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Student Main About the Program Publications Career Profiles Film Techniques Campus Beat Speak Out Program Membership News & Events
Introduction Which Film Should I Use? Anatomy of a Data Sheet Sensitometric and Image-Structure Data Physical Characteristics Storage of Raw and Exposed Film How do I know I'm ordering the right film? How to identify the film's format, emulsion, length, and winding Cores and Spools Winding Perforations Film Identification Filtration Motion Picture Sound Recording Projection Dealing with a Motion Picture Laboratory Laboratory Operations Marketing a Film Distribution and Promotion Glossary of Motion Picture Terms
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Anticipated release format. Will the finished prints be 35 mm or 16 mm? Shooting a 16 mm camera film to produce 35 mm release prints will involve some sacrifice in image quality. Number of finished prints needed. If you need only one and you need it fast, a reversal film designed for direct projection will be ideal. If you are producing several prints, the camera film should be selected with an eye toward the economics of the various film printing systems. The finished form of the picture. Should the finished film be in color or in black-and-white? The aesthetic impact of black-andwhite film is distinctly different from that of color. What feeling should the film convey? The sharp distinctions in hue and density provided by a color film image can convey more information than the same image composed of shades of gray. Filmmakers should not assume, however, that color is always more interesting, or that black and white is always less expensive. Should the film be silent or should it have sound? A sound track can help to focus and direct a viewer's attention to the message. Answers to these questions depend on the purpose and audience for the film. Type of lighting and exposure index. Will the subject be filmed indoors or out? Can you control the light? Some films are especially designed for low levels of light or for sensitivity at particular bands of the spectrum. All films are balanced for particular kinds of lighting. Will your film give you an accurate record of the colors in the scene if you make the motion picture only in the light available to you? Type of filtration needed. If you have to use several filters to compensate for uncontrolled elements in the scene or in the lighting, will the film be fast (sensitive) enough to record a highquality image? Type of processing and printing facilities available. Few labs process all types of film. If your nearby laboratory processes only color film, you may have to send your black-and-white film to an out-of-town lab. This situation can be especially time-consuming if the film requires editing and must be shuttled back and forth several times. You can avoid much anxiety by getting to know the personnel at the laboratories that process your films and explaining your special needs to them. It may be worthwhile to select films that can be processed by a laboratory directly familiar with your needs.
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Film Types, Names, and Numbers Film Descriptions Negative Camera Films Exposure Information Exposure Index Exposure Latitude Illumination (Incident Light) Table Lighting Contrast Ratios Reciprocity Characteristics Filter Factors Color Balance Printing Conditions
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Kodak's film data sheets are the best source for technical information about Kodak and Eastman Motion Picture Films. Each data sheet consists of one or more pages of detailed technical information for a particular film. These sheets provide useful information for the careful and knowledgeable reader. In the discussion of professional motion picture films that follows, we are using that form of a Film Data Sheet as a road map. The next four pages illustrate a data sheet for a hypothetical film that can be used in every stage of motion picture work. A real data sheet would obviously have fewer entries--camera film data sheet, for example, does not contain paragraphs titled "Printing Conditions" because printing conditions are only relevant to laboratory and print films. The large circles on the hypothetical data sheet illustration that is shown on the next few pages contain page numbers referring you to the beginning of a discussion on that specific topic. For example, the data sheet has a (4) on the section "exposure indexes." If you scroll down and find the (4) and the heading "Exposure Index," you can read about that topic. Each number on the data sheet will refer you to that section in the text. A single free copy of any film data sheet is available from our website or write: Eastman Kodak Company, Dept. 412-L, Rochester, NY 146500532.
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Film production-from recording motion with a camera to projecting the image on a screen or cathode-ray tube-often involves three different kinds of film. Camera film is used to record the original scene. Many kinds of camera films are available for the many conditions under which subjects often must be filmed, for the special effects the cinematographer wants to produce, and for the processing and projection requirements of the job. Once the film has been edited from a workprint, laboratory films used to produce the intermediate stages needed in the lab for special effects, titling, etc. Using intermediates also protects your valuable, original footage from potential damage during the printing process. Print film , on the other hand, is used to print both the first workprint and as many copies as needed of the final edited version of the project. People in the photographic industry generally refer to films by number (5248, for example) rather than by name (Eastman Color Negative II Film, in this case). Thus, the four -digit number is more prominently displayed on the film data sheet than the name. The first of the four digits indicates the size or "gauge" of the film. When the first digit is 5, the film is 35 mm or wider; a 7, on the other hand, indicates a 16 mm film or a film that will be slit down to these narrower gauges after processing. When a film is available in both the 16 mm and 35 mm widths, both the 7000 and 5000 series of digits appear on the data sheet. The name also indicates properties of the film. Kodak EKTACHROME Film indicates a reversal color film. Panchromatic and orthochromatic refer to the light-sensitivity range of the film. Most film names are selfdescriptive. The important thing to remember about the name and number is to use both accurately when ordering film or film data sheets.
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Exposure Information
Film data sheets for camera films give exposure information under these headings: Film Exposure Indexes, Illumination Table, Lighting Contrast Ratios, Reciprocity Characteristics, and Filter Factors (black-and-white film) or Color Balance (color films). Explanations of each of these elements are explained on the following few pages.
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Exposure Latitude
Exposure latitude is the range between overexposure and underexposure within which a film will still produce usable images. As the luminance ratio (the range from black to white) decreases, the exposure latitude increases. For example, on overcast days the range from darkest to lightest narrows, increases the apparent exposure latitude. On the other hand, the exposure latitude decreases when the film is recording subjects with high-luminance ratios such as black trees against a sunlit, snowy field.
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Published filter factors apply strictly to the specific lighting conditions under which the measurements were made, so it may be desirable, especially for scientific and technical applications using reversal films, to determine the appropriate filter factor under actual working conditions. To determine a filter factor, place a subject with a neutral-gray area, a Kodak Gray Card, or a photographic gray scale in the scene to be photographed. Shoot the scene without filtration. Then, with the filter or filter pack in place, shoot a series of exposures at 1/2-stop intervals ranging from 2 stops under to 2 stops over the exposure determined using the published filter factor. Compare the (neutral-gray) density of one frame in the unfiltered scene with the density of one frame in each one of the filter series, either visually or with a densitometer to find the filtered exposure that equals the unfiltered exposure in overall density. The filter factor is the ratio of the filtered exposure to the unfiltered exposure with equal densities. Filter Factor = Exposure with filter Exposure eithout filter
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Understanding Sensitometric Information Characteristic Curves General Curve Regions Curve Values Color Sensitivity and Spectral Sensitivity Spectral-Dye-Density Curves Image Structure Modulation-Transfer Curve Graininess and Granularity Measuring RMS Granularity Factors That Affect Graininess Granularity and Color Materials Some Practical Effects of Graininess and Granularity Resolving Power
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Sensitometry is the science of measuring the response of photographic emulsions to light. "Image-structure" refers to the properties that determine how well the film can faithfully record detail. The appearance and utility of a photographic record are closely associated with the sensitometric and image-structure characteristics of the film used to make that record. The ways in which a film is exposed, processed, and viewed affect the degree to which the film's sensitometric and imagestructure potential is realized. The age of unexposed film and the conditions under which it was stored also affect the sensitivity of the emulsion. Indeed, measurements of film characteristics made by particular processors using particular equipment and those reported on data sheets may differ slightly. Still, the information on the data sheet provides a useful basis for comparing films. When cinematographers need a high degree of control over the outcome, they should have the laboratory test the film they have chosen under conditions that match as nearly as possible those expected in practice.
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Pt
Motion Picture Home
The measured value of the density depends on the spectral distribution of the exposing light, the spectral absorption of the film image, and the special sensitivity of the receptor. When the spectral sensitivity of the receptor approximates that of the human eye, the density is called visual density. When it approximates that of a duplicating or print stock, the condition is called printing density. For practical purposes, transmission density is measured in two ways:
Figure 2
l
Totally diffuse density ( Figure 2) is determined by comparing all of the transmitted light with the incident light perpendicular to the film plane ("normal": incidence). The receptor is placed so that all of the transmitted light is collected and evaluated equally. This setup is analogous to the contact printer except that the receptor in the printer is film.
Figure 3
l
Specular density ( Figure 3) is determined by comparing only the transmitted light that is perpendicular ("normal") to the film plane with the "normal" incident light, analogous to optical printing or
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The characteristic curve for a test film exposed and processed as described in the table is an absolute or real characteristic curve of a particular film processed in a particular manner. Sometimes it is necessary to establish that the values produced by one densitometer are comparable to those produced by another one. Status densitometry is used for this. Status densitometry refers to measurements
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Figure 4
These illustrations show the relationship between subject luminance, negative density, and the characteristic curve. There is one stop difference in luminance between each of the points 2 to 10. Point 1 is a specular highlight which photographs as if it were about 2 stops brighter than point 2, which is a diffuse highlight. Point 9 is the tone to be reproduced just lighter than black. There are 7 stops difference between points 2 and 9, which is the typical range for normal luminance range subjects. Point 10 is about one stop darker than point 9, and reproduces as black. The graph shows where points of these brightness differences generally fall on a characteristic curve. Point 9 is exposed on the speed point of the film, which develops to a density of about 0.10 above the base plus fog density (the density of the clear film base after developing). The density range from point 9 to point 2 is about 1.05.
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Figure 5
Color Negative Film
Figure 6
Color Reversal Film
Figure 7
Figure 8
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Figure 9
Figure 10
Figure 11
Curve Values
You can derive additional values from the characteristic curve that not only illustrate properties of the film but also aid in predicting results and solving problems that may occur during picture-taking or during the developing and printing processes. Speed describes the inherent sensitivity of an emulsion to light under specified conditions of exposure and development. The speed of a film is represented by a number derived from the film's characteristic curve. Contrast refers to the separation of lightness and darkness (called "tones") in a film or print and is broadly represented by the slope of the characteristic curve. Adjectives such as flat or soft and contrasty or hard are often used to describe contrast. In general, the steeper the slope of
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Figure 12
Average Gradient Determination
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Figure 13 The particular gamma or average gradient value to which a specific black-and-white film is developed differs according to the properties and uses of the film. Suggested control gamma values are given on the data sheets for black-and-white negative and positive films. If characteristic curves for a black-and-white negative or positive film are determined for a series of development times and the gamma or average gradient of each curve is plotted against the time of development, a curve showing the change of gamma or average gradient with increase development is obtained. You can use the time-gamma curve ( Figure 14) to find the optimum developing time to produce the control gamma values recommended in the data sheet (or any other gamma desired). Black-and-white reversal and all color film processes are not controlled by using gamma values. Flashing camera films to lower contrast is a technique 3 that involves uniformly exposing film before processing to lower its overall contrast. It's used with some color films. It is actually an intentional light fogging of the film. You can make the flashing exposure before or after the subject exposure, either in a camera or in a printer. The required amount of exposure and the color of the exposing light depends on the effect desired, the point at which the flashing exposure is applied, the subject of the main exposure, and the film processing. Because of potential latent image changes, a flashing exposure just prior to processing is the preferred method.
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Figure 14
Figure 15
This fairly common practice is often used to create a closer match of two films' contrast characteristics when they are intercut. The hypothetical characteristic curves in Figure 15 show what occurs when one film is flashed to approximately match another film's characteristic curve. The illustration has been simplified to show an ideal matching of the two films. In practice, results will depend on the tests run using the specific films intended for a production. Some film productions use flashing (called "creative flashing") to alter the contrast of the original camera negative of a particular scene to create a specific effect-making pastels from more saturated colors, enhancing shadow detail, and the like. Further discussion of this type of flashing is presented in "Creative Post-Flashing Technique for the The Long Goodbye," American Cinematographer Magazine, March 1973.
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The term color sensitivity is used on data sheets for some black-andwhite films to describe the portion of the visual spectrum to which the film is sensitive. All black-and-white camera films are panchromatic (sensitive to the entire visible spectrum). Some laboratory films are also panchromatic: Eastman Fine Grain Duplicating Panchromatic Negative Film, Eastman Panchromatic Separation Film, and Eastman High Contrast Panchromatic Film. Some films, called orthochromatic, are sensitive mainly to the blue-andgreen portions of Lhe visible spectrum. Eastman Direct MP, Eastman Reversal BW Print, and Eastman Sound Recording II Films are all orthochromatic laboratory or print films. Films used exclusively to receive images from black-and-white materials are blue-sensitive: Eastman Fine Grain Release Positive Film, Eastman High Contrast Positive Film, and Eastman Fine Grain Duplicating Positive Film. One film is sensitive to blue light and ultraviolet radiation: Eastman Television Recording Film. The extended sensitivity in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum permits the film to respond to the output of cathode- ray tubes. While color films and panchromatic black-and-white films are sensitive to all wavelengths of visible light, rarely are two films equally sensitive to all wavelengths. Spectral sensitivity describes the relative sensitivity of the emulsion to the spectrum within the film's sensitivity range. The photographic emulsion has inherently the sensitivity of photosensitive silver halide crystals. Itese crystals are sensitive to high-energy radiation, such as X -rays, gamma rays, ultraviolet radiation and bluelight wavelengths (blue- sensitive black-and-white films). In conventional photographic emulsions, sensitivity is limited at the short (ultraviolet) wavelength end to about 250 nanometers (nm) because the gelatin used in the photographic emulsion absorbs much ultraviolet radiation. The sensitivity of an emulsion to the longer wavelengths can be extended by the addition of suitably chosen dyes. By this means, the emulsion can be made sensitive through the green region (orthochromatic black-and-white films), through the green and red regions (color and panchromatic black-and-white films), and into the near-infrared region of the spectrum (infrared-sensitive film). See Figure 16. Three spectral sensitivity curves are shown for color films-one each for the red -sensitive (cyan-dye forming), the green-sensitive (magenta-dye forming), and the blue-sensitive (yellow-dye forming) emulsion layers. One curve is shown for black-and-white films. The data are derived by exposing the film to calibrated bands of radiation 10 nanometers wide throughout the spectrum, and the sensitivity is expressed as the reciprocal of the exposure (ergs/cm2 ) required to produce a specified
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Figure 16 Equivalent neutral density (END)-When the amounts of the components of an image are expressed in this unit, each of the density figures tells how dense a gray that component can form. Because each emulsion layer of a color film has its own speed and contrast characteristics, equivalent neutral density (END) is derived as a standard basis for comparison of densities represented by the spectralsensitivity curve. For color films, the standard density used to specify spectral sensitivity is as follows: For reversal films, END = 1.0 For negative films, direct duplicating, and print films, END= 1.0 above D -min.
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Figure 17
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Figure 18
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Image Structure
The sharpness of image detail that a particular film type can produce cannot be measured by a single test or expressed by one number. For example, resolving-power-test data gives a reasonably good indication of image quality. However, because these values describe the maximum resolving power a photographic system or component is capable of, they do not indicate the capacity of the system (or component) to reproduce detail at other levels. For more complete analyses of detail quality, other evaluating methods, such as the modulation-transfer function and film granularity, are often used. An examination of the modulation-transfer curve, RMS granularity, and both the high- and low-contrast resolving power listings will provide a good basis for comparison of the detailimaging qualities of different films.
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Figure 20
Image (b) of a sinusoidal test object (a) recorded on a photographic emulsion and a microdensitometer tracing (c) of the image.
The resulting measurements show the degree of loss in image contrast at increasingly higher frequencies as the detail becomes finer. These losses in contrast are compared mathematically with the contrast of the portion of the image unaffected by detail size. The rate of change or "modulation" (M) of each pattern can be expressed by this formula in which E represents exposure: M=
E max - E min
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Figure 20 All of the photographic modulation-transfer curves in the data sheets were determined using a method similar to that specified by ANSI Standard PH2.39-1977. The films were exposed with the specified illuminant to spatially varying sinusoidal test patterns having an aerialimage modulation of a nominal 35 percent at the image plane, with processing as indicated. In practice, most photographic modulationtransfer values are influenced by development adjacency effects and are not exactly equivalent to the true optical modulation-transfer curve of a particular photographic product. Modulation-transfer measurements can also be made for the non -film components in a photographic system such as cameras, lenses, printers, etc, to analyze or predict the sharpness of the entire system. By multiplying the responses for each ordinate of the individual curves, you can combine the modulation-transfer curve for a film with similar curves for an optical system to calculate the modulation-transfer characteristics of the entire system.
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Figure 21
Grains of silver halide are randomly distributed in the emulsion when it is made. This photomicrograph of a raw emulsion shows silver halide crystals.
Figure 22
Silver is developed or clouds of dye formed at the sites occupied by the exposed silver halide. Contrary to widely held opinion, there is little migration or physical joining of individual grains. Compare the distribution of silver particles in this photomicrograph with the undeveloped silver halide in Figure 21.
Although the viewer sees a granular pattern, the eye is not necessarily seeing the individual silver particles, which range from about 0.002 mm down to about a tenth of that size. At magnifications where the eye cannot distinguish individual particles, it
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Figure 23
(a) A 2.5X enlargement of a negative shows no apparent graininess. (b) At 20X, some graininess shows. (c) When a segement of the negative is inspected at 60X, the individual silver grains strt to become distinguishable. (d) With 400X magnification, the discrete grains are easily seen. Note that surface grains are in focus while grains deeper in the emulsion are out of focus. The apparent "clumping" of silver grains is actually caused by overlap of grains at different depths when viewed in two-dimensional projection. (e) The makeup of individual grains takes different forms. This filamentary silver, enlarged by an electron microscope, appears as a single opaque grain at low magnification.
Randomness is a necessary condition for the phenomenon. If the particles were arranged in a regu;ar pattern like the halftone dot pattem used in graphic arts, no sensation of graininess would be created. When a halftone is viewed at a magnification sufficient for the dots to be distinguished, the eye notices the pattern and does not group dots into new patterns. Even though the dot pattern can be seen, the eye does not perceive graininess because the pattern is regular, not random (Figure 24). At lower magnifications-at which the dots can no longer be resolved-the awareness of pattern ceases, and the image areas appear uniform.
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Figure 24
If the uniform dot pattern of a conventional halftone is used to reproduce a scene, the eye accepts the image as a smooth, continuous-tone rendition (a). This happens because the dots are regularly spaced. However, when the halftone dots are distributed randomly in an area to reproduce a scene (b) the image looks "grainy." Graininess in the image is due, in part, to the random distribution of the individual elements which make up that image.
When you view a random pattem of small dots magnified enough to resolve the individual dots, you do not perceive an orderly or intelligible pattem. When the magnification is decreased so the dots cannot be resolved, they appear to blend together to form an image whose surface is nonuniform or grainy.
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Figure 25
A large aperture "sees" a vast number of individual silver grains. Therefore, small local fluctuations have practically no effect on the density it records. Small apertures (about one twentieth of the larger aperture diameter) detect random differences in grain distribution when they sample the large "uniform" area.
Figure 26
The signal from a continuous density scan of a grainy emulsion appears the same as random electrical noise when displayed on an oscilloscope. The rms voltmeter gives a direct readout of "noise level."
Standard deviation describes the distribution of a group of values (in this case, variations in density) about their average. The square root (R) of the arithmetic mean (M) of the squares (S) of the density variations is calculated-hence, the term RMS granularity. For ease of comparison, this small decimal number is multiplied by a factor of 1,000, yielding a small whole number, typically between 5 and 50. The RMS granularity instrument used at Kodak is calibrated to measure American National Standard (PH2.19-1976) diffuse visual density. The
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1 One lux is the illumination produced by one standard candle from a distance of 1 meter. When a film is exposed for 1 second to a standard candle 1 meter distant, it receives 1 luxsec of exposure. 2 Zwick, D., "The Meaning of Numbers to Photographic Parameters" Journal of the Society of Photo -Optical Instrumentation Engineers, Volume 4 (1966), pages 205-211.
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Physical Characteristics
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Film Base Antihalation Backing Edge Numbers Dimensional Change Characteristics Temporary Size Change n Moisture n Temperature n Rates of Temporary Change n Swell During Processing Permanent Size Change n Raw Stock Shrinkage n Processing Shrinkage n Aging Shrinkage Other Physical Characteristics Curl Buckling and Fluting
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Antihalation Backing
Light penetrating the emulsion of a film can be reflected from the baseemulsion interface back into the emulsion. As a result, there is a secondary exposure causing an undesirable reduction in the sharpness of the image and some light scattering, called halation, around images of bright objects. See Figure 27. A dark layer coated on or in the film base will absorb and minimize this reflection, hence it is called an antihalation layer. Three methods of minimizing halation are commonly used: Rem Jet: A black-pigmented, nongelatin layer on the back of the film base serves as an antihalation and antistatic layer. This layer is removed during photographic processing. Antihalation undercoating: A silver or dyed gelatin layer directly beneath the emulsion is used on some thin emulsion films. Any color in this layer is removed during processing. This type of layer is particularly effective in preventing halation for high-resolution emulsions. An antistatic and/or anticurl layer may be coated on the back of the film base when this type of antihalation layer is used.
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Dyed film base : Film bases, especially polyester, can also transmit or pipe light that strikes the edge of the film. This light can travel inside the base and fog the emulsion (Figure 27 ). A neutral-density dye is incorporated in some film bases and serves to both reduce halation and prevent light piping. This dye density may vary from a just detectable level to approximately 0.2. The higher level is used primarily for halation protection in black-and-white negative films on cellulosic bases. Unlike fog, the gray dye does not reduce the density range of an image, because it, like a neutral- density filter, adds the same density to all areas. It has, therefore, a negligible effect on picture quality.
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Edge Numbers
Edge numbers (also called key numbers or footage numbers) are placed at regular intervals along the film edge for convenience in frame-forframe matching of the camera film to the workprint. The numbers are printed along one edge outside the perforations on 35 mm film and between the perforations on 35 mm film and between the perforations on 16 mm film. The numbers are sequential, usually occurring every 16 frames (every 12 inches) on 35 mm film and every 20 frames (every 6 inches) on 16 mm film. In a few instances, edge numbers on 16 mm films are located every 40 frames (12 inches). All Kodak camera film is edge numbered at the time of manufacture in one of two ways: Latent Image: The film edge is exposed by a printer mounted at the perforator to produce an image visible only on processed film. The five or seven digits are sequential and will change every 16 (35 mm) or 20 (16 mm) frames. The cluster of numbers and letters to the left of the sequential numbers are a manufacturer's code for the type of product, the perforator, and the equipment used to produce the product. All Kodak 16 mm and 35 mm camera color film is latent-image edge numbered ( Figure 28). Visible Ink Image: During manufacturing, the filrn stock is numbered with a visible ink. Again, this process is performed at the perforators. The ink, unaffected by photographic chemicals, is printed on the emulsion surface of the film. The numbers are visible on both the raw stock and the processed film. In Figure 29, the visible ink edge numbering will be more visible after processing. All 35 mm Kodak blackand-white motion picture camera films have ink edge numbers. The letter "C" is a manufacturer's product identification. A third method of applying edge numbering is very often used by commercial motion picture labs. There the film is numbered on the base side, generally with yellow ink. This numbering does not interfere with the manufacturer's edge numbers because the lab numbers are ordinarily printed on the opposite edge of the film. Normally, both the original camera film and the workprint are edge numbered identically for later ease in matching the two.
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Figure 28
Latent image edge numbering
Figure 30 is a sample of Eastman EKTACHROME Video News Film 7240 (Tungsten), edge numbered by a laboratory in New York City. With double-system sound, both the film and the magnetic tape are often edge numbered by the lab for ease of editing.
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Figure 29
Visible ink edge numbering
Figure 30
Laboratory applied edge numbering
In 1990, Eastman Kodak Company introduced a new edge-numbering system that will eventually be included on all Eastman camera negative films, both black-and-white and color. The new system incorporates Eastman KEYKODE TM ; numbers which are machine readable in bar code. A variety of scanners can read this bar code in the same way that the bar code on most products in supermarkets is read by a scanner in the checkout line. The human-readable key numbers are similar to previous edge numbers, but are easier to read. In this improved format, the key number consists of 12 highly legible characters printed at the familiar one-foot, 64 perforation interval. The KEYKODE TM ; number incorporates the same human-readable number, but in a bar code. See Figures 31 and 32.
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Film
Base
Width Length
0.007
0.03
0.05
0.2
0.25
0.005
0.03
0.05
0.4
0.5
ESTAR
0.003
0.003
0.001
0.001
0.02
0.02
0.04
0.04
(a) Measured between 15% and 50% RH at 21 C (70 F) (b) Measured between 49C (12 F) and 21C (70 F) at 20% RH (c) Tray processing measured at 21C (70F) and 50% RH after preconditioning at low relative humidity
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Base
Triacetate Triacetate AcetatePropionate ESTAR
Length Width
0.4 0.3 0.6 0.05 0.6 0.5 0.8 0.05
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Permanent Size Change Permanent size change is the summation of the shrinkage of the raw film, the size change due to processing, and the shrinkage of the processed film. Raw Stock Shrinkage. Immediately after slitting and processing, the unexposed motion-picture film is placed in cans that are sealed with tape. Until the film is removed from the can, solvent loss from triacetate film is extremely low. The lengthwise shrinkage will rarely exceed 0.5 percent during the first 6 months in a 1000-foot can of 35 mm film. ESTAR Base films will not shrink more than 0.2 percent while in a taped can. Processing Shrinkage. The net effect of processing triacetate base film is normally slight shrinkage (see table ) unless the film has been stretched. Some commercial processing machines have sufficiently high tension to stretch the wet film (particularly 16 mm film); consequently, a lower net processing shrinkage or even a slight permanent stretch may result. Because of its greater strength and resistance to moisture, the overall size change of ESTAR Base films is much less. Aging shrinkage. It is important that motion picture negatives, internegatives, and color originals have low aging shrinkage so that you can make satisfactory prints or duplicates even after many years of storage. With motion picture positive film intended for projection only, shrinkage is not especially critical because it has little effect on projection. The rate at which aging shrinkage occurs depends upon the conditions of storage and use. Shrinkage is hastened by high temperature and, in the case of triacetate films, by high relative humidity which aids the diffusion of solvents from the film base. The potential aging shrinkage of current motion-picture films is given in this table. In the case of processed negatives made on stock manufactured since June 1954, the potential lengthwise shrinkage of about 0.2 percent is generally reached within the first two years and almost no further shrinkage occurs thereafter. This very small net change is a considerable improvement over the shrinkage characteristics of negative materials available before 1954 and permits good printing even after long periods of keeping. The lengthwise shrinkage of release prints made on triacetate supports is
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Curl
Photographic-film curl is defined as the departure from flatness of photographic film. Curl toward the emulsion is called positive while curl away from the emulsion is termed negative. Although the curl level is established during manufacture, it is influenced by the relative humidity during use or storage, processing and drying temperatures, and the winding configuration.
Figure 33 At low relative humidities, the emulsion layer contracts more than the base generally producing positive curl. As the relative humidity increases, the contractive force of the emulsion layer decreases and the inherent curl of the support becomes dominant. Film wound in rolls tends to assume the lengthwise curl conforming to the curve of the roll. When a strip of this curled film is pulled into a flat configuration, the lengthwise curl is transformed into a widthwise curl.
Aditional reading on "Physical Characteristics of film." Adelstein, P. Z. and Calhoun, J. M., "Interpretation of Dimensional Changes in Cellulose Ester Base Motion Picture Films," Journal of the SMPTE , 69:157-63, March 1960. Adelstein, P. Z. Graham, C. L., and West, L. E., "Preservation of Motion Picture Color Films Having Permanent Value," Journal of the SMPTE , 79:1011 -1018, November 1970.
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Raw Stock in Original Package Temperature Radiation Gases and Vapors Relative Humidity Handling Unprocessed Film before and after Exposure General Concerns Temperature Gases and Radiation Relative Humidity Handling
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Motion Picture Ho
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Radiation Do not store or ship raw stock near X-ray sources or other radioactive materials. Some scanning devices used by postal authorities and airlines may fog raw stock. Take special storage precautions in hospitals, industrial plants, and laboratories where radioactive materials are in use. Label packages of unprocessed films that must be mailed across international borders: "Contents: Unprocessed photographic film. Please do not X-ray."
% % Temperature Relative Temperature Relative Humidity Humidity Raw Stock (in original sealed cans) Exposed Unprocessed
13C (55F) -18 to -23C (0 10F)* below 70 -18 to -23C (0 10F) -
After removal from storage, keep sealed (in original cans) until temperature is above the dew point of outside air. (See table of warm up times.) * Exposed film should be processed as soon as possible after exposure.
Gases and Vapors Gases (such as formaldehyde, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide, ammonia, illuminating gas, engine exhaust) and vapors (from solvents, mothballs, cleaners, turpentine, mildew and fungus preventives, and mercury) can change the sensitivity of photographic emulsions. The cans in which motion picture film is packaged provide protection against some gases, but others can slowly penetrate the adhesive tape seal. Keep film away from any such contaminationfor example, closets or drawers that contain mothballs-otherwise, desensitization of the silver halide grains or chemical fogging can occur. Relative Humidity Since a small amount of vapor leakage through the closure of a taped can is unavoidable, give motion picture films additional water-vapor protection if they are to be kept longer than a month in an area having high relative humidity (70 percent or higher), such as home refrigerators or damp basements. Protect unopened rolls by tightly sealing them in a second plastic container or can. NOTE: It is the relative humidity, not the absolute humidity, that determines the moisture content of film. Relative humidity is best measured with a sling psychrometer. In a small storage chamber, a humidity indicator, such as those sold for home use, is satisfactory. Handling Storage rooms for motion-picture raw stock should be designed so that accidental flooding from storms, water pipes, or sewers cannot damage the product. Store all film at least 15 cm(6in.)off the floor.
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Figure 34
Type T Core -16 mm. Figure 34 illustrates a plastic core with a 2-inch (51 mm) outside diameter and a 1-inch (25.4 mm) diameter center hole with keyway and film slot. Normally used with 16 mm films up to 400 feet (122 m) in length, except 100 -foot (30.5 m) and 200-foot (61 m) lengths of camera negative and reversal materials, which generally come on camera spools with integral leaders and trailers for loading under subdued light.
Figure 35
Type Z Core -16 mm. A plastic core with a 3 -inch (76 mm) outside diameter. Contains a 1-inch (25.4 mm) diameter center hole with keyway and a film slot. Used with camera and print films in roll sizes longer than 400 feet (122 m). See Figure 35.
Figure 36
Type U Core-35 mm. A plastic core with a 2 -inch (51 mm) outside diameter. Contains a 1 -inch (25.4 mm) diameter center hole with keyway and a film slot. Customarily used with camera negative, sound, print, and television recording films, and positive films that are used in title cameras. Supplied in a variety of lengths. See Figure 36.
Figure 37
Type K Core -35 mm. A plastic core with a 3 -inch (76 mm) outside diameter. Contains a
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Figure 38
Type Y Core-35 mm. A plastic core with the same dimensions as the Type K Core but made of a stronger material to hold 6000-foot (1829 m) rolls of color print film. See Figure 38.
Figure 39
R-90 Spool -16 mm. A metal camera spool with a 3.615-inch (92 mm) flange diameter and a 1 1/4 -inch (32 mm) core diameter. Square hole with single keyway in both flanges. Center hole configuration is aligned on both flanges. The standard sales lengths for this spool are 100 feet (30.5 m) of acetate base film. Used in cameras such as the Canon and Elmo for double super 8 film and in 16 mm spool-loading cameras. See Figure 39.
Figure 40
R-190 Spool-16 mm. A metal camera spool with a 4.940-inch (125 mm) flange diameter and a 1 1/4 -inch (32 mm) core diameter. Square hole with single keyway, two offset round drive holes, and one elliptical hole in both flanges. Side 1 and Side 2 markings. Will accept 200 feet (61 m) of acetate base film. See Figure 40.
Figure 41
S-83 Spool-35 mm. A metal camera spool with a 3.657 -inch (93 mm) flange diameter and a 31/32 -inch (25 mm) core diameter. Square holes with single keyway in both flanges. Center hole configuration is aligned on both flanges. Intended for 100 feet (30.5 m) of acetate base film. Used with camera negative materials. See Figure 41.
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KODAK: Winding
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Winding
When a 16 mm roll of raw stock, perforated along one edge, is held so that the end of the film leaves the roll at the top and to the right, it is designated Winding A if the perforations are toward the observer, Winding B if the perforations are away from the observer, as shown in Figure below. Winding A films are used to make contact prints and are not intended for use in the camera. Winding B is used for camera film, to make optical prints, and on bidirectional printers. NOTE: When requesting single-perforated film on a spool or core that has nonsymmetrical flanges (i.e., a different hole or keyway on either side), you must indicate the hole or keyway closest to the perforations and specify whether the emulsion should be wound in or out.
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Film for use in 16 mm single -system sound cameras is regularlyg furnished in Winding B on 100-foot (30.5 m) and 200 -foot (61 m) spools. It is also furnished in Winding B on 400-foot (122 m) Type T cores and, occasionally, on spools.
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KODAK: Perforations
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Perforations
l l
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Sizes and Shapes Perforation Types 35 mm and 60 mm End Use 16 mm End Use Optimum Pitch for Printing Projection Print Aspect Ratios
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Figure 43
Perforation Type Bell & Howell Kodak Standard Dimensions Inches mm 2.794 1.854 2.08 0.020 0.51 0.010 0.25 0.001 0.03 Inches 0.1100 0.0780 mm 2.794 1.981 16 Inches mm Tolerance +/ Inches mm 0.010 0.010
C D H*
R
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Figure 44
Perforation Type and ANSI Number 1R -2994 (PH22.109) Dimensions Inches A* B E F G (max) L** 29.94 760.5 30.00 762.0 0.628 mm 15.95 1R- 3000 (PH22.12) Inches 0.628 mm 15.95 2R -2994 (PH22.110) Inches 0.628 mm 15.95 2R -3000 (PH22.5) Inches 0.628 mm 15.95 7.620 0.0355 10.49 0.03 762.0 Tolerance +/ Inches 0.001 0.0005 0.0020 0.001 0.03 mm 0.03 0.013 0.051 0.03 0.8
0.2994 7.605 0.3000 7.620 0.2994 7.605 0.3000 0.0355 0.902 0.0355 0.902 0.0355 0.902 0.0355 0.413 0.001 29.94 10.49 0.03 760.5 0.413 0.001 30.00
* This dimension also represents the unperforated width. ** This dimension represents the length of any 100 consecutive perforation intervals
Figure 45
Perforation Type and ANSI Number BH-1866 (PH22.93) Dimensions Inches mm 34.975 4.74 2.01 25.37 0.03 474.00 BH-1870 (PH22.34) Inches 1.377 0.1870 0.079 0.999 0.001 18.70 mm 34.975 4.75 2.01 25.37 0.03 474.98 KS -1866 (PH22.139) Inches 1.377 0.1866 0.079 0.999 0.001 18.66 mm 34.975 4.740 2.01 25.37 0.03 474.00 KS -1870 (PH22.36) Inches 1.377 0.1870 0.079 0.999 0.001 18.70 mm 34.975 4.750 2.01 25.37 0.03 474.98 Tolerance +/Inches 0.001 mm 0.025
A*
B E F G (max) L**
1.377
0.1866 0.079 0.999 0.001 18.66
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Perforation Types
35 mm and 65 mm End Use
1. BH- 1870-35 mm Bell -Howell negative perforations with a pitch measurement of 0.1870" (long pitch), ANSI PH22.93-1980 2. BH-1866-35 mm Bell-Howell negative perforations with a pitch measurement of 0.1866" (short pitch), ANSI PH22.93-1980 3. KS-1870-35 mm and 65 mm Kodak Standard Positive perforations with a pitch measurement of 0.l870" (long pitch), ANSI PH22.1391980; PH22.145-1981 4. KS-1866-35 mm and 65 mm Kodak Standard Positive perforations with a pitch measurement of 0.1866" (short pitch), ANSI PH22.139-1980; PH22.145-1981 5. DH-1870-35mm Dubray-Howell perforations with a pitch measurement of 0.1870" (long pitch), ANSI PH22.102-1980 6. CS-1870-35 mm CinemaScope perforations with a pitch measurement of 0.1870" (long pitch), ANSI PH22.102-1980 7. KS-1870-70 mm film perforated 65 mm Kodak Standard Positive perforations with a pitch measurement of 0.1870" (long pitch), ANSI PH22.119-1981
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16 mm End Use
8. 2R-2994-16 mm film perforated two edges with a perforation pitch of 0.2994" (short pitch), ANSI PH22.110-1980 9. 2R-3000-16 mm film perforated two edges with a perforation pitch of 0.3000" (long pitch), ANSI PH22.110-1980 10. IR-2994-Same as No. 8 except perforated one edge, ANSI PH22.109-1980 11. 3R-2994-35mm film perforated 16 mm with perforation pitch of 0.2994" (short pitch), ANSI PH22.171-1980 12. IR-3000-Same as No. 11 except with a perforation pitch of 0.3000" (long pitch), ANSI PH22.171-1980 13. 3R-3000-Same as No.11 except with a perforation pitch of 0.3000" (long pitch) ANSI PH22.171-1980
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Figure 46
A printing sprocket
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Film Identification
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Unprocessed Film How to Read a Film Can Label Processed Film Know Your Films Test Exposures To Provide a Reference Point For Locations with Unfamiliar Lighting To Establish a Reference with You and Your Laboratory To Evaluate Specific End-Use Appearance To Determine the "Look" of the Finished Job To Check Specific Color Reproduction
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Unprocessed Film
The eleven-digit code on the label in Figure 49 (5247-123-4567) identifies the film type (5247), the emulsion batch number (123), and the number of the roll (4567) from which this strip of Eastman Color Negative Film was cut. The emulsion batch number and roll number also appear on the tape sealing the can. The Film Identification code (ECN 718 in this case) gives the emulsion type (ECN or Eastman Color Negative Film) and film specification number (718), a code describing width, perforation type and format, winding, and type of core, spool, or magazine. The film width, perforation pitch, and emulsion position and winding type are identified on the label. The film-strip reference number identifies the location of a particular strip of film cut from the master roll. This number (1 through 38 for 35 mm and 1 through 83 for 16 mm) appears on a sticker affixed to most cans holding 400 or more feet of film. Figure 48 shows such a sticker.
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Motion Picture H
Figure 48
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Film Sizes
Figure 49
Processed Film
The film strip reference number affixed to the can of raw stock film also appears as a latent image on the film itself. It is visible on the processed film between "Eastman" and "SAFETY FILM" on the edge print. On 35 mm films having multiple -row perforations (used only by processing laboratories to print multiple copies of a film simultaneously), a lowercase letter or letters (a, b, c, etc) appear between "SAFETY" and "FILM" to identify the perforation format of the parent strip and the location of the sub strip within it. The combinations of manufacturer's code (an uppercase letter for 35 mm or a trailer-end marking for 16 mm), film base data, and edge-print medium (ink or latent image) are helpful in identifying processed film. If a film data sheet carries a "Film Identification" heading, the uppercase letter of the manufacturer's code will be listed.
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Test Exposures
Every production presents a unique set of conditions and demands. A full understanding of the job at hand and careful evaluation of the information in the data sheets should give the filmmaker a good idea of how a chosen film stock will respond to most filming situations. Testing reduces any remaining uncertainties and establishes the reaction of a particular film to a unique situation. Tle variations that make test exposures worthwhile and the technique of interpreting such exposures are the subjects of this section. Testing is one aspect of professional work too often overlooked in practice. When seeking the best possible results, filmmakers should run tests to provide reference points during production and to confirm choices based on previous experience and data sheet information. Here, listed in the order of the time they may occur, are the principle causes of real or apparent changes in speed in all films, and contrast and color balance in color films. Failure to understand these causes can lead to misunderstanding or misinterpretation of photographic results:
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Slight manufacturing variations among different emulsion batches Adverse storage conditions before exposure Scene illumination of incorrect or mixed color quality Differences in film sensitivity with changes in illumination level and exposure time Variations in equipment (lenses, shutters, exposure meters, etc) Adverse storage conditions between film exposure and processing Nonstandard processing conditions Nonstandard viewing conditions Differences in personal judgment
All except the first are beyond the scope of manufacturing control and cannot be predicted accurately from the data sheets. Furthermore, the variations encountered in practical use are apt to be a great deal larger
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Film Identification
To Establish a Reference with You and Your Laboratory
Different laboratories can produce noticeable variations in image quality and effective film speed, and from time to time variations can be noted at a single laboratory. Typical processing can result in speed variations of plus or minus 1/2-stop and color-balance variations on the order of +/CC10 filter. Tests processed by your chosen laboratory serve as a base in all future discussions with the laboratory.
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16mm
Current Films
D. . . E. . . H. . . I... K. . . L. . . M. . . 7234 7222 7231 7246 7245 7293 7248 Q. . . R. . . S. . . U. . . V. . . Y. . . Z. . . 7277 7289 7272 7279 7244 7620 7274
Discontinued Films
A. . . C. . . J. . . N. . . 7243 7297 7296 7292 O . . . 7249 T . . . 7298 W. . . 7287
Key Number:
Prefix Six digits that identify film roll. Count Four digits that increment
Strip Number
Tails
Base Up
Manufacturer Information s
Matching Check Symbols
Four randomly selected and placed symbols designed as an extra matching check. To Use: After matching key number and checking picture, verify that the same symbols are located in the same position on both the workprint and the negative.
Heads
35mm
Heads
Base Up
Strip Number
Manufacturer Information s
Tails
Frame-Index Marker A hyphen every four perforations helps locate the frame lines for dark scenes. To Use: Locate one frame line. Determine its offset from index marker (0, +1, +2, or +3 perforations). Use this offset for frame-line reference. Note: The frame-index marker is not printed when it interferes with any other edgeprint information.
Mid-Foot Key Number Positioned halfway (+32 perforations) between each main key and Keykode number, these midfoot numbers identify short scenes that may not include a main key or Keykode number. Mid-foot key numbers are printed in smaller type to distinguish them from the main key numbers.
Current Films
D. . . E. . . H. . . I... K. . . L. . . M. . . Q. . .
R. . . S. . . T. . . U. . . V. . .
5289 5272 5298 5279 5244 2244 X. . . SFX 200T Y. . . 5620 Z. . . 5274
Discontinued Films
A. . . B. . . C. . . F. . . G. . . 5243 5247 5297 5295 5294 J... O... P... W. . . 5296 5249 5600 5287
65mm
Heads
Base Up
Key Number
Count Four digits that increment every 120 perforations. Prefix Six digits that identify film roll.
Current Films
I... K. . . L. . . M. . . Q. . . 5246 5245 5293 5248 5277 R. . . T. . . U. . . V. . . Z. . . 5289 5298 5279 5244 5274
Discontinued Films
A. . . 5243 B. . . 5247 C. . . 5297 J . . . 5296 W. . . 5287
One-third Key Number The key number +40, with bar code and frame-reference dot, is offset 40 perforations from the main key number. Use to identify short scenes which may not include the main key number.
Matching Check Symbols Two randomly selected symbols for additional matching checks. To Use: After matching key numbers and checking picture, verify that same symbols are located in same position on both the workprint and the negative. Check symbols are another aid in matching very short scenes. The solid squares also serve as density patches to evaluate edgeprint exposure.
This edgeprint format pertains to all Eastman 65mm negative and intermediate films.
Tails
Two-thirds Key Number Like the one-third key number, but +80 perforations following the main key number.
Frame-Reference Markers A Dash, Key and Plus are printed at regular intervals to help locate frame lines, especially for scenes shot in low light. Dash: Frame reference mark for 5- and 10-perf formats. Key: Frame reference mark for 8-perf format. + Plus: Frame reference mark for 15-perf format. (Every third dash is a plus) To Use: Locate one frame line and nearest reference marker for the given film format. Count the number of perforations between the frame line and the marker. Use this perf offset to identify the location of frame lines throughout the scene. Note: Frame-reference markers are not printed when they interfere with other edgeprint information.
Two intermediate Keykode numbers offset 40- and 80perforations from the main Keykode number
An aid in matching short scenes which may not include the main key number.
KODAK: Filtration
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Filtration
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Filters Useful with All Camera Films Polarizing Filters Neutral Density Filters Filters for Black-and-White Films Correction Filters Contrast Filters Haze Filters Filters for Color Films Selecting Filters for Correcting Color Temperature Light Source Conversion with Filters Light Balancing Filters Conversion Filters Limits to Color Temperature Measurement Ultraviolet-Absorbing and Haze-Cutting Filters Color Compensating Filters for Color Correction Combining Color Compensating Filters Exposure Allowance for Filters Filters for Color Printing
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White light is the sum of all the colors of the rainbow; black is the absence of all these colors. For practical purposes, we can consider white light as composed of equal amounts of three primary light colors-red, green, and blue. For example, if green and red are subtracted, we see blue. We, see many more colors in nature than these three because absorption and reflection of the primaries are rarely complete. Our perception of a color is influenced by the surrounding colors and brightness level, the surface gloss of an object, and any personal defects in our color vision. Different films also see colors differently due to differences in spectral sensitivity. Filtration used with black-and-white films can control the shades of gray to obtain a technically correct rendition or to exaggerate or suppress the tonal differences for visibility, emphasis, or other effects. Filtration with color films can change the color quality of the light source to produce proper color rendition or to create special effects.
KODAK: Filtration
Filters always subtract some of the light reflected from a scene before it reaches the film plane in the camera. A red filter then is not "red" but rather a filter that absorbs blue and green. Similarly, a yellow filter is one that absorbs blue light. A yellow sunflower absorbs blue light and reflects the other parts of white light-red and green, which we see as yellow (lack of blue).
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A misty sky does not photograph as dark as a clear blue sky. You can't darken an overcast sky by using a polarizing filter. The sky is frequently almost white at the horizon and shades to a more intense blue at the zenith. Therefore, the effect of the filter at the horizon is small, but it becomes greater as you aim the camera upward. The sky near the sun is less blue than the surrounding sky and, therefore, is less affected by a filter.
When you begin making exposures with a polarizing filter, be sure to remember that this filter has a minimum filter factor of 2.5 (increase exposure by 1 1/3 stops). This factor applies regardless of how the polarizing screen is rotated. In addition to this exposure increase, you must make any exposure increases required by the nature of the lighting. For example, for the dark-sky effect, the scene must be sidelighted or toplighted, so it will be necessary to add approximately 1/2-stop exposure to the 1 1/3- stop increase required by the polarizing filter factor. Give an additional 1/2-stop exposure when you use a polarizing filter to eliminate reflections from subjects; reflections often make objects look brighter than they really are. See Figure 50.
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Figure 50
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Correction Filters
Most panchromatic emulsions have a high sensitivity to both ultraviolet and blue radiation. Because this sensitivity is dissimilar to the spectral sensitivity of the eye, blue or violet subjects are often overexposed and rendered too light on the final print. For example in location work, correction filters are often used to overcome an apparent lack of contrast between blue sky and white clouds. At the red end of the spectrum, certain higher speed panchromatic films possess a marked red sensitivity that, unless compensated for, tends to distort the rendering of red subject matter. Deliberate overcorrection is sometimes done to achieve special effects. Foliage looks slightly darker than we expect when it is photographed on black-and-white film without a filter. By using a yellow or yellow-green filter to absorb some of the unwanted blue and red light, you can record foliage in its proper gray tone. This may seem to imply a contradiction: If a filter subtracts light, there will be less density on the negative and the print will be darker, so how does the filter make foliage lighter? Actually, the filter darkens the rendering on the print of the color it absorbs, thus making the colors it transmits lighter by comparison. This becomes apparent when the negative is correctly printed.
Contrast Filters
Used with black-and-white films contrast filters change the relative contrasts between two objects that would normally photograph as nearly the same shade of gray. The following guideline will help you choose contrast filters: A filter transmits its own color, making that color lighter in a black-and- white print. To make a color darker, use a filter that will absorb that color. If you use a No. 25 red filter, which transmits the red of the geranium blossoms and absorbs the green of the grass, the geraniums will be light and the grass dark in your print. Since you probably think of the flowers as being brighter than the grass, this print may look natural to you. But if you use a No. 58 green filter, which absorbs the red of the geraniums and transmits the green of the grass, you'll get the opposite result: dark flowers and light grass. You can also underexpose the film when using a contrast filter to simulate a night effect under daylight conditions; use orange and red filters, such as
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Haze Filters
The effects of haze can be reduced by filtering out some of the blue and ultraviolet lighy. Yellow filters, commonly used for haze peneration and darkening of the sky, are Kodak WRATTEN Filters No. 3, 8, 12, and 15, in order of increasing absorption. For further darkening of the sky and increased haze penetration, use filters ranging from light orange to deep red, such as filters No. 21, 23A, 25 and 29. These filters absorb varying degrees of blue light and green light.
Figure 51
Note: If conditions require long time exposures, corrections for reciprocity effect in addition to the corrections for the filter factor may be necessary. * For a gray-tone rendering of colors approximating their visual brightness.
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Daylight
Source Sunlight: Sunrise or Sunset Sunlight: 1 Hour after Sunrise Sunlight: Early Morning Sunlight: Late Afternoon Average Summer Sunlight at Noon (Washington, DC) Direct Midsummer Sunlight Overcast sky Average Summer Sunlight (plus blue skylight) Light Summer Shade Average Summer Shade Summer Skylight Will Vary from Degrees Kelvin 2,000 3,500 4,300 4,300 5,400 5,800 6,000 6,500 7,100 8,000 9,500 to 30,000
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Recently, the term reciprocal megakelvins (MK-1 ) has been used to replace mireds. The reciprocal color temperature expressed in reciprocal megakelvins has the same numerical value as with mireds, but the value is arrived at by first expressing the color temperature in megakelvins (1 MK = 1,000,000 K) and taking the reciprocal. For example, the reciprocal color temperature for a 6000 K source is 1/0.006 MK = 167 MK-1 Filters such as Kodak Light Balancing Filters and Kodak WRATTEN Photometric Filters modify the effective color temperature, hence the reciprocal color temperature, of any light source by a definite amount. Each filter can be given a visual shift value that is defined by the expression 1 1 T2 T1 where T 1 is the color temperature of the light through the filter (both values expressed in megakelvins). Remember that the concept of color temperature relates to the response of the visual system. To match the actual response of films as opposed to the response of the eye, some filters are designed empirically to fit existing photographic requirements. These filters may or may not provide a visual shift that relates to the measured photographic effect. This list give filters that provide the desired photographic result when used for the conversion indicated. The shift value given is a nominal value defined by the equation 1 1 T2 T1 and is not a measure of the visual shift that might actually be computed for the filter. A new concept termed photographic color temperature is being developed. If this method proves viable, reporting additional filter data in terms of photographic effect should provide greater assistance in the choice of appropriate filters for photography under a wide range of illuminants.
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* Values in reciprocal megakelvins (MK -1) are equal numerically to values in "mireds."
Conversion Filters
If still greater corrections in color are required, you can use light balancing filters and conversion filters. Use conversion filters over the camera lens to make significant changes in the color temperature of
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Kodak Light Balancing and Conversion Filters for Color Films Kodak Light Balancing Filters
Filter Color Filter Number 82C + 82C 82C + 82B 82C + 82A 82C + 82 82C 82B 82A 82 No Filter Necessary 81 81A 81B 81C 81D 81EF 1/3 1/3 1/3 1/3 2/3 2/3 Exposure Increase in Stops* 1 1/3 1 1/3 1 1 2/3 2/3 1/3 1/3 To Obtain 3200 K from 2490 2570 2650 2720 2800 2900 3000 3100 3300 3400 3500 3600 3700 3850 K K K K K K K K K K K K K K To Obtain 3400 K from 2610 2700 2780 2870 2950 3060 3180 3290 3510 3630 3740 3850 3970 4140 K K K K K K K K K K K K K K Nominal Shift Value (MK -1)* -89 -77 -65 -55 -45 -32 -21 -10 9 18 27 35 42 52 Nominal Shift Value (MK -1)* -131 -112 -81 -56 81 112 112 112 112 131 131 131
Bluish
3200 K
3400 K
Yellowish
Conversion Filters Filter Color Filter Number 80A 80B 80C 80D 85D 85 85N3 85N6 85N9 85B 85BN3 85BN6 Exposure Increase in Stops* 2 1 2/3 1 1/3 1/3 2/3 1 2/3 2 2/3 3 2/3 2/3 1 2/3 2 2/3 Conversion in Degrees K 3200 3400 3800 4200 5500 5500 5500 5500 5500 5500 5500 5500 to to to to to to to to to to to to 5500 5500 5500 5500 3800 3400 3400 3400 3400 3200 3200 3200
Blue
Amber
*These values are approximate. For critical work, they should be checked by practical
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The nomograph can be used to find the shift value for a particular conversion by placing a staightedge from an original source (T 1) to a second source (T 2 ). The shift value can be read on the center line. Use of the nominal shift values for filters shown on the previous tables will allow choice of filters that approximate the necessary correction. Shift values are algebraically additive; filters can be combined to acheive the required shift.
Figure 52
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* These values are approximate. For critical work, they should be checked by practical tests, especially if more than one filter is used. **Similar Kodak Color Printing Filters (Acetate) are available.
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A Brief History of Sound Magnetic and Photographic Sound Photographic Tracks Basics of Photographic Sound Photographic Sound-Track Reproduction
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1920's
The very first sound was produced in the early 1900's from a phonograph disk running in mechanical synchronism with the picture at 33 1/3 RPM. Obvious synchronization problems requiring the constant attention of the projectionist led to a system which allowed the picture and sound track to be printed together on the same piece of film.
1930's
Two photographic-sound recording systems evolved-variable-density and variable-area. Variable-density meant that the density of the sound track varied in accordance with the audio signal. Variable-area meant that the width of the clear area of the track varied with the signal. Also, there were several different types of variable-area tracks-the earliest unilateral, the improved bilateral and dual-bilateral and the special push-pull tracks. Because of the complexities of push-pull tracks, they were used for in-house operations, not released. Only on picture, the 1941 version of Walt Disney's Fantasia , was released with push-pull tracks, and then only as a special road show performance where Disney technicians had complete control.
1940's
The primary shortcoming of photographic sound tracks was (and still is) noise. Early in their use, schemes were devised for noise reduction. Over the years, many variations of both variable density and variable-area tracks were developed to increase their dynamic range. This need for greater sound level led to the abandonment of variable density in favor of the higher output variable -area recording. The added realism of stereophonic sound challenged engineers. In the late 1930's, Bell Labs developed a stereo system with four variable -area tracks on 35 mm film and in 1941, Fantasia was released as the first commercial stereo release.
1950's
The 1950's brought wide-screen pictures-most using multiple magnetic tracks for stereo sound. The driving force was more realistic and exciting theater entertainment to counter the home TV threat to their business. In late 1952, a three-camera, three-projector, ultra-wide screen format was introduced. Its seven sound tracks were on a separate film run synchronously with the picture. In 1953, Fox released The Robe in CinemaScope,--a 2.35:1 wide screen picture from a standard 35 mm print with four magnetic tracks, three for wide-band audio and a narrow
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1980's
Through it all, three formats have withstood the test of time:
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35 mm Monophonic Photographic Sound Tracks or Academy Tracks-a standard format since 1927. These are bilateral or dualbilateral variable- area tracks. The term Academy was coined because of standardization efforts made in the late 1930's by a group at the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. 35 mm Stereophonic Photographic Sound Tracks with Dolby Noise Reduction-the most common 35 mm format today. Dolby calls them SVA or Stereo Variable -Area Tracks. 70 mm Magnetic Sound Tracks-a format used in specialized theaters who promote a wide-screen image and high-quality sound. The picture is shot on either 65 mm or 35 mm negative film and the final print is released on 70 mm print film. The only difference between 65 mm and 70 mm film is the added width of 2.5 mm outside the perforation area on each edge of 70 mm film for the magnetic stripes.
By the mid-1980's, considerable interest had developed in digital sound on motion picture film. This interest was spurred to no small degree by the availability to the consumer of compact audio discs. This digital recording medium is quickly supplanting tape and long-play phonograph records for home sound systems because of its virtually flawless audio quality.
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Figure 53
The separation of sound into six discrete channels ensures that audiences will not only hear all of the subtleties of dialogue, effects, and music, the way it is meant to be heard, but from the special location where it originated.
The ability to encode digital sound optically on film required a major technological breakthrough providing the key to affordability and reliability of CDS. Theatres equipped with single channel surround speakers can easily retrofit for the dual channel surround of CDS. All it requires is installation of a digital decoder on the projector and a digital-to-analog processor in the projection booth equipment-rack. Some theaters may consider the option to upgrade speaker systems to realize the full potential that CDS offers. CDS technology for 70 mm and 35 mm release prints is virtually the same. A decision was made to debut CDS in 70 mm format so the new audio system could be introduced in road show theaters. Motion pictures can be released in CDS format by simply remixing the audio made for conventional prints to six discrete channels of digital optical sound. Eventually recording and mixing techniques will evolve to take full advantage of CDS features. More original sound will be recorded and mixed digitally now that there is a way to release movies in digital sound format.
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Photographic Tracks
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Figure 54a
Schematic of optical sound reproduction.
Figure 54b
Light attenuation by a sound track.
Figure 54c
Response of a photocell.
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Figure 55
A sound track as seen through the aperture.
Figure 56
As the film moves, the sound track itself varies, or modulates, the amount of light that reaches the photocell from the sound lamp. The photocell then converts the light energy into electrical energy. The electrical current produced by the photocell is directly proportional to the intensity of the light that reaches it. Photocells are made out of various photosensitive materials, each having a different spectral sensitivity. Virtually all 16 mm and 35 mm projectors have S -1 or silicon-type photocells, sensitive primarily in the infrared area. Therefore all 16 mm and 35 mm sound tracks must be able to modulate infrared radiation, which silver and to a lesser extent, silver sulfide are capable of doing. A sound track made of dye alone will not modulate the infrared radiation as effectively, reducing the signal-tonoise ratio significantly. As the film moves past the sound aperture, the variation in the width of the track determines the amplitude of the signal generated, and the speed of the variation detertmines the frequency of the signal. There are several types of variable -area recordings. A unilateral track consists of modulations that are generated perpendicularly to the longitudinal dividing edge between the opaque and clear portions of the track. A bilateral track, Figure 56 , uses modulations that are symmetrical about the longitudinal center line of the track. A dual bilateral track, Figure 56, has two bilateral images laid side by side; a multilateral track employs several bilateral images. The dual bilateral track is the most widely used because it minimizes distortion or signal loss resulting from any uneven illumination of the optical slit at the reproduction heads.
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KODAK: Projection
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Projection
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Handling and Inspection of Motion-Picture Prints Common Causes of Abrasion and Wear n Excessive Tension n Misalignment of Film in the Projector n Creased Edges n Run-Offs and Roping n Abrasions and Dirt Cleaning Motion-Picture Prints
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The success or failure of any finished film lies in the viewing. Once a print is made, the final responsibility for the quality of the screen image rests with the projection equipment and the people who handle the print. This section covers the steps in inspecting a newly received print for flaws, the most common causes of film damage and abrasion, techniques for lubricating new prints, and techniques for cleaning film.
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Maintain constant tension while rewinding to provide a smooth, tight reel. Hold the film by the edges and wear clean, lint-free gloves while inspecting for damage or bad splices. Remake faulty splices correctly, whether cement or tape. Insist on a replacement reel if major cuts and damage are noted during your inspection. Provide some means to maintain adequate relative humidity (60 percent is ideal) to help eliminate static electricity buildup in film transport systems.
Excessive Tension.
Too much tension in the film projection transport system usually results in objectionable projection noise and in perforation damage. If the film was properly lubricated at the laboratory, the source of the tension can be in the gate or at the feed and holdback sprockets.
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Check for deposits on the trap rails and check the gate tension. Adjust gate tension just tight enough to provide a steady screen image. Adjust tension on the projector reel spindles, if possible, to prevent singing sprockets. If all of these points check out satisfactorily, check the 35 mm
KODAK: Projection
prints for proper lubrication of the edges on the emulsion side. The first step is to vary the gate tension over the entire range. If no improvement is obtained, inadequate edge lubrication should be suspected. Sixteen-millimeter films should have an overall lubricant. The coefficient of friction of the emulsion side of the unsatisfactory film should be compared to a satisfactory film by the test described in ANSI PH1.A7 Methods for Detecting the Degree of Lubrication on Processed Photographic Film by the Paper Clip Friction Test. A coefficient of 0.2 or lower usually indicates a satisfactory level of lubrication.
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Check alignment of the film as it enters the feed sprocket or leaves the holdback sprocket. Check alignment of film in the projector gate. Examine the print for damaged perforations before using it. (Order a new reel or print, if necessary.)
the projector is improperly threaded so that the pad roller creases the film over the sprocket. the film is under high tension and binds against some component or one of the roller flanges.
Run-Offs and Roping. This type of damage, often reported as sprocket marked, is caused when the film partially leaves the sprocket and rides over the sprocket teeth while under tension.
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Check for misaligned splices and remake them. Check for fold-over damaged film sections; repair or replace the section (or reel), if necessary. Check to see if any unperforated tape covers perforations and make necessary repairs. Check the projector for proper threading and adjusunent.
Abrasions and Dirt. Primarily caused by careless handling, improper threading, and poorly maintained equipment this kind of film damage is readily seen by the viewer. If you can answer yes to the following questions, you are well on your way to minimizing the problems of dirt and abrasion.
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Is the projection area clean? Especially the floor and rewind bench? Is the film riding correctly between roller flanges? Is the print free of oil and grimy dirt? Are smoking and eating (notorious dirt sources) prohibited in film handling areas? Is there enough tension during rewinding so that the film does not slip on itself during fast starts and stops? (Much abrasion damage is caused by film slippage.) Do you use clean, lint-free gloves and hold the film correctly during rewinding and inspection? Do you avoid tightening a loose reel by pulling the film end until it snugs up? (This is another cause of abrasion damage.)
KODAK: Projection
Cleaning Motion-Picture Prints
Clean and lubricate prints by drawing them between soft lintless cloths moistened with a preparation such as Kodak Movie Film Cleaner (with Lubricant). If a film is unsteady and noisy during the first projection, it may not have been lubricated at the processing laboratory. In this case, the film should be lubricated, not only to reduce noise but also to minimize film damage. Cleaning cloths of the following types are usually satisfactory: a good grade of Canton flannel, a short- or medium -pile rayon or nylon plush, or a soft cotton batiste. These should be white, undyed, and free of fabric fillers and additives for stiffening. If in doubt the cloths should be laundered before use. Place the film to be cleaned is placed on a rewind and thread the ladder stripe onto a take -up reel. As you rewind the film, draw it between two cloths moistened with the cleaner and lubricant. Constant light pressure provides continual contact between the film surface and the cloth. Do this slowly enough to permit the cleaner to evaporate completely before the film reaches the take-up reel. Frequent moistening of the cloths is recommended because the solvent evaporates rapidly.* To avoid scratching the film with accumulated dirt particles, refold the cloths often so that only clean areas will be in contact with the film. If streaks are noticed on the film after lubrication, you can remove them by buffing with a soft cloth before projection. Cleaning and lubrication should be accomplished with continuous, smooth rewinding of the whole reel. When you must stop to refold the cloth and apply more cleaner, back up the film about 1 foot (30.5 cm) before resuming the cleaning operation.
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* Kodak Movie Film Cleaner (with Lubricant) does not contain carbon tetrachloride. Even so, you should use the cleaner with adequate ventilation. Forced -air ventilation should be provided. No matter what type of cleaner you are using, follow the instructions on the container.
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Student Main About the Program Publications Career Profiles Film Techniques Campus Beat Speak Out Program Membership News & Events
During post production, you will be spending quite a bit of time and money with a film laboratory. Locating the right lab is extremely important. Ideally, you should have some feeling for a lead early in the production phase, before you have many hours worth of exposed film on your hands and are wondering what to do with it. How do you find that lab? The purpose of this section is to explain how laboratory operations fit into your total production. First come some tips on selecting a lab. Next is a walk-through of laboratory operations during a typical production. The next section deals with processing and printing operations and equipment so that you can appreciate what can be done with your film once you've exposed it.
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Know your needs. Have a good idea of what you want from a laboratory and then talk about those needs with several laboratories before you make a choice. In your discussions, be sure to relay your ideas about such things as editing, dubbing, special effects, animation, etc, so the lab can help you accomplish these tasks in the best way possible. Get acquainted. Once you have made your choice of laboratories, get to know, as well as possible, the people who will do your work. Tell them as much as you can about yourself, your needs, and your style. The more you communicate with them about yourself and your production, the better they can serve you. Get it in writing. Face-to-face discussions and telephone calls are
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Processing camera film. (Special overnight pickup and delivery, or weekend service is available in some places by prearrangement) Find out what processes are available, including special techniques (e.g. flashing or force processing). Furnishing advice to help with technical or even aesthetic problems. Printing and duplicating from camera films for workprints or releaseprints. Most laboratories will print or duplicate the camera film after it is processed. They may also hold the original in their vault and forward the print for use as a workprint. Thus the original is protected from damage in handling until it is needed for final conforming. Black-and-white printing from a color original to produce a workprint for sound editing. Edge numbering of originals and workprints to facilitate editing. Editing, cutting, splicing, and assembling as directed by the producer. Conforming by matching the original camera film to the workprint as edited by the producer. Optical effects which these include dissolves, wipes, fades, freeze frames, etc.
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Now, let's describe our show. This weekly one-hour series is produced by a major studio that has a network contract requiring the production of 24 episodes. The show routinely includes practical location photography (day and night). Six to seven days of filming are common for each show. Here's how the laboratory fits into the production. On most days, the production company's exposed 35 mm negative is at the studio's camera department by 7:00 p.m. A truck from the laboratory picks up the negative along with those of several other production. Often, the truck makes several trips throughout the evening. The first batch of negatives arrives by lab truck, is sorted by the directions on the film cans (flashing, forcing, priorities, etc.), and prepared for processing. The rolls are processed and sent to negative
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Production Postproduction
Day 12
1. First Cut
Day 24
2. Final Cut
Days 2531
3. Negative Cut Music composed and scored, sound effects made, opticals and titles prepared, editing finished. Camera negative physically cut to conform to final cut of the workprint. Dupe negatives spliced in where there are opticals and title negative footage added. Actual splicing is done at the laboratory. 4. Dubbing 1-3 days. All sound materials (live music, recorded music, voice, sound effects such as gunshots, footsteps, etc) combined into a composite magnetic sound track. Magnetic track transferred to optical track. Film shows aesthetic defects in some areas. Needs tightening up and polishing, slight recutting. Some elements missing in titles.
Day 32
5. First Trial
6. First Answer Contains everything; becomes New York Print 35 mm air print. Second Answer Slight color corrections; becomes Los Print Angeles air print. 7. 16 mm Prints Reduction CRI and ten 16 mm prints.
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Processing Equipment Construction of Containers Transport Design Access Time Time and Temperature Agitation Mechanical Specifications Process Control
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One important consideration when selecting film-one too often overlooked-is the processing requirements for a given film and the printing needs for the whole production. One way to better appreciate the sophisticated technology that turns your exposed camera film into good projection film is to understand the processes and equipment in the modern film laboratory. In this section, we will describe the operations and equipment involved in processing and printing your film.
Processing Equipment
The modern motion-picture laboratory uses the continuous processor, a machine that provides the most efficient way of handling long lengths of film. Other kinds of equipment can be built or purchased for development of small amounts of black-and-white footage, but the continuous processor meets the quantity and quality demands of professional processing. In essence, the continuous processor moves film through the appropriate sequences of developers, fixers (or stop baths), washes, and dryer at a carefully controlled speed. The processor also controls solution temperature and agitation to produce optimum results for the particldar kind of film being processed.
Construction of Containers
Glass, hard rubber, polyethylene, 316 stainless steel, and titanium are the materials most commonly used in the construction of containers for mixing, storing, and using photographic solutions. Not all metals are suitable. Tin, copper, and their alloys may cause serious chemical fog or rapid oxidation when used with developers. Do not use aluminum, zinc, or galvanized iron with either developers or fixing baths.
Transport Design
The film follows a helical path by moving on partially or totally submerged banks of rollers through the various solutions ( Figure 57). Squeegees (Figure 58) or wipers located between the different tanks remove most of the liquid from the film surface. The most common method of moving film through a processor is by friction between the rotating spools and the base side of the film. The other major method is by sprockets incorporated on the spools which engage the film perforations.
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Figure 57
Helical path of film through a single rack and tank assembly
Figure 58
This type of wiper -blade squeegee assembly is used on many processors.
Figure 59
Roller undercut in image area.
The film path through the processor wet sections permits only the base side of the film to contact the rollers. In this way, the emulsion is protected from possible physical damage that might occur if the soft, wet emulsion came in contact with the plastic spool surfaces. However, in the dry sections (feed-on and take-off) of some processing machines, there may be emulsion- side rollers. These are usually under cut in the image area and are designed to contact only the edges or perforation area of the film. Some rollers have ridges that touch only edges of the film, or the rollers can be flat and covered with soft-touch tires for uniform film support across the roller width and to prevent scratching of the support in the image area. See Figure 59.
Access Time
Two of the most widely discussed and perhaps the most misunderstood items relating to any processor are speed and access time. Speed refers to the time required for a specific point on a film to travel a specific distance and is measured in feet or meters per minute. Access time refers to the time it takes a particular length of film to be completely processed. Regardless of machine transport speed, which can range from 15 to hundreds of feet per minute, film cannot be processed faster than the total of the times required in each solution. For example, when a machine running Process VNF-1 is loaded and processing film, it will be 15 minutes 15 seconds before the first foot of film enters the drying cabinet no matter what the speed of the machine. However, the time for completing various lengths of film once the process times are met is in direct relation to the machine speed. If the machine speed is 15 fpm, then a 15-foot -long film will take 14 minutes 15 seconds plus 1 minute to complete the process. With a 150-foot roll, access time will be 14 minutes 15 seconds plus 10 minutes.
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Agitation
If exposed photographic materials are placed in a developer and allowed to develop without movement, the action slows down because the developing chemicals in contact with the film surface become exhausted. If the film or the solution is agitated, however, fresh solution is continually brought to the emulsion surface, and the development continues. An equally important effect of agitation is prevention of uneven development that may result in mottle, a nonuniform density in the print that makes it look blotchy. If there is no agitation, the exhausted solution, loaded with development by- products, may flow slowly across the emulsion from dense areas to less dense areas and produce uneven streaks. Agitation keeps the solution uniform throughout and avoids uneven development. In color processing, proper agitation is especially critical during the initial development step. The recommended agitation techniques will vary, depending upon the process and equipment being used. The film movement, as it passes through the developer solution is not always sufficient to create adequate agitation.
Mechanical Specifications
If film is to be processed satisfactorily as it moves through the machine, it must be immersed in solutions of the correct temperature for the proper length of time. In addition, processing solutions must be adequately replenished and filtered, and sufficiendy agitated. These requirements are commonly called the mechanical specifications. The only valid processing change-made for the purpose of force processing (for more camera speed under low-light conditions)-involves increasing the developer (camera negative) or first developer (reversal camera film) time and/or temperature. The time that film is immersed in a particular solution depends upon the length of the film path in each tank and the machine speed. Generally, time is fixed by the number of rollers per rack and the number of racks threaded in a tank. Usually, individual rack times can be changed by rethreading the rack or using a rack equipped with an adjustable lowershaft assembly.
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Process Control
The degree of development in a negative-positive process or first development in a reversal process is the most important factor in determining the final image quality. Careful control is critical at this point. Development is affected by the temperatures and chemical composition of the developer (or first developer), the time of contact between the film and the solution, and the degree of agitation. The other processing steps are also affected by the same factors. When all is well with the process, the output from the continuous processor will be good pictures. While these pictures can be evaluated subjectively by simply looking at them, the most accurate evaluation is an objective measurement Sensitometric control strip density values, when plotted in graphic form, give an operator that objective information about the condition of the process. These measurements are made before, during, and after a processing run for maximum control of quality. The operator also checks the physical operation of the machine periodically to ensure good results. A good lab observes the following practices in the physical control of a process:
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Use of correct processing temperatures, which are checked often. Thermometers and temperature -controlling devices are calibrated periodically to insure that the instruments are operating properly. The temperatures of all solutions are kept within specification to minimize dimensional changes in the emulsion. Use of recommended processing times. Machine speed is checked by carefully measuring the time it takes for a given length of film to pass a specific point. Knowing it is possible to use an incorrect processing time when a machine uses different thread-ups for different film stocks, the careful laboratory checks the solution times every time there is a threading change. Consider that, for black-and-white negative or positive process, one might run up to seven films having nine possible development times through Developer D-96 in the course of a few hours. Use of the recommended replenishment rates. Accurate replenishment increases the useful life of solutions to a great extent by replacing ingredients that are depleted and maintains the process at a constant, efficient level. To prevent serious out-ofcontrol situations and chemical waste, laboratories routinely check the accuracy of their replenisher delivery systems. An accurate daily record is kept of conditions affecting the process, including developer temperature, amount of film processed, volume of replenisher added, and identification numbers of control stops processed at particular times.
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Marketing a Film
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FiIm as a Business Tool Potential Clients Client's Communication Requirements Reaching Agreement on Need for Film
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"People don't buy goods and services; they buy solutions to problems. People are accustomed to learning through film."
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Filmmakers who learn how to market and how to communicate with clients are the ones who make films. You have nothing to sell, of course, except yourself-and the promise that you can deliver a film that meets your client's needs. Don't try for a film that will win prizes. If you try for a film that will best serve your client's needs, you will find yourself with a prizewinner . . . and a recommendation for another job. Your reputation is as good as your last film. You build a reputation by taking care of business every day as though your reputation were at stake, because it is.
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Potential Clients
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Potential Clients
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General Market Considerations Educational Special Interest Broadcast Television Cable Television Vacation Resorts Film Ingredients Running Time ProfessionaI Versus Industrial Talent Film Content Distributor Services Promotional Ideas Print Inventory Supporting Materials Film Maintenance Your creative work is of little value unless you have an audience. If you don't have a plan, it will stay in the can. When you target your audience, you target your potential for payback. There are as many outlets for good films as there are good films. A good film is one that is aimed at a particular audience. You must give the audience a chance to see it by making it visible with promotion, available with distribution, and usable with support materials and proper maintenance.
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The distribution and promotion phase is, many times, a matter of rote. Many companies have predetermined distribution channels, especially with materials created for internal use (training outlets or salespeople) or for well- established clients (dealers or distributors). You may, however, be able to help your client choose the distribution format. Will the film be shot in 16 mm and converted to 35 mm, then converted back to 16 mm for television use? Will it be shot in 35 mm and converted to 16 mm for distribution? Will the same film have several uses in several formats? Your client's answers will help you determine both the original format and the distribution format, determine costs for the total needs of your client, and avoid serious mistakes when choosing production techniques. A high contrast black-and-white film, for example, might be dramatic in a theater setting but look muddy or washed out on a television screen. Inadequate planning can ruin even your best work or cause unnecessary costs for your client, and for that reason the distribution format must be considered in your proposal. Many times, distribution and promotion are the critical points in the decision to make-or not make-a film. Is there an audience for the film? How will you get it to them? How will they know the film is available? These questions must be addressed in the planning stages; and when the answers are not obvious, it is very good business to consult a professional distributor. Early involvement with a professional film distributor is essential in
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Schools and special-interest groups account for the greatest utilization of sponsored films. Your films can also receive considerable visibility through the other four distribution channels. If you want to target your films at these areas most effectively, you should really contact a professional distributor.
Educational
There are four major subcategories in the educational field: grade school, junior high school, senior high school, and college. And, even within these, there are many other subcategories, such as: boys, girls, and coeds. Instructional films covering the following subject areas (among many others) are regularly shown to school-age students:
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Health Social Studies Business and Economics Vocational Guidance Arts and Crafts
Also within this age range are various non-school youth organizations such as: Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, Little League, and other sports groups, YMCA, YWCA, etc.
Special -Interest
The special-interest grouping encompasses business and professional organizations, religious groups, civic and social clubs, etc,. Listed below are many of the areas that make up this large and diverse category:
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Business and Industry (e.g., oil companies, computer companies, electronics factories, automobile companies) Service and Fraternal organizations (Rotary, Kiwanis, Masons) Church groups (Finance Committees, Pastor-Parish Relations) Sports groups-hunting, fishing, automobile clubs (NASCAR, SCCA), ski clubs, hiking clubs Federal Govemment agencies (Internal Revenue Service, Health, Education, and Welfare Department) State agencies (Department of Motor Vehicles, Transportation Department) Military branches (Army, Navy, Air Force, Marines) Hospitals
The above is not intended to limit the possibilities, but merely to point out the broad range of potential target audiences within the specialinterest category.
Broadcast Television
Broadcast television (commercial and educational) provides the quickest method of exposing many thousands of viewers to your film at one time and at a surprisingly moderate cost. Your film should be original and aesthetically pleasing to be accepted for TV broadcast; it should also be appropriate for an audience of varying ages, educational backgrounds, and interests. A couple of points to remember are that running times of either 13 1/2 or 27 1/2 minutes are most suitable for the average TV station, and less prevalent film lengths include 3 to 5 minutes and 7 to 10 minutes for use as fill material (full-length film or sports event running less than a two -hour programming slot). Generally, TV stations broadcast from 2 to 4 hours of sponsored films every week.
Cable Television
Cable television (CATV) is a steadily growing market. Similar to broadcast TV, CATV enables you to show your film to many of the cable viewers (a total of about 10 million homes in 7,000 communities) at a number of locations throughout the country. Again, your film should have wide audience appeal, be approplate for many geographic areas, and run either 13 1/2, 27 1/2, 3 to 5, or 7 to 10 minutes. Although your film may be meant for a certain special-interest regional group, it could also be of interest to people in other communities.
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Film Ingredients
In addition to considering the categories of audiences and potential distribution channels, you should also examine some of the important parts of a successfully designed film: the running time, the advantages and disadvantages of using professional talent versus industrial talent, and the film content.
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Running Time
The running time of your film will have a significant effect on the way it is distributed. Generally, educators are looking for appropriate films running from 15 to 30 minutes. In fact, many will avoid the use of extremely short films simply because the time required to obtain and set up a movie projector cannot be justified for a few minutes of screen time. Adult organizations, on the other hand, will normally shy away from film this long, preferring presentations that run less than 15 minutes. Therefore, you should carefully evaluate the length of your film based on the target audience. You might even want to produce two different lengths (different versions) of the film to maximize usage for both the adult and the school audiences.
Film Content
Film content must be a blend of what the client deems impormnt to get across to the public and the producer's interpretation of those aims. Some producers, unfortunately, make elaborate films strictly to win filmmaking awards and to gain recognition, the content and the cinematic techniques applied may be accentuated to that end. It is
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Distributor Services
The actual elements of film distribution are simple in theory but vastly more complex in practice. You might think that to successfully market your film you need only an audience and a method of getting the film to the viewers. However, distribution is really a more complex science. Mass audiences, such as classroom students (kindergarten to college level), are fairly easy to locate. Other target audiences (skiers belonging to ski clubs and members of hunting and fishing Rod and Gun clubs) are not particularly hard to reach because they belong to well-known organizations. However, certain desired target audiences are difficult to find and perhaps not as easily influenced toward using your film. This section, then, covers the advantages of using film distributors and the techniques they use to help you and your sponsor determine less obvious target audiences.
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Promotional Ideas
Efficient promotion can heavily affect overall film distribution. To assist the sponsor, supplemental promo literature (ranging from a single handout to a series of brochures and catalogs) can be prepared by the distributor. Regardless of the format chosen and the cost of producing such a promotional unit, there will be an extra expense in getting materials to the audiences. Obviously, a direct-mail system will play a vital role in getting promotional media to the film users; to help you, distributors have the latest comprehensive mailing lists of nationwide business and educational institutions. The handling of promotional materials can range from self-mailers to elaborate catalogs. Costs for an outside vendor's services (layout and printing) are only part of the expenses that must be factored in; you may also be charged for mailing lists, handling, and postage. Self-promotion by a sponsor who has a single film would cost more than any other unit listing several films for which promotional expenses could be amortized. The only time a distributor might charge the sponsor a special fee would be for a very unique promotion. If the sponsor's film is listed in general catalogs indicating numerous film availabilities, then there will not be a separate distributor's charge.
Print Inventory
Print inventory is virtually the key element in effective film distribution. The sponsor will need a sufficient number of prints on hand to adequately supply all of the intended target audiences. Unfortunately, many films are produced without consideration given to this subject. Frequently only a minimal budget is set aside for filmprinting costs. Based on an old rule of thumb of approximately 20 different audience
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Supporting Materials
Besides considering print inventory and distribution cost, you should also think about the possible use of printed instructor or program chairperson materials, as well as student or group member take-home pieces. Far too many films are sent to audiences without adequate support information; by merely supplying a business leader' s (or teacher's) booklet or guide with the film, you can make it a much more appealing and meaningful package from the audience's standpoint. Typical subjects include: a capsule description of the film, an in-depth discussion of the film's historical context, and a precise presentation on the products involved (including prices). Other possible uses: hints on product features and usage, suggestions for discussion after the Screening, demonstration kits for teachers, tidal charts for fishermen, game laws for hunters, of exercise suggestions for athletes.
Film Maintenance
Finally, most film distributors will offer a print maintenance program. Under such an agreement, your prints will be completely inspected for torn or open splices, torn sprockets or other imperfections, scratches, and missing footage. Early correction of these problems will protect your prints from possible damage and loss. The distributor will place protective, colored head and tail leaders (complete with the address of the distributor) on the release prints, because:
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You can easily identify the film by title and print number. Color coding of the leader will immediately indicate if the print is heads or tails out (to determine if rewinding is necessary). The leader will indirectly guard against film loss through the mail, in the event that the film and its case become separated. The leader will protect the film from damages occurring by way of improper projector threading. The leader will clear the projector gate of dust and debris before the film is projected.
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