Analysis of Empty Weight of General Aviation Piston Engine Aircraft

Ibrahim K Consulting Aero Design Engineer, Bangalore, India; e-mail: ibrahimk40@gmail.com

Abstract
Regression analysis of weight data of general aviation piston engine aircraft (single engine with fixed and retractable gear and twin engine aircraft) with a Pax capacity of 4 to 9 suggests that airworthiness requirements for increased occupant protection introduced during the later half of 1980s have resulted in empty weight growth. It is interesting to note that weight penalty due to cabin pressurization on twin-engine aircraft manufactured before 1986 is about the same as that due to increased occupant protection. Potential reductions in the empty weight of all composite piston engine aircraft are not realized. The cause plausibly is that cumulative weight arising from a) minimum gauge requirements, b) conservative design and certification process, c) damage tolerant design requirement, d) lightning protection system e) poor impact resistance and f) manufacturing deficiencies, offsets the weight reduction achieved through high specific strength and high specific stiffness of composite materials.

I. Introduction
Airplane design is an iterative process. Convergence of the end result, therefore, depends on the initial inputs, which are derived from past experience. The closer the initial inputs are to the final values the lesser would be the number of iterations and the lesser would be the time required for conceptual design phase. References 1 and 2 constitute the primary source of design information for estimating take-off gross weight and standard empty weight of aircraft ranging from homebuilt to jet transport. Reference 3 provides regression analyses for weight estimation of light general aviation aircraft. However, there has been paradigm shift in occupant protection, through introduction of regulatory requirements, a) installation of shoulder harness on previously certificated aircraft manufactured after 1986 and b) design of seat and restrain system capable of surviving a 21g horizontal and 15g vertical impact for the passenger and 26g horizontal and 19g vertical for the pilot for aircraft certificated after 1988. The market for composite aircraft structures in general aviation has been rapidly growing since 1990 as evidenced by all composite Diamond Aircraft DA 40 and DA 42, Cirrus Design Corporations SRV, SR20 and SR 22 and Lancair International Incorporations Columbia 350 and 400 aircraft. Cabin pressurization is incorporated in a design for passenger comfort and to provide the capability to fly over most weather. Cabin pressurization, therefore, is being included in the mission requirements for the new piston twins (Adam A500 and Diamond DA42 NG Diesel Twin). There is, therefore, a need to develop design tools for computation of empty weight of aircraft taking into consideration effect of these three phenomena. Regression analyses of weight data of general aviation piston aircraft (Refs. 4-7) with a Pax capacity of 4 to 9 are carried out. Influence of a) increased occupant protection and b) cabin pressurization in piston twins and c) application of composite materials, on standard empty weight of general aviation piston aircraft is assessed. Regressed equations in terms of take-off weight are derived.

II. Design Trends

Examination of design trends for general aviation aircraft reveals that average empty weight fraction of fixed gear piston singles remains less than 0.6 and decreases marginally over the years until mid 1980s (Fig. 1a). Likewise average empty weight fraction of retractable gear piston singles remains around 0.6 and decreases marginally over the years (Fig. 1b). Average empty weight fraction of piston twins is more than 0.6 and remains nearly invariant (Fig. 1c) until mid 1980s. The marginal decrease observed in the case of piston singles is attributable to advances made in the structural mechanics, development of improved analysis tools and more compact and lighter avionics. However, with the exception of Tecnam P2006T piston twin, there is a jump in the empty weight fraction of all piston engine aircraft since the later half of 1980s, though less pronounced in the case of piston twins. This is primarily due to increased occupant protection provided through shoulder harness in the case of previously certificated aircraft manufactured after 1986 and design of seat and restrain system capable of surviving 21g horizontal, and 15g vertical impact for the passenger and 26g horizontal and 19g vertical impact for the pilot for aircraft certificated after 1988.

0.8 WE/WTO

0.6

0.4 1952 1956 1960 1964 1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004 2008 2012

Fig. 1a Variation of empty weight fraction over the years - fixed gear piston singles
0.8

WE/WTO
WE/WTO

0.6

0.4 1952 1956 1960 1964 1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004 2008 2012

Fig. 1b Variation of empty weight fraction over the years - retractable gear piston singles
0.8

0.6
P2006T

0.4 1952 1956 1960 1964 1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004 2008 2012

Fig. 1c Variation of empty weight fraction over the years - piston twins

III. Increased Occupant Protection

With a view to reduce serious and fatal injuries sustained in potentially survivable accidents, all previously type-certificated general aviation aircraft manufactured since December 1986 are fitted with shoulder harnesses (upper body restraint) in all seats in compliance with FAR 23.2. This significantly increases the occupant protection in the event of sudden exposure to abrupt impact forces or even extreme conditions of buffeting during flight. Subsequently introduction of FAR 23.562, the dynamic test criteria effective since September 1988, requires that the seat and restraint system undergo dynamic tests with peak decelerations of 15-19g predominantly vertically and 21-26g predominantly longitudinally (two separate tests). Accordingly, all newly type-certificated aircraft since 1988 are fitted with seats and restraint systems, which provide demonstrated occupant protection performance as specified in FAR 23.562. Compliance of FAR 23.2 necessitates replacement of seats and significant redesign and strengthening of airframe. Compliance of FAR 23.562 warrants design of seat and restraint system for increased loads associated with large decelerations. Thus compliance of the FAR sections increases structural weight and therefore, standard empty weight. Accordingly empty weight fractions of airplanes that are currently in production would be higher than those produced before 1986. Hence standard empty weight data is found to segregate into two groups; a) designs currently in production and b) those produced before 1986.

IV. Fixed Gear Piston Singles

Standard empty weights of fixed gear piston singles excluding all composite aircraft are plotted in Fig. 2. Higher empty weights of a) Fuji FA200 Aero Subaru receiving FAA certificate on 26 September 1967, and b) Russian Ilyushin IL103 certificated in 1996 (Russian) are due to the fact that they are certificated under the aerobatic

category. Reasons for lower empty weights of South Korean Design ACG91 certificated in 1991 and Gippsland GA8 Airvan certificated in December 2000 cannot be ascribed with certainty in the absence of detailed data.
1400 Standard empty weight (WE), kg
ti o n o te c t Pr pa n ccu ed O
6XT 206H 6X Saratoga Stnr6 Saratoga 185 Ch6 Stnr8 GA.8 G358

1200
WE = - 2.75 + 0.630 WTO

1000
raf Airc
172R WIII ArIII 172S

n t ma

d af ture ufac
IL.103

te r

ith 6w 198
182T 182R

e Incr

as

Z143 180

800

TB200 ACG91 MXT7 TB9 R3000 ArII FA200 J184

600

P66 Ch

S185 M4

DR400 Ch180

aft m Aircr

1986 efore ed b r actu W = -31.1 + 0.568 W anuf

Dakota
E

TO

400 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 Take-off weight (WTO), kg

Fig. 2 Empty weight of general aviation fixed gear piston singles-excluding composite aircraft Weight increase due to increased occupant protection varies from 9 per cent at the lower end to 7.8 per cent at upper end of the take-off weight spectrum. Equations of the regressed lines are as below. WE = 2.75 + 0.630 WTO (1) for aircraft manufactured after 1986 and WE = 31.1 + 0.568 WTO (2) for aircraft manufactured before 1986.

V. Retractable Gear Piston Singles

Weight data of retractable gear piston singles are depicted in Fig. 3. Reasons for the data points of Commander 112 (1973) and Commander 112TC (1977) standing high above the regressed line for aircraft manufactured after 1986 cannot be ascribed with certainty. Weight increase due to increased occupant protection varies from 2.7 per cent at the lower end to 12 per cent at upper end of weight spectrum. Equations of the regressed lines for the retractable gear piston singles are given in the next page. WE = 292 + 0.863 WTO (3) for aircraft manufactured after 1986 and WE = 14.6 + 0.581 WTO (4) for aircraft manufactured before 1986.
1600
WE = - 292 + 0.863 WTO

Standard empty weight (WE), kg

1400
6 98 r1 te af

1200

VI. Piston Twins

Amongst the piston twins, Adam A500 and Cessna 336 and 337G are of twin boom and pod configuration with their engines mounted along the fuselage centreline in push-pull arrangement. Rest of the airplanes are of conventional configuration with their engines mounted on the wing. Upon correlation (Fig. 4), while the first group includes aircraft manufactured before

1000

ed ur ct a uf an m t af rC112TC Eagle irc A

C112

800

ed tur fac nu ma WE = 14.6 + 0.581 WTO aft r irc A

6 98 e1 for be

600 1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

2200

Take-off weight (WTO), kg

Fig. 3 Empty weight of retractable gear piston singles

1986 (open circles), the second group comprises of a) aircraft equipped with cabin pressurization manufactured before 1986 (open triangles) and b) aircraft manufactured after 1986 (filled triangles). Data point of TECNAM P2006T certificated in 2004, however, crosses over. Low empty weight of TECNAM P2006T is reported to be attributable to its high structural efficiency and excellent weight to power ratio of the Rotax engines (Ref. 7). The Cessna 335 an unpressurized six-seat aircraft powered by two Continental TSIO-520-EB engines of 300 hp (225 kW) each was certificated in October 1979. It appears the same externally as the pressurized Cessna 340. Since it is a derivative of pressurized Cessna 340, its empty weight is higher than that of unpressurised aircraft. Cessna Model 411 powered by 340 hp/254 kW Continental Motors GTSIO-520-C engine was certificated in 1960. It had a crew of one or two and room for four to six passengers. It was an unpressurized aircraft. However, it had walkabout cabin. Its higer weight may possibly be due to its relatively large cabin. Dispersion of data points clearly brings out that cabin pressurization entails higher empty weight. Differential pressure between outside and inside the cabin necessitates structural reinforcement of the cabin walls to contain higher pressure. This reinforcement adds 2800 weight. In the case of turbojet and turbofan 86 aircraft pressurized air is tapped at the LP/HP WE = 82.5 + 0.646 WTO 19 e pr stages of the compressor for cabin of PA31 2400 BE65 s pressurization. In the case of piston aircraft, inPA31 C404 Tw B206 high pressure air is drawn from turbocharger 500S ed is C421 which runs on waste exhaust gases from the ur BN2 ss e C411 engine. The turbocharger provides additional 2000 BE60 PA60 Pr d BN2 power at sea level and undiminished power at C402C anC340 BE58 6 PA31 8G58 high cruising altitudes thereby enhancing 19 86 er AEST aircraft performance. Thus, the additional t 19 af PA34 PA27 1600 re C310Q fo weight associated with cabin pressurization ed be ur T337G ct P68C BE55 ed includes a) weight of turbocharger and its a r uf DA42 L200 tu PA23 an ac installation, b) cabin ducting and c) increase in M L6CB uf ft 1200 an weight of fuselage designed to withstand the C336 ra PA44 tM irc PA30 BE76 af A r cyclic application of loads associated with WE = 5.0 + 0.617 WTO rc Ai pressurization.
Standard empty weight (WE), kg

Equations of the regressed lines are

800
P2006T

WE = 82.5 + 0.646 WTO

(5)
400 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000

for aircraft certificated after 1988 and those with cabin pressurization manufactured before 1986 and

Take-off weight (WTO), kg

WE = 5.0 + 0.617 WTO

(6)

Fig. 4 Standard empty weight of piston twins

for aircraft without cabin pressurization manufactured before 1986. Weight increase due to enhanced occupant protection requirements as well as cabin pressurization varies from 7.7 per cent at the lower end to 5.0 per cent at upper end of the take-off weight spectrum. There ought to be a saving in wing weight and consequently in the empty weight due to inertia bending relief from the engines mounted on the wings, because of their mass partially counteracting the upward lift produced by the wings. However, data point of Cessna 336 unpressurized Skymaster (engines mounted along the fuselage centreline) stands coalesced with unpressurized wing mounted configurations manufactured before 1986 and Cessna 337G pressurized Skymaster (filled triangle) with its two engines mounted along the fuselage centreline, stands coalesced along with the data of pressurized wing mounted configurations, suggesting that in the case of general aviation piston twins benefit from inertia relief is not significant.

VII. Use of Composite Materials

Aluminum alloys have been the principal structural material for aircraft for a long time. They constitute relatively mature and reasonably well-understood classes of materials. However, with the advent of composite materials aircraft structural design, manufacturing, and repair practices are undergoing a sea change. The advantages of composite materials are a) high specific strength and high specific stiffness, b) tailored directional properties, c) non-corroding in salt environments, d) excellent fatigue resistance, e) dimensional stability and f) ability to form complex shapes inexpensively allows radical part count reductions in aircraft structures primarily in fuselage and other lifting surfaces, thereby reducing tooling expenses and therefore manufacturing costs (Ref. 8). High specific strength, high specific stiffness and tailored directional properties translate into reduced structural weight. A) Military Combat Aircraft Military combat aircraft designers were among the first to incorporate weight-saving composite materials into U.S. F-14 and F-15 fighters. Payoff for combat aircraft is in performance through reduced empty weight, increased payload and speed, besides resistance to corrosion and fatigue (Ref. 9). In the year 1990, 25 per cent of structural weight of composite materials used in the construction of AV-8B Mk.5 Harrier airframe caused a weight reduction of 25 per cent compared to all metal construction (Ref. 10). B) Transport Aircraft Transport aircraft are not far behind in adopting the composite materials technology. Operating efficiency, economy with passenger comfort, and savings on maintenance are paramount in commercial transport aircraft. Reduced airframe weight pays off in fuel economy and, therefore, reduces direct operating cost for the operators (Ref. 9). Switch over from metal to FRP for elevators of B727 and B737, and vertical stabilizers of DC10 contributed to about 30 per cent weight reduction (Ref. 11) in component weight. Use of composite materials for the empennage structure of the A320 series and B777 in the 1990s as well as empennage structure and centre wing box of A380 in the 21st century has resulted in component structural weight reduction of approximately 20 per cent (Ref. 12). Use of composites to outboard wing assembly of the Gulfstream G650 resulted in its weight reduction of 35 per cent (Ref. 13). C) General Aviation Aircraft General aviation aircraft industry has aggressively adopted composite materials technology. Majority of the new piston singles introduced in the last decade have composite structures is an indication of the oncoming change. Use of composite materials, primarily carbon and other high performance fibres in epoxy matrix on Beechcraft Starship aircraft, with 8-10 Pax plus 2 crew, resulted in 19 per cent weight reduction compared to an identical aluminum airframe (Ref. 14).

VIII. Attendant Implications

Although composite materials have certain advantages over conventional materials, composites also have some disadvantages, which give rise to additional design, development and regulatory requirements, specific to composite aircraft, dealt in the following paragraphs. Compliance of these additional requirements adds to structural weight. A. Minimum Gauge Requirements Wing loading is an indicator of the structural loading condition of an airplane. The faster the airplane cruises, the higher is its wing loading. Cruising speeds of general aviation piston aircraft are the lowest of all the transport aircraft viz., turboprops, turbofans and turbojets. Therefore, they have the lowest wing loading of 60-130 kg/m2, compared to 100-460 kg/m2 of turboprops, and 240-760 kg/m2 of turbofans. Thus general aviation piston engine aircraft are lightly loaded compared to their commercial counterparts. A significant portion of their structural design is governed by stiffness considerations rather than strength (Ref. 15). In such cases sizing of structural elements is constrained by minimum gauge requirements (Ref. 16) compatible with allowable deformations, especially for skin material and for low-density sandwich core material adding to structural weight. B. Design and Certification Process Metals are isotropic and have been well characterized through extensive testing, to understand how they will perform in a certain conditions; a designer can consult a materials handbook (specifying an alloy and heat treatment), there is no need to conduct expensive materials testing. Composite structural design and manufacturing technology is not yet as mature as metallic structures for aerospace structural applications. Therefore, for a designer working with composites there are no such equivalent tools. This is due to a number of factors including engineers

limited design experience with composite materials, the huge variability between composite materials and the much closer relationship between the shape of the component and loading conditions it is being designed for. Small changes in fibre orientation and fibre/matrix ratio can significantly alter the materials load path and failure mode (Ref. 17). To account for these uncertainties designer uses higher factors of safety. There is relative lack of knowledge of the behaviour of mechanically fastened joints. Composite designers, at this point of time, are not able to design with the same degree of confidence for, longevity and various aspects of structural integrity as they can with metals (Ref. 15) necessitating incorporation of higher safety factors in design. There are several factors that cause the composite structures fail differently than metallic structures. First, composite materials are not isotropic and homogenous like most aluminum alloys. Second, composite materials are generally brittle and lack the inherent benefit of the ductility exhibited by aluminum alloys. Third, the initiation and growth of material-level damage and the failure modes of composite structure are not well understood and therefore cannot be predicted accurately. Besides, the effective design allowables should correspond to ambient conditions when the laminate has absorbed moisture. The obvious method would be to conduct tests under these conditions. However, testing in this manner on full scale flight vehicle can be prohibitive in terms of both cost and time scale. Due to these complications, the current design and analysis methods are semi-empirical and rely heavily on the building-block approach to design and certification. Therefore, certificating agencies constrain designers to employ bloated factors of safety to accommodate any unanticipated deleterious effects of material variability, temperature and moisture on composite structural behaviour (Ref. 18). Overweight of Windecker Eagle is attributed to reluctance on the part of FAA to accept the new construction method without high safety factors, citing the possibility of imperfections and bonding gaps within the composite materials (Ref. 19). Likewise, the use of composite materials on Beechcraft Starship I resulted in 19 per cent weight reduction compared to an identical aluminum airframe (Ref. 14). However, the conservative certification requirements forced both the fuselage and wing structure to be strengthened by adding significant additional structure to receive certification. This added quite a bit of weight to the aircraft, so other components had to be beefed up as well, adding yet more weight. As a consequence aircraft weight increased by more than a ton (Ref. 20). Thus, current design and certification requirements for composite aircraft structure are generally more complex and conservative than for metal structures. C. Damage Tolerant Design FAR 23.573 effective since 1993, stipulate damage tolerant design for composite airframe structures. Damage tolerance is the measure of the structure's ability to sustain a level of damage or presence of a defect and be able to perform its operating functions. It, therefore, requires the structure to retain, after a partial failure, the capability to withstand the limit load. Damage tolerant design is based either on the use of redundant solution (multiple load paths) or on the slow crack propagation (low stresses) approaches (Ref. 21). Both these approaches cause increase in structural weight. D. Lightning Protection According to the FAA, commercial aircraft are struck an average of once every 3,000 flight hours, or about once a year (Ref. 22). General aviation aircraft being small in size are less susceptible to lightning strikes. The danger, however, lurks. In the event of lightning bolt striking an aircraft structure, electric current up to 200,000 Amps seeks the path of least resistance (Ref. 23). FAR 23.867 stipulate that the airplane must be protected against catastrophic effects from lightning. Aluminum and other metals are highly conductive. Hence a transient charge from a lightning striking a metal aircraft structure discharges into the metal body with current from the discharge being distributed relatively evenly over the body. Thus, a metal aircraft suffers no damages or only minor damages due to typical lightning strike. On the contrary, composite structures are either totally not conductive or significantly less conductive than metals. The design objective for lightning protection of aircraft is to enable the aircraft to accept a lightning flash, in flight or on ground, without experiencing any damage. This is achieved by providing adequate conductive paths for lightning currents to flow through the airframe between possible lightning entry and exit points through a) bonding aluminum foil to the structure as the outside ply; b) bonding aluminum or copper mesh to the structure as the outside

ply or embedded one ply down; and c) incorporating strands of conductive material into the laminates (Ref. 23). Since aluminum or copper foil, and mesh and strands of conductive material are nonstructural, they constitute weight penalty (Ref. 24). Weight penalty for adding lightning protection to a composite aircraft is 1.5% to 2.5% of its empty weight (Ref. 25). Gross take-off and empty weights of HANSA, an all composite two-place trainer aircraft designed and developed by National Aerospace Laboratories, Bangalore, India, are 750 kg and 525 kg respectively. Additional weight due to installation of lightning protection is 15 kg, which is 2.85% of empty weight (Ref. 26). E. Protection Against Impact Damage Laminated composite materials and sandwich structures, due to the stacking sequence of lamina, have a very low stiffness and strength through-the-thickness direction, when compared with the in-plane properties, since no fibers may be present through the thickness (Ref. 27). It has been reported that the impact induced interlaminar shear stress and the in-plane tensile stress in the direction transverse to fibre orientation are major components that contribute to initial matrix cracking, and fibre breakage eventually leading to delamination (Ref. 28). Consequently, damage due to out-of-plane loading can cause serious degrading of the mechanical properties. Composite aircraft structures are subjected to out-of-plane loads arising from impact of hailstones, bird strike and tool drop. Impact damage is internal and usually cannot be detected by visual examination of the specimen surface. It is reported that to ensure barely visible impact damage does not cause delamination resulting in structural failure, composite aircraft components are often designed with a factor safety of 3 or more (Ref. 29) leading to added weight. Since impact induced delamination occurs due to composite materials relatively low interlaminar strength, interface toughening through the use of adhesive layers has been found to improve impact resistance (Ref. 30). Accordingly some designers provide extra material thickness at the cost of additional weight (Ref. 24). Yet another way of protection from impact damage is adding impact energy absorbing layer to reduce the intensity of impact. This benefit too comes with a weight penalty (Ref. 31) F. Manufacturing Deficiencies For fabricating structural components, while Diamond Aircraft uses primarily a wet layup process, Cirrus Design Corporation and Lancair Company employ prepreg / hand layup process (Ref. 32). In the case of wet layup, resin mixing, laminate resin contents, and laminate quality are dependent on the skills of the laminators. Low resin content laminates cannot usually be achieved without incorporation of excessive quantities of voids. Tight weave fabrics are difficult to saturate with high viscosity resins, resulting in low strength (Ref. 33). In view of these designers constrained to use higher factors of safety eventually resulting in increased structural weight.

IX. Empty Weight of Composite Piston Engine Aircraft

General aviation composite piston singles are Diamond Aircraft Industries DA40, Cirrus Design Corporation SRV, SR20 and SR22, Lancair Company Columbia 350 and Columbia 400, Kestrel K250 and Windecker Industries Eagle. Unlike in the case of tactical and commercial transport aircraft, the empty weight of general aviation all composite piston singles, with the exception of Kestrel 250, is either equal to that of metal aircraft or higher. Fig. 5 depicts empty weights of all aircraft including those of composite aircraft (Filled circles). Data points of composite aircraft (Filled circles) should be lying much below the regressed line for metal aircraft (Fig. 5). While Diamond Aircraft DA40 and Columbia 400 stand coalesced along the regressed line for the aircraft manufactured after 1986, all the Cirrus aircraft and Columbia 350 lie farther away from the regressed line. Cirrus SRV, SR20 and SR22 aircraft are provided with airframe parachute recovery system (PRS) as standard equipment for pilots and passengers in the event of serious in-flight emergency. The weight of PRS is a function of aircraft weight and square of stall speed. Most general aviation piston engine aircraft have similar stall speeds. Consequently PRS weight depends on aircraft weight. PRS tested on Cessna 150, 172 and 182 weigh 45 lb, 67 lb and 85 lb respectively (Ref. 34). Diamond Aircraft Newsletter Issue 8 indicates a weight of 130 lb for PRS conceived for Diamond Aircraft D-Jet. These weights exhibit linear variation with take-off weights (Fig. 6). Using this variation, weights of PRS for Cirrus aircraft are computed. Upon normalizing the empty weights of Cirrus aircraft for similar equipment standard as that of the other aircraft through subtraction of these weights, data points lie close to the regressed line for metal aircraft (Fig. 7).

1400 Standard empty weight (WE), kg

io n tect
G358

1200
WE = - 2.75 + 0.630 WTO

1000
Airc
172R WIII DA40

m raft

an

da SR20 ture SRV ufac

IL.103 Z143

fte r

ith 6w 198
182T 182R

e Incr
C300

as

ro nt P upa Occ ed
C400 6XT 206H 6X Saratoga Stnr6 Saratoga

C350 SR22

Stnr8

GA.8

800
TB9

ArIII 172S ACG91

600

P66 Ch

S185 M4

TB200 MXT7 R3000 ArII FA200 J184 K250 DR400 Ch180

86 re 19 befo tured ac WE = - 31.1 + 0.568 WTO anuf aft m Aircr

180 Dakota

185

Ch6

400 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 Take-off weight (WTO), kg

Fig. 5 Empty weight of general aviation fixed gear piston singles-composite aircraft superposed In the case of Columbia 350 and 400, a part of the increase in weight is attributable to the fact that these aircraft are certificated under utility category. Upon normalizing the empty weights of these aircraft for a load factor of 3.8g through subtracting the increase in weight of about 50 kg estimated using typical ratios of structural weight and weight of structure designed for strength, and scaling for the load factors, data points of Columbia 350 and 400 lie close to the regression line for metal aircraft (Fig. 7). Data point of fixed gear composite aircraft Kestrel K250 certificated after 1988 stands close to the regressed line for metal aircraft manufactured before 1986 (Fig. 7). Regression equations for aircraft data including all composite aircraft are given below.
60 Weight of PRS (WPRS), kg
WPRS, kg = 3.57 + 0.0241 WTO
D-Jet

50

WE = 2.33 + 0.6316 WTO

for aircraft manufactured after 1986 and

(7) (8)

40

C182

WE = 28.1 + 0.566 WTO

for aircraft manufactured before 1986.

C172

30

Difference between the empty weights computed using the equation (1) and equation (7) is negligibly C150 20 small (about 0.2%). The two equations, therefore, can be treated as one and the same. This clearly suggests 600 1000 1400 1800 2200 2600 that tangible gains are not realized through application Take-off weight (WTO), kg of composite materials technology to general aviation piston engine aircraft (Diamond, Cirrus, and Columbia). Fig. 6 Weight of parachute recovery system (PRS) The small size and low weight of general aviation piston engine aircraft means that the cumulative weight penalty that comes from a) minimum gauge requirement, b) conservative design and certification process, c) damage tolerant design, d) lightning protection system e) poor impact resistance and f) manufacturing deficiencies, is significant and is likely of the same order of magnitude as the weight reduction achieved through high specific strength and high specific stiffness of composite materials. Data point of Windecker Eagle, a retractable gear composite aircraft manufactured before 1986, stands away from the regressed line for metal aircraft (Fig. 3).

1400 Standard empty weight (WE), kg

ion tect
G358

1200
WE = - 2.33 + 0.6316 WTO

1000

800
TB9 172R WIII DA40

fa c anu IL.103 a ft m r Airc

ArIII 172S 180 TB200 MXT7 R3000 ArII FA200 K250 DR400 Ch180

te r d af ture
SRV Z143

6w 198
182T 182R

i th

ed O eas Incr
C350 SR22

pa ccu
6XT 6X

ro nt P

206H C400

Stnr8

GA.8

Saratoga Stnr6 Saratoga

SR20

600

P66 Ch

S185 M4

185 1986 fore d be ACG91 ture ac WE = -28.1 + 0.566 WTO anuf J184 aft m Aircr Dakota

Ch6

400 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 Take-off weight (WTO), kg

Fig. 7 Empty weight of general aviation fixed gear piston singles including composite aircraft Among the piston twins Diamond DA42 Twin Star and Adam A500 are the only two all composite aircraft. While empty weight of Diamond DA42 stands coalesced with the data for the metal aircraft manufactured after 1986, empty weight of Adam A500 (filled star) stands far away from the regression line (Fig. 4). Adam A500 is the only pressurized aircraft in the category of piston twins manufactured after 1986. Upon subtraction of the weight associated with cabin pressurization, about 170 kg computed using the two regression equations of Fig. 4, the data point stands close to the regression line applicable to aircraft manufactured after 1986, reiterating the earlier finding that tangible reductions in empty weights are not realized through application of composite materials for general aviation piston engine aircraft.

X. Conclusions
Average empty weight fraction of general aviation piston engine aircraft marginally declined over the years until mid 1980s and suddenly increased thereafter. This is primarily due to increased occupant protection. Regression analysis of standard empty weight data of general aviation piston aircraft with a Pax capacity of 4 to 9 suggests that additional requirements for increased occupant protection have resulted in empty weight growth varying from about 9 per cent at the lower end to 7.8 per cent at the upper end of take-off weight spectrum in the case of fixed gear piston singles and from 2.7 per cent to 12 per cent in the case of retractable gear piston singles. In the case of piston twins, weight increase due to increased occupant protection varies from 7.7 per cent at the lower end to 5.0 per cent at the upper end of the take-off weight spectrum. It is interesting to note that weight penalty due to cabin pressurization on aircraft manufactured before 1986 is about the same as that due to increased occupant protection. Tangible reduction in the empty weight of general aviation piston engine composite aircraft is not realized. It is surmised that the cumulative weight penalty arising from a) minimum gauge requirement, b) conservative design and certification process, c) damage tolerant design, d) lightning protection system e) poor impact resistance and f) manufacturing deficiencies, offsets the reduction achieved through high specific strength and high specific stiffness of composite materials.

Acknowledgments
The author expresses deep sense of gratitude to Mahindra Aerospace Private Limited, Bangalore, India for permitting publication of this work. The author sincerely thanks R Meenakshisundaram, Structural Analyst, formerly with Aircraft Research and Design Centre of Hindustan Aeronautics Limited, Bangalore, India, for helpful suggestions during preparation of this paper.

References
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29 30

31 32 33 34

Table 1 Fixed Gear Piston Singles Weight Data

Aircraft GA-8 DA 40 Gavilan Z-143 DR400-180 R3000/160 TB 9 TB 10 TB200 P.66C-160 FA-200 IL-103 ACG 91 Cessna 172R Cessna 172S Cessna 180 Cessna 182R Cessna 182T Cessna Stationair 6 Cessna 206H Cessna Stationair 8 Cirrus SR V Cirrus SR20 Aircraft TB.20 (1998) TB.20 (2004) IL I-23 IAR-823 Beech Bonanza 1959 Beech Bonanza 1961 Beech Debonair B33, 1963 Beech Debonair C33A 1966 Beech Bonanza V35TC 1966 Beech Bonanza E33A 1968 Beech Bonanza A36, 1975 Beechcraft C24R Sierra 1977 Beechcraft A36, 1979 Beechcraft A36, N715LT Beechcraft G36 Bonanza Beechcraft G36 Bonanza Cessna 210 Cessna T210L, 1973 Cessna T210M, 1977 Cessna Turbo 210N, 1983 Cessna P210R, 1985 Commander 112, 1973 Commander 112TC-A, 1977 Commander 114TC, 1996 Commander 114B, 1999 WTO, kg 1814 1100 2041 1350 1100 1150 1060 1150 1150 990 1060 1285 1225 1111 1157 1270 1406 1406 1633 1633 1723 1361 1361 WTO, kg 1400 1397 1150 1500 1338 1417 1361 1497 1542 1497 1633 1247 1633 1656 1656 1656 1814 1724 1724 1814 1860 1202 1338 1499 1478 WE, kg 997 680 1270 830 600 650 653 730 730 600 620 900 680 743 755 733 786 894 883 1034 969 930 939 WE, kg 912 869 690 880 831 841 792 856 917 869 951 769 996 1019 1125 1148 1120 996 1054 1045 1121 782 923 976 953 Aircraft Cirrus SR22 Jaran 184 Tempest Kestrel K-250 Columbia 300 Columbia 400 Spartan 185 M-4 Rocket Piper Warrior III Piper Archer III Piper Dakota Piper Saratoga Piper 6XT Piper 6X Cherokee 180 Piper Archer II Cherokee 6 Saratoga 2005 Cessna172 1978 Cessna 185 Columbia 350 1966 Piper Cherokee Maule MXT-7 WTO, kg 1543 1202 1135 1542 1633 1034 1043 1107 1157 1361 1633 1633 1633 1089 1157 1542 1633 1160 1520 1542 975 1134 WE, kg 1021 635 624 1021 1044 612 553 701 764 730 880 1037 1005 556 641 811 939 738 794 1043 512 693

Table 2 Retractable Gear Piston Singles Weight Data

Aircraft Mooney Bravo, 1998 Mooney Encore, 1998 Mooney Ovation2 GX, 2005 Mooney Bravo M20M, 2006 Mooney Ovation3, 2007 Mooney Acclaim M20TN Piper Comanche 250, 1958 Piper Comanche 250, 1960 Piper Comanche 250, 1964 Piper Comanche 400, 1964 Piper Lance, 1976 Piper Turbo Arrow III, 1978 Piper Turbo Arrow, 1982 Piper Comanche 180 Piper Malibu Matrix, 2008 Piper Arrow II, 1974 Piper Arrow Piper Arrow IV, 2005 Piper Saratoga SP 1983 Piper Saratoga II HP Piper Saratoga HP, 1998 Piper Saratoga HP, 1998 Piper Saratoga II TC, 2006 Piper Saratoga II TC, 2007 Piper Mirage, 2005 WTO, kg 1528 1150 1528 1528 1530 1528 1270 1361 1315 1633 1633 1315 1315 1157 1950 1202 1247 1247 1633 1633 1633 1633 1633 1633 1969 WE, kg 1029 715 1000 1068 1028 1077 767 806 767 957 895 754 767 694 1397 694 812 811 909 1086 1092 1118 1125 1123 1406

Stallion Lancair IV Meyers 200A Mooney 205, 1987 Mooney 252, 1988 Mooney Ovation, 1997

1724 1452 1361 1243 1315 1528

998 998 880 769 816 1009

Piper Mirage, 2006 R90-RG Beech D35 1979 Cessna 182 RG 1978 Mooney 201

1969 1350 1236 1406 1243

1416 898 760 836 744

Table 3 Piston Twins - Weight Data

Aircraft Diamond DA.42 Let.200 Vulcanair P.68C Tecnam P2006T Sibnia L.6CB Beagle B.206 Britten-Norman BN-2 Beech 60 Duke Beech 65 Queen Air Beech 76 Duchess Beechcraft B55 Beech G58 Beech B58 Pr Cessna 310Q Cessna 335 Cessna 337D Cessna T337G Cessna 340 WTO, kg 1785 1950 2084 1110 1800 3401 2993 3073 3719 1780 2313 2495 2812 2495 2855 1995 2132 2719 WE, kg 1272 1275 1420 640 1250 2177 1925 1987 2324 1110 1468 1744 1826 1493 1923 1204 1444 1780 Aircraft Cessna 402C Cessna 404 Cessna 411 Cessna 414 Cessna 421 Piper Apache Piper Aztec Piper PA.30 Piper Novajo Piper Navajo Pr. Piper Mojave Piper Mojave Piper PA.60 Piper PA.60 (TC) Piper Seneca V Piper Seminole Gulfstream GA7 Rockwell 500S WTO, kg 3107 3810 2948 3062 3103 2177 2360 1690 2950 3540 3175 3265 2495 2864 2155 1724 1725 3060 WE, kg 1845 2252 1973 1976 2132 1241 1508 1097 1843 2380 1988 2300 1695 1940 1545 1177 1174 2102