An understanding of the evolution of management helps present and future mangers understand where we are now and continue

to progress toward better management. The three major perspectives on management that have evolved since the late 1800s are the classical perspective, the humanistic perspective and the management science perspective. Each perspective has several specialized subfields. Recent extensions of management perspectives include systems theory, contingency views and total quality management. Many managers are redesigning their companies toward the learning organization, which fully engages all employees in identifying and solving problems. The learning organization is characterized by visionary leadership, a team based structure, participative strategy, a strong adoptive culture, empowered employees and open information. The learning organization represents a substantial departure from the traditional management hierarchy.

ORGANISATIONAL DEVELOPMENT OD is a longer term more encompassing more complex and more costly approach to change that aims to more the entire organisation to a higher level of functioning while greatly improving its members performance and satisfaction. Although OD frequently includes structural and technological changes, its primary focus is on changing people and the nature and quality of their working relationships. INTRODUCTION TO OD What is OD People Task/Goal

Technology Structure Organisation as a system can be changed and developed to achieve its goals in the best possible way. The goals of an organisation generally are Survival Stability Profitability Growth Service to Society. An organisation can achieve its goal if it is able to respond to changes within the external and internal environment. External Environment Social Factors Includes Political Factors Economic Factors Cultural Factors Competition from similar organization Changing needs of public knowledge explosion. Rapid growth of technology Internal Environment Existing structure Technology Needs and expectations of its people Changing scenario of labour force OD is a planned approach to respond effectively to changes in its external and internal environment.

There are two schools of thoughts of O.D. 1. 2. Programme procedure school System Process School

1. Programme Procedure School according to it OD is the effective implementation of the organizations policies, procedures and programmes. It is concerned with the personnel activities that contribute to the overall growth and development, training, career development, compensation, welfare and benefit, labour relations etc. Personnel development is primarily concerned with OD activities. 2. System Process School this considers organization development in the context of both its internal and external environment. Proponents of this approach view organisation as a system which can be changed and developed to best achieve its goals and objectives. An emerging role for OD is system based an focuses on total organisation effectiveness and hence goes beyond the traditional personnel programmes. The emphasis is much more on work groups within and across departments rather than individuals as such. The system process school encourages openness, and collaborative ways of solving problems, so that the outcomes are advantageous to both the individual and the organisation. The objectives of both the schools and contradictory to certain extent. Programme Procedure School Internal (environment) Personnel oriented Individual Sectional Prescriptive System internal System Process School Internal and external Department oriented Group Holistic Open Interdisciplinary

DEFINE OD is a systematic, integrated and planned approach to improving enterprise effectiveness. It is designed to solve problems that decrease operating efficiency at all levels. Such problems may include lack of cooperation, excessive decentralization, and poor communication. OD is a collection of planned change intervention build on humanistic democratic values that seek to improve organizational effectiveness and employee well being. OD is the application of behavioral science knowledge to improve an organizations health and effectiveness through its ability to cope with environmental changes, improve internal relationships and increase problem solving capabilities. A top management supported long range effort to improve an organizations problem solving and renewal process, particularly through a more effective and collaborative diagnosis and management of organisation culture - with special emphasis on formal work team, temporary team, and intergoup culture with the assistance of a consultant facilitator and the use of the theory and technology of applied behavioral science, including action research. DEFINE
1. DALE S. BEACH OD is a complex educational strategy designed to increase

organizational effectiveness and wealth through planned intervention by a consultant using theory and techniques of applied behavioral service. 2. J I Porras and P J Robertson OD is a term used to encompass a collection of planned change interventions, build on humanistic democratic values, that seek to improve organizational effectiveness and employees well being. 3. George R. Terry Organizational Development includes efforts to improve results by getting the best from employees, individually and as members of working groups. 4. Werren G. Bennis Organizational Development is a complex educational strategy intended to change the beliefs, attitudes, values and structure of organizations so that they can better adapt to new technologies, markets and challenges and the dizzying rate of change itself.

Organisation is an open system and therefore must develop itself by adopting various changes to meet the challenges thrown out by the constantly changing environment. OD incorporates various changes and accordingly takes up management development and training programmes to cope up with the situation. Organisation development takes the help of social sciences such as psychology and sociology and anthropology. A continuous research and theory building is the crux for OD because it concerns with people. It helps increasing organizational effectiveness. OD involves the changes over a long period of time in systematic and planned manner in work culture, organization structure, its people, process, strategy, objectives etc. the help from various other social sciences is sought to develop and maintaining organizational health and soothing climate.

Organisation is an open system and therefore must develop itself by adopting various changes to meet the challenges thrown out by the constantly changing environment. OD incorporates various changes and accordingly takes up management development and training programmes to cope up with the situation. Organisation development takes the help of social sciences such as psychology and sociology and anthropology. A continuous research and theory building is the crux for OD because it concerns with people. It helps increasing organizational effectiveness. OD involves the changes over a long period of time in systematic and planned manner in work culture, organization structure, its people, process, strategy, objectives etc. the help from various other social sciences is sought to develop and maintaining organizational health and soothing climate.

OBJECTIVES OF OD Improved organizational performance as measured by profitability, market share, innerativeness etc. Better adaptability of the organisation to its environment Willingness of the members to face organizational problems and contribute creative solutions these problems. Improvement in internal behaviour patterns such as interpersonal relations, intergroup relations, level of trust and support among role members, understanding ones own self and others openness and meaningful communication and involvement in planning for organizational development. To stimulate people to express freely without fear. To increase interpersonal communication. Decision through collective efforts. To have self control. To have self-direction and self-motivation. To encourage employees participation in analyzing the problems and decision making. To develop solutions to the problem. CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANISATION DEVELOPMENT Organisation development has the following characteristics. 1. Programme is planned involving all the departments and subsystems seeking their coordination. 2. The top management is committed to the programmes for organization development. 3. It is related to organizational objectives. 4. OD is based on research. Continuous research goes on because interventions are based on findings. 5. It utilizes change agents to motivate the group of people to accept the changes within the organization as a part of OD. 6. OD lays stress on changing the behavior of people. 7. It seeks interaction between various groups to cope up with the changes that OD will incorporate. 8. Propagation is made so that people should know about the developments. Feedback is taken. 9. OD through discussions solutions to the problems are sought. All problem solving research constitutes action research. 10.OD takes pretty long time to implement. ADVANTAGES OF ORGANISATION DEVELOPMENT 1. Organisation development is not a magic to solve all the management problems but definitely it helps in meeting the challenges thrown by change and making the organization effective. 2. OD processes and methods encourage teamwork, improve intergoup relationship. 3. It helps employees to understand each other better and promoted co-operation and mutual understanding.

4. It helps in getting job satisfaction. It helps in improving communication skills. 5. OD helps in boosting up the morale of the employees. High morale leads to greater productivity. 6. It helps the employees to accept changes in the technology, which increase efficiency ultimately leading to have an edge over the competitors and increase the market share. 7. OD frees the employees and subordinates from stress at workplace. 8. Employees become accustomed to accept change. They do not resist it leading to speedy implementation of policies and programmes and adopting new technology and concepts without any hesitation. It changes the atmosphere, which is more conductive for executing developmental programmes. ORGANISATION DEVELOPMENT VALUES Organisation development constitutes various people, professionals, technocrats, researchers, managers and a host of other employees working in the organization contributing to the accomplishment of organizational objectives. They behave differently. Authority and power, conflicts, control takes backseat during OD process. The following are the values in OD efforts. 1. Respect people people are the raison dtre of organization and they are responsible for creating opportunities for growth. They must, therefore, be treated with respect and dignified manners. 2. Confidence and support organizations are made up of people and they are to be believed and supported in order to have effective organization. The healthy environment prevails when people are trusted and taken into confidence and a necessary support is extended to them as and when needed. 3. Confrontation any conflict on any issue should not be suppressed. It should be dealt with openness. Suppression leads to dampening of morale. Identifying the problem and its causes, discussing it openly and finding out feasible solution leads to boosting up morale of the employees and creating good environment. 4. Employee participation - the participation of employees who will be affected by the OD should be sought in decision making. 5. Expression human beings differ in experience, maturity, ideas, opinions, outlook. The organization is at the receiving end. It gains from the differences in quality, ideas, opinions, anger and sentiments etc. they should be allowed to express their feelings and sentiments. This will result in building up high morale and the people will be motivated towards hard work ultimately resulting in increased efficiency. 6. Seeking Co-operation mangers should learn to seek cooperation from each of the employees working under him in his department. This will develop in creating the atmosphere of cooperation leading to organizational effectiveness and willingness to accept change in the event of organization development process.

WHAT IS AN ORGANISATION?

Distinct Purpose

Deliberate Structure People

THE CHANGING ORGANISATION traditional organisation Stable Inflexible Job Focused Work is defined by job positions Individual oriented Permanent Jobs Command oriented Managers always make decisions Rule oriented Relatively homogeneous workforce Workdays defined as 9 to 5 Hierarchical relationships Work at organizational facility during specific hours new organisation Dynamic Flexible Skills Focused Work is defined in terms of tasks to be done Team oriented Temporary Jobs Involvement oriented Employees participate in decision making Customer Oriented Diverse workforce Workdays have no time boundaries Lateral and networked relationships Work anywhere, anytime.

THE ORGANISATION AS AN ICEBERG

VISIBLE ASPECTS Strategies Objectives Policies and Procedures Structure Technology Formal Authority Chain of Command HIDDEN ASPECTS Attitudes Perceptions Group Norms Informal Interactions Interpersonal & intergoup Conflict.

One of the challenges in understanding organizational behavior is that it addresses issues that arent obvious. Like an iceberg, OB has a small visible dimension and a much larger hidden portion. What we see when we look at organizations is their visible aspects strategies, goals, policies and procedures, structure, technology, formal authority relationships and chain of command. Under the surface are other elements that managers need to understand elements that also influence how employees work.

CASE A MANAGERS DILEMMA In a geographic region where currency crises, political upheavals, and natural disasters are an unavoidable fact of life, Pan-American Beverages Inc. (Panamco, www.panamco.com).has learned how to not only survive but thrive in a chaotic and unpredictable environment. Panamco is Latin Americas largest Coca-Cola bottler and distributor and a vital part of Cokes global operations. Its sales account for about 6 percent of the worldwide unit case volume of Coca-Colas soft-drink sales. Or put another way, just Panamcos sales are equivalent to one bottle in every case of Coca-Colas global soft drink sales. In Latin America, Panamco sells a lot of Coke. Francisco Sanchez Loaeza, Panamcos chairman and CEO, is well aware of his companys strategic importance both to Coca-Cola and to numerous Latin American economies. He proclaims that his most important managerial responsibility is keeping the companys employees focused on successful performance in a sea of change. Sanchez-Loaeza says that adaptability is his companys core survival skill and the secret to its ever expanding business. Our organization is designed to shift gears rapidly. At all levels, we allow for immediate changes in direction. Other organizational factors he identifies as important to the companys success include its democratic and decentralized management philosophy, logistical expertise, innovative merchandising strategies and excellent financial stewardship. Sanchez-Loaeza has always encourages managers at Panamco to focus on flexibility, good communication, and quick reaction. Local mangers are given a lot of autonomy to make decisions and respond independently to market forces in their territories. They have the authority to implement their own programs and initiatives. Although Panamcos managers appreciate and support the need for continual adaptation to marketplace demands, regular non-managerial employees often dont understand why so much change is necessary. Put yourself in Sanchex Loaezas position. How would you educate your employees about the importance and necessity of change? WHAT WOULD YOU DO?

ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE DEFINE Any alternations in people, structure or technology. FORCES FOR CHANGE External Forces. Internal Forces. THE MANAGER AS CHANGE AGENT People who act as catalysts and assume the responsibility for managing the change process are called change agents. Any manager can be a change agent. The change agent could be a non-manager e.g. a change specialist from H.R. department or even an outside consultant whose expertise is in change implementation. Outside consultants are usually at a disadvantage because they have an extremely limited understanding of the organization history, culture, operating procedures and people.

TWO VIEWS OF THE CHANGE PROCESS We can use two very different metaphors to describe the change process. One metaphor envisions the organization as a large ship crossing a calm sea. The ships captain and crew know exactly where theyre going because theyve made the trip many times before. Change comes in the form of an occasional storm, a brief distraction in an otherwise calm and predictable trip. In the other metaphor, the organization is seen as a small raft navigating a raging river with uninterrupted white water rapids. Aboard the raft are half a dozen people who have never worked together before, who are totally unfamiliar with the river, who have never worked together before, who are totally unfamiliar with the river, who are traveling at night. In the white water rapid metaphor, change is a natural state, and managing change is a continual process. These two metaphors present very different approaches to understanding and responding to change. Lets take a closer look at each one.

THE CALM WATERS METAPHOR Up until the late 1980s, the calm waters metaphor was fairly descriptive of the situation that managers faced. Its best illustrated by Kurt Lewins three step description of the change process. According to Lewin, successful change can be planned and requires unfreezing the status quo, changing to a new state, and refreezing to make the change permanent. The status quo can be considered an equilibrium state. To move from this equilibrium,, unfreezing is necessary. Unfreezing can be thought of as preparing for the needed change. It can be achieved by increasing the driving forces, which are forces that drive change and direct behaviour away from the status quo, by decreasing the restraining forces, which are forces that resist change and push behavior toward the status quo, or by combining the two approaches. Once unfreezing has been accomplished, the change itself can be implemented. However, merely introducing change doesnt ensure that the change will take hold. The new situation needs to be refrozen so that it can be sustained over time. Unless this last step is done, theres a strong chance that the change will be short-lived as employees revert back tot he old equilibrium state-that is, the old ways of doing things. The objective of refreezing, then, is to stabilize the new situation by reinforcing the new behaviours. Note how Lewins three step process treats change simply as a break in the organizations equilibrium state. The status quo has been disturbed and change is necessary to establish a new equilibrium state. This calm water view no longer appropriately describes the kind of environment that managers in todays organizations face.

WHITE WATER RAPIDS METAPHOR The white water rapid metaphor is consistent with our discussion of uncertain and dynamic environments. Its also consistent with the dynamics of a world thats increasingly dominated by information, ideas and knowledge. To get a feeling of what managing change might be like when you have to continually maneuver in uninterrupted rapids, consider attending a college that had the following rules: coerces vary in length. Unfortunately, when you sign up, you dont know how long a course will run. It might go for two weeks or 30 weeks. Furthermore, the instructor can end a course at any time with no prior warning. It that isnt bad enough, the length fo the class changes each time it meets: sometimes the class lasts 20 minutes, other times it runs for three hours. And the time of the next class meeting is set by the instructor during this class. Theres one more thing. All exams are unannounced, so you have to be ready for a test at any time. To succeed in this college environment, you would have to be incredibly flexible and able to respond quickly to changing conditions. Students, who were overly structured, slow to respond or uncomfortable with change would not survive. Growing numbers of managers are coming to accept that their job Is much like what a student would face in such a college. The stability and predictability of the calm waters metaphor do not exist. Disruptions in the status quo are not occasional and temporary, and they are not followed by a return to calm waters. Many managers must play a game that theyve never played before, and the game is governed by rules that are created a s the game progress. Is the white water rapid metaphor an exaggeration? No! Although youd expect this type of chaotic and dynamic environment in high tech industries, even organizations in non high tech industries are faced with constant change.

MANAGING CHANGE As a change agents managers should be motivated to initiate change because they are committed to their organizations performance. Initiating change involved identifying what organizational areas might need to be changed and putting the change process in motion. Managers must manage employee resistance to change. TYPES OF CHANGE Manages options for change essentially fall into three categories: Structure, Technology and People. A. CHANGING STRUCTURE: includes any alteration in authority relations, coordination mechanisms, and degree of centralization, job redesign or similar structured variables. Work specialization, departmentation, chain of command, spans of control, centralization, formalization, job redesign or actual structural design. - Mangers can alter one or more of these structural components. - Another option would be to make changes in the actual structural design. B. CHANGING TECHNOLOGY: encompasses modifications in the way work is performed to the methods and equipment that are used. Major technological changes usually involve the introduction of new equipment, tools or work methods, automation or computerization. Competitive factors or new innovations within an industry often require managers to introduce new equipment, tool or work methods. Automation is a technological change that replaces certain tasks done by people with machines. C. CHANGING PEOPLE: refers to changes in employee attitudes, expectations, perceptions and behaviour. Academic researchers and actual managers have been interested in helping individuals and groups within organizations work together more effectively. The term OD though occasionally referring to all types of change essentially focuses on techniques or programs to change people and the nature and quality of interpersonal work relationships. The common thread in these techniques is that each seeks to bring about changes in or among the organization people.

ORGANISATIONAL DEVELOPMENT TECHNIQUES A method of changing behavior through A technique for assessing unstructured group interaction attitudes and perceptions, identifying discrepancies in these, Activities that help learn members learn and resolving the differences by how each member thinks and works. using survey information in Sensitivity feedback groups. Training Team Changing the attitudes, Building stereotypes and Survey perceptions that work Feedback More effective Managerial groups have about each interpersonal work Grid Intergroup other relationships Development Brainstorming Quality Transactional Process MBO Circle Analysis Consultation An outside consultant helps the manager understand how interpersonal processes are affecting the way work is being done

Technique of management style identifies two major dimensions of management behaviour. One is people oriented and production oriented. A technique where a group of five to eight managers come together and find a solution to a problem. It is a method of achieving organizational objectives and a technique of evaluation and review of performance. A group of 5 to 12 come together at their own free will during working hours once in a week and discuss out the problems and suggests solution. Helps people to understand each other better.

ORGANISATIONAL DEVELOPMENT TECHNIQUES A. SURVEY FEEDBACK information is collected through survey method. The wide range of data is collected regarding working conditions, quality of work, working hours, wages and salaries, attitude of employees relating to above. These data are then analyzed by the team of managers. They find out the problem, evaluate the results and find out solutions. Information is collected from all the members of the organization. B. TEAM BUILDING this method is specifically designed to make improvement in the ability of employees and motivating them to work together. These teams consist of employees of the same rank and a supervisor. The teams of work groups are pretty small consisting of 10 to 15 persons. This method of team building is used because people in general do not open up their mind and not honest to their fellows. As they do not mix up openly and fail to express their views to the peers and superiors. This technique helps them express their views and see how others interpret their views. It increases the sensitivity to others behavior. They become aware of group functioning. They get exposed to the creative thinking of others and socio-psychological behaviour at the workplace. They learn many aspects of interpersonal behaviour and interactions. C. SENSITIVITY TRAINING it is also known as laboratory training. Under this technique the employees in groups are asked to interact. The aim of sensitivity training is to help people understand each other and gain insight so that they feel free and become fearless. Under this technique the different groups of employees are allowed to mix up with each other and communicate freely and build up interpersonal relationship. They learn the reflection of their behaviour and key to improve it. In the words of Chris Argyris Sensitivity training is a group experience designed to provide maximum possible opportunity for the individuals to expose their behavior give and receive feedback experiment with new behavior and develop awareness of self and of others. It builds up openness improves listening skills, tolerate individual differences and the are of resolving conflicts. It helps in reducing, interpersonal conflicts in the organization.

D. MANAGERIAL GRID this technique is developed by industrial psychologists Robert Black and Jane Mouton. The concept of managerial grid identifies two major dimensions of management behavior. They are people oriented and production oriented behaviors. Attempts are made to pay increased attention to both the variables. In the diagram given, production oriented behavior is shown on X axis and people oriented behavior is shown on Y-axis. 1. The point A having coordinates 1.1 managerial style shows low people oriented and low production oriented behaviour. It is impoverished management. There are many managers come under this category. Such managers do not face any trouble and they do not carry any risk too. 2. The point B having coordinates 1.9 represents a managerial style, which is, highly people oriented and low production oriented. This is a Country Club pattern of management. This type of management style keeps the employees happy without much concern for production. 3. The next point C or 9.1 represents a managerial style, which shows high, concerns for production and low in people orientation. The managers who come under this category who usually fix high targets of production for their subordinates and employees and do not pay any attention to the needs and wants of their people. 4. The point D having coordinates 9.9 represents a managerial style, which is highly production oriented and highly people oriented. Robert Black and Jane Mouton say that this is the most effective managerial style. Under this category of management style managers put their best efforts and have commitment to the people and organization. This is the most favoured style and efforts must be made to develop the style accordingly. 5. The point E or 5.5 a management style having moderate production orientation and moderate people orientation. This is known as middle of the rode managerial style. But the style represented by the point D or 9.9 is the most effective and most favoured one for accomplishment of organizational objectives. To achieve D or 9.9 type of managerial style to strengthen organizational effectiveness Blake and Mouton have prescribed Grid programme which is a structured laboratory training containing six phases.

PHASES OF MANAGERIAL GRID 1. Phase of step one consists of seminar training. The seminars usually conducted up to a week. Through seminars the participants learn about their own grid concept and style. This can help them assess their management style. It also helps them to improve their skill within their group. They develop problem-solving techniques and develop their own grid programme. 2. The second phase gives more stress on team development. The teams consisting of managers make necessary efforts to prepare plans to attain point D or 9.9 managerial style. Through this they learn how to develop smooth relationship with their subordinates and to develop communication skill with other members of the organization. 3. The third phase is intergoup development for improving coordination between different departments of the organization. Participants learn to develop problem-solving methods. 4. The fourth phase deals with the creation of ideal models organization. Managers and their immediate subordinates sit together, set the goals, test and evaluate them. Superiors acquired knowledge through reading of books. They prepare ideal strategy for the organization. 5. The fifth phase deals with goal accomplishment. The teams of various departments make survey of the resources available in the departments or which can be procured to accomplish the goals of the organization. 6. The sixth deals with evaluation of the programmes and to see if necessary alteration or adjustment can be made for execution. The managerial grid technique is quite complicated and its benefits cannot be visualized immediately, hence its evaluation can be done after pretty long time. E. MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES MBO - it is a method of achieving organizational objectives and a technique of evaluation and review of performance. Under this method objectives of the organization are fixed and responsibility to achieve them lie on the managers and results are expected from them. Achievement of organizational objectives is considered as the joint and individual responsibility of all managers. Performance of the managers is measured against the specific objectives. It is resultoriented technique.

George Odiome observed that MBO is, a system wherein superior and subordinate managers of an organization jointly identify its common aims, define each individuals major areas of responsibility in terms of the results expected of him and use these measures as guides for operating the unit, assessing the contribution benefits of its members. According to D D White and D. A Bednar, MBO is a technique designed to 1. 2. Increase the precision of the planning process at the organizational level Reduce the gap between employee and organizational goals.

MBO process involved four major steps: 1. 2. 3. 4. Goal setting by top management Individual goals Freedom for selection of means Making appraisal

F. BRAIN STORMING it is a technique where a group of five to eight managers come together and find a solution to a problem. It gives rise to new ideas. The only limitation this method has is that it is time consuming and hence expensive. G. PROCESS CONSULTATION it is an improvement over the method of sensitivity training, in the sense that both are based on the similar premise of improving organizational effectiveness through dealing with interpersonal problems but process consultation is more tasks oriented than sensitivity training. In process consultation the consultant or expert provides the trainee feedback and tell him what is going around him as pointed out by E. H. Schein that the consultant, gives the client insight into what is going on around him, within him, and between him and other people. H. QUALITY CIRCLES under this system a group of 5 to 12 come together at their own free will during working hours once in a week and discuss out the problems and suggests solution to the management for implementation.

Quality Circles improves the quality, reduced cost and heightened the morale of the workers. I. TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS - transactional analysis helps people to understand each other better. It is a useful tool for organizational development but it has diverse applications in training, counseling, interpersonal communication and making analysis of group dynamics. It helps in developing more adult ego states among people of the organization.

DEALING WITH RESISTANCE TO CHANGE Why people resist change An individual is likely to resist change for three reasons 1. Uncertainty 2. Concern over personal loss. 3. The belief that the change is not in the organizations best interest.

TECHNIQUES FOR REDUCING RESISTANCE There are six actions they can use to deal with resistance to change. These six actions include, education and communication, participation, facilitation and support, negotiation, manipulation and co-optation and coercion. MANAGERIAL ACTIONS TO REDUCE RESISTANCE TO CHANGE A. Education and communication

Communicate with employees to help them see the logic of change. Educate employees through one on one discussion, memos, group meetings or Appropriate if source of resistance is either poor communication or Must be mutual trust and credibility between managers and employees.

reports.

misinformation.

B. Participation

Allows those who oppose a change to participate in the decision. Assumes that they have expertise to make meaningful contributions. Involvement can reduce resistance obtain commitment to seeing change

succeed, and increase quality of change decision.

C. Facilitation and support

Provide supportive efforts such as employee counseling or therapy. New skills Can be time consuming and expensive.

training or short paid leaves of absence.

D. Negotiation

Exchange something of value to reduce resistance. May be necessary when resistance comes from a powerful source. Potentially high costs and likelihood of having to negotiate with other resisters.

E. Manipulation and co-optation

Manipulation is covert attempt to influence such as twisting or distorting facts, Co-optation is a form of manipulation and participation. Inexpensive and easy ways to gain support of resisters. Can fail miserably if targets feel theyve been tricked.

withholding damaging information or creating false rumors.

F. Coercion

Using direct threats or force Inexpensive and easy way to get support. May be illegal. Even legal coercion can by perceived as bullying.

CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN MANAGING CHANGE TODAYS CHANGE ISSUES

CHANGING ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE CONTINUOUS QUALITY IMPROVEMENT V/S PROCESS REENGINEERING HANDLING EMPLOYEE STRESS.

What can managers do to change an organizations culture when that culture no longer supports the organizations mission? How do managers effectively implement continuous incremental change or how do they implement radical change? What can managers do to handle the stress created by todays dynamic environment. CHANGING ORGANISATIONAL CULATURE Organizations culture is made up of relatively stable and permanent characteristics tends to make that culture very resistant to change. A culture takes a long time to form and once established it tends to become entrenched. Strong cultures are particularly resistant to change because employees have become so committed to them. UNDERSTANDING THE SITUATIONAL FACTORS What are the favorable conditions that might facilitate cultural change? The evidence suggests that cultural change is most likely to take place when most or all of the following conditions exist: 1. A dramatic crisis occurs this can be the shock e.g. surprising financial setback, loss of a major customer or a dramatic technological innovation by a competitor. This makes people start thinking about the relevance of the current culture. 2. Leadership changes hands new top leadership who can provide an alternative set of key values. 3. The organization is young and small 4. The culture is weak For the most part, employees liked the old ways of doing things and didnt see the companys problems as critical. The road to cultural change Conduct a cultural analysis to identify cultural elements needing change. Make it clear to employees that the organizations survival is legitimately threatened if change is not forthcoming Appoint new leadership with a new vision. Initiate a re-organization Introduce new stories and rituals to convey the new vision. Change the selection and socialization processes and the evaluation and reward systems to support the new values. CONTINUOUS QUALITY REENGINEERING IMPROVEMENT PROGRAMS V/S PROCESS

Achieving desired levels of quality involves making changes in the way people work. Mangers can make those changes wither by using continuos quality improvement programs or by using a more radical process reengineering approach. Key Difference Continuous quality Continuous, incremental change Fixing and improving Mostly as is Works from bottom up in organization Continuous quality improvement programs These programs are compatible with the calm waters metaphor because they recognize that organizations must continuously find ways to navigate the problems that arise s they strive to improve. Process Reengineering Turbulent times require revolutionary, not orderly, change and process reengineering is about dramatic and radical shifts in the way the organization performs its work that is its work processes. It focuses on quantum changes by throwing out the old ways of doing things and starting over in redesigning the way work is done. HANDLING EMPLOYEE STRESS For many employees, change creates stress A dynamic and uncertain environment characterized by mergers, restructuring, process reengineering efforts, forced retirements and downsizing has created a large number of employees who are overworked and stressed out. Stress a dynamic condition a person faces when confronted with an opportunity, constraints or demand related to what he or she desires and for which the outcome is perceived to be both uncertain and important. Stress is often discussed in a negative context, it also has a positive value, particularly when it offers a potential gain. Functional stress allows an athlete. Stage performer or employee to perform at his or her highest level in crucial situations. Stress is more often associated with constraints and demands a constraint prevents you from doing what you desire demands refer to the loss of something desired. Reengineering Radical change Redesigning starting over Mostly what can be Initiated by top management

CAUSES OF STRESS

PERSONAL FACTORS

STRES S

JOB RELATED FACTORS

SYMPTOMS OF STRESS B. PHYSIOLOGICAL Changes in metabolism, increased heart and breathing rates, raised blood pressure, headaches, and potential of heart attacks. A. PSYCHOLOGICAL Job related dissatisfaction, tension, anxiety, irritability, boredom and procrastination.

Symptoms of Stress

C. BEHAVIOUR Changes in productivity, absenteeism, job turnover, changes in eating habits, increased smoking or consumption of alcohol, rapid speech, sleep disorders.

A MODEL OF THE ORGANISATION DEVELOPMENT PROCESS Organizational development is a situational or contingency approach to improving enterprise effectiveness. Contingency approach depicts that managerial practice depends on circumstances (i.e. contingency of a situation) contingency theory recognizes the influence of given solutions on organizational behavior patterns. Development of change strategy

Problem recognition

Organisation diagnosis

Feedback

Inventions

Measurement and Evaluation

IMPORTANCE CHARACTERISTICS FEATURES OF OD Though, there are divergent opinions and attitudes about the nature and practice of OD General consensus on the basic characteristics of OD are In any OD effort, the totality of the organisation is to be taken into account. Organisation being an integrated system of sub systems, changes in anyone sub system tends to have consequences for the other sub systems. The approach should be holistic either for identifying the need for change within or for planning and implementing a change. Until the intended change is observed in the total system, optimal collaboration, synergism and efficiency can not be obtained. The intended changes in OD programmed may be carried out at any of the sub system level such as - Organisation structure - Task accomplishment - Work climate (interpersonal and intergroup relations, work values) - Methods of decision making and problem solving - Technology The benefits of the planned effort to the organisation are measured in terms of improvements noticed in the performance of the sub system where the change has been implemented. The intended changes in the organizational structure should be initiated on the basis of a study of the existing structure-like-formal relationships, span of control, functions performed by each individual in the context of the others(macro level) Another approach to OD is at the micro level i.e. at the job level. Job related aspects such as authority, responsibility activities performed, overlapping roles etc. are considered for modification in keeping with the attitudes, expectations of the role incumbents. Job redesigning, job enlargement, job enrichment. OD also aim at improving the interpersonal climate. The work climate of openness, trust and collaboration has positive influence on performance. The climate should be supportive, proactive and allow for opportunities to be creative and original. Effective communication is basic to internal work climate. OD efforts may be directed to identify gaps and problems in the formal communication network and improve the communication process. Decision-making is another important area of OD intervention. Decisions are commitment to action. Strategic decision may arise due to forces in the external or internal environment. OD strategy is an intended change at the relevant system or sub system level brings about an intended change. If the intended change is with reference to the people variable, the methodologies employed are: - Training or education involving lectures, experiential exercises, simulation, T-group training etc. - Confrontation, where people are brought together to discuss the problem and evolve a strategy based on mutual trust and understanding of each others position. - If the intended change is at the technological level Planned effort for bringing in new technology taking into account the likely consequences at the task,. Structure and people sub system levels. The necessary environment should be created.

- OD interventions at the task level deal with job design parameters such as job enlargements, job enrichment, authority and responsibility considerations, human factor engineering etc. - At the structure level Data feed back (systematic collection of information that forms the basis for diagnosis, premising, planning etc.) Problem solving and decision making, process consultation (watching and aiding on going process and improving them) and, OD task force establishment (setting up of teams or groups to carry out OD efforts) Management practices and employee reactions to these practices form the basis for organizational analysis and diagnosis and determining the appropriate intervention. The success of an intervention depends upon the acceptance of it and willingness to implement or maintain the change and its outcomes by the employee within the organisation. Organisational change is not a one shot affair but a complicated and lengthy process. The type of intervention sought for the size of the organisation, constraints and facilities within the organisation perceived organizational climate, attitudes and feelings of the employees and their commitment to change all influence OD efforts. VALUE- BELIEFS- ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING THE FIELD OF OD FOUNDATION OF

MODELS OF CHANGE MANAGEMENT OD models Kurt Lewin Unfreezing Changing and Freezing Model. Griener Equential Process Leavitt System Model Kurt Lewin Unfreezing Changing and Freezing Model. Stage 1 Unfreezing: Creating the need for change, motivating people for change and minimizing resistance to change. Stage 2 Changing: Transition from old behaviour to experimentation with new behaviour in terms of cognitive redefinition through identification (information from a single source) and scanning (information through multiple sources) Stage 3 Re-freezing stabilizing and integrating the change by reinforcing the new behaviours and integrating them into formal and interpersonal relationships and in ones personality. F. UNFREEZING Acknowledging need for change Casting aside old ethos, values systems, methods and structure of organization. D. CHANGING Establishing New Values New Structure New Methods New Systems New Managerial Style New Environment E. REFREEZING Establishing changes permanently Institutionalizing change Affirming new equilibrium position New system is refrozen

Status Quo Chan ge, Refre ezing

Time X

Griener Equential Process Larry Grieners Model Change according to this model is in terms of certain sequential stages. The change process is initiated by external pressure or stimulus on the top management and it is motivated to take action. The succeeding stages of intervention by a change agent are Diagnosis of the problem Invention of anew solution Experimentation with new solution Experimentation with new solution and reinforcement from positive results.

Stimulus on the power structure Phase 1 Phase 6

Pressure on top management

Phase 2
Intervention at the top

Phase 3
Diagnosis of problem areas

Phase 4
Invention of new solutions

Phase 5
Experimentation with new solutions Reinforcement from positive results

Arousal to take action

Reorientati on to internal problems

Recognition of specific problems

Commitment to new course of action

Search for results

Acceptance of new practices

Reaction of the power structure

Leavitt System Model Structure

Task

Technology (Tools)

People (actors) H.J. Leavitts model Focuses on the interactive nature of the various sub-systems in a change process. Organisation is a system of four interacting sub-systems: task, structure, people and technology. Change in anyone of the sub-systems tends to have consequences for the other sub systems. Hence, OD effort should not only focus on the intended change but also the effects of change on the other sub systems. Change can be brought out in any of the sub systems depending upon the diagnosis of the situation. The planned change may be interpersonal training of the required sort or technological change or structural modification or task modification.

SYSTEMS THEORY SYSTEM a set of interrelated parts that function as a whole to achieve a common purpose. SYSTEMS THEORY an extension of the humanistic perspective that describes organizations as open systems that are characterized by entropy, synergy and subsystems interdependence. A system function by acquiring inputs from the external environment, transforming them in some way and discharging outputs back to the environment. Environment System INPUTS Raw Materials Human Resources Capital Technology Information TRANSFORMATION Employees work activities Management Activities Technology and Operations Methods Feedback Environment In system theory there are five components 1. Inputs 2. Transformation Process 3. Outputs 4. Feedback 5. Environment Inputs are the material, human, financial or information resources used to produce goods or services. The transformation process is managements use of production technology to change the inputs into outputs. Outputs include the organizations products and services. Feedback is knowledge of the results that influence the selection of inputs during the next cycle of the process. OUTPUTS Products and Services Financial Results Information Human Results.

The environment surrounding the organization includes the social, political and economic forces. Some ideas in system theory have had substantial impact on management thinking. These include open and closed systems, entropy, synergy and subsystem interdependencies. Open System must interact with the environment to survive. Closed System need not to interact with the environment to survive. Entropy - is a universal property of systems and refers to their tendency to run down and die. If a system does not receive fresh inputs and energy from its environment, it will eventually cease to exist. Synergy means that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts, when an organization is formed something now comes into the world. Management, co-ordination and production that did not exist before are now present. Organizational units working together can accomplish more than those same units working alone. The sales department depends on production and vice-versa. Sub System are parts of a system that depend on one another. Changes in one part of the organization affect other parts. The organization must be managed as a co-ordinated whole. Managers who understand sub-system inter dependence are reluctant to make changes that do not recognize subsystem impact on the organization as a whole.

PARALLEL LEARNING STRUCTURE Specially created organizational structures developed to plan and guide change programs. DALE ZAND introduced this concept under the label collateral organization in 1974. Define a supplemental organization co-existing with the usual, formal organization. Purpose of collateral organization is to deal with ill-structured problems that the formal organization is unable to resolve. Parallel learning structures are a mechanism to facilitate innovation in large bureaucratic organizations where the force of --- Intertia --- Hierarchical communication patterns and ---Standard ways of addressing problems inhibit learning, innovation and change. In essence, parallel structures are a vehicle for learning how to change the system and then leading the change process. BUSHE AND SHANI describe the idea of parallel learning structures as follows. They offer the term parallel learning structure as a generic label to cover interventions where. 1. A structure (i.e. a specific division and coordination of labour) is created, that 2. Operates parallel (i.e. tandem or side-by-side) with the formal hierarchy and structure and 3. Has the purpose of increasing an organizations learning (i.e. the creation and /or implementation of new thoughts and behaviours by employees) In its most basic form, a parallel learning structure consists of a steering committee and a number of working groups that study what changes are needed, make recommendations for improvement and monitor the change efforts. The parallel structure should be a microcosm of the larger organization that is, it should have representatives from all parts of the organization. One or more top executives should be members of the steering committee to give the parallel structure authority, legitimacy and clout (to give a blow to). The charge to members of the parallel learning structure is to think and behave in ways that are different from the normal roles and rules of the organization different from the normal roles and rules of the organization.

BUSHE AND SHANI says The key thing about parallel structure is that they create a bounded space and time for thinking, talking, deciding and acting differently than normally takes place at work. If you dont implement different norms and procedures, you dont have a parallel structure. The most important and difficult task for the people creating the parallel learning structure is to create a different culture within it. It isnt the supplemental structure thats important. Whats important is that people act in a way that promotes learning and adaptation. Parallel learning structures are a foundation of OD because they are prevalent in so many different OD programs. The QWL programs used parallel structures composed of union leaders, mangers and employees. Most socio-technical systems redesign efforts and open system planning programs use parallel structures. Parallel structures are often used to co-ordinate self-directed teams in high performance organizations. Parallel learning structures are often the best way to initiate change in large bureaucratic organizations, especially when the change involves a fundamental shift in the organizations methods of work and culture.

ACTION RESEARCH OD Action Research Process

Key Executive Perception of the Problem

Consultation with Behavioral Scientist Consultant

Data Gathering and Preliminary Diagnosis by the Consultant Joint Action Planning

Feedback to the Key Client of Client Group

Joint Problem Diagnosis

Action

Data Gathering after Action

Feedback to the Client Group Again

Re diagnosis

New Action Planning

New Action

New Data Gathering as a Result of the New Action

The OD process starts with the perception of the problem in the organisation or a felt need for a change at the top management. This sets the stage for intervention by a change agent who may be an external consultant or and internal change agent. The change agent needs to be relatively independent from the power structure of the organisation so that he can be unbiased, realistic and objective in the assessment of the problem. The change agent sets to work by gathering data for diagnosis of the specific problems and the organizations ability to function effectively. Data may be collected wither by interview method or Questionnaire method or by a combination of both. Interview may be used to identify the core problems, which form the basis for questionnaire. The latter may be used to collect information from a large number of executives. Data may be used to collect information from a large number of executives.data may be obtained with respect to various aspects of the organization. Data thus collected forms the basis for the diagnosis of the organization problem. The consultant discusses the data with some of the top executives and identifies the problem he also proposes the next steps to be followed in the OD process and obtains the support of the management for their implementation. For problem identification certain standard diagnostic procedures may be adopted. Any standardized diagnostic procedure takes into account the following. 1. Background variables that include a) Structural factors (such as design parameters, technology, working conditions etc.) b) Process factors (such as managerial practices, sanctions and reward systems, leadership behaviors etc.) c) Employee related variables (like attitudes, expectations, work values and the organizational environment (the social, political and economic factors.) 2. Organizationally required activities that include the process variables and expected employee behaviors. 3. The resultant behaviors at the work, process and employees levels. 4. Consequences of these behaviors for organizational growth and development and individual satisfaction and development. The next stage in action research is to prepare the organization for developmental activities and identify appropriate intervention techniques. Feedback is supplied to a larger number of executives for their comments. Planned action is confined to a given sub system level and greater participation of the members at that level is obtained. Once the data is discussed, problem identified alternative courses of action evaluated and specific intervention programmes suggested, the consultant plays a supportive role to help the client to be fully geared to the developmental process. The action intervention stage is the pay off stage in the OD process. Hence choosing the appropriate intervention, keeping in view the problem, the sub-system and the organizational level, is important for bringing effective change. After the intervention has been carried out it is necessary to evaluate its effectiveness. This entails gathering data, discussing the information obtained with the client system, checking

against the expected outcomes and planning for corrective or remedial actions wherever necessary.

PROCESS OF OD

DIAGNOSIS The death as passes through its different periods: the baby stage, childhood stage, preadolescent stage, adolescent stage, youth stage etc. the person does not experience any discontinuity, yet each state has its own distinctiveness and characteristics. Similarly organizational changes are direction-dominated rather than goal driven continuous and marked by stages. Diagnosis is centrally concerned with knowing intervention is concerned with doing. DIAGNOSIS GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS Most of the calculated management decisions are based on some sort of diagnosis. Every manager, irrespective of his level, is in a continuous cycle of diagnosis decision actionevaluation, so long as his decisions and actions are not impulsive. His ability to diagnose directly affects his performance. Top management often takes decisions forwarded by the managers at lower levels. The top managers have often to see most with their eyes but with their ears. The ears listen to what the other managers have diagnosed. The direct contact with organizational reality is minimum at the lonely heights of the organizational top. Yet periodically they are supposed to know clearly what is happening within the organization. Much data, helpful for diagnosis are screened off by managers at the lower level at their own discretion. Sometimes the management seeks help from external diagnosticians. Is this done in the interest of objectivity? It is to crosscheck its own views? ORGANISATIONAL DIAGNOSIS CONCEPT Diagnosis involves1. Defining the episode under study by picking up the relevant symptoms. 2. Arranging them into a pattern. 3. Distinguishing them from other patterns. A systematic process of diagnosis has been widely used in natural sciences, in applied sciences viz. Medical, agricultural, engineering etc. in these diagnosis quite often ends when a name can be put to a distinguishable pattern of the mosaic of symptoms. Diagnosis competes when it correlates all the relevant facts and concludes something that is concrete and practical. Organizational diagnosis, essentially, follows the same process. But since organizational pathology has not been studies in any teat detail, it is impossible at present to integrate symptoms into such precise and definite syndromes. Because of these limitations a) He should diagnose to the point of describing the present ailment ( illness, disease) b) He should add to it his prognosis (prediction, forecast): his estimates of the likely consequences over a period of time. c) In addition to diagnosis and prognosis, he should recommend prescriptions of active interventions. No firmly established norms have yet been developed regarding the extent to which the meaning of diagnosis should be extended.

However, it would be pragmatic, if the process of diagnosis includes prognosis but not interventions. DIAGNOCUBE THE DOMAIN OF DIAGNOSIS One of the concomitant (going together, accompanying) aspects of specialization is selectivity in the preferred domain of work. With the same patient, a homeopath and an allopathic will have different domains of work. An organization defined as a synergistic aggregate of systems and subsystems offers different domains to work upon. Domain refers to the specific goals of an organization I terms of the functions it performs, the products or services it renders and the target population and market it serves Vena and Ferry (1980) Here, domain refers to the areas of substantive activities or constituents in the content of the organization. The domains of organizational diagnosis can be conceived as bounded by four dimensions: 1. Systems. 2. Components of the systems. 3. The coverage of area. 4. The surrounding external environment. MODE OF DOMAINS OF ORGANISATIONAL DIAGNOSIS Totality COVERAGE Plurality

Singularity Social SYSTEM Economic Technical Structure Process COMPONENT ENVIRONMENT 1. SYSTEMS an organization can be considered as a combination of SET Social Economic Technical systems. Function

 The social system, that is, the peoples system, consists of psychological, social, cultural and political subsystems arising out of people at work as individuals, groups and multiple groups. The economic system includes procurement, allocation and utilization of all resources, finance, cost marketing etc. in a perspective setting made up by the other two systems- social and technical. The Technical system includes work and technology required to perform the work in a perspective of social-economic setting. Organizational diagnosis has often remained confirmed to any one of these systems. 2. COMPONENTS OF THE SYSTEMS there are three components in each system where the diagnosis is undertaken. Structure refers to all elements in the organization and their comparatively enduring and lasting relationships and arrangements, which have formal sanctions. Process refers to the manner in which events and conducted sequentially. Function includes strategic variables, performance variable, results and achievements and end products. 3. THE COVERAGE OF THE AREA the coverage of the domain refers essentially to the area of the organization opened up for diagnostic investigation. The coverage may be classified into three categories. Singularity a single event or a single episode of ailment say a strike, a relationship in a given department, marketing of a particular product, one decision of a particular investment etc. Plurality indicates the opening up of the organization to more than one specific episode for investigation. The range of plurality will vary. Totality the coverage denotes a diagnosis based focussed on the entire organization, or on any phenomenon in its entirely. e.g. a medical diagnostician may be called in to diagnose a single episode of ailment ( singularity) or a number of episodes and ailments ( Plurality) or the total health of the patient ( totality). 4. THE SURROUNDING EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT these domains are encircled by the environment. Organizational diagnosis can be undertaken on environment relation to any one of the cells of the domains or without relating it to any specific cell. Besides environmental investigations, the model thus provides 27 typologies of organizational diagnosis. Each typology, represented by each cell, has three dimensions. Economic Structure Plurality (ESP) will perhaps require the expertise of structure combined with knowledge of, say, engineering or chemistry. Social Process Singularity (SPS) will call for the expertise of a social scientist who is a process diagnostician and is skilled in working on a single episode. The specialization of the diagnostician can further narrow down the focus of his diagnostic activity.

The typology is useful to provide the identifications of the base from which the diagnosis is made may be by the manager or by the external diagnostician, and the other bases that can and should be added to it to get a meaningfully comprehensive picture.

ORGANISATIONAL DIAGNOSIS AND INTERVENTION. The focal purpose of organizational diagnosis is to obtain an understanding of the reality of organizational functioning. The diagnosis of this reality can be obtained in three ways via. 1. Knowledge 2. Action 3. Emotion Mans basic stance lies in three worldsKnowledge (Dyan), Emotion (Bhakti) and Action (Karma) The starting point for diagnosis is the action world of organizing. Influencing this action world and influenced by it are the intellectual world of industry and the emotional world of being. The intellectual world of inquiry is the realm of an accumulated knowledge evolved through endless pursuit of continuous inquiry over time. On the other hand, there is the world of being and becoming where the creativity in man seek expression of self. Concepts and theories bearing upon the relevant domain of diagnosis are derived from the storehouse of the world of inquiry. From these concepts and constructs operational models are formulated. From these constructs and models, the variables are identified on which data needs to be collected. Starting from the concepts and theories, upto this points the diagnostic process is divergent as the scope increases continually. Once the data are collected, the process of convergence starts. After data collection, analysis is undertaken. Next stage is interpretation. Through interpretation emerges the understanding of the reality of organizational functioning the central aspect in the diagnostics process. Between the concepts and understanding the reality of organizational functioning one visualizes two way interactive relationships. Action intervention follows the understanding of organizational reality and is determined largely by this understanding. It is also influenced in one way or the other by concepts, theories,

constructs, models, variables studied, data collected, instruments of data collected, their analysis and interpretation. The action world is organizing directly gives rise to an understanding of the reality of organizational functioning. This is direct phenomenological knowledge. The personalized experiencing also builds an understanding of organizational reality. Action intervention is also influenced, on the other hand by empathizing, caring and experimenting flowing out of experiencing. Action intervention guided by proper technology of change brings about organizational change. Organizational change is followed by evaluation of change and the state of effectiveness achieved. The evaluation has feedback loop to the action world of organizing on the one hand and on further building of concepts and theories on the other. From the model, it is apparent that there are more than one major ways of diagnosing. From emotional way of being one has to capture the experiences in a meaningful way. The continuous involvement of the mangers I their action world give them directly an understanding of what is happening. This understanding is valuable. This kind of diagnosis is a regular instrument for a manger for has regular operation. He therefore may not be able to articulate this understanding in precise conceptual constructs. But the fact that is important is that he has diagnosed, and this diagnosis is valid enough.

DIAGNOSTIC METHODS Relationship between Diagnostician and Client Orientation Nature of Methods Diagnostician Active, Mutually Participative Client Passive Experiments Confrontation Survey meeting Interview Self Observation Questionnaire Self Observation Observation central signaling Models Diaries Management Self reports Games Time budgets Content analysis Action Research Contentless Group Feedback analysis analysis. More Socimetry Survey feedback Structured interaction Top Managers Rigorous Process analysis diagnostic meeting. Interpersonal Diagnostic behavior analysis. committee Small Group Critical incidents interaction analysis. analysis. Motion Study Record Study Study of charts, graphs, documents, and files. Unobtrusive measures. Participant Survey-caseObservation analysis feedback. Semi projective Corporatetechniques excellence Projective diagnosis Less techniques Family group Structured Process diagnostic Organic Observation. meetings. Clinical study Process analysis. Psychological interpretation of events, episodes. Diagnostician Passive, Client Active Organisation mirror. Image sharing Inter-role exploration. Motivation development lab. Instrumental lab.

Motivation development. Family T-Group OD lab. Unstructured interview (Clinical) Sensing Family group-diagnostic meeting.

IMPORTANCE OF CORRECT DIAGNOSIS IN SUCCESS OF OD

SIX BOX FIELD MODEL MARVIN WEISBORD 1976 The model depicts/tell where to look and what to look for in diagnosing organizational problems. PURPOSES What business are we in?

RELATIONSHIPS How do we manage conflict among people? With technologies?

LEADERSHIP Does someone keep the boxes in balance?

STRUCTURE How do we divide up the work?

HELPFUL MECHANISMS Have we adequate coordinating technologies?

REWARDS Do all needed tasks have incentives?

ENVIRONMENT

WEISBORD identifies six critical areas Purposes, Structure, Rewards, Helpful Mechanisms, Relationships and Leadership where things must go right if the organization is to be successful. Practitioners use this model as a cognitive map, systematically examining the processes and activities of each box, looking for signs of trouble. If there are problems with a major product produced by the organization. These problems will have their causes in dysfunctional processes located in one or more of the six boxes. The consultant must attend to both the formal and informal aspects of each box. The formal system represents the official ways things are supposed to happen. The informal system represents the ways things really happen. e.g. the formal reporting of relationships and organization of tasks and people prescribed in the structure box may not reflect the real structural arrangements found in the informal system,. The practitioner needs answers to two questions: First, the arrangements and processes called for by the formal system correct for each box? Second, are the arrangements and processes developed by the informal system correct for each box?

7 S FRAMEWORK (Mckinsey 7 S framework) The seven Ss are Strategy, Structure, System, Style, Staff, Shared Value and Skills. Literature on corporate culture emphasizes that the shared values, common beliefs and behaviour of a company take a considerable amount of time and effort to change. To help identify the organizational and cultural dimensions of the problem, McKinsey and Co.s 7 S framework can be used to consider key elements. It is tool used for analyzing organizational deficiencies, building on positive skills and identifying new skills needed.
Structure

Systems

Style

HUMAN

Strategy

Staff

Skills

Shared Values

McKinsey and Co. has proposed the Seven S model for successful strategy implementation. McKinseys consultants found that neglecting any one of seven key factors could make the effort to change a slow, painful and even doomed process. 1. Structure consultants point out that in todays complex and ever changing environment, a successful organisation may make temporary structural changes to cope with specific strategic tasks without abandoning basic structural divisions throughout the organisation. 2. Strategy model emphasizes that, in practice the development of strategies poses less of a problem than their execution. 3. System this consists of all the formal and informal procedures that allow the organisation to function, including capital budgeting, training and accounting systems. Systems can overpower expressed strategies. Thus a consumer goods manufacturer

might find it impossible to implement a new portfolio strategy if its management information system is not adjusted to produce the necessary cost data by segment, because there would be no way to compare the different segments of the business. 4. Style this refers not to personality but to the pattern of substantive and symbolic actions undertaken by top mangers. It communicates priorities more clearly than words alone, and may profoundly influence performance. 5. Staff successful organizations view people as valuable resources who should be carefully nurtured, developed, guarded and allocated. Top mangers devote time and energy to planning the progress and participation of existing managers, and use job assignment policies to actively faster the development of new managers. Similarly new hires are given jobs in the mainstream of the organisation, whether that be marketing or new product innovation. Talented individuals are assigned mentors, put into positions of real responsibility. 6. Skills reefers to those activities organizations do best and for which they are known. Strategic changes may require organizations to add one or more new skills. 7. Super-ordinate goals refers to guiding concepts, value and aspirations that unite an organisation in some common purpose. Super-ordinate goals are often captured in a mission statement, but they can also be phrased as a simple slogan.

FORCE FIELD ANALYSIS KURT LEWIN 1947 A device for understanding a problematic situation and planning corrective actions. This technique rests on several assumptions. 1. The present state of things (the current condition) is a quasi-stationary equilibrium representing equilibrium representing a resultant in a field of opposing forces. 2. A desired future state of affairs (the desired condition) can only be achieved by dislodging the current equilibrium, moving it to the desired state, and stabilizing the equilibrium at that point. To move the equilibrium level from the current to the desired condition the field of forces must be altered by adding driving forces or by removing restraining forces. The force-field analysis involves the following steps. Step 1 decide upon a problematic situation you are interested in improving and carefully and completely describe the current condition. What is the status quo? What is the current condition? Why do you want it changed? Step 2 carefully and completely describe the desired condition what do you want to be? What is the desired state of things? Step 3 identify the forces and factors operating in the current force field. Identity the driving forces pushing in the direction of the desired condition. Identify the restraining forces pushing away from the desired condition. Identification and specification of the force field should be thorough and exhaustive so that a picture of way things are as they are becomes clear. Step 4 examine the forces. Which ones are susceptible to influence, which are not? Which forces are under your control, which are not? (Important individual forces could themselves be subjected to a force-field analysis in order to understand them better). Step 5 strategies for moving the equilibrium from the current condition to the desired condition are following Add more driving forces, remove restraining forces or do both. Lawin advises against simply adding new driving forces because that may increase resistance and tension in the situation. Therefore, in this step select several important, adaptable restraining forces and develop action plans to remove them from the field of forces. As restraining forces are removed, the equilibrium shifts toward the desired condition. New driving forces may also be proposed and action plans developed to implement them. Step 6 implement the action plans. This should cause the desired condition to be realized. Step 7 describe what actions must be taken to stabilize the equilibrium at the desired condition and implement those actions. Eg. The management team of plant X is concerned about excessive turnover and wants to correct the situation.

They generate the following force-field analysis. Current Condition Turnover at Plant X Exceed 35% a year DRIVING FORCES Desired Condition Reduce turnover to 10% or less within 12 months. RESTRAINING FORCES

The security of having a job Headquarters is eager to reduce turnover at plant X The new plant manager wants turnover reduced. There are few large employers in the area Etc..

Restraining Forces No wages increase allowed until one year on the job Old equipment is hard to operate and maintain. Supervisors manage by fear, intimidation and criticism. Personnel office hires a large number of transients Working conditions are dirty and dangerous. Morale is low, attitudes towards the company are negative. Etc..

This is way to understand the multiple facets of the problem. The next decide point is to which restraining forces should be removed and develop action plans to initiate those changes. This technique is excellent for diagnosing change situations. We label it a team intervention (although it is also a tool for individuals) because it can be so powerful and exciting when used by groups. Group analysis typically yields a comprehensive understanding of what is happening to cause the problem and what must be done to correct it.

OD INTERVENTIONS Define the set of structured activities in which selected organizational units (target groups or individuals) engage with a task or a sequence of task where the task goals are related directly or indirectly to organizational improvement. TYPES OF INTERVENTIONS TEAM THIRD PARTY STRUCTURAL COMPREHENSIVE TEAM INTERVENTIONS WHAT ARE TEAMS AND EFFECTIVE TEAMS STAGES OF TEAM DEVELOPMENT GESTALT APPROACH ROLE OF ANALYSIS EXERCISE ROLE NEGOTIATION APPRICIATIONS AND CONCERNS EXERCISE VISIONING RESPONSIBILITY CHARTING APPRECIATIVE INQUIRY STRUCTURAL INTERVENTIONS SOCIO-TECHNICAL SYSTEM One of the approaches to management. Technical system has great effect on social system (personal attitudes, group behavior). Focus on production, office operations, and other areas with close relationships between the technical system and people. WORK REDESIGN QWL TQM REENGINEERING COMPREHENSIVE INTERVENTION GRID OD CONFROMTATION MEETING OD CONSULTANT CHOOSING THE OD CONSULTANT ROLE OF THE OD CONSULTANT COMPETENCIES OF THE OD CONSULTANT ETHICAL ISSUES IN OD CONSULTING. ORGANISATIONAL POWER AND POLITICS AND ITS IMPACT ON OD

ORGANISATIONAL DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTION The major task of diagnosis is to seek information knowledge, while the task of intervention is to act take action. French & Bell (1990) Intervention is primarily concerned with activities towards organizational change. We prefer, however, that emphasis be placed on the activity nature of interventions, interventions are things that happen activities, in an organizations life------OD interventions are set of structured activities in which selected organizational units (target groups or individuals) engage in a task of a sequence of tasks where the task goals are related directly or indirectly to organizational improvement. The definition pose some problems 1. OD interventions are not the only interventions in organizational change, it is only a subset of interventions. 2. Emphasis placed on task may be re-examined, as there are hundred other things than task that an organization, even a work organization, is preoccupied with. 3. The concept of improvement is to be properly understood. In using the term improvement conceptually a value notion of movement from bad to good, dysfunctional to functional, immature to mature is implies. Interventions are also needed to maintain the state of maturity if an organization has attained the maturity.

Organizational development intervention . The scope of interventions for managing change may be further elaborated if the concept of organizational change proposed by Chattopadyay and Pareek (1982) is taken into consideration. In their view Organizational change will be conceived as a relatively enduring alteration of the present state of an organization or its, components or inter-relationship among the components and their differentiated and integrated functions, in totality or partially, in order to gain greater viability in the context of the present and anticipated future environment. Any mental or physical activity that introduces or facilitates the change in an organization is intervention for organizational change. TYPE OF INTERVENTION Organizational change interventions could be divided into broad categories: 1. Interventions that are directed towards manifest change in the organization. E.g. restructuring, re-organizing, introducing new systems, diversification etc. 2. OD interventions that deal with processes, basic assumptions, beliefs, values etc. which are underlying the manifest changes and directly or indirectly influence the manifest changes. The focus of OD interventions then is not the organizational system itself but the set of beliefs in the minds of organizational members about themselves, their local work group, and the larger organizational system - Bernstein and Burke (1989) The interventions on the manifest system are occupied with what or the actual content of the changes in those domains. OD interventions deal with the changes in the mind set that determines the system and the change in the domain. Pareek (1988) presents the following model I which he combines the nature of the intervention and the focus of the intervention. The nature of the interventions can be structured and unstructured whereas the focus of the intervention can be static or dynamic or both as shown below.

FOCUS OF THE INTERVENTION STATIC (Structure) Reorganization Organizational designing MBO Work Review Differentiation Integration DYNAMIC (Process) Motivation Development Role Negotiation Role Renegotiations Mirroring Interaction Process Analysis BOTH

STRUCTURED

Survey and Feedback

The nature of the intervention BOTH UNSTRUCTURED

Team Development Development of Internal facilitator

L Groups Counselling Conflict Resolution

Process Consultation

Job Enrichment Task Force

Managerial Grid

Confrontatio n Meetings Inter-role Exploration

Taking into account a large number of interventions they can be organized in terms of focus and purpose. The focus of the intervention could be on a) Individual Intrapersonal Interpersonal b) Group c) Intergroup d) Organisation e) Outside environment The purpose of the intervention can be a) Problem diagnosis centered intervention Feedback centered. b) Process centered intervention. c) Action centered solution of action centered intervention. This has been presented below in a matrix.

ORGANISATIONAL DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS OD is a strategy for change that encompasses theory, practice methods and values. Interventions are just one component of the OD formula. Interventions are the vehicles for causing change. Define OD interventions are set of structured activities in which selected organizational units (target groups or individuals) engage in a task or a sequence of tasks where the task gets are related directly or indirectly to organizational improvement. Interventions constitute the action thrust of organizational development. Thinking about OD interventions. Leaders and practitioners consider some of the factors as they plan and implement OD. 1. Behind every program is an overall game plan or intervention strategy. This plan integrates the problem or opportunity to be address, the goals and desired outcomes of the program, and the sequencing and timing of the various interventions used to accomplish the goals. Intervention strategies are based on a combination of diagnosis and the goals set by the client system. The overall strategy would be the road map for the change program. The key questions to be asked and answered are a) What are we trying to accomplish? b) What activities/interventions will help us get there? c) What is the proper timing and sequencing of the interventions? d) What have we learned from the diagnosis about readiness to change, barriers and obstacles, key stakeholders, and sources of energy and leadership? 2. Some advice for structuring interventions has come from practice theory and experience. There are better and worse ways to structure activities to promote learning and change. The following points help practitioners structure activities in better ways. a) Structure the activity so that the relevant people are there. The relevant people are those affected by the problem or the opportunity. b) Structure the activity so that it is (a) problem oriented or opportunity oriented and (b) oriented to the problems and opportunities generated by the clients themselves. c) Structure the activity so that the goal is clear and the way to reach the goal is clear. Few things demotivate an individual as much as not knowing what he or she is working toward and not knowing how what the individual is doing contributes to goal attainment. d) Structure the activity so that there is a high probability of successful goal attainment. Expectations of practitioners and clients should be realistic. e) structure the activity so that it contains both experience-based learning and conceptual/cognitive theoretical based learning. f) Structure the climate of the activity so that individual is freed up rather than anxious or defensive. g) Structure the activity so that the participants learn both how to solve a particular problem and learn how to learn at the same time. h) Structure the activity so that individual can learn both task and process. The task is what the group is working on, that is, the stated agenda items. The term process, as used here,

refers to how the group is working and what else is going on as the task is being worked on. i) Structure the activity so that indivuduals are engaged as whole persons, not segmented persons. This means that role demands, thoughts, beliefs, feelings and strivings should all be called into play, not just one or two of these. Implementing these points causes interventions to be more effective. 3. third set of considerations concerns choosing and sequencing the intervention activities. Michel Beer suggests the following guidelines or decision rules to help in this regard. These decision rules can help a change agent focus on the relevant issues in making decisions about how to integrate a variety of interventions. They are rules for managing the implementation process. a) Maximize diagnostic data Violating this rule can lead to choosing inappropriate interventions. b) Maximize effectiveness interventions should be sequenced so that early interventions enhance the effectiveness of subsequent interventions. Violation of this rule can result in interventions that do not achieve their objectives and need to start a new sequence of interventions. c) Interventions should be sequenced to conserve organizational resources such as time, energy and money. Violating of this rule will result in overlapping interventions or in interventions that are not needed by certain people or parts of the organisation. d) Maximize speed interventions should be sequenced to maximize the speed with which ultimate organizational improvement is attained. Violating of this rule occurs when progress is slower than is necessary to conform to all the other rules. e) Maximize relevance interventions that management sees as most relevant to immediate problems should come first. Means interventions that will have an impact on the organization performance or task come before interventions that will have an impact on individuals or culture. Violating of this rule will result in loss of motivation to continue with organization development. f) Maximize psychological and organizational strain a sequence of interventions should be chosen that is least likely to create dysfunctional effects such as anxiety, insecurity, distrust, dashed expectations psychological damage to people and unanticipated and unwanted effects on organizational performance. Violating this rule will lower peoples sense of competence and confidence and their commitment to organizational improvement. 4. Different Interventions Have Different Dynamics It is important to know the underlying causal mechanisms of interventions to ensure the intervention fits the desired outcomes. Robert Blacke and Jane Mouton identifies the following types of interventions based on the underlying causal mechanisms involved a) A discrepancy intervention which calls attention to a contradiction in action or attitudes that then, leads to exploration.

b) Theory intervention where behavioral science knowledge and theory are used to explain present behavior and assumptions underlying the behavior. c) Relationship Intervention - which focuses attention on interpersonal relationships (particularly those where there are strong negative feelings) and surface the issue for exploration and possible resolution. d) Procedural Intervention which represents a critiquing of how something is being done to determine whether the best methods are being used. e) Experimentation intervention in which two different action plans are tested for their consequences before a final decision on one is made. f) Dilemma intervention - in which an imposed or emergent dilemma is used to force close examination of the possible choices involved and the assumptions underlying them. g) Perspective intervention - which draws attention away from immediate actions and demands and allows a task at historical background, context and future objectives in order to assess whether or not the actions are still on target h) Organisation structure intervention - which calls for examination and evaluation of structural causes for organizational ineffectiveness. i) Cultural intervention - which examines traditions, precedents and practices - the fabric of the organizations culture in a direct, focused approach. These different kinds of interventions suggest a range of different ways the OD practitioner can intervene in the client system. They also suggest the underlying dynamics of interventions. Intervention do different things, they cause different things to happen. The following aspects show some of the results to be expected form different OD interventions. 1. Feedback refers to learning new data about oneself, others, group processes or organizational dynamics - data that one did not previously take active account of. Awareness of this new information may lead to change. 2. Awareness of changing socio-culatural norms or dysfunctional present norms often people modify their behavior, attitudes, values and so on when they become aware of changes in the norms that are helping to determine their behavior. Thus, awareness of new norms has change potential because the individual will adjust his or her behavior to bring it inline with the new norms. Also, awareness of dysfunctional present norms can serve as an incentive to change. When people sense a discrepancy between the outcomes their present norms are causing the desired outcomes they want, this can lead to change. 3. Increased interaction and communication increasing interaction and communication between individuals and group may in and of itself effect changes in attitudes and behavior. Increased interaction leads to increased positive sentiments. Increased communication allows one to check ones perceptions to see if they are socially validated and shared. 4. Confrontation refers to surfacing and addressing differences in beliefs, feelings, attitudes, values or norms to remove obstacles to effective interaction. Confrontation is a process that actively seeks to discern real differences that are getting in the way, surface those issues and work on the issues in a constructive way. 5. Education refers to activities designed to upgrade a) Knowledge and concepts. b) Outmoded beliefs and attitudes and

c) Skills. In organisation development the education may be directed towards increasing these three components in several content areas: task achievement, human and social relationships etc. 6. Participation refers to activities, which increase the number of people who are allowed to be involved in problem solving, goal setting and the generation of new ideas. Participation has been shown to increase the quality and acceptance of decision, to increase job satisfaction, and to promote employee well being. Participation is a principal underlying mechanism of QC, collateral organizations, QWL, team building, survey feedback etc. 7. Increased accountability - refers to activities that clarify who is responsible for what and that monitor performance related to those responsibilities. Both of these features must be present for accountability to enhance performance. OD interventions that increase accountability are the role analysis technique, responsibility charting, QC. MBO, Self-Managed teams etc. 8. Increased Energy and Optimism refers to activities that energize and motivate people through visions of new possibilities or new desired futures. The future must be desirable worthwhile and attainable. Increased energy and optimism are often direct result of interventions such as appreciative inquiry, visioning, QWL, Total quality programs etc. These are some areas to consider when planning OD programs, choosing OD interventions, and implementing and managing OD interventions.

CLASSIFYING OD INTERVENTION The inventory of OD intervention is quite extensive. We will explore several classification schemes here to help understand how various interventions clump together in terms of: 1. The objectives of the interventions and 2. The targets of the interventions. Familiarity with how interventions relate to one another is useful for planning the overall OD strategy. OD programs are design to achieve specific goals, and often several interventions are combine into a package to accomplish a goal. The following are the measure families or types of OD interventions: 1. Diagnostic activities fact finding activities designed to ascertain the state of the system, the states of a problem. Eg. Interviews, Questionnaires, Surveys and Meetings 2. Team building activities - activities designed to enhance the effective operation teams. 3. Intergroup activities Activities designed to improve effectiveness of interdependent groups. They focus on joint activities and the output of the groups considered as a single system rather than as to sub systems. 4. Survey feedback activities Related to and similar to the diagnostic activities mentioned in that they are a large component of this activities. However, they are important enough in there own right to be considered separately. These activities center on actively working the data produce by a survey and designing action plans based on survey data. 5. Education and training activities Activities designed to improve skills, abilities and knowledge of individuals. There are several activities available and several approaches possible. Eg. a. The individual can be educated in isolation from his or her own work group. b. One can be educated in relation to the work group. c. The activities may be directed toward technical skills required for effective task performance. d. Activities directed toward improving competence. e. Activities may be directed toward leadership issues, responsibilities and functions of group members, problem solving etc. 6. Techno-structural or Structural ActivitiesActivities designed to improve the effectiveness of the technical or structural inputs and constraints affecting individuals or groups. Activities may take the form of: a. Experimenting with new organization structure and evaluating their effectiveness in terms of specific goals. b. Devising new ways to bring technical resources to bear on problems.

7. Process Consultation ActivitiesActivities on the part of the consultant that help the client to perceive, understand and act upon process events which occur in the clients environment. Primary emphasis is on processes such as communications, leader and member roles in groups, problem solving and decision making, group norms and group growth, leadership and authority and intergroup cooperation and competition. 8. Grid OD ActivitiesActivities invented and franchised by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton, which constitute a six-phase change model involving the total organization. 9. Third-Party Peacemaking ActivitiesActivities conducted by a skilled consultant (the third party), which are designed to help two members of an organization manage their interpersonal conflict. They are based on confrontation tactics and an understanding of the processes involved in conflict and conflict resolution. 10.Coaching and Counseling ActivitiesActivities that entail the consultant or other organization members working with individuals to help them(a) Define learning goals. (b) Learn how others see their behavior. (c) Learn new modes of behavior to see if these help them to achieve their goals better. 11.Life and Career Planning ActivitiesActivities that enable individuals to focus on their life and career objectives and how they might go about achieving them. 12.Planning and Goal-Setting ActivitiesActivities that include theory and experience in planning and goal setting, utilizing problem-solving models, planning paradigms, ideal organization versus real organization models. The goal of all of them is to improve these skills at the levels of the individual, group and total organization. 13.Strategic Management activities: Activities that help key policy makers reflect systematically on their organizations basic mission and goals and environmental demands, threats and opportunities and engage in long range action planning of both a reactive and a proactive nature. These activities direct attention in two important directions. 1] Outside the organisation to a consideration of the environment. 2] Away from the present to the future. 14.Organizational Transformation Activities: Activities that involve large-scale system changes, activities designed to cause a fundamental change in the nature of the organization. Almost everything about the organization is changed.

Another way to classify OD interventions is by the primary target of the intervention. Fig:-Typology of OD interventions based on target groups. Target Groups Types of interventions Interventions designed to improve the Life and career planning activities. effectiveness of individuals Coaching and counselling T group Education and training to increase skills, knowledge in the areas of technical task needs,relationship skills,process skills,decision making,problem solving, planning,goal setting skills. Grid OD phase-1 Work redesign Gestalt OD Behaviour modelling. Interventions designed to improve the Process consultation Effectiveness of Dyads/Triads Third party peace making Role-negotiation technique Gestalt OD Interventions designed to improve the Team building Task directed effectiveness of Teams and Groups Process directed Gestalt OD Grid OD phase 2 Interdependency Excerise Appreciative inquiry Responsibility charting Process consultation Role negotiation Role analysis technique Team building activities Education in decision making, Problem solving, planning, goal Setting in group settings. Team MBO Socio technical systems. Visioning QWL QC Force field analysis Self managed teams. Interventions designed to improve the Intergroup Activities effectiveness of intergroup relations. Process directed Task directed. Organizational mirror Partnering

Process consultation Third party peace making at group Level. Grid OD phase 3 Survey feedback.

The interventions are techniques and methods designed to change the culture of the organisation, move it from, where it is to where organizational members want it to be, and generally enable them to improve their practice so that they may better accomplish individual, team and organizational goals. TEAM INTERVENTIONS Collaborative management of the work team culture is a fundamental emphasis or organisation development programs. This reflects the reality that much of the organisation work is accomplished directly or indirectly through teams and the assumption that work team culture exerts a significant influence on individual behaviour. The term group and teams used synonymously, it is important to make a distinction between the same. Group a work group is a number fo persons, usually reporting to a common superior and having some face to face interaction, who have some degree of interdependence in carrying out tasks for the purpose of achieving organizational goals. Team a team is a form of groups, but has some characteristics in greater degree than ordinary groups, including a higher commitment to common goals and a higher degree of interdependency and interaction. Team - defined by Jon Katzenbach and Douglas Smith a team is a small number of people with complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose, set of performance goals, and approach for which they hold themselves mutually accountable. This distinction is particularly relevant in conceptualizing the kinds of teams desired in organisation development efforts, in the creation of self managed teams, and in the development of high performance teams. EFFEECTIVE TEAMS For an individual to function effectively, frequently a prerequisite is that the team must function effectively. Characteristics of an Effective Tea 1. Clear purpose (defined and accepted vision, mission, goal or task and an action plan). 2. Informality (informal, comfortable and relaxed) 3. Participation (much discussion and everyone encourage to participate). 4. Listening (members use effective listening techniques such as questioning, paraphrasing and summarizing). 5. Civilized disagreement (team is comfortable with disagreement, does not avoid, smooth over or suppress conflict). 6. Consensus decision making (substantial agreement through thorough discussion, avoidance of voting). 7. Open communications (feelings are legitimate, few hidden agendas). 8. Clear roles and work assignments (clear expectations and work evenly divided). 9. Shared leadership (while there is a formal leader, everyone shares in effective leadership behaviors). 10.External Relations (the team pass attention to developing outside relationship, resources and credibility). 11.Style diversity (team has broad spectrum of group process and task skills).

12.Self-assessment (the team periodically steps to examine how well it is functioning) High performance teams have the same characteristics but to a higher degree. Energized by this extra sense of commitment, high performance teams typically reflect strong extensions of the basic characteristics of teams: deeper sense of purpose, more ambitious performance goals, more complete approaches, fuller mutual accountability, interchangeable as well as complementary skills. Teams and work groups are considered to be the fundamental units of organisation and also key leverage points for improving the functioning of the organisation. Following are among the interventions the have been developed to help, teams become more effective while simultaneously addressing organizational problems and challenges.

TEAM BUILDING INTERVENTIONS The most important single group of interventions in OD is team-building activities, the goals of which are the improvement and increased effectiveness of various teams within the organisation. Some interventions focus on 1. The intact work team composed of a boss and subordinates, which we are calling the formal group. 2. Special teams such as startup teams newly constituted teams due to mergers, organisation structure changes or plant startups, task forces, cross-functional project teams and committees. Team building interventions are typically directed toward four major substantive areas. 1. Diagnosis. 2. Task Accomplishments. 3. Team Relationships and 4. Team and organisation process.

FIGURE - VARIETIES OF TEAM-BUILDING INTERVENTIONS. 1. Diagnostic Meetings 2. Team Building focused on Task accomplishment, including problem solving, decision making, role clarification, Formal Groups goal setting etc. (Intact work teams) Building and maintaining effective interpersonal relationships, including boss subordinate relationships. Understanding and managing group processes and culture. Role analysis technique for role classification and definition. Role negotiation techniques. Team Building Activities

Special Groups. (start up teams, special project teams, crossfunctional teams, parallel learning structure etc.)

1. Diagnostic Meetings 2. Team Building focused on Task accomplishment, especially special problems, role and goal clarification, resource utilization etc. Relationships, especially interpersonal or interunit conflict and under utilization of each other as resources. Processes, especially communications, decision-making, and task allocations. Role analysis technique for role clarification and definition. Role negotiation.

THE FORMAL GROUP DIAGNOSTIC MEETING

The purpose is to conduct a general critique of the performance of the group, that is, to take stock of where we are going and how we are doing, and to surface and identify problems so that they may be worked on. The leader and the consultant discuss the idea first, and if it appears that a genuine need for a diagnostic meeting exists, the idea is put to the group for their reactions. The leader may structure his or her testing for the groups reaction in the form of following question. a) What are our strengths? b) What problems do we have that we should work on? c) How are we doing in regard to our assigned tasks? d) How are our relationships with each other? e) What opportunities should we be taking advantage of? After deciding to conduct formal group diagnostic meeting, the group assembles for a halfday or a day meeting. There are several ways of getting the diagnostic data out, that is, to make the information public: A total group discussion involving everyone making individual contributions to the total assemblage. Subgrouping, which involves breaking down into smaller groups where amore intensive discussions takes place, then the subgroups reporting back to the total group. This is particularly effective because people have more air time and there is a higher degree of safety in the anonymity of a subgroup report. Pairing of two individuals who interview each other or who simply discuss their ideas with each other, each pair then reporting back to the total group. When the data are shared throughout the group, the next steps consist of discussing the issues, grouping the issues in terms of themes. The next action steps may call for a team building meeting, may assign different persons to task groups to work on the problems or may include a number of other strategies that involve moving from the diagnostic data to corrective action taking.

PROCESS CONSULTATION INTERVENTIONS. In process consultation greater emphasis is placed on diagnosing and understanding process events. Furthermore there is greater emphasis on the consultant being more non-directive and questioning as he or she gets the groups to solve their won problems. Process consultation represents an approach or a method for intervening in an ongoing system. The crux of this approach is that a skilled third party (consultant) works with individuals and groups to help them learn about human and social processes and learn to solve problems that stem from process events. The job of the process consultant is to help the organisation solve its own problems by making it own problems by making it aware of organizational processes, the consequences of these processes, and the mechanisms by which they can be changed. The process consultant helps the organisation to learn from self-diagnosis and self-intervention to learn from self diagnosis and self-intervention. The ultimate concern of the process consultant is the organizations capacity to do for itself what he has done for it. Where the standard consultant is more concerned about passing on his knowledge, the process consultant is concerned about passing on his skills and values. Some particularly important organizational processes are - communications, the roles and functions of group members, group problem solving and decision-making, group norms and group growth, leadership and authority and intergoup co-operation and competition.

A GESTALT APPROACH TO TEAM BUILDING A form of team building that focuses more on the individual than the group is the Gestalt approach to OD. The approach rests on a form of psychotherapy developed by Frederick S. Fritz. Gestalt therapy is based on the belief that persons function as whole total organisms. And each person possesses positive and negative characteristics that must be owned up to and permitted expression. People get into trouble when they get fragmented, when they do not accept their total selves, and when they are trying to live up to the demands of others rather than being themselves. Robert Harman lists the goals of Gestalt therapy as awareness, integration, maturity, authenticity, self-regulation and behavior change. Basically, one must come to terms with oneself, must accept responsibility for ones action, must experience and live in the here and now and must stop blocking off awareness, authenticity. Stanley Herman applies a Gestalt orientation to organization development specially in working with leader-subordinate relations and team building. The primary thrust is to make the individual stronger, more authentic and more in touch with the individuals own feelings, building a better team may result. The objective is to help the individual recognize, develop and experience his own potency and ability to cope with his organisation world, whatever its present condition. Further to encourage him to discover for himself his own unique wants of that environment and his capacity to influence and shape it in ways that get him more of what he wants. To do this people must be able to express their feeling fully, both positive and negative. They must, get in touch with where they are on issue relations with others and relations with selves.

STRUCTURAL INTERVENTIONS Also called techno-structural interventions. Interventions or change efforts aimed at improving organizational effectiveness through changes in the task, structural, technological and goal processes in the organisation. The interventions includes changes in how the overall work of the organisation is divided into units, who reports to whom, methods of control, the spatial arrangements of equipment and people, work flow arrangements and changes in communication and influence practices. Most of these structural interventions seek a joint optimization of the social and technological systems of organization. THIRD PARTY PEACEMAKING INTERVENTIONS Third party interventions into conflict situations have the potential to control the conflict or resolve. A basic feature of third party intervention is confrontation the two principals must be willing to confront the fact that conflict exists and that it has consequences for the effectiveness of the two parties involved. The third party must know how, when and where to utilize confrontation tactics that surface the conflict for examination.

COMPREHENSIVE INTERVENTIONS Comprehensive in terms of the extent to which the total organisation is involved and /or the depth of cultural change addressed. Getting the whole system in the room, future search conferences, confrontation meeting, strategic management activities, survey feedback, grid OD, and Scheins cultural analysis. Phrases like getting the whole system in the room are appearing with increasing frequency in OD practice. What OD professionals are talking about is the usefulness of getting all of the key act actors of a complex organization or system together in a teambuilding, future planning kind of session. The rationale for inviting all of the key actors of a complex system to meet together is congruent with systems theory and an extension of the assumptions underlying team building. If you get all of the people with crucial interdependencies together to work on matters of mutual concern, good things can happen.

INTERVENTION MATRIX Problem Diagnosis Centered Intervention

of Intervention

Process Centered Intervention

Solution of Action Interventi

SONAL sic helping or ersons

SONAL

eractions with ity, amount, mode

OCESS

oup makes ts objectives es etc. UP PROCESS

eractions between ty, presence of

Diagnostic instruments e.g. FIRO and LIFO Personal growth laboratory FIRO, LIFO, SDI management style inventories. Management work conference Team building Human interaction lab. Diagnosis via interviews & questionnaires & feedback Role mapping Team building Management simulations Role Mapping Diagnosis and feedback Mirroring Surveys Sensing meetings between top management and lower levels. Establish environmental sensing mechanisms. Open system planning & analysis. Survey clients, customers, etc.

Meditation Time Management course Personal growth laboratory Transactional analysis sem. Problem solving procedures Effective communications workshops. Process reviews at each meeting Group process training. Process observer in meetings. Organisation Structure charts. Job Descriptions Decision making grids Workflow charts. Policies & procedures for daily operations. Problem solving processes or procedures. Policies & procedures for dealing with government. Planning systems.

Career of life plan plan Personal growth l Establishing work Third party confli resolution. Team building Action planning

Confrontation me Conflict resolutio Responsibility ch

TION

Work and system Re-organization o

ectiveness of structure, system, ssion etc. NVIRONMENT

f government, customers, etc.

Open systems pla Creating special p lobby with govern consumers affair

INTERVENTION MATRIX Individual focus Harvard AMP and PMD AMA Seminary Skill Training Planning etc. Management grid Phase I Transactional Analysis. Group(team) Focus Conflict building OD Lab (Morton) Analytical Trouble Shooting Problem Solving Decision making Economic Model Building. Management grid Phase II Third Party consultation (Facilitator Role) Action research Projects. Intergroup Focus Conflict identification & resolution training. OD Lab(Motron) collaboration Skills Management Grid Phase III

Organization Fo

TRAINING INTERVENTIONS

Coaching Counseling Career planning workshops CONSULTATIVE Assessment centers INTERVENTIONS \performance appraisal development of selection criteria entry/role negotiation Job Rotation Job Enrichment Job Enlargement Job Posting TECHNO/STRUCT Promotion/Demotion/ URAL Transfer INTERVENTIONS

Third Party Consultation (Mediation Role)

Change Agent tra Policy Implication Workshops General system. Theory Motivatio Theory Leadershi Theory Economic Model Building Management Grid Phase IV Modelling and Simulation, Human Resource Planning. Affirmative Action Task Force Organisation plan Action Research Projects.

DATA PROCESS/FEEDB ACK INTERVENTIONS

Establish or change Job standards & feedback (personal work goals)

Group Problem solving. Rearrangement of roles, functions, work group goal setting Ad Hoc task forces. Third party consultation (expert role) Group problem Solving & Goal setting Data Collection /analysis (survey Feedback) Performance audits establish or change group work performance goals.

Changing reporting Relations changing Systems & procedures redefinition of decision making Authority Confrontation meeting Arbitration Information Flow changes (computers) Changing reward system Eliminating punishment systems

Reorganization Mergers/Acquisiti Matrix Organizati Policy revision Flexible work schedules Management grid phase V

Long Range plans Goal setting Changing constrai systems to enablin systems Management grid Phase VI