Space Propulsion

Pioneer 10

Pioneer 11

Voyager 1

Voyager 2

Launch Date Loss of Signal

Mar. 3,1972 2001 (1994 expected) (at 59 AU) 2.4 2.9

Apr. 5,1973 1996 (at 45 AU) 2.2 12.6

Aug. 20,1977 2012 (at 121 AU) 3.5 35.5

Sept. 5,1977 2013 (at 106 AU) 3.4 -47.5

Departure veIocity Asymptotic (AU/yr) Trajectory Angle to Earth Orbit Plane (degrees Closest Stellar Approach

Distance (ly) Star Years to reach

3.27 Ross 248 32,600

1.65 AC+793888 42,400

1.64 AC+793888 40,300

0.80 Sirius 497,000

Space Propulsion

Space Propulsion

Space Propulsion

1.

Every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line except insofar as it is compelled to change that state by an external impressed force The rate of change of momentum of the body is proportional to the impressed force and takes place in the direction in which the force acts. To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction

2. 3.

dp / dt = F

Space Propulsion

Every particle of matter attracts every other particle of matter with a force directly proportional to the product of the masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

r mm r F = G 1 2 2 er r
U (r ) = G M r

Space Propulsion

1. 2. 3.

The planets move in ellipses with the sun at one focus Areas swept out by the radius vector from the sun to a planet in equal times are equal The square of the period of revolution is proportional to the cube of the semimajor axis. That is, T2 = const x a3

Space Propulsion

Circular orbit

mV 2 GmM = r r2

V=

2 r r3 P= = 2 V

Space Propulsion

Space Propulsion

Vorb

3.98 x105 = = 7.69 R 6.73x103

Vrot = 2R 0.489 24 x3600

[km / s]

[km / s ]

V1 = Vorb Vrot 7.20

[ km / s ]

Space Propulsion
Gravitational trajectories

H = r mV
angular momentum around point C

dr dH dV = m V + r dt dt dt

= r m dV = r F = M dt

M torque around C

Assumption: Central force: F II r

rF = M = 0

dH =M =0 dt

H = mr V = const.

trajectory remains in same plane perp. to H

Space Propulsion
Gravitational trajectories

h = H / m = r V = rV sin = const

specific angular momentum = const

d = (V sin .dt ) / r
dA 1 1 r.(rd ) = rV sin .dt 2 2

d V sin h = = 2 dt r r

dA 1 h = rV sin = = const dt 2 2

2nd Keplers law: areal velocity is constant

Plane trajectories and constant areal velocity follow from central force requirement only; force field must not be 1/r2 and not even conservative

Space Propulsion
Gravitational trajectories Assumption: conservative 1/r2 force field
F = dU m = 2 dr r

V2 = = const. 2 r
dr d V = + r dt dt
2 2 2

conservation of total energy; is specific total energy; magnitude2 of velocity in polar coordinates (r, )
2

1 dr 1 d + + r = r 2 dt 2 dt
dr dr d dr h = = dt d dt d r 2

h 2 dr h 2 2 = + r 4 d r 2 r
d = h/r2 2 h 2 r r
2

differential equ. of trajectory

d = h du

d V sin h = = 2 r dt r

dr

subst. r=1/u

+ 2 .u h 2 u 2

+ C = h

du

+ 2 .u h u
2

general solution

Space Propulsion
Gravitational trajectories

+ C = h

du

r = 1/u
2 2

+ 2 .u h u

r= 1 1+

h2 / 2 .h 2

. cos( + C )

when is counted from minimum r, then cos = -1

From geometry:

p r= 1 + cos

r=

h2 / 1+ 1+ 2 .h 2

Is equation of conical section in polar coordinates (r,) when origin is in focal point; p is parameter and numerical excentricity of conic section; > 1 hyperbola = 1 parabola < 1 ellipse = 0 circle

. cos

Trajectories under influence of gravity of the sun are conical sections with the sun in one focal point 1st Kepler

Space Propulsion
Gravitational trajectories

r=

h2 / 1+ 1+ 2 .h 2

> 1 specific energy > 0 hyperbola

. cos

= 1 specific energy = 0 parabola < 1 specific energy < 0 ellipse

numerical excentricity of conical section

p=

h2

= 1+

2 .h 2

parameter, semimajor axis and num. excentricity of trajectory follow from kinetic and dynamic parameters by analogy of anal. solution with geometry of conical sections

from geometry

a=

p 1
2

a=

all trajectories with same semimajor axis have same (specific) total energy

Space Propulsion

2 dA p P = ab = a 2 1 = a 2 dt a

In case of closed trajectory ( ellipse) product of constant areal velocity and period is equal to area of ellipse
2

from kinetics: dA/dt = h/2

p= h
2

b = a 1

p = a 1

( )

from analyt. geometry

4 2 a 4 p 4 2 a 3 P = = h2 a
2

3rd Kepler But also: period of elliptical trajectory only dependent on semimajor axis

Space Propulsion

r=

h2 / 1+ 1+ 2 .h 2

. cos
2 .h 2

a=

= 1+

p = h2 /

geometric parameters of orbit can be derived from kinetic parameters of motion

specific energy > 0 hyperbola specific energy = 0 parabola specific energy < 0 ellipse

type of conics dependent on total energy

Space Propulsion

The orbit of a body is completely determined, when we know at a given point the radius vector from the central body the velocity vector

Or, equivalently r, V and included angle

Space Propulsion
1 2 Evaluate = GMSun The total energy per mass of the orbit is constant so by evaluating the kinetic and gravitational potentialenergy at one point in the orbit (EQ 10) we obtain The energy per mass of the spacecraft determines the orbits semi-major axis (EQ 11): This then gives the circular velocity of the orbit (EQ 3) 5 6 The period of the orbit is given by Kepler's third law: The areal velocity is know from the initial conditions (velocity and position) of the spacecraft; being the angle between radiusvector and S/C direction The other method of determining areal velocity gives us the eccentricity of the orbit, by taking the ellipse area as Aell = a2(1-e2)1/2

E V 2 GM sun = m 2 r

3 4

a=
vc =

GM sun 2(E / m )
GM sun a
3/ 2

a P = Pearth a earth

A=

1 r.V . sin 2
Aell a 2 1 2 = P P
2

A=

AP = 1 2 a

We now know the size and shape of the orbit and can determine the extent of the orbit from (EQ 16) and (EQ 18)

rp = a(1 )
ra = a (1 + )
cos = 1a 2 1 1 r

The final parameter is the true anomaly as determined by the angle the craft is from perihelion of the new orbit (see ellipse equation in Section 2.3.1)

Space Propulsion

Elliptical orbits passing through same point with identical velocities into different directions

Space Propulsion Reaction propulsion

momentum conservation

mV = const.
dp = d (mV ) = mdV + Vdm = 0

dV = Ve

dm m
dm m

dV = Ve

mi V = Ve ln mf
Tsiolkovski equation

Space Propulsion

Tsiolkovsky equation

mi V = Ve ln mf

mi = e ve mf
since direction of ve (exhaust velocity) is opposite to velocity gain V, the ratio - V/ve is always positive; therefore we can express the exponent as V/ IveI

mi =e mf

V ve

decreases exponentially with ve final mass, which can be brought into orbit with V decreases with increasing V and increases with ve

initial mass increases exponentially with V (@ mf = const.)

Space Propulsion
Thrust
Thrust is the force propelling a rocket; it is the reaction force to the force accelerating the exhaust particles. We consider the exhaust consisting of N identical particles (gas, ions, electrons, stones,) of mass m
dP d dN T= = (N . p ) = . p = N m Ve = m .Ve dt dt dt

m Ve T

mass flow [kg/s] exhaust velocity [m/s] thrust [N]

Space Propulsion

Total impulse
Total impulse is the total momentum gained during the burn time tb of a thruster

definition

I = Tdt [ N .s ]
0

tb

When thrust is constant over time, or at least during thruster on time intervals, total impulse can be written as

I = T .
dm I = Tdt = Ve dt = Ve dm = Ve .m p dt 0 0 0
mp propellant mass used during mission time Ve exhaust velocity, assumed to be constant during mission

Space Propulsion Specific impulse

dp dm

I sp =

what is the momentum produced per unit of mass expelled? The higher this ratio, the higher is the velocity gain of a rocket upon exhaustion of ist fuel mass; Isp is an important quality m parameter

definition

I sp

dp / dt p T = = = dm / dt m m

[m / s]

m
Ve

mass flow [kg/s]

dp d (m.Ve ) I sp = = = Ve dm dm

[m / s]

exhaust velocity, assumed to be constant

Space Propulsion
jet power

definition

mVe2 Pj = =N dt 2

dE j

[W ]

jet power is the kinetic energy, emitted per time unit from a S/C
N mVe Ve = TI sp Pj = 2 2

Space Propulsion
specific power

Psp =

Pjet T

[W / N ]

specific power is the beam power Pjet, necessary to produce a unit of thrust

Psp =

mVe2 / 2 mVe

Ve 2

[m / s],[W / N ]

Space Propulsion
these purely mechanical relationships are valid independent of the methods used to accelerate exhaust particles

T = m .I sp
I = Tdt = I sp m p T
0

[N] [N.s] [W] [m/s]

thrust total impulse jet power specific impulse

Pj =
I sp =

dE j dt

TI sp 2

dp T = Ve = dm m

Psp =

Pj T

I sp 2
V Isp

[W/N], [m/s] specific power [1] Tsiolkovsky equ. (rocket equ.)

mi / m f = e

V = I sp ln (mi / m f )

Space Propulsion
The staging principle

R j = (mi / m f

V1 = I sp ln R1 V2 = I sp ln R2 .... Vn = I sp ln Rn
velocity gains of individual stages

initial / final mass ratio of jth stage

V = I sp ln( R1 .R2 ...Rn )

total velocity gain (of final stage)

Space Propulsion
The staging principle

when the rocket motors of all stages have the same specific impulse Isp, the velocity difference of the final stage with respect to the initial velocity is

V = I sp ln( R1 .R2 ...Rn )

when the mass ratios of all stages are identical (Rj = R)

V = I sp ln(R n ) = n.I sp . ln R

Space Propulsion
a fixed total mass M of propellant is available for .acceleration of a payload of mass mL compare the velocity gains, when the propellant is .consumed in a single stage or a multi stage rocket Assumptions: initial / final mass ratios identical = R for all stages mass of supporting structure in each stage is same fraction .of propellant mass of respective stage ( = tankage factor)

1. St. R =

m L + m1 (1 + ) m L + m1

m1 =

R 1 mL 1 (R 1) )

2. St. R = m L + (m1 + m2 )(1 + )

m L + m1 (1 + ) + m2

m2 =
m3 =

R 1 [m L + (1 + )m1 ] 1 (R 1) )
R 1 [m L + (1 + )(m1 + m2 )] 1 (R 1)

3. St. R =
=
R 1 1 (R 1)

m L + (m1 + m2 + m3 ) m L + (m1 + m2 )(1 + ) + m3

= (1 + )

mi = m L + .S i 1

propellant mass for ith stage; Si sum of propellant masses m1, m2, , mi

Space Propulsion

mi = m L + .S i 1
S1 = mL S 2 = m2 + S1 = mL + S1 + S1 = mL + (1 + )S1 = mL [1 + (1 + )] S 4 = m4 + S3 = mL + S3 + S 3 = mL + (1 + )S3
S n = m L (1 + ) = m L
i 0 n 1

S3 = m3 + S 2 = mL + S 2 + S 2 = mL + (1 + )S 2 = mL 1 + (1 + ) + (1 + )
L

[ ] = m [ + (1 + ) + (1 + ) + (1 + ) ] 1
2 2 3

(1 + )n 1 = m (1 + )n 1

1+

total propellant mass for n stages with equal tankage factor and equal initial / final mass ratio R

In an n stage rocket, velocity gain in each stage is and total velocity gain of n stages is

Vi = I sp ln R
V = nVi = nI sp ln R

Space Propulsion

Single- and multi stage rockets using the same amount of propellant to accelerate same payload

(1 + )S n + m L V = I sp . ln = m L + S n 1+ = I sp . ln n + (1 + )

V = n.I sp . ln R
S n = mL

(1 + )n 1
1+

Space Propulsion
Check 0, we have rockets consisting of payload for tankage factor and fuel only and single- and multistage rockets with same payload and fuel masses must have the same V
=
R 1 R 1 1 (R 1)

= (1 + ) R 1

1+ 1 Vsin gle = I sp . ln I sp ln n = nI sp ln( R ) = Vmulti n R + (1 + )

Space Propulsion
Mission Design and Attitude Control

Task Mission design

Orbit changes Plane changes Orbit trim Stationkeeping Repositioning

Description
(Translational velocity change) Convert one orbit to another Change orbital plane, other orbit parameters remaining constant Remove Iaunch vehicle errors Maintain constellation position Change constellation position (RotationaI velocity change) Remove vector errors Maintain an attitude Change attitudes Remove stored momentum Repositioning the spacecraft axes

Attitude Control
Thrust vector control Attitude control Attitude changes Reaction wheel unloading Maneuvering

Space Propulsion
coplanar orbit changes

changing a circular orbit to a coplanar elliptical orbit

2 2 2 f

generalised coplanar maneuvre

V = Vi + V 2ViV f cos

V is smallest when this term is largest cos = 1

the transfer can be made at any intersection of two orbits. the least velocity change is necessary when the orbits are tangent and is zero

Space Propulsion
Fuel consumption for orbital maneuvre with total velocity change V
V Isp

Tsiolkovsky:

mi / m f = e

required fuel mass:

V m p = mi m f = mi 1 exp I sp
V m p = m f exp I sp 1

Space Propulsion
Example 1: Simple Coplanar Orbit Change Consider an initially circular low Earth orbit at 300-km altitude. What velocity increase would be required to produce an elliptical orbit 300 x 3000 km in altitude? What would be the fuel consumption for a 750 kg (empty) S/C if Isp = 3100 m/s ? The gravity parameter of Earth is =398,600.4 km3/s2 Radius of Earth is R = 6387 km

velocity on initial circular orbit:

V =

398,600.4 = 7.726 (300 + 6378.14)

km / s

semimajor axis of final elliptical orbit:

a=

ra + rp 2

(300+ 6378 + (3000+ 6378 ) ) = 8028 [km] 2

velocity at periapsis of final orbit: velocity change =

Vp =

2 2(398,600) 398,600 = = 8.350 km / s r a 6678 8028

V = V p V = 8.350 7.726 = 0.624 km / s

V m p = m f exp I sp 1 = 750exp (624) 1 = 167.2 kg (3100)

fuel consumption

Velocity changes, made at periapsis, change apoapsis radius but not periapsis radius, and vice versa; the radius at which the velocity is changed remains unchanged. As you would expect, the plane of the orbit in inertial space does not change as velocity along the orbit is changed. Orbital changes are a reversible process.

Space Propulsion
finite burn losses

thrust vector is held inertially fixed during the burn orbital elements change continuously during burn angle between thrust and velocity increases during burn at constant thrust, acceleration in flight direction decreases during burn

Space Propulsion
Hohmann transfer: minimum energy transfer between circular orbits

orbit circularisation

transfer orbit insertion

V=

rf > r i

Vf < Vi

nevertheless all maneuvers are accelerating

transfer orbit:
periapsis radius = radius of initial orbit apoapsis radius = radius of final orbit

Space Propulsion
Example 3: Hohman transfer from circular Earth orbit (altitude = 200 km) to geostationary orbit (r = 42219 km); what is fuel consumption to bring a 1 t payload to GEO with a specific impulse of 3100 [m/s]? Velocity in LEO:

Velocity in LEO:

V=

398,600 = 7.78 [km / s] 6387 + 200

Velocity in GEO similarly is

3.07 [km/s]

Semimajor axis of transfer ellipse is

a=

(6387 + 200 ) + 42219 = 24403

2

[ km]

Perigee velocity in transfer ellipse is:

Vp =

2 2 * 398600 398600 = = 6387 + 200 24403 rp a

= 10.22 [km / s ]

Example 3, contd

Space Propulsion

Velocity increase in transfer orbit insertion:

Vi = 10.22 7.78 = 2.44 [km / s ]

Va = 2 = ra a 2 * 398600 398600 = 1.60 [km / s ] 42219 24403

Apogee velocity in transfer ellipse is

Velocity increase at circularization:

Vcirc = 3.07 1.60 = 1.47 [km / s ]

Adding up to a total velocity increase of

Vtot = 2.44 + 1.47 = 3.91 [km / s ]

V m p = m f exp I sp 1 = 1000exp (3910) 1 = 2530 [kg ] (3100)

Fuel consumption is:

The efficiency of the Hohmann transfer comes from the fact that the two velocity changes are made at points of tangency between the trajectories.

Space Propulsion
plane change maneuver

V = 2Vi sin

without velocity change

Plane changes are expensive on a propellant basis. A 10-deg plane change in low Earth orbit would.require a velocity change of about 1.4 km/s. For a 500 kg spacecraft, this plane change would require 292 kg of propellant, if one assumes an Isp of 3100 m/s

The equation shows that it is important to change planes through the smallest possible angle and at the lowest possible velocity. The lowest possible velocity occurs at the longest radius, that is, at apoapsis.

Space Propulsion

Combined maneuver: V1-2 = 1.831 km/s For separate maneuvers, plane change maneuver: V1 = 0.791 km/s; circularization maneuver: V2 = 1.469 km/s; total V = 2.260 km/s.

Space Propulsion
Example 5: Repositioning Consider a geosynchronous 1t spacecraft that is required to reposition by 2-deg, counter to the velocity vector (westward), in a maneuvering time of one sidereal day (one orbit). What is the fuel consumption for that maneuver, assuming an Isp of 3100 m/s?

S/C moves in reposition ellipse placeholder S/C orbits in GEO

example 5, contd

Repositioning, contd

Space Propulsion
The elements of a geosynchronous orbit are r= 42,164.17 km (circular) P= 86,164.09 s V= 3.07466 km/s

P is equal to the time required for 2 deg

of motion on a geosynchronous orbit The period for the spacecraft on the elliptical reposition orbit is semimajor axis of the reposition orbit

0 2 * 86,164.09 P = P= = 478.689 [ s ] 360 360

P = 86,164.09 + 478.689 = 86,642.78 [s]

a=3

P 2 3 (86,642.78) 2 (398,600) = = 42,320 [km] 4 2 4 2

velocity at periapsis of an elliptical orbit with semimajor axis a velocity change to place the spacecraft on the reposition ellipse

V=

2 = r a

2(398,600) 398,600 = 3.08032 [km / s] 42164 42320

3.08032km/s - 3.07466km/s = 5.66 m/s The same velocity change (in the opposite direction is necessary for recirculation of repositioning orbit
V m p = m f exp I sp 1 = 1000exp 11.32 1 = 3.66 [kg ] 3100

Propellant consumption under assumption of negligible mass change

Space Propulsion
Gravity assist maneuvre (slingshot)

S/C may gain velocity in the sun fixed system when passing close to a planet

Space Propulsion

Basically a 3 body problem; approximation possible, when m <<M << Msun Consider head on elastic collision in a fixed coordinate system

Mu 2 + mv 2 = Mu12 + mv12 Mu mv = Mu1 + mv1

v1 =

(1 )v + 2u v + 2u
1+
= m / M << 1

Space Propulsion

2 M P / rSOI M S / rP2

rSOI rP M P / M S

Space Propulsion

vectorial velocity addition at transfer between helocentric and planetocentric motions

Space Propulsion
Gravity assist at Jupiter vP = 13.1 km/s

passage behind planet

passage in front of planet

gravity assist at Jupiter can boost S/C velocity to hyperbolic orbit so that it can leave solar system (V > (21/2-1) vP = 5.4 km/s)

Space Propulsion

Space Propulsion
Maximum energy gain in gravity assist at different planets (closest approach = rP)
Planetary velocity [km/s] Mass [kg] Solar distance [106 km] SOI radius [106 km] Equatorial radius [km] v3,extr [km/s] V [km/s]

Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto

47.87 35.02 29.78 24.13 13.06 9.65 6.80 5.43 4.7

3.28E23 4.87E24 5.97E24 6.42E23 1.90E27 5.69E26 8.68E25 1.03E26 1.27E22

57.9 108.2 149.6 228.0 778.4 1425.5 2870.4 4501.1 5900

0.024 0.169 0.259 0.130 24.05 24.10 18.96 32.38 0.47

2493 6051 6378 3394 71400 60000 25650 24780 1150

2.99 7.33 7.90 3.55 42.1 25.2 15.0 16.7 0.86

11.96 16.03 15.33 9.27 23.45 15.59 10.10 9.54 2.00

5 2 4 8 1 3 6 7 9

Space Propulsion
CASSINI probe to Saturn and Titan

Hohmann transfer
total V [km/s] flight time [y] 15.7 6

gravity assists
2 6.7

Space Propulsion
Liftoff from ground
v2 = = const. 2 r
energy conservation = E/m specific energy specific energy at rest on Earths surface v = 0, r = R (purely potential energy) velocity in circular orbit with Radius R spec. kinetic energy in circular orbit at Earths surface, r =a = R total specific energy in orbit near Earths surface spec. energy for liftoff from rest into circular orbit near Earths surface

gr = p =
V=

0,k =
O =
O =

2R

2R

2R

= 2R R 2R

V = 2 O =

3.98 x10 5 = 7.69 [km / s ] R 6.73 x10 3

V necessary for liftoff into circular orbit near Earths surface

Space Propulsion
Liftoff from ground

3.98 x10 5 = 7.69 [km / s ] R 6.73 x10 3

V = 2 O =
V m p = m f exp I sp

(7690) 1 = 1exp 1 = 10.95 [kg / kg ] (3100)

Space Propulsion
Spiraling up

V, propellant consumption and mission time can be estimated when

thrust direction is always tangential to trajectory (permanent attitude change!!) thrust << gravity force

Space Propulsion
Spiraling up

dv T = +g dt m

equation of motion for S/C of mass m, propelled by thrust T Specific energy = spec. kinetic energy + + potential

v = +U r 2
FG r d r = g r d r U r = m r r

()

()

()

()

dU = g r dr

()

potential energy and its gradient

dv d d v 2 d v dU r d r + = v gr = +U r = v dt dt dt 2 dt d r dt

()

()

()

time derivative of specific energy

T T d =v =v m m dt

acc. to assumption, always v II T; product replaced by magnitudes

inner

Space Propulsion
Spiraling up

T T d =v =v m m dt
at every moment, trajectories closely resemble circles (acc. to assumption T 0)

2r
T
r m

2a

d d dr T dr = =+ 2 =v dt dr dt 2r dt m
r dr 1 T V = dt = = . 3/ 2 2 r m r t0 r0 t r

=
r0

r0

V = v c , 0 v c , r

thrusting V is equal to difference of velocities in initial and final orbit

Space Propulsion
Spiraling up
time required to spiral up from r0 to r

assumption: T = const.

m = T / I sp
t

dm/dt = const.

m = m0 m(t t 0 )

T T V = dt = m0 m t0

m (t t0 ) = ln 1 0 m0 t m m (t t0 ) 1 m0

dt

V =

r0

r0

r0 r

I m0 m = m0 sp 1 e (vc , 0 vc ,1 ) / Isp = t t 0 = 1 exp r0 r T T m

Space Propulsion
Spiraling up

V = v c , 0 v c , r
r V = 1 0 vc ,0 r
Isp >> V
V / Isp

= m0

I sp T

[1 e

]= m

I sp
f

(e

V / Isp

1 m f

V T

V m p = m f exp I sp

1 m f V I sp

m = 100 . e

7809 2 / 10 5

1 11 .7 [ kg ]
2 / 105

10 5 = 100 e 7809 3 5 x10

1 5.1

[ y]

Example Electric propulsion: T = 5 mN, Isp = 105 m/s; Time and propellant mass required for spiraling up a 100 kg payload from 300 km LEO (v = 7730 m/s) to escape velocity?

Space Propulsion
Comparison of Hohmann and spiral transfer
Hohmann
2 2 2 2 + VH = r r1 r2 r2 r1 + r2 1 r1 + r2

spiral

V = V1 V2
= r2/r1

V H 2 1 2 1 = 1 + 1+ V1 1+

V 1 = 1 V1

Space Propulsion
Comparison of Hohmann and spiral transfer
r13 (1 + ) 1 a3 = Ptr = = 2 8
depending only on orbital radii
3

SP m f

V m f = T T

r1

also depending on S/C mass, thrust (and specific impulse)

Vr = dr2 T = d m f r1

.r2

Space Propulsion
Attitude maneuvres

3 axis controlled S/C

Space Propulsion
Thruster combinations to produce control forces and moments (HYPER, 2003) Option 1

Four clusters, each with 3 thrusters, are located at the corners of the S/C on opposite diagonals: group {1, 2, 3, 4} is pointing into +/- X group {11, 12, 13, 14} into +/- Y group {21, 22, 23, 24} into +/- Z.

Space Propulsion
Thruster combinations to produce control forces and moments (HYPER, 2003) Option 2

Space Propulsion

Space Propulsion

Attitude control thrusters on spin stabilised S/C

Space Propulsion
Kinetics for rotational motion of S/C
rotational motion T = torque [N.m]
Lin. analogon

rotational motion

Lin. analogon

F = force [N] s = path [m]

= angle of rotation of the spacecraft [rad] = angular velocity of the spacecraft [rad/s]

1 2 = t b 2
=
T Iv

s=

a 2 t 2

v = velocity [m/s]

a=

= angular acceleration of the spacecraft during a firing, [rad/s2 ]

Iv = mass moment of inertia of the vehicle, [kg.m2] tb H = duration of the burn [s]

a = acceleration [m/s2]

F m

= t b
H = I v

v = at
p = mv
p = Fdt Ft

m = mass [kg]

t = time [s] p = momentum [m/s]

H = Tt b

= change of spacecraft angular momentum during the firing, [kg.m2/s]

Space Propulsion
Kinetics for rotational motion of S/C

Linear analogon

torque, produced by n thrusters, mounted at torque arm L, firing with equal thrust F during the burn, the angular acceleration of the spacecraft is

T = nFL
=
nFL Iv

a=
s=

F m
a 2 t 2

at shut down, the vehicle will have turned by

2 nFLt b = 2I v

at shutdown, the spacecraft is left rotating at angular velocity

nFL tb Iv

v = a.t
p = Fdt

angular momentum produced by a single firing is

H = Ttb
mp = nFt b H = I sp LI sp

propellant consumed during the burn is

I sp = F / m

Space Propulsion

nFt b H mp = = I sp LI sp

shows the advantage of a long moment arm. The maximum moment arm is constrained in a surprising way: by the inside diameter of the launch vehicle payload fairing

Launch vehicle Fairing i.d.[ft] Atlas Delta Space Shuttle Titan ll Titan III Titan IV 9.6 or 12 8.3 or 10 15 10 13.1 16.7

Space Propulsion
one axis maneuvre

1 axis maneuvre, contd

Space Propulsion
m = (accelerating) + (coasting) + (braking)

total angle of rotation is rotation during coasting is the coasting rotation angle is

= t c
= nFL tb t c Iv

nFL tb Iv

total rotation during acceleration, coasting and braking is

nFL 2 nFL nFL 2 tb + tbtc = m = 2 2t b + t b t c I 2I Iv v v

2 nFLt b 2I v

accel.
maneuver time is minimum rotation time is a fully powered maneuver with zero coast time thrust level required for each thruster at given minimum rotation time propellant required for a one-axis maneuver is twice the single burn consumption tm = tC + 2tb

t min = 2t b =
F =2 m Iv 2 nLt min

2. m I v nFL

mp = 2

nFt b nFt min = I sp I sp

mp =

nFt b H = I sp LI sp

Space Propulsion
Example 6: One-Axis Maneuver Find the minimum time required for a spacecraft to perform a 90-deg turn about the z axis with two thrusters if the spacecraft has the following characteristics: Mass of S/C = 500 kg, Radius of S/C = 0.75 m Moment of inertia about the z axis (2/5)MS/C.L2 = 112.5 kg.m2 Moment arm = 0.75 m Thrust of each engine = 10 N and m = /2 = 1.5708 rad

t min =

2. m I v = nFL

2 *1.5708 *112.5 = 4.854 s 2 *10 * 0.75

How much propellant was consumed by the maneuver if Isp = 1900 m/s ?

mp = 2

nFt m 2 * 2 * 10 * 4.854 = = 0.102 kg 1900 I sp

Space Propulsion
precession of spin axis
Hi initial angular momentum Ha applied angular momentum

/2

H a nFLtb = Hi I y

nutation angle caused by application of single thrust pulse

Two pulses are required to precess the spin axis; both pulses are parallel to the spin axis. After the First pulse, the spin axis will continue to precess until a second pulse of equal magnitude and opposite direction is fired. The spin axis can be repositioned by selecting the timing of the second pulse. The first pulse is used to cause nutation at an angle of one-half the desired precession. The second pulse stops the nutation and provides the remaining half of the desired angle

Space Propulsion
Example 7: Precession of Spin Axis What burn time, or pulse width, is required to precess a spacecraft spin axis by 3-deg (0.05236 rad) under the following conditions: Thrust 10 N Moment arm = 0.5 m Moment of inertia 112.5 kg.m2 Spacecraft Spin rate 2 rpm (0.2094 rad/s) Specific impulse = 1900 m/s

tb =

I v 0.05236 *112.5 * 0.2094 = = 0.124 [ s ] 2nFL 2 *1*10 * 0.5

nFtb 2 *1*10 * 0.124 = = 0.0013 [kg ] = 1.3 [ g ] I sp 1900

burn time of thruster to produce nutation angle /2

mp = 2

total propellant consumed by both burns

Space Propulsion
limit cycle without external torque

A limit cycle without external torque swings the spacecraft back and forth between preset angular limits. When the spacecraft drifts across one of the angular limits L , the attitude-control system fires a thruster pair for correction. The spacecraft rotation reverses and continues until the opposite angular limit is reached, at which time the opposite thruster pair is fired. It is important that the smallest possible impulse be used for the corrections because the impulse must be removed by the opposite thruster pair. contd

limit cycle contd

Space Propulsion

nFL tb t c Iv

nFL Pw2 tc Pw tot = + Iv 2 2

total angle of rotation replacing 2tb

Pw

L =
(EQ 86)

1 nFL nFL tbtc = Pw t c 2 Iv 4I v

m p ,cyc = 2 nFPw I sp

the limit settings + L are one-half of the coasting angle = 2 L (neglecting small rotations during accel & brake) each cycle includes two pulses; the propellant consumed per cycle is

Propellant consumption is small for low thrust, short burn time, and high specific impulse in pulsing operation. Pulsing engines are characterized by minimum impulse bit Imin

Imin = (F.Pw)min
The minimum impulse bit is a characteristic of a given thruster/valve combination

contd

limit cycle contd

Space Propulsion
pulsing properties of attitude control thrusters
Min thrust [mN] Cold-gas -Helium CoId-gas-Nitrogen Monopropellant N2H4 Bipropellant N2O4/MMH 50 50 500 10000 Min impulse bit [mN.s] 5 - 10 5 - 10 50 - 100 750 - 1500 Pulsing Isp [m/s] 800 500 1200 1200

nFL tb Iv

tc =

4I v L nFLPw

coast time through 2L

t cy = t c + 2 PW =

4I v L + 2 Pw nLI min
2 n 2 I min L ~ 2 I sp I v L

length of a cycle (from +L to -L ) if minimum impulse bits are used; usually, PW can be neglected propellant consumption per unit time

m p ,cyc = 2

nFPw I sp

mp =

m p ,cyc tcy

Space Propulsion
Example 8: Limit-Cycle Operation A spacecraft with 112.5 kg.m2 inertia uses 5N thruster pairs mounted at a radius of 0.5 m from the center of mass. For limit-cycle control to L = 0.5 deg (0.008727 rad), what is the propellant consumption rate if Isp is 1900 m/s, the pulse duration is 30 ms, and there are no external torques. ?

tcy = 2 Pw +

4I vL 4 *112,5 * 0,008727 = 0.06 + = 0,06 + 26,181 = 26,241 [ s] nFLPw 2 * 5 * 0,5 * 0,030

time for 1 cycle

m p ,cy = 2

nFPw 2 * 5 * 0.03 =2 = 0.00032 [kg / cycle] = 0,32 [ g / cycle] 1900 I sp

propellant consumed per cycle

mp =

m p ,cy t cy

0,00032 1.2 x10 5 [kg / s ] = 1.037 [kg / day ] 26,241

average propellant consumption rate

Space Propulsion
Simplified equations for external torques
Disturbance Gravity gradient Type Constant or cyclic, depending on vehicle orientation Constant force but cyclic on Earth-oriented vehicles Influenced primarily by Spacecraft geometry, Orbit altitude Formula

Tg =

3 r3

Iz I y

~ 4x10-5 [Nm]

where Tg is the max gravity torque; is the Earth's gravity constant (398,600 km3Is2), r the orbit radius, the max deviation of the z axis from vertical in radians;Iz and Iy are moments of inertia about z and y (or x, if smaller) axes. Spacecraft geometry, Spacecraft surface area The worst-case solar radiation torque

Solar radiation

Tsp = Ps As Ls (1 + q ) cos i

~ 7x10-7 [Nm]

is due to a specularly reflective surface, where PS is the solar constant, 4.617 x 10-6 N/m2; As is the area of the surface, Ls the center of pressure to center of mass offset, i the angle of incidence of the sun, and q the reflectance factor that ranges from 0 to 1; q = 0.6 is a good estimate Magnetic field Cyclic Orbit altitude, Residual spacecraft magnetic dipole, Orbit inclination

Tm = DB
where Tm is the magnetic torque on the spacecraft, D the residual dipole moment of the vehicle in A.m2, and B the Earth's magnetic field in Tesla. B can he approximated as2M/r3 for a polar orbit to half that at the equator. M is the magnetic moment, 8 x 1025 emu at Earth, and r is radius from dipole (Earth) center to spacecraft in centimeters

Aerodynamic

Constant for Earth-oriented vehicle in circular orbit

Orbit altitude, Spacecraft configuration

Ta = Fi Li
Ta is the summation of the forces Fi on each of the exposed surface areas times the moment arm Li to the center of each surface to the center of mass, where F = CdAV2/2 with F the force, Cd the drag coefficient (usually between 2.0 and 2.5), p the atmospheric density, A the surface area, and V the spacecraft velocity.

Space Propulsion
dir. of ext. torque

one-sided limit cycle

with an external torque on the spacecraft, rotation occurs until a limit line is reached and a thruster pair is fired for correction

total angular momentum H supplied by the propulsion system exactly equals the momentum induced by the external torque Tx during mission time tm; F is time averaged thrust propellant mass required to compensate for the external torque

H = Tx t m = Ft m

mp =

T nF nFL tm = tm = x tm LI sp I sp LI sp

contd

One sided limit cycle, ctd

Space Propulsion

S/C rotation is accelerated by from zero speed at the extreme limit +L (point 1) through an angular path of < 2L with an angular acceleration x, generated by the external torque only. The opposite limit angle will be reached after an angular interval 2L and a pass time tp (approximately equal to half the cycle time tcy).

1 2 L = x t 2 p 2

tcy =~ 2t p = 4

=4

L Iv Tx

angular speed L, at the end of the cycle, at L (at point 2) is Now the thrusters are firing, producing a thrusting angular acceleration . They reduce this angular speed to 0 (at the turning point 3) after a burning time of PW/2 From that follows the impulse per thruster, required to turn around the angular speed of the S/C, so that it moves against external torque up to an angle of not larger than L If minimum impulse bits Imin are used, the rotation limit must be wider than a minimum L, in order to avoid thrusters being fired in the direction of external torque. This would cause excessive propellant consumption.

L = x t cy / 2 = 2

Tx L Iv

L = .PW / 2 =

nLFP W 2I v

FPW

4 Tx I v L nL

2 n 2 L2 I min L > 16 I vTx

Space Propulsion
forced limit cycle
A forced limit cycle occurs when thrusters are fired in the direction of the external torque; that is, when the condition
2 n 2 L2 I min L > 16 I v Tx

is not met

propellant consumed in a forced limit cycle is

Iv R2 tm mp = L L I sp

R [Hz] = 1/tcy = limit-cycle rate of the system tm [s] = mission duration

R can only be calculated numerically from a higher order equation containing the parameters Imin, PW, Tx, Iv, L, L.

Space Propulsion
reaction wheel maneuvres

To perform a rotational maneuver with a reaction wheel, the flywheel is accelerated by a motor. The spacecraft accelerates in the opposite direction.

contd

reaction wheel, contd

Space Propulsion

A S/C can be rotated by an angle by application of a torque T for time interval t this torque can be supplied by an accelerating flywheel; angular acceleration W is supplied by a motor The resulting S/C rotation angle is

Tt 2 2I v

T = wIw
W IW t 2
2I v

and the increase in wheel speed:

w = w t

The S/C can be returned to its original position by applying the opposite torque to the flywheel; the net increase in flywheel rotational speed then is 0 (neglecting friction). Due to unbalanced torques however, the flywheel eventually will reach its upper angular speed limit and then is not fully available for maneuvering any more. To become maneuverable again it must be unloaded, i.e. its angular speed must be brought to 0 again.

contd

reaction wheel, contd

Space Propulsion

total angular momentum of a fully loaded wheel is

H = I w w , max

to unolad the wheel, a torque in the opposite direction must be applied to it by the motor for a certain time; in order not to produce net rotation of the S/C, an equal and opposite momentum must be supplied by the thrusters: time required for unloading is

H = Tt = nFLt

t=

I H = w w, max nFL nFL

propellant consumption for unloading is

mp =

nF .t L I w w . = I sp L LI sp

contd

reaction wheel, contd

Space Propulsion

Example 9: Reaction Wheel Unloading How much propellant does it take to unload one of the Magellan wheels, and how long does it take? (JPL Venus Mission, 1994)

The Magellan wheel characteristics are: maximum momentum = 27 N-m-s

maximum wheel speed = 4000 rpm = 418.879 rad/s

The thruster pair to be used has the following characteristics: thrust = 1 N; moment arm = 2m pulsing specific impulse 1500 m/s.

the propellant mass required to unload it is

mp =

H 27 = = 0.009 [kg ] LI sp 2 *1500

engine burn time required to unload is

t=

H 27 = = 6.75 [ s] nFL 2 *1* 2