only tiny amounts of undifferentiated tissue and since they are already scheduled for destruction, and have great potential benefit, they should be used to potentially help others. It is legal to conduct stem cell research in the United States (US), even for the purposes of human cloning. Privately funded laboratories may engage in adult stem cell research or embryonic stem cell research whether the embryos were left over embryos from other processes or were harvested specifically for research. Recent debate centers on whether federal funds should be granted to stem cell research and if so what kind stem cells should be supported by this funding. In 2001, President Bush authorized the issuing of federal funds for stem cell research of over 60 existing stem cells lines. The funding was restricted to these cell lines because the issue of life and death was already decided; that is, the stem cell lines at that point were capable of independent and infinite regeneration.

Many of those that argue for federal funding of stem cell research, including embryonic stem cell research beyond the more than 60 identified stem cell lines, argue that the failure to fund stem cell research has greater ramifications than just limiting that type of research. Federal funds are not given to labs that conduct stem cell research even if the federal dollars are for non-stem cell research. The concern is that federal funds will be used in some way, or to some degree, for stem cell research. As a result, some major US labs have created, at great expense, duplicate laboratories, one dedicated to stem cell research, and another dedicated to non-stem cell research, so federal funds can continue to be received by the non-stem cell research lab.

Properties
The classical definition of a stem cell requires that it possess two properties:
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Self-renewal - the ability to go through numerous cycles of cell division while maintaining the undifferentiated state. Potency - the capacity to differentiate into specialized cell types. In the strictest sense, this requires stem cells to be either totipotent or pluripotent - to be able to give rise to any mature cell type, although multipotent or unipotent progenitor cells are sometimes referred to as stem cells.

Self-renewal
Two mechanisms exist to ensure that the stem cell population is maintained: 1. Obligatory asymmetric replication - a stem cell divides into one daughter cell that is identical to the original stem cell, and another daughter cell that is differentiated 2. Stochastic differentiation - when one stem cell develops into two differentiated daughter cells, another stem cell undergoes mitosis and produces two stem cells identical to the original.

Potency definitions
Pluripotent, embryonic stem cells originate as inner mass cells within a blastocyst. The stem cells can become any tissue in the body, excluding a placenta. Only the morula's cells are totipotent, able to become all tissues and a placenta.

Human embryonic stem cells A: Cell colonies that are not yet differentiated. B: Nerve cell Main article: Cell potency Potency specifies the differentiation potential (the potential to differentiate into different cell types) of the stem cell.
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Totipotent (a.k.a omnipotent) stem cells can differentiate into embryonic and extraembryonic cell types. Such cells can construct a complete, viable, organism.

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These cells are produced from the fusion of an egg and sperm cell. Cells produced by the first few divisions of the fertilized egg are also totipotent. Pluripotent stem cells are the descendants of totipotent cells and can differentiate into nearly all cells, i.e. cells derived from any of the three germ layers. Multipotent stem cells can differentiate into a number of cells, but only those of a closely related family of cells. Oligopotent stem cells can differentiate into only a few cells, such as lymphoid or myeloid stem cells. Unipotent cells can produce only one cell type, their own, but have the property of self-renewal which distinguishes them from non-stem cells (e.g. muscle stem cells).

Identification
The practical definition of a stem cell is the functional definition - a cell that has the potential to regenerate tissue over a lifetime. For example, the gold standard test for a bone marrow or hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) is the ability to transplant one cell and save an individual without HSCs. In this case, a stem cell must be able to produce new blood cells and immune cells over a long term, demonstrating potency. It should also be possible to isolate stem cells from the transplanted individual, which can themselves be transplanted into another individual without HSCs, demonstrating that the stem cell was able to self-renew. Properties of stem cells can be illustrated in vitro, using methods such as clonogenic assays, where single cells are characterized by their ability to differentiate and self-renew. As well, stem cells can be isolated based on a distinctive set of cell surface markers. However, in vitro culture conditions can alter the behavior of cells, making it unclear whether the cells will behave in a similar manner in vivo. Considerable debate exists whether some proposed adult cell populations are truly stem cells.

Embryonic
Embryonic stem cell lines (ES cell lines) are cultures of cells derived from the epiblast tissue of the inner cell mass (ICM) of a blastocyst or earlier morula stage embryos.[9] A blastocyst is an early stage embryoapproximately four to five days old in humans and consisting of 50150 cells. ES cells are pluripotent and give rise during development to all derivatives of the three primary germ layers: ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm. In other words, they can develop into each of the more than 200 cell types of the adult body when given sufficient and necessary stimulation for a specific cell type. They do not contribute to the extra-embryonic membranes or the placenta. Nearly all research to date has taken place using mouse embryonic stem cells (mES) or human embryonic stem cells (hES). Both have the essential stem cell characteristics, yet they require very different environments in order to maintain an undifferentiated state. Mouse ES cells are grown on a layer of gelatin and require the presence of Leukemia Inhibitory Factor (LIF).[10] Human ES cells are grown on a feeder layer of mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) and require the presence of basic Fibroblast Growth Factor (bFGF or FGF-2).[11] Without optimal culture conditions or genetic manipulation, [12] embryonic stem cells will rapidly differentiate.

A human embryonic stem cell is also defined by the presence of several transcription factors and cell surface proteins. The transcription factors Oct-4, Nanog, and Sox2 form the core regulatory network that ensures the suppression of genes that lead to differentiation and the maintenance of pluripotency.[13] The cell surface antigens most commonly used to identify hES cells are the glycolipids SSEA3 and SSEA4 and the keratan sulfate antigens Tra-1-60 and Tra-1-81. The molecular definition of a stem cell includes many more proteins and continues to be a topic of research.[14] After nearly ten years of research,[15] there are no approved treatments using embryonic stem cells. The first human trial was approved by the US Food & Drug Administration in January 2009. [16] However, as of August 2010, the first human trial had not yet been initiated. ES cells, being pluripotent cells, require specific signals for correct differentiation - if injected directly into another body, ES cells will differentiate into many different types of cells, causing a teratoma. Differentiating ES cells into usable cells while avoiding transplant rejection are just a few of the hurdles that embryonic stem cell researchers still face.[17] Many nations currently have moratoria on either ES cell research or the production of new ES cell lines. Because of their combined abilities of unlimited expansion and pluripotency, embryonic stem cells remain a theoretically potential source for regenerative medicine and tissue replacement after injury or disease.

Fetal
Fetal stem cells are primitive cell types found in the organs of fetuses. The classification of fetal stem cells remains unclear and this type of stem cell is currently often grouped into an adult stem cell. However, a more clear distinction between the two cell types appears necessary.

Adult
The term adult stem cell refers to any cell which is found in a developed organism that has two properties: the ability to divide and create another cell like itself and also divide and create a cell more differentiated than itself. Also known as somatic (from Greek , "of the body") stem cells and germline (giving rise to gametes) stem cells, they can be found in children, as well as adults.[19] Pluripotent adult stem cells are rare and generally small in number but can be found in a number of tissues including umbilical cord blood. [20] A great deal of adult stem cell research has focused on clarifying their capacity to divide or self-renew indefinitely and their differentiation potential.[21] In mice, pluripotent stem cells are directly generated from adult fibroblast cultures. Unfortunately, many mice don't live long with stem cell organs.[22] Most adult stem cells are lineage-restricted (multipotent) and are generally referred to by their tissue origin (mesenchymal stem cell, adipose-derived stem cell, endothelial stem cell, etc.).[23][24] Adult stem cell treatments have been successfully used for many years to treat leukemia and related bone/blood cancers through bone marrow transplants.[25] Adult stem cells are also used in veterinary medicine to treat tendon and ligament injuries in horses.[26]

The use of adult stem cells i research and therapy is not as controversial as embryonic stem cells, because the production of adult stem cells does not require the destruction of an embryo. Additionally, because in some instances adult stem cells can be obtained from t e h intended recipient, (an autograft the risk of rejection is essentially non-existent in these situations. Consequently, more US government funding is being provided for adult stem cell research. An extremely rich source for adult mesenchymal stem cells is the developing tooth bud of the mandibular third molar. While considered multipotent they may prove to be pluripotent. The stem cells eventually form enamel (ectodrm), dentin,periodont l ligament, blood vessels, a dental pulp, nervous tissues, including a minimum of 29 different unique end organs. Because of extreme ease in collection at 810 years of age before calcification and minimal to no morbidity will probably constitute a major source for personal banking, research and multiple therapies. These stem cells have been shown capable of producing hepatocytes.

Treatments
Main article: Stem cell treatments

Diseases and conditions where stem cell treatment is promising or emerging. Bone marrow transplantation is, as of 2009, the only established use of stem cells. Medical researchers believe that stem cell therapy has the potential to dramatical y change l the treatment of human disease. A number of adult stem cell therapies already exist, particularly bone marrow transplants that are used to treat leukemia.[52] In the future, medical researchers anticipate being able to use technologies derived from stem cel research to treat a l wider variety of diseases including cancer, Parkinson's disease, spinal cord injuries, Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple sclerosis, and muscle damage, amongst a number of other impairments and conditions.[53][54] However, there still exists a great deal of social and scientific uncertainty surrounding stem cell research, which could pos sibly be overcome through public debate and future research, and further education of the public.

One concern of treatment is the possible risk that transplanted stem cells could form tumors and have the possibility of becoming cancerous if cell division continues uncontrollably. [55] Stem cells, however, are already studied extensively. While some scientists are hesitant to associate the therapeutic potential of stem cells as the first goal of the research, they find the investigation of stem cells as a goal worthy in itself.[56] Contrarily, supporters of embryonic stem cell research argue that such research should be pursued because the resultant treatments could have significant medical potential. It is also noted that excess embryos created for in vitro fertilization could be donated with consent and used for the research. The recent development of iPS cells has been called a bypass of the legal controversy. Laws limiting the destruction of human embryos have been credited for being the reason for development of iPS cells, but they are less efficient and reliable than natural stem cells. Various methods are being developed to bypass this problem by removing mutation.

IMPORTANCE OF STEM CELL o list the ways in which stem cells are important is a broad task because stem cells use is virtually limitless. Stem cells have the potential to treat an enormous range of diseases and conditions that plague millions of people around the world. Their ability to treat so many diseases rests on their unique properties of:
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Self-renewal: stem cells can renew themselves almost indefinitely. This is also known as proliferation. Differentiation: stem cells have the special ability to differentiate into cells with specialised characteristics and functions. Unspecialised: stem cells themselves are largely unspecialised cells which then give rise to specialised cells.

Human Development One reason that stem cells are important is due to human development from stem cells. As such, an understanding of their unique attributes and control can teach us more about early human development. Diseases such as cancer are thought to result from abnormal cell proliferation and differentiation. This means that an understanding of where things go 'wrong' in stem cell division and thus lead to cancer can help us find ways to prevent the dysfunctional changes or employ effective ways to treat them with targeted drugs. Birth Defects Stem cell research has the potential to teach us more about how birth defects occur and how these can be prevented or possibly reversed. An understanding of the regulation and chemical triggers of stem cell proliferation and differentiation are key to addressing birth defects. Cell Therapies Probably the most important therapeutic value for stem cells is the use of cell therapies. A cell therapy is a treatment that replaces dysfunctional or diseased tissues with stem cells.

At present, stem cells are already used in cell therapies for treatment of some cancer types but this use is still small in the scheme of diseases affecting humans today. We are also using organ transplants but unfortunately, the number of organs available for transplant is scarce in comparison with those requiring an organ transplant. Many people suffer endlessly awaiting a transplant and others will die before they are able to receive one. The potential for stem cells to replace damaged cells and tissues is an exciting one for those who will require a transplant during their lifetime. Diseases that it is expected stem cells will treat one day include Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases as well as those diseases affecting the retina and heart. Clearly, stem cell use is exciting and holds great promise for treating and perhaps one day curing many diseases. Their importance ranges from an understanding of the principles behind human development to the cell based therapies addressing those aspects that go awry during development and lead to disease. For those who are already suffering from a disease that stem cells can treat, such as certain cancer types, stem cells may currently have more personal importance and relevance. For others, it is likely that at some point in their life, they or a loved one will be affected by a disease that stem cells can treat, so it's good to keep abreast of stem cell research. The wellbeing and health of those you love is important and equally important are the stem cells that may one day prolong and improve your own life.
Good and Bad of the Stem Cell Debate Opponents of embryonic stem cell research compare the destruction of an embryo to an abortion. They believe that the embryo constitutes life because it has the potential to fully develop into a human being. Those against embryonic stem cell use believe that is it immoral and unethical to destroy one life to save another.

By using stem cells and discarding the embryo, it is thought that human life is ultimately devalued by this act and is paving a slippery slope for further scientific procedures that similarly de-value life. In particular, many religious groups who are adamantly pro-life have condemned embryonic stem cell research and all of its applications. Other arguments against embryonic stem cells cite the fact that adult stem cells are the ones currently being used in therapies and thus, there is no need to even venture into embryonic stem cell territory. Those who support embryonic stem cell research believe that an embryo is not equivalent to human life because it is inside the womb. Supporters also contend that the societal costs of many diseases and conditions, both in monetary and suffering aspects, means that the ethical concerns regarding embryonic stem cell usage are not sufficient to warrant discontinuation of this promising therapy. Another argument for embryonic stem cell research is that the embryos are leftover from invitro fertilisation and would otherwise be destroyed, so they should instead be put to greater use. Even further down the line in development is the belief that those embryos from legal abortions, which have already been destroyed, would be better used to advance human health rather than simply discarded.