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Beyond Temperament: Non-Keyboard Intonation in the 17th and 18th Centuries Author(s): Bruce Haynes Source: Early Music,

Vol. 19, No. 3 (Aug., 1991), pp. 356-365+367-370+372-381 Published by: Oxford University Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3127775 . Accessed: 05/08/2011 15:31
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Bruce Haynes

temperament: non-keyboard in the and centuries intonation 18th 17th

Beyond

on is rather, middle of the 15th century in response to the need for temperament; Mysystem notbased anykeyboard it displays soundsfoundon unrestricted the instruments like better 3rds. Mean-tone favours 3rds: in order to get them in the cello,violinetc,thatcanplaypurely tune ... low enough, the 5ths must suffer by being tuned small.6 (Georg Philipp Telemann,'Neues musicalisches System', Because of its one great advantage, practicality, equal
1743/4)

'Temperaments'are closed systems designed to help make the intonation of instruments with immovable pitch (like the organ and harpsichord)convincing. But singers and players of stringed and wind instruments have no such limitations-'temperament' is too rigid a concept to apply to them. Since keyboardtemperamentshavebeen studied and discussed for some time,1it seems odd that the intonation of singersand orchestralinstrumentshas had very little attention.2 is a subjectthatis much harderto treat It as quantitatively, it dependsso much on context.Playing 'in tune' is a relativeand verypersonalaffair,and no set of rules or abstractions from practice can possibly encompassits complexities,or substitutefor an alertear and a willing spirit. But certainbasic assumptionsof a singer or violinist in the 17th and 18th centuries concerning intonation were quite differentfrom ours, and an understandingof them is not only usefulin everyday ensemble work, but adds an unexploredexpressiveelement to Baroqueand Classical performance. Ultimately, using the available historical information, early musicians must work out this question for themselves.3 The appendixto this articlethereforepresentsextensive extractsfrom originalsourceson non-keyboardtuning.4

temperament had some adherents even in the 18th century and before, but the attitude of one writer of the time was probably typical: it produced, he wrote, a 'harmony extremely coarse and disagreeble'.7Sauveur in 1707 said equal temperament 'is used [only] among the least able instrumentalists, because it is simple and easy'.8 By contrast, the most common tuning of the time was described by a number of writers, including Telemann and Quantz, and was engagingly summarized by the singer and musical theorist Pier Francesco Tosi, who wrote in 1723: Everyoneknows that there is a Semitone Major and Minor, because the Difference cannot be known [i.e. played] by an Organ or Harpsichord,if the Keysof the Instrumentare not split. A Tone, that graduallypasses to another,is divided into nine almost imperceptibleIntervals,which are called Comma's,five of which constitutethe SemitoneMajor,and four the Minor.... If one were continuallyto sing only to those abovemention'd Instruments [the organ and harpsichord], this Knowledge might be unnecessary;but since the time that Composers introduced the Custom of crowding the Opera's with a vast Number of Songs accompaniedwith Bow Instruments, it becomes so necessary,that if a Sopranowas to sing D-sharp, like E-flat, a nice Ear will find he is out of Tune, becausethis last rises.Whoeveris not satisfiedin this, let him readthose Authorswho treatof it, and let him consult the best Performerson the Violin.9 Among Quantz's many comments explained that on tuning, he

Historic expedients to the tuning problem


It is a troublesome physical fact that it is not possible, either in theory or practice,to combine both pure 5ths and pure major3rds in the same tuning system.A series of four pure 5ths placed above each other (for instance, C-G, G-D, D-A, A-E) will produce a major3rd (C-E) widerthan pure.This is calledPythagorean considerably a tuning commonly used in the MiddleAges;the tuning, 5ths are pure, which means the 3rds are large-larger even than in equal temperament.'A different system, mean-tone temperament, became common by the

What led me to add another key not previouslyused on the flute was the differencebetween major and minor semitones. ... The majorsemitonehas five commas,the minor only four. For this reason, Eb must be a comma higher than D#. From our perspective in the late 20othcentury, we are introduced here to two rather startling concepts: 1 the existenceof majorand minor semitones D# different (a from an Eb, for instance); 2 the possibility,therefore,that on some notes the harpsiEARLY MUSIC AUGUST 1991 357

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The musical amateurs(1755). Oil painting by Julius Quinkhard(Amsterdam,Rijksmuseum)

356

EARLYMUSIC

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chord or organmightbe tuned differently than the other of members an instrumental ensemble. A system that differentiates between half-steps, accordingto their harmonic function, suggests refinements unknown to our ears, which have grown accustomed to a mere 12 notes to the octave. But as far as Quantzwas concernedin 1752, of between flatsand sharps] is Appreciation [thisdifference a neededby anyone whowantsto develop refined, exactand accurate in music. ear Modernplayersusuallyraisesharpsand lowerflatsto enhancetheirmelodic function as leading,or 'tendency' notes. This practicehas its roots at the beginningof the Romanticperiod with the rise of equal temperament,"' and is the reverseof the normal practice of 17th- and 18th-centurymusicians, for whom leading notes were low. Our contemporarypreoccupationwith melody is apparentlyrecent;a strongerharmonicorientationand more 'vertical'awarenessnaturallytended to favourthe pure major3rd (whichis much smallerthan the beating, unresonantequal-temperedone). The pure 3rd is an intervalthat is both naturaland very satisfying to play, and, indeed, most modern musiciansseem to gravitatetowardsit, especiallystring playerstuning to their open strings. But pure 5ths are even easierand yet more temptingto tune on a stringed instrument.Since the end of the 18thcentury,therefore, 5thshave usuallywon out over 3rdsin stringintonation (comparethe Pythagoreansystem,with its perfect 5ths and high 3rds)." Rameau(1737),Quantz (1752,chap.17/ vii/4) and Sorge (1744,p.53) indicated that some violinists in their day were also inclined to pure 5ths (see appendixfor thesetexts),but they consideredthis a mistake and associated it with poorer players." They reasonedthat a violin tuned to perfect5thswould be out of tune with the harpsichordor organ, but the deeper implication was that it would also be unsuited to the generalintonation system of the period. As John Hind Chesnutwrote (p.271): if intonation Modern practice... is not appropriateourgoal The it wanted played. musicas he himself is to playMozart's intonation of or 'expressive' 'functional' quasi-Pythagorean is instruments particu19th-and20th-century non-keyboard in stood. to larlyforeign the tradition whichMozart

comma higherthan sharps.This saysnothing about the naturals;it implies a generalsystem but does not indicate any specifictemperament. Quantz wrote: play ... the otherinstruments [the notes] in theircorrect whereas theharpsichord aremerely on ratios, tempered. they

'Merelytempered'is the key phrasehere. If we use both D$ and Eb, G# and Ab, etc., we will need more than 12 notes in an octave. These different enharmonics are availablefor the singeror violinist,who is able to adjust intonation while performing, but keyboard players (unlessthey haveinstrumentswith split keys) areforced to resortto complicatedsystemsof temperament. in an 'Temperament' this sense means 'compromise', that attemptsto makethe best of the fact that expedient It only one note can be playedwhen two are needed.13 is an artificethat gives the illusion that a keyboardinstrument is as well in tune as the other instrumentswhen playedby musicianswith the 'refined,exactand accurate ear' of Quantz'stime. For non-keyboard instruments, in fact, 'temperament' is not even possible. Without a fixed tuning, intonation is influenced by technical situations, subin jectiveperceptions,even differences dynamics.'4 Players of such instruments are incapable (even if they wanted it) of the level of consistency in intonation implied by a temperament.'5 But although they are not bound by any closed system, it would still be useful to see how original descriptionsof theirtuning might be roughlyfittedinto a keyboardsystem, since they normally perform with harpischordsor organs. A keyboardtemperamentcan also operate as a frame of reference or model, from which singers and playersof instrumentswith flexible intonation can occasionallydepartin the context of the moment. Ideally,a 'synergetic' relationshipwill exist, in which the keyboardis first temperedas closely as possible to the physical and musical needs of the other instruments, who in their turn refer back to it for guidance. By definition,we can deducethat a tuning that distinguishesbetween enharmonicpairs,with sharpsbeing a comma lower than flats, does not resembleeither equal temperament or the Pythagorean system (in which Tempering and 'intoning justly' sharpsarehigherthan flats).If it is a systemat all,it must here with a closed tuning system be closer to either just intonation or some form of We are not dealing based on a circle of 5ths like a keyboardtemperament. mean-tone. Just intonation 'has alwayshad a kind of fatal fasSources discussing non-keyboard intonation usually the general principle that flats were a cination for musiciansbecause of the purity within the only expressed
358 EARLY MUSIC AUGUST 1991

A numberof woodwind fingeringchartsfrom the end of the 17thto the end of the 18thcenturyconfirmthe use fied by early sources (41 cents as opposed to 22).2 The consistentuse of /4-comma mean-tone is not, therefore, of higher pitches for flats and lower for synonymous what they describe. Georg Muffat (1698) even warned sharps, although the exact difference is not specified. violinists to resist the temptation to play leading notes Recorder charts are the most informative, since the instrument's inflexibleblowingtechniquerequiresaltertoo low (sic). native fingeringsfor correctingintonation. Among the Tosi said that 'a Tone ... is divided into nine ... Intervals,which are called Comma's,five of which con- many fingering charts that appeared for the recorder stitute the Semitone Major,and four the Minor.' (The from 1630 to 1795, the earliest often choose only one of comma' referredto here is just under 22 cents wide.)23 the two enharmonicpairs.30By 1700completechromatic An example of a major semitone would be C-Db, a charts began to appear that distinguished most pairs, minor would be C-C#. Sincethe firstis five commas and especiallythe d'leb'. The most interestingchartswere the second four, the difference between them is one those by Johann Christian Schickhardt (c.1720), which and Thomas Stanesby Jr (c.1732), comma. distinguished gI"/ab",31 that distinguishedeverychromaticnote.32 An octave, as FrancescoGeminaniwrote in 1751, can To a lesser extent, traverso charts also offer useful be divided'into 12Semitones,that is, 7 of the greaterand 5 of the lesser'.Since the seven 'greater'or major semi- information; Quantz's additional key indicates that tones each contain five commas and the five 'lesser'have tuning correctionswere more limited on the traverso four, the octave will consist of a total of 55 commas, or than on the double-reed instruments (to which such parts. The 55-partoctave, as the sources quoted in the keys were never added).33 Although embouchureadjustmentsmake the oboe's appendix show, was a familiarconcept in the 17thand it 18thcenturies.24 correspondsto a temperamentknown intonation relativelyflexible,most oboe chartsindicate alternatefingeringsfor some sharpsand flats, from the now as '/6-commamean-tone'.25 earliest existing chart (Bismantova,1688)34to at least Written sources 1816 (Whitely).35 synonymous pairs that are given The The term 'mean-tone'was not used in the 18thcentury; the most alternatefingeringsare the 'left-hand' notes in fact, like many commonly accepted assumptions, G4/Ab and A$/Bb (illus.l and 2). The development of
EARLY MUSIC AUGUST 1991

basic scale of the tonic, subdominant, and dominant that chords, and of certain melodic intervals'16 can be tuned to the open strings.Some earlyviolin tutors easily indicate the use of a kind of just intonation, flexibly applied in a limited way (see appendix Rameau (1726) and Tartini(1754,pp.oo-lol).'7 But just intonation is a kind of 'holy grail'that is impossibleto apply continuously,'8although ingenious attempts at it have been made.'9As Barbourput it,20 still were Thebulkof theviolinists c.1730] probably accus[in flattened fifthsof meantomedto the justthirdsandgreatly tonetemperament. The line between just and mean-tone need not, of course,be strictlydrawnon instrumentswhose tuning is not fixed."Some string playersbegin with open strings tuned to somewhat narrow 5ths and tune intervals purely to the open strings. Wind players,too, tend to adjustlong notes purely.Of any consistent system, this tuning most resembles'/4-comma'mean-tone ('meantone' in its strictestsense), in which 3rds are pure (as in just intonation) and 5ths are smaller than pure by a quarterof the syntonic comma. But the difference between enharmonic pairs in /4-commamean-tone is much greaterthan that speci-

musicians were so unconscious of alternativesto a systemthat included majorand minor semitonesthat it had no name at all.26 Among the more interesting descriptions of nonkeyboardtuning are those by Telemann and Quantz. Sorge (1748,p.61) said that Telemann'stuning system 'cannotbe appliedto a keyboardinstrument,but it may be rather convenient for the fiddle and certain wind instruments,and is the easiest for singers'.Chesnut has pointed out that Mozart also apparentlydistinguished the small and large half steps of a mean-tone temperament similar to /6-comma.27 Major and minor semitones were discussed as late as 1813.28 In his 1707 MWthode(p.2o6), Sauveur classes instru-

ments accordingto theirabilityto altertheir intonation: the voice and violin are in a class in which accurate intonation depends entirely on the ear, while the keyboards are in one where no control is possible during playing. The woodwinds fall in an intermediateclass, and are among instruments ... onwhich pitchis governed projections, the toneholes or by butthatcanbe nevertheless corrected a sensitouchpieces, by
tive ear.29

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double holes on the oboe and recorderhas an obvious application for 'intoning' enharmonic pairs. On both instruments they affect the most ambiguous pair, G#-Ab.36 Bassoon fingering charts also distinguished enharmonic pairs.37 the Towards end of the century,however, to be added whose purpose may have parkeys began tially been to obscure these distinctions.38

versusirregular Regular temperaments


As Telemann wroteof his tuningsystem(1743/4), estab'It lishes a continuousproportionalequalitybetweenintervals .. .' This implies something similar to a standard 'regular'mean-tone temperament,defined by Barbour as one 'in which all the fifthssaveone arethe same size'.39 An interestingattributeof 'regular' mean-tones is the ease with which standardtranspositionscan be made, since intervalsare identicalin strategickeys. This would explain how German composers like Bach and Telemann were able to function in mean-tone while using Chor-Ton and Cammer-Tonsimultaneously.40 'Transinstruments were a part of life for German posing' musiciansat this time. Partsfor transposinginstruments were notated in differentkeys from the majorityof the parts, because they were 'pitched' differently (being tuned to Chor-ton/Cammer-Ton). 'd'amore' The instruments and the violino piccolo also had transposed parts.41 It is obvious that, however notes are notated or fingered, they should be at the same frequencyfor all the instrumentsof an ensemble. But the differencesin key among transposing instruments were always either a major2nd or a minor 3rd.Sincein a regularmean-tone, parallel scales a major 2nd or minor 3rd apart would their notes would normally be inflected identically,42 have corresponded closely.43Mean-tone tuning will thereforework with transposinginstruments,as long as the keyboardinstruments in such music are tuned in regular(ratherthan irregular)temperaments.44 A model based on a regulartemperamentis relatively Let simple and easy to remember.45 us take /6-comma mean-tone as an example. Since most musicians nowadays use a Korg or similar tuning machine, the following table shows whereits notes areplacedin relation to equal temperament.46 As flattenednotes become more distantfrom C, they become gradually higher, whereas sharpened notes become lower. The note Bb, for instance, is 9 cents higher than in equal temperament,Eb 10 cents, Ab 12 cents etc. Going in the other direction,F$is 6 cents low, C# 8 cents, G# 10 cents, D# 11cents etc.47

+5 cents Db D +1 D~ -11 Eb E -2 F +7 F$ -6 Gb G +3 G~ -10 Ab A 0 A# -13 Bb B -4 C +5 C# -8

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Although a regular temperament might have been useful for the keyboardinstruments,it is unlikely that other instrumentalists and singersadheredstrictlyto it, since the 3rds and 5ths would never have been compmean-tone systems,which favour letely pure. Irregular selectedkeysat the expenseof others,wereno doubt also used together with non-keyboardinstruments.48 There are clear expressive advantages to these tunings, in which modulations are more colourful. But no system, regularor irregular,could possibly have been appliedrigidlyon the flexiblypitched instruments. The regular55-partoctave was no more than a convenienttheoreticalframework, and it can be used to advantage by present-day musicians with either a similarlytuned keyboardinsturmentor one tuned in an irregulartemperamentsuch as the well-known 'Werckmeister III' or 'Temperament ordinaire'. Reconciling the keyboard to the other instruments Discussingintonation, HubertLeBlanc(p.55)commented that: The divineartistry Mr Blavetconsistsin adjusting of [the of But tuningof his]fluteby hismanner blowing. students of the harpsichord the for not praise instrument its intonation, that perceiving it is in factnevertrulyin tune. It is naturalto referto the keyboardinstrumentwhen intonation questionsarisein an ensemble,since it is the only instrumentwith a fixed pitch. But fixed pitch has the defect of its virtue: when the music changes and demands tuning modifications, the keyboard cannot adapt as the other instruments can. It is a case of the immovable object and the irresistibleforce. There is little sense, for instance,in tuning the G$ of a flute to a harpsichordwith an Ab. A number of sources (among them Sauveur,Tosi, Quantz,Telemann,Tartini,Sorgeand Mozart)accepted
EARLY MUSIC AUGUST 1991

361

the fact that keyboardsused differentsystemsof tuning within the frameworkof a regularmean-tone system.57 from other instruments.49 There are suggestions as to The latter compromise (which is necessarily rather how the problem was solved. Huygens,Rameau (1726) colourlessin character)might look on a Korgtuner like and Sorge (1744, P-53;1758) all assumed that the melody this: instrumentsshould conform to the keyboard.On the
other hand, Rameau (1737), Rousseau (1743) and de

+5 cents

Bdthizeyconsideredit self-evidentthat (exceptfor unison notes and finaltonics) singerspurposelyignoredthe temperament of the accompanying instruments. Quantz (1752, chap.17/vi/20o) proposed a more diplomatic solution in which the fixed-pitchinstrumentalso adaptedto the other instruments. In larger settings such as orchestras, a keyboard instrumentis considerablyless audible than the treble the melody instruments.In the case of the harpsichord, sound dies away quickly,while pure intervalsare sustained by the other treble and bass instruments. De
B&thizey and Quantz (1752, chap.16/7) suggest that

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singersand other playerswould thus do betterto adjust to the violins and oboes rather than the harpsichord This scale is based on '/6-comma mean-tone; C#, F$ and Bb plus all the diatonic notes are left in their normal (compare also Tosi above).o5 The problem is more acute for the otherbass instruments,since they usuallyplayin places (see previous table), and the differencebetween unison with a harpsichord or organ.5 There are a the two ambiguousflat/sharpsis split. number of possible solutions. Some practical considerations or The idea of a harpsichord organwith splitkeyswas Quantzgavesome adviceon practisingintonation (1752, mentioned by Tosi and Quantz;something similarwas chap.17/vii/8).He advised (as did Leopold Mozart) the apparentlyused by Handel." With both D$/Eb and use of a monochord to players of melodic instruments.8 G$/Ab, the keyboardwould have good major triads as The best manner of escape from [poor intonation] is the faras B and Ab major,makingit possibleto ventureinto monochord,on which one can clearlylearnthe intervals. Every tonalities with as many as four sharps or flats and still shouldbecome familiarwith its use. singerand instrumentalist For keep the thirds relativelypure.53 continuo playing, Theywould therebylearnto recognizeminor semitonesmuch have a use.54 therefore,split keys clearly earlieras well as the factthatnotes markedwith a flatmust be a were limited, it was a historic practiceto retune unsplit keyboard accidentals during a programme. It takes about as long to changea D# to an Eb on a harpsichord as to tune a section of violins." Another solution is to use two harpsichords,one tuned (for instance) to sharps and the other to flats. one Alternatively, two-manualharpsichordcan be used in this way.56 Where frequent choices between enharmonics are necessary (i.e. when a wide range of keys cannot be avoided), another approach is suggested by several sources. Quantz's 'good temperament which allows either [synonymous flat/sharp] to be endurable' and enharmonicpairsthat are'blendedtogether' Telemann's on keyboardinstruments(1767)imply either the use of mean-tone or the splittingof the difference an irregular between the two or three trouble-makingaccidentals
362 EARLY MUSIC AUGUST 1991

Barbour (1951,p.191) suggests that, when key changes

comma higherthan those with a sharpin front of them. Without these insightsone is obliged to depend entirelyon the ear, which can however deceive one at times. Knowledgeof the monochord is requiredespeciallyof playersof the violin and other stringed instruments, on which one cannot use the placementof the fingersas an exact guide, as one can on wind instruments. In our time, we can add that we have all grown up in a prevailing atmosphere of approximate equal temperament, making the help of a reference beyond our ears

Thereis a 'blackbox' on the market even more necessary. that functions much like a monochord;it is designedto play in any temperamentthe user wishes."9 A playerusing mean-tone as a model is theoretically expectedto have alternateflats and sharpsavailablefor every note, but in practice some accidentalsare rarely music usually stays within the used, since 18th-century bounds of keys with four flats and sharps.One seldom

has to play the notes E#, Fb, Gb, B#, Cb etc. There are,

then, three sets of enharmonic pairsthat are usually Ab/G#, Eb/D#, and ambiguousand need attention: Theothernotes(C,D, E,F,FM, A, Bb,B) are G, Db/C#.6? in always the sameplace. normally tonalitiesa temperThe less adaptable different to it amentneedsto be, the purerand richer canbe. Just in the ideal,is practical onlyone intonation, theoretical worksin all of them. When key;equaltemperament the concert therefore, choiceof programmes, planning tonalities relates to temdirectly the choiceof keyboard and perament, viceversa.

Conclusion
of It shouldbe clear nowwhythe concept major and by
minor semitones is fundamentalto 18th-century tuning practice, why it can cause problems between the keyboard and the other instruments, and how it logically leads to intonation models that resemblevarious temperaments known nowadays as 'mean-tone'.A closed system is artificialwhen applied to strings, winds and voices, but it can help players and singers understand how to work with the 'immovable object',a keyboard instrumentwith its fixed pitch, as well as provide them with a frame of referencewith which to build a more expressiveand 'harmonious'structureof intervals.61 Bruce Haynes has been playing, making, teachingand writingabout the Baroqueoboesince the late 1960s.
'Asidefrom his articleson temperamentin New Grove, MarkLindley has written an excellent historical survey of temperament and Geschichte Musiktheorie, der vi: tuning in 'Stimmungund Temperatur', Messenund Rechnenin derFriahen Neuzeit (Berlin,1987). Hi-ren, 2Patrizio Barbieri's excellentarticle 'Violin intonation: a historical Music,xix/1(1991), Early survey', pp.69-88, is a welcomeexception.The present articlewill, I hope, complement it. stringedinstruments,whose intonation is a more special3Fretted ized subject,arenot treatedin this study (see, however,LeBlanc(1740) in the appendix).Cf. M. Lindley,Lutes,Violsand Temperaments (Cambridge, 1984). 40Otheruseful sources are cited and discussedin Barbieri. 'See J. M. Barbour,Tuningand Temperament, HistoricalSurvey a (EastLansing,Michigan,1951),pp.1, 89. mean-tone, 115ths are tuned one-quarterof a 6Inclassic Y4-comma syntonic comma smallerthan pure. This produces eight pure major 3rds.The placementof the twelfth5th,known as the 'wolf',determines which tonalities are usable. 7R.Smith'Harmonics'(2nd ed. 1759), pp.166-7,quoted in A. J. Ellis, 'On the Historyof MusicalPitch'in A. J. Ellisand A. Mendel, Studiesin the History of Musical Pitch (Amsterdam, 1968), p.55. Smith was a See respectedastronomer. Lindley, 'Stimmungund Temperatur', p.297. d'Instrumensles moins habilesA 8. .. a son usage ches les Jofieurs cause de sa simplicite& de sa facilit.' JosephSaveur, Mdthode gedndrale (1707).The famous conversionof Rameauto a kind of equal temperament, recordedin his Gdndration (1737)was an interestharmonique ing exception. See Lindley,'Stimmungund Temperatur', pp.244-47.

'The translationused here is by the oboist J. E. Galliard, who published an Englishversionof Tosi'sbook in 1743entitledObservations on the FloridSong.Tosi'sbook was still currentenough in 1757that it was translatedby J. E Agricolain Anleitungzur Singkunst. The words in bracketsare mine. D. "'See Boyden, TheHistoryof ViolinPlaying(Oxford,1965),pp.186, 370-71;Lindley,'Stimmungund Temperatur', p.296. See also Cavallo (1788)in appendix. "T.Podnos, Intonationfor Strings,Winds,and Singers(Metuchen, Geminiani,and JustIntonation', NJ, 1981), D. D. Boyden,'Prelleur, p.9; JAMS,iv (1951),p.219; J. M. Barbour,'Violin Intonation in the 18th Century: JAMS,v (1952), P.233; J. H. Chesnut, 'Mozart'sTeachingof Intonation' JAMS,xxx (1977),pp.255,n.9, 256;and Barbier; pp.82-5. "See also Werckmeister(1691) in appendix. Barbeiri (pp.70, 74) noted other indications of both pure-5thtuning and tempered open strings. '3Cf.LeopoldMozart (1756)in appendix. '4Aviolinist playson an open stringabout 5 cents higherwhen playing forte than when playingpiano. (This is the conclusion reachedby the authorand a Baroqueviolinist, in experimentsusing an electronic tuner.) of '5This inconsistencyis the hobgoblinof a theoretician 'littlemind' like Sorge (cf. Sorge (1744),P-53in appendix). 'Prelleur,Geminianiand JustIntonation',p.202 '6Boyden, Geminianiand JustIntonation', and Robert '7See Boyden,'Prelleur, Bremner's Prefaceto J. G. C. Schetky'sSix Quartettos, op.6, quoted in full in N. Zaslaw,'The Compleat OrchestralMusician' EM (1979), pp.46-57. Bremner (a student of Geminiani) gives violin intonation exercises based on pure intervals.See also M. Lindley,'Der TartiniGioseffoZarlino, SchtilerMichele Stratico'Kongressbericht Bayreuth, 1588, Sopplimentimusicali (Venice, 1981), chaps.33-7, and Lindley, (1740),p.133ff. alsobe 'Stimmungund Temperatur', p.293.LeBlanc may discussingjust intonation, to judge from his comments on the difficulty of modulations:'harpischordsare tuned with both major and minor semitones, which are neverthelessnot exempt from problems when thereis a changeof key.Thispracticehas been renounceddespite its occasionalbenefits.' is '8This a well-knownproblemin choralpractice,whereintonation tends to be quite pure, leadingthe final tonic to a point remote from where it began. Sauveuralso discusses this problem in his Mcthode (1707),pp.20o6-7. A more complete discussion of the ramificationsof playingin just intonation on a violin is presentedin C. Moran,'Temperament and Violin Intonation in Baroque Music' (unpublished paper,Universityof Montreal,1986). '9SeeBarbeiri,pp.69-72. articlewaswrittenin 20Barbour,'ViolinIntonation', p.234.Barbour's responseto Boyden's,and gives severalconvincing argumentsfor this statement (pp.232-4). "'Manymusical theorists also drew this line vaguely.See Lindley, 'Stimmung und Temperatur', p.293.As Barbieriput it (p.72), 'meantone can be considereda temperedjust intonation .. Geminianiand Just Intonation',p.215. 22See Boyden, 'Prelleur, 23This is very close to the 'syntonic comma',which is 21.5062896 cents, and is incidentallythe differencebetween the over-largemajor 3rd in Pythagoreantuning and a pure 3rd. See Lindley,New Grove, iv, p.591and Sorge (1758)in the appendix. 24SeeSauveur(1707)and Fontenelle(1711). Lindley,'Stimmungund p.191registersan inexactdiscussionof the 55-partoctave Temperatur,
by Fernandez as early as 1626; see also p.211 on N. Mercator (1672).

mean-tone is producedby tuning 11of the 125ths on a "2%-comma keyboardsmallerthan pure by A of a comma (whence the name). In this temperament,a majorsemitone = lo9.o9 cents and a minor semitone = 87.273 (see Lindley, New Grove, ix, p.278). The difference

between them is therefore21.817cents, or about as close to a syntonic comma as it is possibleto achievein a keyboardtuning system.Wecan deduce then, that if a consistent systemis implied in the use of major EARLY MUSIC AUGUST 1991

363

and minor semitones,?'-commamean-toneis the temperament that it most resembles. 26Some writers,beginning in the early17thcentury,conceived it in terms of the 55-partoctave. W. 27See A. Mozart(1785-7)in appendix.In Popolidi Tessagli, K316, bar42, the voice has a Bb and an A: in the samebar;both the oboe and violin have At, though the piece is in C minor. The distinction between the two notes was obviously significantto Mozart. 28See Busby (1813)in appendix. Sources that describe /6-comma mean-tone, but which are not included in the appendix, include: JohannMattheson,Der vollkommene Capellmeister (Hamburg,1739), p.55;JohannAdolf Scheibe, Eine Abhandlungvon den musicalischen und Geschlechtern Intervallen (Hamburg,1739);Daniel Gottlob Tiirk, zum General-bassspielen Kurze (Leipzigand Halle, 1791). Anweisung 29This is reminiscentof Freillon-Poncein(1700) in the appendix. 30SeeE. Eijken,'Eenonderzoeknaargetempereerd spel op houtblasinstrumentenin de 17een 18eeeuw, in het bijzonderop de blokfluit' ['Aninvestigationof temperedintonation on woodwinds of the 17th on and 18thcenturies,particularly the recorder'](unpublishedterm The paper,RoyalConservatory, Hague, 1982), p.19. de ChristianSchickhart,Principes la flate (Amsterdam,c. 31Johann de 1720). Schickhardtalso published 'L'Alphabet la musique',a collection of sonatas for violin, traversoor recorderin 24 keys (1735). 32Thomas StanesbyJr,A New Systemof the Flutea Bec or Common EnglishFlute (London, c.1732). de 33Barbieri (p.82) notes, however,that CharlesDelusse in L'Art la Flute traversiere (c.1761)was apparentlygiving fingerings that produced sharpshigherthan flats(he cites PierreSechet).At the time, this was exceptional. 34Bartolomeo Bismantova,'Regole ... del Oboe' [Ms version of 1688).See E. Tarr,Tibia,2/87 (1987). musicale](Ferrara, Compendio B. 35See Haynes, 'Oboe Fingering Charts, 1695-1816'GSJ (1978), pp.68-93. 36Both Quantz and Sorge indicated that woodwind playerstuned their scales from the tonic note of the key in which they were playing ratherthan from an absolutepitch as given by a keyboardinstrument. See Sorge (1758), p.9, par.14; Quantz (1752), chap.16/4.Fred Morgan recentlymade a beautifulrecorderfor me with a doubled third hole, making it possible to distinguishdb"'more accuratelyfrom c"'. P. GSJ 37See J.White, 'EarlyBassoon FingeringCharts', (1990), p.98. White, 'EarlyBassoon FingeringCharts', p.96 on Ozi (1787). 38See and Temperament, Manykeyboardtempera39Barbour, p.xi. Tuning ments use more complexsystems.In a regularmean-tone,any six keys relatedto each otherby 5ths (Bb F C G D A, for instance),will contain tuned accidentalsand identicalscale intervals.In order appropriately to use other keys, accidentalshave to be retuned. Chesnut believed Quantz was describing an irregular system for his harpsichord ('Mozart's Teaching of Intonation', p.26o, citing Quantz (1752), chap.17/vi/2o),but in fact the discrepancyto which Quantz referred was between the harpsichordand other bass instruments.Thus it is that quite possiblethat the 'bonne Temperature' Quantzsuggestedfor the harpsichord(chap.17/vii/9)was a regularone. 40See B. Haynes, 'Questions of Tonality in Bach's Cantatas:the Woodwind Perspective'Journalof the AmericanMusicalInstrument Society(1986),pp.40-67. built in consortsarenormallytuned at the more com41'Instruments patibleintervalsof a 4th or 5th. Since in mean-tone conjunct5ths are tuned similarly,a consort of instruments tuned in 5ths (F-C-F-C, G-D-G-D or even G-D-A) would be well in tune even when instrutuned startingon differentnotes. The 'd'amore' ments were separately instruments,on the otherhand (such as the voice-flute,oboe d'amore, flute d'amore and usually viola d'amore), are pitched a minor 3rd Lookedat without considerbelow their more standardcounterparts. ation for how these instrumentswere used, certainnotes that are low (from the individualplayer'spoint of view) might need to be high in the context of the rest of the group. FingeredF$(IV$)on a flute or

oboe d'amore,for instance (normallya low note), could as easilybe a sounding Eb as a D$;fingeredA$ (V#) on a voice-flute (also verylow, especiallyin the second octave,and a C: on the normalF-treble)could be sounding Bb. Should these instrumentsbe tuned differentlyfrom standard ones?Therearenumerousexamplesindicatingthat 'd'amore' instruments wereoften used principally theirabilityto playin sharp for keys.The basic key (i.e. six-fingerednote) of an oboe d'amoreor flute d'amore is sounding B major;that of a voice-flute is E. See Haynes, (1986),p.54. If such instrumentswere normallyassociatedwith sharp keys,it is unlikelythatthey would often haveplayeda soundingEb;the note would havenormallybeen a D$ and thus the fingeredF$ (likethe D$, inflectedlow) would have workedperfectlywell. 42Using '6-commamean-tone in a rangeof six normal keys for the Cammer-Toninstruments(Eb Bb F C G D for instance), an organ at Chor-Tona major2nd higherwould havebeen tuned with all the accidentals as flats to produce identicalparallelintervalsfor the keys Db Ab Eb Bb F C. If Chor-Tonwas a minor 3rdhigherthan Cammer-Ton, the same parallelintervalswould have been obtained by tuning the organto the keys C G D A E B, producedby tuning all the accidentals as sharps. 43There would havebeen a slightdifferencein pitch. Forthe interval of a major 2nd, the differencewould have been 4 cents (At a'-=410, 4 cents is about 1 Hz, which is negligible).The intervalof a minor 3rd producesa pitch differenceof about 5.5 cents, or about 1.5 Hz. Neidhart(1732)and Sorge (1744,p.24) seem to be spec44Although temperamentsin these situations,Sorge ulatingon the use of irregular Temper(1748)stronglyadvocateswhat he calls a 'gleichschwebende atur',in which 11,not 12,5ths are equal (pp.14,34). A modern instance is of 'transposition' the use of portativeorgansdesignedto play alternately at d =440 and d =415 with movable keyboards.A semitone difference is much less practical in a regular mean-tone, such as A-comma, since an organ tuned to play the keys Eb Bb F C G D at a'=440 would only be capableof playingthe keys E B F# C# G# D# in tune at d a'=415, a'=415.If the keys Eb Bb F C G D were availableat d switchingto d =44o would produce D A E B F# D#. 45The and the 7th, for instance, are always7 and 9 cents below 3rd their placementin equal temperament. 46Scales in the 18thcenturywere traditionallytuned from C, not A (see Asselin, p.34, Chesnut, 'Mozart'sTeachingof Intonation',p.268, and Boyden,Historyof ViolinPlaying,p.204). For stringplayers,however,it is easierto tune to an open string.The tablethereforegivesA as 0. 47Notethat synonymous sharps/flatsare always approximatelya syntonic comma apart(i.e. between 21and 22 cents--the actualfigure containsdecimalpoints that havebeen roundedoff on one side or the other). 48On this subject, see Heinichen (1728) and Rameau (1737) in appendix. 49'We shouldbe less surprised [sucha situation]when we rememby ber that from the nineteenthcenturyto the presentday,keyboardand been tuned accordnon-keyboardinstrumentshave characteristically ing to differentsystemsof intonation,the keyboardinstrumentsbeing in equal temperamentand the non-keyboardinstrumentsusually in some form of quasi-Pythagorean Teaching tuning' Chesnut,'Mozart's of Intonation',p.257. 50Organsare more audiblebecausetheir notes do not decayquickly. see 51Onthisquestion Quantz (1752), chap.17/vi/20. and keys 5'See Ellis([1750]) in appendix.TheDI that weresplitwere G$. Since it is in the regulartemperamentsthat a choice is necessary between enharmonicequivalents,the use of split keys implies also the use of a regulartemperament. practicallimits would be E to Eb in majorkeys and E to F in "3The minor keys. 'Stim54Somehistoryof the use of splitkeyscan be found in Lindley, ofHarpsip.186;F.Hubbard,ThreeCenturies mung und Temperatur', chord Making(Cambridge, Mass,1965),pp.35-6,168;and Klop,p.12.As

364

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the mightbe expected, two notesthatseemto havebeencommonly splitwereD$ andG$. and (1740), p.191. Tuning Temperament, Butcf. LeBlanc "5Barbour, a one whosaid([Ona harpsichord,] cannotcorrect during [tuning] whicharetunedfora . and or concert.. (p.55) 'harpsichord organ, for concert onceandforall (andsometimes a halfyear)'(p.133). ten be this 56In situation, of the 12noteswouldnormally identical, andonlyD?/EbandG$/Abwouldbe different. vibraSympathetic tionson theinstrument wouldnot,therefore, significantly affected. be the the suggested sameidea dividing wolfoverthelast by 57Rousseau in three (thereby a and DM/Eb G$/Ab) the 5ths striking meanbetween ouDictionnaire raisonne sciences, et mitiers, D. des ars ed. Encyclopddie, Diderot J.LeRondd'Alembert and also (1756).Barca's temperament allows irregular for of notes therefore placement chromatic andmight to be similar thisone. to oboist Michel of who similar Piguet Basle, hasuseda system 58The mean-tone for modification) many (withRousseau's '6-comma years, in historical intonation haswritten useful a on commentary teaching im Praxis und zur Alte 'Beispiele Intonationslehre Unterricht', Musik;

Mus'Basler Sonderband Reihe der Jahrbuch Historische Reflexion, fiir (1983), PP.346-52. ikpraxis', tuneris available Widener from 203 "9The Engineering, Westbrook USA.(Model I thana Korg, Drive,AustinTX 78746, 1no-cheaper believe-is recommended.) instrument, twoenharmonic needto be 6oOn a woodwind pairs ony All has tunedso theplayer a choice: D?/EbandG$/Ab. ambiguously in whenplaying standard fourof thesenotesareregularly demanded so to desirBaroque (Dbis rarer, tuning decisively C$is usually keys. On can with or G$/Ab beadjusted embouchure alternate able.) a flute, but (D?/Eb)givea verydecisive 123-456-7 fingerings, the fingering there relatively little mostof thetoneholesareclosed, is pitchbecause finand for breath pressure, thereis no alternate leeway adjusting Hencethe necessity the added of key. gering. at on observed a lecture harpsichord 61G.C.Klop (in temperaments in discussed 18th-century treain was that Bruges 1975) tuning usually as of since tisesunderthe heading composition, it wasregarded an device. expressive

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APPENDIX:SOURCES
Christiaan Huygens, Oeuvres completes (The Hague, 1888-1950), xx, PP.73-4 Mais la voix ajustetout cela, au moins quand on chante sans But a singer adjusts all [these varieties of temperament], at etre accompagn6de quelqu'unde ces instrumensa tons fixes. least when singing without the accompanimentof an instrument with fixed pitch. [?169os; manuscript]. 1691 Andreas Werckmeister, Musicalische Temperatur (Frankfurt-on-Main and Leipzig), p.3 If the 5ths are tuned purely [on a violin], the result will be impure intonation.

Wenn alle Quinten rein gestimmt wuirden/wolteschon eine unreine Folge der Consonantieentstehen.' 1698

Georg Muffat, Florilegium secundum (Passau), 'Premieres Observations: I. Contactus. Du Toucher Juste' I have noticed that the most common mistake of those who play out of tune involves the two notes that make up a semitone (as for exampleE-F,A-Bb, B-C, F$-G, C$-D, G#-A etc). The E, or the sharpenednote ($) is not playedhigh enough, nor the F, or the flattenednote, low enough.

J'ay remarqu6que les defauts de ceux qui Jouent faux proviennentla plus part,de ce que des deux touches qui ensembles composent le semiton (parexamplele mi, & le fa;a & b; & c; ou #f & g; $c & d;#g & a & c.) Jamaisil ne prennentle mi, ou la diese $ assez haut; ny le fa ou le b mol assez bas. 1700

Manicre d'apprendre ajouer en perfection du haut-bois, de la Jean-Pierre Freillon-Poncein, La VWritable flate et du flageolet(Paris),p.9 I will not speakhere of the differencethat existsbetweenmajor and minor semitones, since on instrumentsthat control their tuning by ear,they can all be played alike [i.e. with the same fingerings].Thus, a scale transposedto any semitone can be played as well in tune as one without flats or sharps.

Je ne parle point icy de la differencequ'il y a des demy tons majeurs ou mineurs, parce que aux Instrumens oi l'oreille conduit les sons, on peut les faire tous 6gaux;ainsi la transposition sur toute sorte de demy ton se peut executer avec autant de justesse que sur le naturel.

de 1707 JosephSauveur,Mcthodegnedrale pourformerles systcmestemperes musique,et du choixde celui qu'on


doit suivre: Histoire de l'Acadeimieroyale des sciences, p.215; reproduced in facsimile in R. Rasch, Joseph Sauveur: Collected Writings on Musical Acoustics (Paris 1700-13) (Utrecht, 1984)

Le systemetempere de 55 comma . .. est celui dont les Musiciens ordinairesse servent ..

The55-part octave is theoneusedbymusicians general in ... from musicians particular] in [asdistinguished keyboard ...

1711

Bernardle Bovier,sieur de Fontenelle, Sur les sistcmes de Histoirede l'Academie royale temperds musique: des sciences, in facsimilein R. Rasch,JosephSauveur: Collected on p.80; reproduced Writings Musical Acoustics(Paris1700-13)(Utrecht,1984)
In the 1709issue of the Histoirewe saw that M. Sauveurproposed a temperedmusicalsystemthat dividesthe octave in 43 equal parts, and that only two other systems offered any reasonablecompetition: one by M. Huguens [Huygens]that divides the octave in 31,and the other used by the majorityof musicians,that divides it into 55 ...

On a vi^dans l'Hist. de 1709que M. Sauveurqui a propose un systemetemperede Musique,parlequelil divisel'Octaveen 43 partiesegales, croyoit n'avoirque deux autres systemes raisonnablesa combattre,l'un de M. Huguensqui divise l'Octave en 31,& l'autredu gros des Musiciensqui la divisent en 55.

1723

Pier Franceso Tosi, Opinioni de' cantori antichi e moderni, chap.x, par.15

[See quotation in articleabove.]


EARLY MUSIC AUGUST 1991 367

1726
p.111:

Rameau,Nouveausystcmede musiquethdorique (Paris) Jean-Philippe


[Singersneed not followthe abovetuning system]exceptwhen they are accompaniedby instruments,to whose temperament they conform by virtueof theirflexibilityand the sensitivityof their ear. Good musiciansknow how to use the differenteffects of the intervals,and prove their value by the expressionand variety they are able to drawfrom them.

[Singers need not follow the above tuning system] excepte qu'ellesne soient accompagnees des Instruments,au Tempar " parment [sic]desquelselles se conforment,tant l'aidede leur flexibilitequ'a l'aide de la sensibilitede l'oreille."
p.110o:

Les habilles Musiciens scavent profiter " propos de ces differenseffetsdes Intervales, font valoirpar l'expressionqu'ils & en tirent, l'alterationqu'on pourroit y condamner.3 1728

Johann David Heinichen, Der General-Bass in der Composition (Dresden), pp.83-5 ... bey heutigen guten Temperaturen,(von alten Orgel ... in today'sgood temperaments(I am not referringto old =Werckenredenwir nicht) die mit ? und b. doppelt und 3fach organs)the keyswith two or threeflatsor sharpsin theirsignabezeichnetenTone, vornehmlich im Theatralischen Stylo als tures emerge, especially in the theatricalstyle, as the most die schOnsten,und expressivestenvorkommen, daher ich zu beautifuland expressive.Forthis reasonI would not even supErfindungeines indeschmasktenpur-diatonischenClavieres port the inventionof the long-soughtclavierin just intonation But nicht einmahlrathenwolte wenn es Practibelware:allein dass were it to become practicable. that the affectof Love,Melman specialiterdiesem oder jenem Tone den Affectder Liebe, ancholy,Joy,etc, belongs to specifickeys, I cannot accept. der der Traurigkeit, Freude,&c.zu eignen will, das gehet nicht gut. Peter Prelleur, The Modern Musick-Master (London), section on the violin, p.4 1730 Note also that as G-sharp& A-flat,or A-sharp& B-flat,or also stop them with the same Finger. [See illus.5. Note that flat D-sharp & E-flat, etc, are not the same Notes you must not notes are higher than the correspondingsharpnotes.] Part V, 'Artof Playing on the Violin' (London, 1731) 5 Fingeringchart from Peter Prelleur,The ModernMusick-Maker,
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des mathematische Abtheilungen diatonischJohann Georg Neidhart, Giintzlich erschbpfte CanonisMonochordi chromatischen (Kdnigsberg) temperirten Warendenn die Hautbois, Floten, u.d.g.... nach derselben If oboes, flutes and the like ... were all tuned to [equaltemeingerichtet,so muistenothwendig Chor- und Cammer-Ton perament], Chor- and Cammer-Tonwould naturallyblend durch und durch auf das reinste zusammen stimmen ... togetherthroughout in the purest way...
1732; 2/1734

368

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1991

1737

Jean-Philippe Rameau, Gendration harmonique (Paris)., ed. and trans. D. Hayes (diss., Stanford U., 1974)

pp.87-9: [When a singer is accompanied by a harpsichord,]dont le est Temperamment le plus faux,4[the singer'sear is] toujours preoccupdedu Son principal du Mode ... apris avoir parcouru plusieurs [successions]qui ne sont pas certainementa l'Unisson de ceux du Clavecin,elle se reunit avec lui dans ce Son principal,ou dans son Harmonie.5 p.92: ne L'Oreille suit pas servilementle Temp rammentdes Instrumens ... [Ils] serventseulementa la mettre sur les voies des Sons fondamentaux. .... elle tempere, sans reflexion . . tout ce qui peut s'opposer aux justes rapports de ses Sons fondamentaux. p.91: ... les habiles Maitres [of the violin] ... diminuent un tant soit peu les Quintes, comme me l'a assureM. Guignon Ordinaire de la Musiquede Sa MajestY, pour y adoucirla duretede la Sixte ... [entre] les deux cordes extremes. p.104: Celui qui croit que les diff6rentesimpressionsqu'il regoit des differences qu'occasionne le Temperammenten usage dans chaqueMode transpose,lui dleventle genie, &le portentaplus de variete,me permettrade lui dire qu'il se trompe;le goit de des varidtese prend dans l'entrelacement Modes, & nullement dans l'alt ration des intervales, qui ne peut que diplaire a l'Oreille,& la distrairepar consequent de ses fonctions.6

on [Whena singeris accompanied a harpsichord,] which by the temperament the mostout of tune, [thesinger's is] is ear with preoccupied the tonic of the key . . after continually several whicharesurely not [intervals] passed having through in unisonwiththoseof the harpsichord, voicerejoins the the on harpsichord the tonicnoteor chord. The eardoesnot slavishly followinstrumental temperament to the ... [Instruments] serve orientate voiceon theprinonly notes. . singers without twice. .. anycorrect, cipal thinking that mightobscure intonation relation the in to thing pure notes. principal ... thebestmasters theviolin]... as I havebeentoldby [on
[Jean-Pierre] Guignon [1707-74], one of his Majesty's

narrow 5thsslightly, orderto sweetenthe the in musicians, 6th the overlarge ... [between] bottomandtop strings. To those who believethat the differentimpressions they receive caused the difference temperament each are in in by and transposed givingeach a specialcharacter thereby key, morevariety, providing permitme to tell themthattheyare has of mistaken; variety itsoriginin theblending keysandnot in the modification intervals, of whichcanonlydisplease the it work. ear,thusdistracting fromits [proper]

1740
p.54:

Hubert LeBlanc,Defensede la bassede viole (Amsterdam)


Of the many 3rdsthat . .. areconsideredso reasonable,threeand quartersof yours [the harpsichord's] the organ'sare false. A nice earwould only be able to listen to someone playyou (to be fair to two who are capable)by ignoring the defect of the instrument'sintonation and the discord that is heard in so many harmonies, that vex the fastidious listener ratherthan gratifyinghim.

De tant de Tierces que . . . qualifie etre si aimables,vous [le Clavecin] & l'Orgue en avez les trois quarts de fausses. Une Oreille fine ne sauroit chez vous entendre le joueur (pour rendre justice a deux qu'il y a d'habiles), qu'en s'imposant silencesurle defautde justessedansl'Instrument,&au rapport que fait l'oreille de tant d'accordsqui impatiententl'Auditeur ddlicat,plut6t que de le flatter. P-55: [On a harpsichord,]on n'a pas la faculte d'y retoucher [l'accorde] dans un Concert,au-lieu que sur les instrumensaChevilles mobiles, on ajuste l'accord sur chaque Ton, oi l'on va jouer, & non sur la selle Atous chevaux d'un Ami l'a donne. L'Artdivin de M. Blavet7est de reparersur la Flute, par le de moyen de l'haleine modifiee. Ainsi les Ecolie'res Clavecin, lorqu'elless'applaudissent qu'il est toujours d'accord,ne sentent pas qu'il n'y est jamais.

[On a harpsichord]one cannot correct [tuning] duringa concert, while on instruments with tuning pegs, the tuning is adjustedfor each key in which one plays,and not in a 'one size fits all' manner. The divine artistryof Mr Blavet consists in adjusting [the tuning of his] flute by his manner of blowing. But students of the harpsichordpraise the instrumentfor its intonation, not perceivingthat it is in fact never truly in tune.
EARLY MUSIC AUGUST 1991

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p.133:

Un Seigneurqui fait la Viole a temoigne qu'ayantdes Touches, elle est infirieureau Violoncel,qui n'en a point:elle est sujette, dit-il, a ce que les demi-Tons Majeurs & Mineurs soient & employes indiff~remment, les uns pour les autres. Pour satisfaire~ cette Objection des plus considerables,il fautremarquer de la partde la Viole, avoirdes Touchesest que different d'etre partageen demi-Tons fixes, a la manidredu Clavecin & de l'Orgue:on ne les accorde qu'une fois pour toutes, pour un Concert,& quelquefoispour une demi-annie. Mais sur la Viole la Chevillemobile point trop multipliee, comme sur le Luth,aneantitle defautd'avoirdes Touches,car elle le repareen accordanta chaqueTonsurlequel on va jouer. Si l'on regardel'Objectioncomme non resolue, parce qu'apresle choix du Ton dans lequel on entre, lorsqu'on passera du b quarreau b mol, la difficult4reste entibreAl'egard des demi-TonsMajeursremplacespar les Mineurs. Jereponsque celaprouveque la faussetevient d'ailleursque des demi-tons Majeurs& Mineurs,ils sont un objet trop peu consid rable. Lapreuvede leur peu d'influenceest, qu'il y a des Clavecins oh se trouventles demi-Tonsdes deux esp&ces, lesquelsneanmoins ne sont pas exemts des juremensdans les changemens de Tons A d'autres.On s'est desiste de cette pratiquecomme d'un leger avantage. L'Objectiondu demi-Ton tire tout son degre de consideration du cas oh il devientle Ton capitaldans lequel on joue alors sur l'Orgue & le Clavecin,il est un jurement perpdtuel. Maisla Bassede Viole est tiree de pairparle changementdans son accord facilea mouvoir.On commence a accorderpar ut sur le Son due demi-Tondonne. Au contraire dans le Discours Musical,le peu d'attention que s'attirentles demi-Tons,se prouvede ce qu'ilsne tiennent lieu que de particulesde liaison conjonctives,ou de transition, telles que car, neanmoins,&c. Sur lesquellesl'esprit n'appuie pas, comme dans la chute sur un Ton, lorsque le sens finit. I1faut donc tirer d'ailleursla raison de d&cider. Ce sera des Tons Majeurs & Mineurs transposes de leur ordre naturel dans l'Octave.Car les cinq Tons entiers qui en formentplus des deux tiers, ne gardentpas une distanceegale de l'un Al'autre;&,lorsqu'onchangede Ton,il se faitun bouleversement general, les Tons les plus espacds viennent atre remplacesparde plus foibles,ceux qui ont une moyenneespace sont releves de sentinelle par d'autres qui en ont une plus grandeou une moindre Agarder,il s'enfuitdes juremensex&crablessur les Instrumens,qui n'ont pas le secours des Chevilles mobles, ou qui manquent pour les mod~rer d'une haleineaussijudicieusementemployeeque celle de Mr Blavet. Ainsi chaque fois qu'on change de Ton, le diplacement des Octave, partiesmet tout sans-dessusdessous dans la primibre & les autresqui en font la rdpitition.

A gentlemanwho playsthe gambaa little remarkedthat as the instrumenthas frets,it is inferiorto the cello, which has none: this causesit, he says,to be unableto distinguishor governthe choice of major and minor semitones. To answerthis seriousimputation,it should be pointed out that on the gamba the existence of frets is hardlythe same as being split up into fixed semitones, as on a harpsichordor organ, which are tuned for a concert once and for all (and sometimes for a half-year). Forthe gamba's tuning pegs, not being overlycomplexas on the lute, overcome the defect of frettingby being tuneable in whateverkey one plays. But it may be objectedthat the problem is still unresolved, since even after choosing the key in which one is to play, the mode may change from major to minor, requiring minor semitones ratherthan major. My answeris thatthis provesthatbad intonationderivesnot from the majorand minor semitones, since they are of themselves of little consequence. The proof of their nominal influencecan be seen in the fact are that harpsichords tuned with both majorand minor seminot tones, which arenevertheless exemptfrom problemswhen there is a change of key. This practice has been renounced despite its occasionalbenefits. The problem in using semitones derives from the cases in which it becomes the tonic note in which one plays,and in the case of the organ and harpischordit is a perpetualcurse. The bassviol, however,escapesthis difficultybecauseit can change its tuning easily.It tunes a scale from any given tonic, regardless of which semitone it may be. During the act of playing music, on the other hand, the slightattentionthat is accordedthe differentsemitonesproves that they merelyservethe purposeof conjunctiveor transitive etc. particles,such as 'for','nevertheless' They hold the attention no more thanthe last fallof a note when a phrasecomes to its end. The cause must arise elsewhere. It is the juxtapositionof the naturalorderof the majorand minor semitones within the octave. For the five whole tones that comprise more than two-thirds of the octave are not placed at equal distancesfrom each other, and, when the key changes,this producesa generalconfusion, as the largerintervals are replacedby smaller ones, and those that guarded a medium-sized intervalare relievedof that function by others that were intendedto servefor a smalleror largerone. Consequently,the most hideous oaths escape the instrumentsthat are not providedwith tuning pegs, or that are unableto moderate their pitch by means of breath pressure, employed as judiciouslyas is done by Mr Blavet. Each time there is a modulation, in other words, the relationshipsof the semitones is jumbled in the first octave, and consequentlythe others that are tuned to it.

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1742/3

in Bibliothek, iii/4 Georg Philipp Telemann,'Neues musicalischesSystem', L. C. Mizler,Musikalische 1752/R1966), pp.713-19[plus tables]8 (Leipzig,
rather, My systemis not basedon any keyboardtemperament; it displaysthe sounds found on unrestrictedinstrumentslike the cello, violin etc, that can playpurely(if not alwaysentirely, nearlyso), as day-to-dayexperienceteaches.

p.716: Mein System hat keine ClaviermassigeTemperatur zum Grunde,sondern zeiget die Klinge, so, wie sie auf uneingeschrinkten Intrumenten,als Violoncell,Violineetc, wo nicht v6llig, doch bey nahe, rein genommen werden k6nnen, wellehret. ches denn die tigliche Erfahrung

p.718: Gleichheit It brings about a universalproportionateequalityamong the Es bestimmeteine durchgehends proportionirliche ... unter den Intervallen.... Es sind etwan ein Duzend Jahre,da intervals. Only a dozen yearsago, I myselfstillbelievedthat ich selbst noch glaubete, man worde bey Anh6rung etlicher the hearing of some of these harmonies would cause one to zur von derenHarmoniedas Balsambiichschen Hand nehmen reachfor the smellingsalts.But experiencehas takenthis error hat Alleindie Erfahrung mir den Irrthumbenommen, from me, and shown that C#-Eb and Ab-Cbb taste of the miissen. u. dargethan,dass C#, Eb u. Ab-Cbb nach einerley Geworze same spice.9 schmecken.

1743

sur xix, Rousseau,Dissertation la musiquemoderne(Paris),in Oeuvres, p.130. Jean-Jacques


In modulations,the mechanismsof temperamentcause such unpleasantnotes, for exampleD and G#, that they areimpossible to listen to. .... Singersneverconform to them . .. except when forced to do so at points where they are in unison with the instruments.

du Lam&chanique temperamentintroduitdansla modulation des tons si durs, par exemplele reet le sol diesis, qu'ilsne sont pas supportables l'oreille..... Lavoix ne se conformejamais a ... a moins qu'elle n'y soit contrainte par l'unisson des instrumens.

1744

als zur sowohlder Orgelwerke, auch anderer GeorgAndreasSorge,Anweisung Stimmungund Temperatur aberdes Claviers sonderlich Instrumente, (Hamburg)
... the other [temperamentwith unequal division of the comma] may work better when playingin Cammer-Tonwith an organ in Chor-Ton,since the key of Ab majoris often used but E major practicallynever."' Likewise,Eb major appears but B majoralmost never.Again,Bb majoror quite frequently one while on the contrary rarely also D majorwill often appear, sees F# major. he temperament; says [He gives two versionsof an irregular that] . . . the horns in Eb and also the oboes will be quite satisfied with this temperament.

p.24: ... die andere [temperamentwith unequal division of the wenn comma] m6chte sich zum musicirenim Cammer-Ton, die Orgel im Chor-Tonstehet, besserSchicken,denn da wird der ModusAs dur oft, E dur aber wohl gar nicht gebrauchet. Ingleichenkommt Esdurgaroft, H durabergarnicht vor.Wiederummuss B duroder auch D duroftmalsherhalten,da hergegen Fis dur nicht leicht erscheinenwird. he temperament; says [He gives two versionsof an irregular aus die Waldhorner dem Eswie auch die Oboenwerthat] . . . zufriedenseyn." den ganz wohl mit dieser Temperatur

P-35: So dann fangeman im f, an, und stimme solchesnach Belieben One beginsthen on f and tunes in Chor-Tonor Cammer-Ton beschaffen (depending on in which the harpsichordis tuned) approxinachdem das Clavier in Chor- oder Cammer-Ton, [sic]. mately to the pitch of a recorderor traverso. ist, etwa nach einer Flute douceoder Traveriere P.53: sind bis als Die Fliten, sowohl die Traversen die Flutesdouges, und datomit einer garschlechtenTemperaturversehen, hatten hohe Ursache,sich um die Lehreder die HerrenPfeifenmacher Canonicund Harmonicmehr als andere Musici zu bekhimso mern, oder doch ihre Instrumente viel immer moglich nach einer wohl temperirten Orgel zu stimmen und einzurichten. 372 EARLY MUSIC AUGUST 1991 Flutes,both traversosand recorders,have been provideduntil now with a very bad temperament,and the gentlemen who make them have more need than other musiciansto concern themselveswith the acousticsof music, or at least to tune and regulate their instruments as closely as possible to a wellthe temperedorgan.On traversos, F,G# and B aregenerallythe

Auf den Traversen fehlet es gemeiniglich am f, gis und b am meisten. Ich glaubeaber,es sey gahrwohl m6glich auch diesen sieTonen ihr beh6rigesRecht zu thun. Mit den Flutesdoupes het es noch schlimmeraus, und sind auch noch tiblerzu zwingen als die Traversen.Doch halte daftir, dass sie in der Stimmung zu verbessernsind. Wenn nur die Pfeifenmacher erst Harmoniciwiren, hernach solte es sich auch schon mit ihnen geben. Die Oboessind auch noch nicht mit der besten Temperatur versehen.Sol ihnen geholfenwerden,so muss ein Harmonicus, ein guter Oboistund ein Pfeifenmacher einerwohl temperbey irten Orgel zugleich Hand anlegen. Der Oboisteund Pfeifenmacher aber dtirffennicht eigensinnig seyn, sondern mtissen Raison annehmen und spitzige Ohren zum Werke bringen. Und solches ist auch von denen Fl6ten zu verstehen. Die brauchbarenund unentbehrlichenGeigen habens am besten, jedoch miissen ihre 3 Quinten beh6rigermassentemperat? [sic] gestimmet werden, so dass sie ein klein weniges abwertsschweben,sonsten kommen sie, wenn z.E. im g angefangen,und solches mit der Orgelvolkommen rein gestimmet worden, mit a, und e2ein merklicheszu hoch, wenn sie namlich alle 3 Quinten ohne Schwebungrein stimmen wolten. Das iibrigekammt auf ein gutes Geh6r und reinen Griffan...

worst offenders.But I believethatit should be quitepossibleto correcteven these notes. The situationwith recordersis worse yet, and they areeven harderto control than traversos, though I believe they can be improved. If only flute-makers were also theoreticians,things would naturallygo better.

The oboes are also not furnishedwith the best of temperaments.They could be helped if an acoustician,a good oboist, and a woodwind maker examined together a well-tempered organ.The oboist and woodwind-makershould not, however, be headstrongand obstinate,but Reason,togetherwith sharp ears, should govern all. And the same goes for the flutes, of course. The useful and indispensablefiddles are the best off; still, their three 5ths must be correctly[tuned], so they beat a little. Otherwise,if the 5thsareall tuned purelywithout beating,and (for example) the G is tuned exactlyto the organ,the A and E will be noticeablytoo high [comparedto the organ]. For the rest, everything depends on a good ear and accurate fingering ...

Sorge also advisessingers to follow the keyboardtemperament(p.55). zwischeneinem musicotheoretico und einemstudiosomusices(Lobenstein) 1748 GeorgAndreasSorge, Gespriich
p.21: Mit einem Wort:Die Silbermannische zu temperiren,kan Art Praxinicht bestehen. bey heutiger p.51: Besser gefillt mir das bertihmten Herrn CapellmeisterTelemanns Systema als Intervallorum, welcherdie Octavin 55.geometrische Abschnitte (Commata) die von Stufe zu Stufe kleiner werden, theilet. In a word-Silbermann's way of temperingcannot exist with modern practice.'2 The famous Herr CapellmeisterTelemann's Systemaintervallorumpleasesme better,in which the octave is divided into 55 units, or commas, which become smallerfrom step to step.

p.52:
... die kleineste Secund vom Einklange [ist] unterschieden S. . the [intervalof a] 'smallestsecond' differsfrom a unison ... um den neundten Theil eines grossen Tons, oder um ein by the ninth part of a whole tone, or one comma.This same Comma.Und um so viel ist auch #C:bD, D:bbE,#D:bE, E:bF, amount distinguishesalso C#/Db, D/Ebb, D#/Eb, E/Fb,E#/F, #E:F,#F:bG,xF:G,#G:bA, A:bbH, H:bc, #H:c und c:bbd etc, F#/Gb, G#/Ab, A/Bbb, B/Cb, B#/C and C/Dbb etc. unterschieden. p.58: 0! wie mancherGeigerfingt seine Partieanzuspielen,und hat nicht einmahl seine Geige behorig gestimmet, wo will denn hernach die Reinigkeit herkommen? ... o Blindheit, o! Unwissenheit!wie gross bist du noch in der musikalischen Welt an manchen Orten. p.61: TelemannsSystema... Mich ... tiber Herrn Capellmeisters dtinckt es sey gar schicklich,wenn man zu einer jeden Note Oh! When so many fiddlersbegin to play their parts without having even properlytuned their instruments,how will pure tuning ever be achieved?... Oh blindness! Oh ignorance! How greatyou remainin so many partsof the world of music.

Telemann's ... about HerrCapellmeister Systema... I would think that it would be more appropriateif each separatenote EARLY MUSIC AUGUST 1991

373

auch einen besondern Klang oder Clavembestimmet, und nicht einem Clavizwey- bis dreyerley Noten zueignet,wie wir ietzo in unsernClavierthun miissen ... AufsClavierwird sich dieses Systemnicht applicirenlassen;'3 der Geigeaber,und auf einigen Blase-Instrumenten,m6chte es eher thunlich seyn; denen Sangernaber ist es am leichtesten.

were producedby its own specialsound and key, ratherthan, as on present-daykeyboards,one key for two and even three [different]notes ... This system cannot be applied to a keyboard instrument, but it may be rather convenient for the fiddle and certain wind instruments, and is the easiest for singers.

1750 AlexanderJ. Ellis, 'On the History of MusicalPitch',Journalof the Societyof Arts(5 March1880); reprinted

in A. J. Ellis and A. Mendel, Studiesin the Historyof MusicalPitch (Amsterdam,1968),p.37


I am indebtedto Mr E. J. Hopkins, organistof the Temple,for furnishingme with a MS note made by Mr Leffler(d. 1819), with Mr W. Rusthen by the Tower, organistof St Katherine's, sell, then organistof the Foundling,which describesthe great of peculiarity this organ [FoundlingHospital,Glynand Parker, opened by Handelin 1750and playedby him subsequently].It had the usual12keys to the octave,but a means of alteringthe notes sounded by four of them. Therewas a sliderwith three restsabovethe drawstops on each side. When the sliderswere at the centralrest, the 12notes were the usual 12of the meantone temperament,E flat, B flat, F,C, G, D, A, E, B, F sharp,C sharp,G sharp.If the left-handsliderwereput full to the left, E flat was changedinto D sharp,and if the right-handsliderwere put full to the right, B flat was changedinto A sharp.If, however,the right-handsliderwere put full to the left, G sharpwas changedinto A flat, and if the left-handsliderwere put full to
the right, C sharp became D flat. .
.

. Mr Hopkins always

understoodthat this arrangement due to Dr RobertSmith was of TrinityCollege,Cambridge.... The TempleOrganand the oldest Durhamorganhad an Eflat and D sharp, Aflat and G an that is two and not four additionalnotes, and these were sharp, introducedby divided keys and not by sliders ...

1751

FrancescoGeminiani, TheArt of Playingon the Violin(London), p.3


This rule concerning the Flats and Sharps is not absolutely exact.The Octavealso must be dividedinto 12Semitones,that is, 7 of the greaterand 5 of the lesser.

Geminiani recommended that beginners finger enharmonic twins at the same place on the neck of the violin, but said,

a [in 1752 JohannJoachimQuantz, Essaid'une methode pour apprendre jouer de la FlUteTraversiere Frenchand trans. 1966;2/1987),chap.3par.2,3, 5, 8; chap.16,par. 4, 7; chap.17,sec. vi, par. 20; German] (Berlin;Eng. sec. vii, par.4,8, 914
chap.3/5:
On verrapar la, que les tons, etant indiquespar le b mol sont d'un Comma plus hauts, que quand ils sont marquespar un Diese. From these tablesyou can see that the notes indicatedwith a flat are a comma higher than those indicatedwith a sharp.

Ce qui m'a porte Aajoutera la Flute encore une Clef qui n'y a pas ete auparavant,c'est la difference entre les Demitons majeurs& mineurs.... Le Demiton majeura cinq Comma;le

chap.3/8:

What led me to add another key not previouslyused on the flute was the differencebetween major and minor semitones. ... The majorsemitonehas five commas,the minor only four. For this reason,Eb must be a comma higherthan D9. If there Demiton mineur n'en a que quatre. II faut par consequent were only one key on the flute, both Eb and D? would have to qu'Es (mi b mol) soit d'un Comma plus haut que Dis (re Diese). S'il n'y avoit qu'une Clef sur la Flute,il faudroitentonnerl'un be played similarly,as on the harpsichord,where they are & l'autre, Es (mi b mol) & Dis (re Diese) de la m~me fagon, playedfrom the samekey;so that neitherEbto Bb (the ascendcomme on fait sur le Clavecin,oii on les touche par une meme ing 5th) nor D? to B (the descendingmajor3rd)would be well touche; c'est Adire les deux intervallessont temperes;desorte in tune. In orderto makethis differenceclear,and to placethe que ni Es (mi b mol)a B (si b mol),comme la Quinteparen bas; notes in their correct proportion, it was necessary to add ni Dis (reDiese)aH (si), comme la Tierceen haut, n'accordent anotherkey.. . . It is true that this distinctionis impossibleto where each pair of notes we wish to parfaitementbien. Pour marquer donc cette difference, & make on the harpsichord,

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entonner nettement les tons selon leur proportion, il 6toit necessaired'ajouterencore une Clef. ... Il est vrai que cette differencene peut pas etre exprimee sur le Clavecin,oh l'on touche tous ces tons qu'on distingueici, sur une meme touche, ou ayant recours a la Temperature Participation.Cependent cette differenceetant fond&e dans la naturedes tons, & pouvant etre observ&e sans peine par les Chanteurs& les Joueurs d'instrumens d'archet, il est juste de l'exprimer aussi sur la La Flute, ce qui ne se peut sans l'autreClef.'5 connoissanceen est necessairea qui veut rendrefin, precis & net ce qui appartient Al'oreille dans ia Musique.16 chap.16/4: Dans une piece en mode Es (mi b mol)&As (la b mol),on peut accorderla Fluteun peu plus bas qu'atous les autresmodes;les modes avec les b mols etant d'un comma plus hauts que ceux avec les dieses.' chap.16/7: S'il se trouveque les Violons sont plus hautsque le Clavecin; ce qui peut aisementarriver, quandleurs Quintes sont accordees un peu trop haut, au lieu qu'ellesdoiventl'etreun peu plus bas, comme il fautque cela soit observeau Clavecin; qui causeen ce une quatreQuintesqui sont ainsi accorddes, differenceconsiderable:alorsle joueur de Fluteest oblige de se reglerplutot aux Violons qu'au Clavecin,ceux-la se faisantentendredavantage que celui-ci .... cette faute ne se commet que par ceux qui traitentla Musicquecomme un metier,dans lequel ils ne trouvent pas un veritableplaisir,& non pas par des Musiciensraisonables & experimentes,qui aiment la Musique& qui jouent pour plaire a des oreilles ddlicates. chap.17/vi/2o: Chaque joueur de Clavecin qui connoit la proportion des intervalles,sauraaussi, que les Demi tons mineurs comme D (re) avec la diese, & E (mi) avec le b mol, &c. diffhrentd'un Comma, & causent par consequent sur cet instrument, oihil n'y a pas des touches partagees,quelque inegalitedans l'intonation Al'6garddes autres instrumens,qui donnent ces tons dans leur juste proportion. Cela est surtout sensible quand le Clavecinjoue avecquelquesuns de ces instrumensa l'Unisson. Or comme on ne peut pas toujours 6viterces tons-la, surtout aux modes ofi il y a beaucoupde dieses & de b mols; I'Accompagnateurfait bien de les mettre au milieu ou dans la partie inferieure de l'accord, ou si un de ces tons fait la Tierce mineure, de l'omettretout afait. Carce sont particulierement les Tierces mineures, dont le ton est tres imparfait& defectueux, lorsqu'ellesse rencontrent avec la partie principale 'a l'Unisson dans les Octaves hautes. J'entendssous ces Tierces mineuresprincipalement tons C, D & E adeux lignes (ut, re les & mi seconds la Flute),quand il y a un b mol devanteux, ou de pour dire bri~vement,les tons Ces (ut b mol),Des (re b mol) & Es (mi b mol). Cependantj'y ref~reaussi G & A a une ligne (sol &la premiers),& D & E a deux lignes (re &mi seconds),lorqu'ils sont pr~cid~spar un didse; car 6tant des Tierces majeures,ils sont trop fort dans leur temperature& par con-

distinguishareproducedwith a singlekey,makingit necessary to have recourse to tempering. But since this difference is basedon the natureof the notes and can be producedwithout difficulty by singers and string players, it is reasonable to observeit on the flute as well (and this cannot be done without the extra key). Appreciationof this difference between flats and sharps is needed by anyone who wants to develop a refined, exact and accurateear in music.

In piecesin Eb andAb, the flute can be tuned a littlelowerthan in all the other keys, the flat keys being a comma higher than the sharp.

If the violins should happento be tuned higherthan the harpsichord,which can easilyhappen if their 5ths are tuned a little wide ratherthan (as must be done on the harpsichord)a little narrow,the flute playeris obligedto adjustmore to the violins since they are more audiblethan the harpsichord.Tuningthe four 5ths wide on the violin causes a considerabledifference with the harpsichord. . . it is a mistake made only by those who considermusic as a mere tradefrom which they deriveno realsatisfaction,not by thoughtfuland experiencedartistswho love music and play in order to please refinedears.

who understands proportionof interthe harpsichordist Every vals will also know that minor semitoneslike D-D# and E-Eb, etc, differby a comma, and thereforecause on this instrument (unless the keys are split) certain intonation problems with other instrumentsthat playthese notes in theircorrectproportions. This is especiallynoticeablewhen the harpsichordplays with any of these instrumentsin unison. Now, sincethese notes cannot alwaysbe avoided,especiallyin keys with many sharps or flats,the accompanistdoes well to put them in the middle or lowerpart of the chord, or if such a note makesa minor third, to omit it altogether.For it is especiallythese minor 3rds that sound so imperfectand defectivewhen playedin unison with the principalpartin the upperoctaves.I am referring mainlyto the minor 3rdswhen c",d"and e"(the second-octaveut, re and mi on the flute) areprecededby a flat,or to put it more briefly, the notes cb",db"and eb".I am also referring,however,to g' and a' (first-octave and la), and d"and e"(second octavere sol and mi) when precededby a sharp,since as major3rds,they are too wide in theirtemperamentandthereforetoo high. It is true that this difference [in intonation] is not as clear when the harpsichordis playedby itself, or when it accompaniesa large ensemble. But when the notes are in unison with another instrument, the difference is quite audible, since the other EARLY MUSIC AUGUST 1991 375

cette instrumentsplay them in their correctratios,whereason the sequenttrop haut. Il est vrai qu'on ne sauroitremarquer difference si distinctement, en jouant seul du Clavecin, ou harpsichordthey are merely tempered. For this reason, it is accompagnantdans une Musiquede beaucoup de personnes. better to omit them entirely,ratherthan offend the ear. Maislorsqueces tons se rencontrenta l'Unissonavecun autre instrument, la difference se fait entendre beaucoup, a cause que les autresinstrumensles donnent dans leur juste proportion, pendant que sur le Clavecin ils ne sont que temper&s. C'estpourquoiil vaut mieux de les omettretout afait,que d'en blesserl'oreille. chap.17/vii/4: le Pour accorderd'une manierepr&cise Violon, je crois qu'on ne feroit pas mal, si l'on suivoit la regle qu'on observe en accordantle Clavecinc.a.d. que les Quintesferont un peu foibles, & non pas tout nettes, comme on les accordeordinairement, ni encore moins trop fortes;afin que toutes les cordes nues soient egales avec le Clavecin.Car si l'on veut accorder toutes les Quintesnettes &fortes,il s'ensuitnaturellement, que de quatrecordesil n'y auraqu'unequi seraegale avecle Clavecin. Maissi l'on accordela cordeA (la) tout egale avecle Clavecin, & E (mi) un peu foible contre I'A (la), D (re) un peu fort contre I'A (la), & G (sol) de meme contre D (re); les deux instrumensseront d'accordensemble. chap.17/vii/8: Il y a des personnes qui sentent fort bien, moyennant leur finesse naturellede l'oui, quand un autrejoue faux;mais elles ne s'en appergoiventpas quand elles commettent la meme faute elles memes, & ne sauroient y remedier. Le meilleur moyen pour se tirerde cette ignorance,est le Monochorde,sur lequel on peut apprendrele plus distinctementa connoitreles que proportionsdes tons. Il seroit n&cessaire, non seulement chaqueChanteur,mais aussi chaquejoueur d'instruments'en rendit familier l'usage. Ils acquerroientpar-la, de beaucoup plus de bonne heure,la connoissancedes Demi tons mineurs, & apprendroientque les tons marquespar un b mol, doivent etre un Comma aplus hauts que ceux qui ont un didsedevant eux; au lieu que sans ces lumieres ils sont obliges de se fier absolument a l'oreille, dont le jugement est pourtant quelquefois bien trompeur. Une telle connoissance du Monochorde se demande principalementdes joueurs de Violon & d'autresinstrumens"iarchet, auxquelleson ne peut pas, par rapportAla mise des doigts, prescriredes bornes comme aux instrumensa vent.

To tune the violin accurately, believe one would not do badly I to follow the same rule as for tuning the harpsichord,that is, with the 5thsa littlenarrow(andnot entirelyperfect,let alonea littlewide, as commonlyhappens),so thatthe open stringswill agree with the harpsichord.If one tries to tune all the 5ths purely or wide, the result will be that only one of the four strings will be in tune with the harpsichord.But if the A is tuned preciselyto the harpsichord,the E slightlyflat to the A, the D a little sharpto the A, and the G likewiseto the D, the two instrumentswill be in tune together.

Thereare some playerswho havea verygood ear and who can easilyperceivefalseplayingby others,but areunawareof committing the same mistake themselves, and would not know how to remedy it. The best manner of escape from this ignorance is the monochord, on which one can clearlylearn the intervals. Every singer and instrumentalist should become familiarwith its use. They would thereby learn to recognize minor semitones much earlier as well as the fact that notes markedwith a flat must be a comma higherthan those with a sharpin front of them. Withoutthese insightsone is obligedto depend entirelyon the ear,which can howeverdeceive one at times. Knowledgeof the monochord is requiredespeciallyof playersof the violin and other stringedinstruments,on which one cannot use the placementof the fingersas an exact guide, as one can on wind instruments.

chap.17/vii/9: Lorsqu'ontrouve les Sousdemi tons proprement dits, c.a.d. qu'un ton baiss6 par le b mol se change en celui, qui lui est imm~diatementinferieur & qui est hauss6 par un didse, ou qu'un ton hauss6 par le didse se change en celui, qui lui est imm~diatementsuperieur& qui est baiss6par le b mol... le ton avec le dikse est un Comma plus bas, que celui avec le b mol. Quand ces deux notes sont lidesensemble,v. Tab.XXIII.

If sub-semitones (to use their correct name) appear consecutively,in other words if a note lowered by a flat becomes transformedinto the note just below it, raisedby a sharp [or vice versa], .. . the note with a sharpis a comma lowerthanthe one with a flat. [For example, G4should be a comma lower than Ab.]'8If these two notes are tied to each other (as in [ex.i]), one must draw back one's finger a little for the sharp

376

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Fig.6.il faut retirerle doigt un peu surle diese qui suit le b mol; autrementla Tiercemajeureseroit trop haute contre la partie fondamentale. Si au contrairele b mol suit apres le diese, v.Fig.7.il faut aupresde la note avecle b mol, avancerle doigt autantqu'on le retiredans l'exemplepr&cedent On observela meme chose ... atous les instrumens,excepteau Clavecin,oii l'on ne peut pas effectuerdes Sous-demi tons, & lequel pour cette raison doit afin avoirune bonne Temperature, qu'on puisse souffrirl'un & l'autrede ces tons. Surles instrumensa vent ce changementse faitparle moyen de l'embouchure,de fagonque surla Fluteon hausse le ton en la tournant en dehors, & on le baisse en la tournanten dedans.Surl'Hautbois[sic] &le Bassonles tons se haussent, quand on avancel'anche plus dedans la bouche, & qu'on presse plus les levres ensemble; & ils deviennent plus bas, quand on retirel'anche & relacheles lievres [sic].

following the flat; otherwise the major 3rd will be too high againstthe fundamentalnote. But if, as in [ex.2],the flat followsthe sharp,the fingermust be advancedas much for the flat as it was drawnback in the precedingexample ... This same thing is done on all instruments except the harpsichord,where the sub-semitonescannot be effected,causingit for this reason to have recourseto a good temperamentwhich allows either note to be endurable. On wind instruments, these changes are accomplished through embouchure corrections. On the flute, the pitch is raised by turning it outwards and lowered by turning it inwards.On the oboe and bassoon,the pitch is raisedwhen the reedis advancedin the mouth and the lips arepressedtogether. It is loweredby withdrawingthe reed and relaxingthe lips.

Ex.

Ex.2

1754

de et JeanLaurentde B&thizey, Exposition la thedorie de la pratiquede la musique(Paris),p.135


... how a singer adjusts to the temperament ... of an ... instrument:to sing the firstnote of an aria,the singerrefersto the tonic note of the principalkey as playedby the instrument, and subsequentlyadjusts the different intervals . . . without referenceto the notes playedby the instrument .... When a new key appears,the singer is obliged to conform to the new tonic as rendered by the instrument. . . . if the voice and instrument play a unison or octave together, the voice is obliged to conform to the instrument. .... When the singer is accompanied by several instruments, of which one is more audiblethan the others,the singerperformsas if accompanied by this instrumentalone. If severalor all of them are equally audible,the singer ... does not adjustto any of their temperaments (or perhaps finds their average),but performs in his own particulartemperament.

... comment la voix s'ajuste-t-elleau temperament... d'un . . instrument:Pour entonner la premierenote d'un air,elle se reglesur la note tonique du mode principal,telle qu'elleest rendueparl'instrument,&forme ensuiteles differensintervalles . .. sansegarda l'alterationdes notes que l'instrumentfait entendre. Lorsqu'un nouveau mode paroit, la voix est de ....conformera la manidredont l'instrumentrend la se obligee nouvelletonique... Si la voix &l'instrumentformentensemble une tenue Al'unisson ou a l'octave,la voix est forc&e se de conformerAl'instrument..... Quandla voix est accompagn&e de plusieursinstruments,si l'un d'eux se fait mieux entendre que les autres,la voix se conduit, comme si elle n'etaitaccompagnee que de cette [sic] instrument.Si tous ou quelques-uns se font entendre aussi bien l'un que l'autre, la voix . . . ne s'ajusteau temperamentd'aucune [sic] d'eux, Amoins que ce temperamentne tienne le milieu entre les autres,mais se fait alors un temperamentque lui est particulier.

1754

Giuseppe Tartini, Tratatto di musica (Padua, R1966), pp.99-loo In fact, the organ bass contains the complete harmony;and both singersand instrumentalists tune to the organfor the sake of good intonation. But (unless the keys are multipliedexcessively) the organ and harpsichord have no other perfectly tuned intervalsbesides the octave;almost all the other intervals, such as 5ths, 4ths, majorand minor 3rds,2nds and semitones are tuned by arbitrary temperaments,and not in their
EARLY MUSIC AUGUST 1991 377

Di fattoil Bassoorganicorinchiudetuttal'armonia;e cantanti, e suonatorisi accordanocon l'organoper ben' intuonare.Ma organo,e clavicembalo(se non si moltiplichinoi tastia dismisura) non hanno altro intrevallo perfettamenteaccordato, se non la ottava;e quasi tutti gli altri intervallidi quinte, quarte, terze maggiori, e minore, tuoni, e semituoni sono accordati per discretivotemperamento,e non secondo la ragione, o sia

forma dell'intervallorispettivo. Dunque e impossibile l'uso della scala suddetta in precisione di ragioni, percht in tal necessariotemperamentole ragionirestanoalteratenella loro forma. ... Io nel mio Violino, dove suonandoa doppiacordaposso di incontrarfisicamentela formadell'intervalo, cui e segno fisico dimostrativoil tal terzo suono, che deve risultare, il vanho dellasicuraintonazione,e in taggioper me, e per i miei scolari'9 conseguenzadell'usorealedellascalasuddettain precisionedi ragioni. Bisogna per6 avvertire, che questa scale, bench dimostrativamentededotta, non e perfetta intieramente in ciascunpossibileconfronto delle note musicalicostituenti...

correctratio,or accordingto their respectiveintervals.The use of the above-mentioned [purely tuned] scale is therefore impossible in its exact ratios, becausethe necessityof using a temperamentaltersit from its true form. ... When I play my violin, using double stops, I find an interval's properratiothrougha physicalsensation,which can The correct3rd that I play [also] be establishedscientifically. resultsinevitably,and gives me, and my students, the advantage of assuredintonation, and in consequencethe true usage of the above-mentioned scale in its precise ratios. I should, though, point out that this scale, however convincingly derived, is still not completely perfect in every possible situation in its constituent musical notes ...

1756

Leopold Mozart, Versuch einer griindlichen Violinschule (Augsburg)"2 On the keyboard,G# and Ab, D$ and Eb, F$ and Gb, etc, are the same. That makes the temperament.But accordingto the correct ratios, all the notes lowered by a flat are a comma higher than those raisedby a sharp. Notes loweredby a flat are a comma higher than those raised by a sharp.Db, for instance,is higherthan C$; Ab higherthan G#, Gb higherthan F#, etc. An accurateear must be the guide here; it would be very useful for the student to make use of a monochord.

p.66, note: Auf dem Claviersind Gis und As, Des und Cis, Fis und Ges, u.f.f. eins. Das machtdie Temperatur. Nach dem richtigenVerhaltnisseabersind alle die durchdas (b) erniedrigten Toneum ein Kommahdher als die durch das (#) erh6hetenNoten. p.69, note: das (b) erniedrigtenTOne ein Kommahoher als die durch um das ($) erhbhetenNoten. Z.B. Des ist hoher als Cis;As hbher als Gis, Ges hoher als Fis, u.s.w. Hier muss das gute Geh6r Richterseyn:Und es warefreilichgut, wenn man die Lehrlinge zu dem Klangmasser(Monochordon) ffihrete.

p.191: Ich habe die Probe auf der Violin, dass beym Zusammen- I have noticed that on the violin, when two notes are played streichen zweener Tone auch so gar bald die Terz, bald die simultaneously, 3rd,6th or octave,etc, also spontaneously the Quint, bald die Octavu.s.f. von sich selbstauf eben dem nim- sound on the instrument.Everyonecan use this as a reliable lichen Instrumentedazu klinge. Dieses dienet nun zur untrU- mannerof checkingif notes are being playedin tune and corglichen Probe, womit sich ieder selbst priifen kann, ob er die rectly.For if two notes (which I will indicatemore specifically Tone rein und reichtig zu spielen weiss. Denn wenn zweene below) are drawnout of the violin in a good and correctmanTone, wie ich sie unten anzeigen werde, gut genommen und ner, then the lower voice will also be clearlyaudible, though recht aus der Violin, so zu reden, herausgezogen werden;so muffled and raspingin sound. If, however,the notes are not wird man zu gleicherZeit die Unterstimmein einem gewissen played in tune, and one or other is fingeredeven slightlytoo Lautgardeutlichhoren:sind die low or too high, the lower note will also be false. betaubtenund schnarrenden nicht rein gegriffen,und einer oder der andere Tonehingegen nur um ein bisschenzu hoch oder zu tief;so ist auchdie Unterstimme falsch. Georg Andreas Sorge, 'Anmerkung iiber Herrn Quantzens ... dis und es-Klappe auf der QuerflOte',F.W. Marpurg, Historisch-kritische Beytriige (Berlin, R1970), iv, pp.l-721 Sorge concludes that the comma described by Quantz is the same as Scheibe's (1739) and Telemann's (1742/3), as it is the only one that will fit exactly 55 times into an octave. 1758 wir Betrachten diesescommatischeSystemgegendas rationalgleich gestimmte Clavier,so finden wir einen betrachtlichen Unterschied... Wasnun hier von den TonartC gesagtist, das gilt bey allen ubrigenTonarten.Denn wir setzen voraus, dass ein Flktenist allemahlseine Flote nach dem Grundtoneder jenigen Tonart einstimmen mdsse, woraus er spielet.
378 EARLY MUSIC AUGUST 1991

Ifwe comparethis systemwith the well-tempered harpsichord, we will discovera considerablevariation... What is said here for the key of C majoris valid also for all the other keys, as we are assumingthat a flautistmust always tune his instrumentto the tonic of whicheverkey he will be playing.

Hier scheinet es nun, als wenn man zu wtinschen Ursach hitte, dass das Claviermit noch mehrernTastenin der Octav mdchte versehenwerden. Allein wenn man erweget,dass der nattirlicheSprengeleiner Tonartso weit nicht gehet, dass die Abweichungein ganzes Comma betrUge;und dass bey Aufftihrrungeines Sticks es auch viel auf die Moderationdes F16tenisten ankomme:So wird man finden, dass es nicht rathsam sey, das Claviermit noch mehrernTastenzu versehen. Wenn man auchbedenket,dass die Querfl6teeben nicht 24 Tonartennothig habe, wie das Clavier,so kann man mit einer mit der ungleichenTemperatur Eubereinstimmung der Querfl6te, in den meisten Tonarten,noch naher kommen, als mit der rationalgleichen Temperatur.

Now, it appears(if one could haveeverywish) that the harpsichord actuallyneeds to be provided with more keys in the octave. But when we consider that the naturalspace required by each tonality does not exceed the divergence of a whole of comma;and that,in the performance a piece, much depends on the discretionof the flautist,we can conclude that it is not advisableto provide the harpsichordwith additional [split] keys. When we also considerthat the traversodoes not actuallyneed all 24 keys, as does the harpsichord,it would be easier to approachthe tuning of a traversoin most keys with an irregular temperamentratherthan the well-temperedone.

Sorge gives an example for D major and compares it with Telemann's system; while it is close, it offers only D# and G#, etc, and so fails to solve the question of enharmonic equivalents. Sorge offers several other irregular temperaments, each adapted to a particular key, which, as he points out, obliges the flautist to limit strictly his choice of keys in a concert. He concludes with his own personal opinion that equal temperament would eliminate the need for enharmonic distinctions.

1767

im bestehend einer aus G. Georg Philipp Telemann,LetzteBeschiiftigung Ph. Telemanns 86. Lebensjahre, musikalische iii und IntervallenTafel,in Unterhaltungen, (Hamburg)22 KlangBecause of the harpsichord, the two neighbouring sounds [C:/Db] are fused together into one ... That D: and Eb are two separatesounds is demonstratedby the violin, where D: is played with the fourth finger and Eb with the fifth; traversosare the same with their two separate keys. ..

Man schmelzet beyde nahen Klange [C:/Db] nach Veranlassung des Claviersin einen zusammen ... Dass des und es zween unterschiedene Klinge ausmachen,solches findet sich auch bey den Violinen, wo des mit dem 4ten, und 6s mit dem kleinen Finger gegriffen wird; desgleichen haben die Traversieren hierzu zwo besondere Klappen. . ."

1773

CharlesBurney,ThePresentState of Musicin Germany, Netherlands, the UnitedProvinces the and ...

(London), i, p.313 ... in the ... divisions of tones and semi-tones into infinitelyminute parts,and yet alwaysstopping on the exact fundamental, SignoraMartinetzwas more perfectthan any singerI had everheard:her cadencestoo, of this kind, wereverylearned,and truly pathetic and pleasing. [?1774] Jean-Jacques Rousseau, 'Extrait d'une reponse du petit faiseur', Oeuvres (1781)

While not advocating equal temperament, Rousseau was very early in discussing the concept of 'tendency notes'. In suggesting that B natural should be higher because it leads to C, he says: Ceci,je le saisbien, est directementcontraireaux calculsetablis I know well that this is in direct contradictionto established et A l'opinion commune, qui donne le nom de semi-ton reckoningand the generalopinion, which gives to the passage mineur au passaged'une note ason diese ou a son b mol, et de of a note to its sharpor flat the name 'minor semitone',and to semi-ton majeurau passaged'une note au b mol sup rieurou the passageof a note to its next-higherflat or next-lowersharp au dikse inf6rieur. the name 'majorsemitone'.

F. de Castillon,'Flhite traversiere deux cles',Diderot and d'Alembert,Encyclopedie, a 1777 supplement24 Castillonincludedan interestingcomment that appliesto the over-smallintervalbetweenthe low IV/IV# on all the woodwinds of the period (F/F# on traversoand oboe, Bb/B on recorderand bassoon):
... les flutes de M. Quantz differentencore des autrespar le temperament. Ordinairementle fa des flltes traversitresest tant soit peu trop haut &le fa diese est juste;dans les n6tres,au contraire,lefa est juste, &lefa dikseun peu trop bas. ... Rare... M. Quantz'sflutes differ from all others in their tuning. flute is not flat enough and the Usuallythe F on the transverse the F4 is correct;in his, on the contrary, F is true and the F: a little flat. . . . Rarely,if ever,is music written in the key of F?,
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ment, ou plut6t jamais,on ne compose une pice en fa diese, soit majeur,soit mineur;mais on en compose tres-souventen fa, majeur& mineur.Lefa diese ne paroit donc guerecomme fondamentale,& il vaut bien mieux l'alt rer que le fa qui est la fondamentale d'un mode, non-seulement tres-usit6, mais encore un des plus beaux pour la flCite; d'ailleurs,on peut forcer le fa diese par le moyen de l'embouchure,mais le fa devient d'abordfaux. 1785-7

either major or minor, but very often in F major and minor. The F4 appearsbut seldom as a tonic, and it is much betterto have the F in tune, since it is the keynoteof a tonalitynot only much used, but one of the most beautiful on the flute. F#, when it appears,could easilybe temperedby the embouchure; but as it stands, F naturalremains a bad note.25

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

John Hind Chesnut (pp.263-71)has pointed out that from a close look at Thomas Attwood'snotes on his studies with W. A. Mozartin 1785-7,it is clearthat Mozart'snormal concept of instrumenttuning distinguishesthe small The usual discrepancy between and largehalf steps of a mean-tone temperamentsimilaror identicalto /6-comma. exists. keyboardand other instruments 1783 di AlessandroBarca,'Introduzionea una nuova teoria di musica, memoria prima' Accademia scienze, e lettereed arti in Padova:Saggiscientifici lettari(Padua,1786),pp.365-418.Cited in Barbour,Tuningand Temperament, P.43 smallerthan pure was the Barcawrote that to make the 5ths '/6-comma
... temperamentoper comune opinione perfettissimo,quale suole applicarsialle quinte diatoniche ..."6 1788 as ... temperamentconsideredgenerally perfect,althoughit is to the diatonic 5ths ... usuallyapplied [only]

Tiberius Cavallo, 'Of the Temperament of those Musical instruments, in which the Tones, Keys, or Frets, are Fixed, as in the Harpsichord, Organ, Guitar, &c, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, lxxviii, p.238 especially when modulations and transpositions are to be practiced,then it must be tuned accordingto the temperament of equal harmony.7

When the harpsichord,organ &c is to serve for solo playing, and for a particularsort of music, it is proper to tune in the usual manner . . .but . . .when the instrumentis to servefor accompanying other instruments or human voices, and
c.1790

John Robison, 'Temperament', Encyclopaedia Britannica (Edinburgh, 3/1801)

by [Playersof instrumentswith flexibletuning] when unembarrassed the harpsichord... [should not temper their scales]but keep it as perfectas possible throughout;and a violin performeris sensible of violence and constraintwhen he accompaniesa keyed instrumentinto these unfrequentedpaths. 1813 Thomas Busby, Universal Dictionary of Music (London, 4th edn)

As late as 1813,Busby discusses major and minor semitones, and states that temperament is applied: in orderto remedy,in some degree,the false intervalsof those instruments,the sounds of which are fixed;as the organ,harpsichord, pianoforte,&c.

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'Quoted in Lindley,'Stimmungund Temperatur', p.263 2Quotedin Lindley,'Stimmungund Temperatur', p.244 3It is interesting to compare this with Rameau's diametrically opposed laterstatementon the same subject.See Rameau(1737), p.lo4. pp. 'Stimmungund Temperatur', 245-6 thinks Rameauis 4Lindley, mean-tone here. probablydiscussing 'A-comma 'Quoted in Lindley,'Stimmungund Temperatur', p.245 6Quotedin Lindley,'Stimmungund Temperatur', p.246 7Michel Blavet (1700-1768) performed at the Concert Spirituel more frequently than any other performer, and was unanimously praisedfor his tone, intonation and technique.See N. Zaslaw,'Blavet, Michel',New Grove. 8Telemann's system is discussed in Sorge (1748) and (1758). In (1758), pp.2-5, Sorge equates Quantz's temperament with that describedby Scheibe and Telemann,and discussesthe 'Comma telemann' which Telemannhimself says is half that of 'mean-tone'.(As noted above, in '/-comma mean-tone-'mean-tone' in its strictest sense-the differencebetween flats and sharps is indeed about twice that in the 55-partoctave.) 'Translation Carlo Novi by ',o.S. Bach'ssurvivingcantatasdo not bearout this observation.Cf. Neumann. 1The temperamentis shown in Lindley,'Stimmung und Temperatur',p.273 (2ob). in "Translated Barbour,Tuningand Temperament, p.196 Telemann's own statement:'my systemis not basedon anykey'3Cf. board temperament.. . '4TheFrenchversion of the Essaiis not, properlyspeaking,a translation. It appearedsimultaneouslywith the Germanversion and was of preparedfor the benefit of Quantz'spatron, Frederick Prussia,who had difficultyreadingand speakingGerman.See N. Mitford,Frederick the Great(London, 1970/R1984),pp.20, 205. G. A. Sorge, in 'Anmerkungen tiber Herr Quanzens ... #D und bE-Klappeauf der Querfl6te',equates Quantz'stemperamentwith that advocatedby Scheibe and Telemann. 15Quantz's invention was welcomed by Castillon and other writers on the flute of this period. See E. R. Reilly,'Quantz and his Versuch; Three Studies'(New York,1971),PP.55,91, citing J. S. Petri,Anleitung zur practischenMusik (Lauban, 1767/82)and J. G. Tromlitz, AusUnterricht Flite zu spielen(Leipzig,1791). die fiihrlicher undgriindlicher '6SeeCastillon (1777). '7Thisis presumablyon account of the stringed instruments with which the flute is playing,whose basic pitch is entirelyunfixed. Sorge (1758),P.9 saysthat it is assumedthat the flautisttunes his instrument to the tonic of the piece he is playing. 18Thissentence appearsin the Germanversion only. on '9Cf.Lindley,'Tartini-Schtiler' M. Stratico,a student of Tartini. 20'It can be shown that for whicheverof the standardcommas we choose, the perfectfifthsin LeopoldMozart'ssystemweretheoretically flattedby about one-sixth of that comma.'Chesnut, 'Mozart'sTeaching of Intonation',p.26o. 2'See Chesnut, 'Mozart'sTeachingof Intonation' p.26o. 2Reprinted in Georg PhilippTelemann: Singenist dasfundamentzur Musikin allenDingen,ed. W. Rackwitz(Leipzig,1985),pp.266-73.This is a continuation of Telemann's Systemof 1742/3.
23Cf.Quantz (1752) '4E. Halfpenny, 'A French Commentary on Quantz',ML, xxxvii

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EARLY MUSIC AUGUST

(1956),pp.61-6 contains a complete Englishtranslation. 25Translation from Halfpenny,'A FrenchCommentary', pp.65-6 26Chromatic notes may therefore be irregularlyplaced in Barca's system. 27It not clearwhether'equalharmony'= 'equaltemperament'or 'a is regular temperament'.

1991

381

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