Human process interventions

Human Process Interventions

Individual, Interpersonal and Group Process Approaches Organization Process Approaches

COACHING
Involves working with organization members (managers and executives), on a regular basis to help them clarify their goals, deal with potential stumbling blocks and improve their performance. Highly personal interventions Help managers gain perspective on their dilemmas and transfer their learning into organizational results. When done well, improves personal productivity and effective leading.

Coaching or counselling
Goals: Assisting an executive to more effectively execute some transition such as merger integration and downsizing Addressing a performance problem Developing new behavioural skills as a part of leadership development program. Makes client understand how their behaviours are contributing to a current situation.

Application Stages: 1. Establish the principles of the relationship : establishing goals of engagement, parameters of relationship (schedules, resources etc) 2. Conduct an assessment 3. Debrief the results 4. Develop an action plan 5. Implement the action plan 6. Assess the results

Training and Development

For T&D to be considered as an OD intervention, it must focus on changing the skills and knowledge of a group of organization members to improve their effectiveness. Application Stages: 1. Perform a need assessment:
1. Organization assessment (systems that may affect the ability to transfer the training back to the organization) 2. Work assessment (tasks, activities and decisions that participants perform better after training)

2. Develop the objectives and design of training

Eg. To be able to successfully handle 95% of customer complaints To produce an acceptable strategic plan for the participants department

3. Deliver the training 4. Evaluate the training

Reaction Learning Behaviour Results

T-groups (sensitivity training)

Goals: Understanding ones own behaviour Understanding the behaviour of others Understanding group processes Increased interpersonal diagnostic skills Transforming learning into action Self-analysis

Process consultation

Designed to help to improve processes: Communication Interpersonal relationships Problem-solving and decision-making Leadership and authority Process consultation is Activities that help the client perceive, understand and act upon the process events which occur in the clients environment. Schein (1987)

Group Process
PC deals with interpersonal and group processes that describe how organization members interact with each other Group process includes:
Communication:
x Nature and style of communication, process of transmitting and receiving thoughts, facts and feelings. x Can be overt or covert

Functional roles of gp members

x Individuals must address and understand their self identity, influence and power that will satisfy personal needs while working to accomplish group goals. x Gp members must take on roles that enhance
x Task related activities x Gp maintenance actions

Gp problem solving and decision making

x To be effective, gp must be able to identify problems, examine alternatives and make decisions

Group norms
x Standards of behavior about what is good and what is bad x Process consultant can be helpful in assisting group to understand whether he norms are helpful or dysfunctional.

Use of leadership and authority

x How different leadership styles can help or hinder a groups functioning x Consultant can help a leader adjust his or her style to fit the situation

Basic Process Interventions

Individual Interventions
Designed primarily to help people be more effective in their communication with others Eg; process consultant can provide feedback about individuals overt behaviours during meetings

414

Transaction Analysis A valuable approach to understanding of

human behaviour and action. Developed by Dr. Eric Berne, author of the book, Games people play Discussed by Dr. Thomas A Harry in his book, IM O.K., - URE O.K.

415

While we communicate with others, we share not only facts & information, but also emotions, values, benefits& traditions .

416

Starting point of the theory:

When 2 people encounter with each other, one will speak to the other. This is called the transaction stimulus The reaction from the other will be called the transaction response. The person sending the response is called the Agent and the person who responds is called the respondent. T.A. became the method of examining the transaction wherein I do something to you and you do something back

417

In any personal interaction, a study of TA is useful in understanding and appropriately responding to varied behaviour. TA divides the individual personality into 3 ego states. Ego states have been defined as a constant pattern of thinking, feeling and behaving. These states are produced by recalling past events recalling real people, real time, real places and real feelings.

418

Ego set of consistent & coherent a states:

patterns of thinking, feeling & behaving. Manifested in Tone of voice Gesture/Posture Facial Expression Vocabulary

Ego States:

1 9

20

STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY
AS PER TA, THE STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY IS DIVIDED INTO THREE EGO STATES: P PARENT EGO STATE (TAUGHT CONCEPT OF LIFE) A- ADULT EGO STATE (THOUGHT CONCEPT OF LIFE) C- CHILD EGO STATE (FELT CONCEPT OF LIFE)

421

422

The Parent state: The ego state which is taught to us Built up gradually through modelling parents/elders Reading books, watching films etc. It is the repository of beliefs, prejudices, values. Our ingrained voice of authority, absorbed conditioning, learning and attitudes from when we were young. Parent is made of huge no. of overt recorded playbacks

423

The Parent
The Parent, again, has two parts:
The Controlling or Critical Parent, (CP) and The Nurturing Parent (NP) .

424

The Controlling Parent Critical.

Giving injunctions.

425

The Nurturing Parent

Unconditionally supportive

Defender

426

Vocabulary:
Should, dont, must, always, never, I know, now what? Because I said so. Ill take care of you, poor thing, therethere, come on, give it a try

427

Tone: Sneering, loud, harsh, contemptuous, condescending, punishing, sympathetic, encouraging

428

Gesture/Posture Pointed finger, shaking head, arms folded on chest, tapping feet/fingers, Facial Expression smile encouragingly, set jaw, outthrust chin, look down the nose with raised eyebrows

429

The Adult
The Adult Ego State is the part which - computes data and takes decisions It is oriented to current reality .

430

The Adult The part of the Adult which records and recalls data like a computer is the-Photographic Adult, while that which associates, assesses, organizes data to look for options and arrive at decisions is the-- Combining Adult .

431

Vocabulary: how, why, when, where, what, alternatives, results, yes, no, caused by, statistics, facts not opinions. Tone: clear & calm, confident, factual, enquiring.

432

Gesture/Posture: straight (not stiff), lean forward to listen/look, relaxed, thinking with hand on chin, patient. Facial Expression: thoughtful, watching attentively, questioning, alert, lively

433

The Child
The Child is the centre of all feelings and emotions The four basic feelings being SAD, ANGRY, HAPPY and SCARED

434

The Child has three parts : The Natural or Free Child (NC) hateful/loving, impulsive, spontaneous, playful. The Adapted Child (AC) fearful, guilty or ashamed The Little Professor -- which is the intuitive, creative and manipulative aspect .

435

The Child
When Adapted Child is attempting to free itself from Parental influence it is called -REBELLIOUS CHILD

436

Vocabulary: Wow, give me, I want, MINE, I wish, Im scared, help Tone: giggle, chuckle, whine, swear, yell, fast & high-pitched, whistle, playful, ask permission. Gesture/Posture: slumped, curled up, putting up hand to ask question

437

Facial Expression: tears, pouting, downcast or uplifted eyes, tilted head, wide-eyed, fluttering eyelashes, flirtatious, admiring

438

439

Kinds of transactions
Complementary transactions: When the transaction gets the appropriate response from a specific ego state in the other person Lines of communication are kept open between the transactors

Kinds of Transactions:

Complementary Transaction
40

441

Adult-Adult: Do you know which days we are supposed to put the garbage out? I am under the impression that Monday and Thursday. Child-Parent: Wow, there sure is a lot of this crummy garbage to put out! It really is very large and heavy but I will be proud of you if you can do it.

442

Crossed transactions

443

Crossed Transactions
When the transactions get the unexpected response from an unexpected ego state from the other person Crossed transactions are a frequent source of resentment between people (transactors) Eg: Do you know where the x-ray is ? Its right where you left it, can't you remember anything? Stimulus: Do this for me! (Looking for a Yes Dad response) Response : I have no time!! Stimulus: Cook dinner for me please!!! (looking for some nurturing parent) Response: Im too tired!! (also looking for some nurturing parent)

444

Specific example of ego states crossed transactions Child-Parent / Adult-Adult : Wow, there sure is a lot of this crummy garbage to put out! Perhaps if we make certain to take it out twice a week the loads will be more manageable. Child-Child / Parent-Child: Dont you really hate the size of these crummy garbage cans we have to take out! Quit whining about it and just do!

Crossed/ Blocked Transaction

45

446

Ulterior Transactionshidden message When the transaction has a

and it hooks the ego state the hidden message was going for and for not the one the overt message was aimed at. Ulterior message is more important to the sender than the overt message.

447

448

Ulterior Transactions Social level:

Stimulus: Would you do this for me? Response: Yes, I will Psychological level: Stimulus: I want this done, Son. Response: O.K. dad.

449

Transaction tips at work

Try mostly to keep Adult to Adult Do divert to Natural child to Natural child sometimes (holidays, sports, music etc.) Dont get into Critical parent to adaptive child
You havent given me any reason for

Nor nurturing parent to adaptive child

I agree threshold assessment is a nonsense

Certainly do not do adaptive child to nurturing parent Im sorry I have to ask this, but the .demands this Nor critical parent to critical parent I agree,young people today are illiterate

450

eXERCISE
From the undernoted communications, indicate whether the Boss (B) seems to be in his P/A/C X: How do you like the new filing system I have just set up? B: You spend much time in deciding how to do things. You just do it and be done with it.

451

X: How do you like the new filing system I have just set up? B: I really like it. I wish I had system like it when I had your job 5 years ago.

X: How do you like the new filing system I have just set up? B: Poor boy! You must have worked all day to set up that system. Can I help you to catch up your other work?

452

Exercise 2
Imagine one co-worker is unexpectedly patted your back. What ego state is shown by each of the following responses. 1.You think I would like to know what made him do that. 2.You respond silently that feels good. 3.Suddenly you feel a mental voice saying Never let anyone touch you. Familiarity breeds contempt.

53

LIFE POSITIONS
Depending on the understanding of the ego states individuals can understand their life positions. As per transactional analysis, there are four life positions.

54

Life Positions:

55

I AM OK,YOU ARE NOT OK

Attitude- I am always right Generally operates from high critical parent and rebellious child ego states Highly prescriptive Any disagreement arouses a strong reaction.

56

I AM NOT OK,YOU ARE OK.

Quite submissive Less innovative Lacks risk taking responsibilities Operates mostly from compliant child ego

57

I AM NOT O.K,YOU ARE NOT O.K

Most destructive life position Very low adult ego state and other ego states are also not functionally distributed Helpless, depressed, miserable,suicidal,feel miserable, lack of confidence Do not trust others

58

I AM OK,YOU ARE OK
High emotional intelligence (EQ) most healthy life position Express confidence in self and trust in others Ego states nurturing parent, adult and happy child ego states

59

Stroking
The Types of Strokes You Seek Depend on Your Okayness

POSITIVE STROKES
PRAISE COMPLEMENTS RECOGNITION AFFECTION REWARDS SYMPATHY CONSOLATION SELF-SATISFACTION FROM JOB WELL DONE

NEGATIVE STROKES
PUT-DOWNS CRITICISM DEGRADING RIDICULE SCOLDING PUNISHMENT DISCOUNTING (1) (2)

CONDITIONAL STROKES
STROKES WITH ULTERIOR MOTIVES

STROKES GIVEN FOR WHAT YOU DO, RATHER THAN FOR WHAT YOU ARE:

PERFORMANCE ORIENTED STROKE ACCOMODATION & CONFORMITY ORIENTED STROKES

860

The Johari Window: A Model for SelfUnderstanding that there is information Model considers
you and others know only you know about yourself only others know about you nobody knows

8 - 61

The Johari Window Your willingness or unwillingness to engage is

self-disclosure, and listen to feedback, has a lot to do with your understanding of yourself and others understanding of you.

Figure 8.2

862

Johari Window

Figure 8.2

Source: Joseph Luft, Group Processes: An Introduction to Group Dynamics. Copyright 1984. Mayfield Publishing Company. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.

863

The Four Panes of the Johari Window

Open Blind Hidden Unknown

864

Open Area the public or awareness area Represents

and contains information that both you and others know Information that you dont mind admitting Gets bigger over time as relationships mature

865

Open Area
A productive relationship is related to the amount of mutually held information Building a relationship involved expanding this area

866

Blind Area
Information about yourself that others know but you are not yet aware Others may see you differently than you see yourself Effective relations strive to reduce this area Open communication encourages people to give you feedback

8 - 67

Hidden Area
Information that you know that others do not Private feelings, needs, and past experiences that you prefer to keep to yourself If this area is too large, you can be perceived as lacking authenticity

868

Unknown Area
Information that is unknown to you and to others Areas of unrecognized talent, motives, or early childhood memories that influence your behavior Always present, never disappears Open communication can expose some of this area

869

Johari Window
The four panes are interrelated Changes to one pane impact the size of the others As relationships develop, the open area should grow

870

Self-Disclosure/ Feedback Styles

Two communication processes within our control that impact relationships:
1. Self-disclosure of thoughts, ideas, and feelings 2. Seeking feedback from others

Characteristics of using both effectively:

candor openness mutual respect

Figure 8.3 Johari Window at the Beginning of a Relationship (left) and After a Closer Relationship Has Developed (right)

8 - 71

Figure 8.3

Source: Joseph Luft, Group Processes: An Introduction to Group Dynamics 1984. Mayfield Publishing Company. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.

72

IMPROVING PERCEPTIONS Objective is to increase size of open area: a. Disclosure tell others about yourself b. Feedback receive information from
others about yourself found in the blind area

73

IMPROVING PERCEPTIONS Applying the Johari Window a. diversity awarenessinteracting with others b. the 360-degree feedback process c. dialoguesharing perceptions

Group Interventions
Aimed at the process, content or structure of the group. Include comments, questions or observations about group membership, agenda setting, review etc.

Criteria for process consultation

Inability to identify or resolve issues Unsure about available consultancy services Probability that the client will benefit Client and consultant have compatible goals Client ultimately knows what interventions are most applicable Client can learn how to assess and resolve his or her own problems.

75

Results of PC
Performed with groups performing mental tasks, so difficult to measure If combined with other interventions, results are difficult to evaluate.

77

Third-party intervention
Third-party intervention focuses on conflicts between two or more people Conflict is inherent in groups and is neither good nor bad per se Conflict can enhance motivation and innovation and mutual understanding.

78

A cyclical model of conflict

(Walton 1987)

Triggering event

Behaviour

Triggering event Issues

Behaviour

Issues Consequences
Episode 1

Consequences
Episode 2

4 strategies of conflict resolution

1. T o prevent the ignition of the conflict by understanding the triggering factors and avoiding them. 2. To set the limits on the form of the conflict. Eg; to resolve grievances on the weekly meeting 3. Help the parties cope differently with the consequences of the conflict eg; reducing dependence, ventilating feelings to friends , developing additional sources of emotional support. 4. Attempt to eliminate or to resolve the basic issues causing the conflict.

80

Team building
Team building refers to a broad range of planned activities Helps groups improve the way they accomplish tasks Helps group members enhance their interpersonal and problem-solving skills

Team building activities

81

Activities related to one or more individuals Activities oriented to the groups operations and behaviours Activities affecting the groups relationship with the rest of the organisation

82

Types of teams
Groups reporting to the same manager Groups involving people with common goals Temporary groups formed to accomplish a single task Groups consisting of people with interdependent roles Groups with no formal links but whose collective purpose requires co-ordination

83

Factors affecting outcome of teambuilding activities

Length of time allocated to the activity Teams willingness to look at the way it operates Length of time the team has been together Permanence of the team

84

A Gestalt approach to team building

A form of team building that focuses more on individual than the group. Major advocate is Stanley M.Herman Based on psychotherapy developed by Fredrick Perls called Gestalt Therapy Based on the belief that persons function as whole, total organism. Each person possesses positive and negative characteristics that must be owned up to and permitted expression

85

People get into trouble when they get fragmented Try to live upto the demands of others rather than being themselves. Goals of Gestalt therapy: awareness, integration, maturation , authenticity, self regulation and behavior change Gestalt OD practitioner fosters the expression of positive and negative feelings.

86

Techniques and exercises used in team building

ROLE ANALYSIS TECHNIQUE (RAT or RAP): Designed to clarify role expectations and obligations of team members Different roles- different behaviour May not have clear idea of behavior expected from him Technique build by Dayal & Thomas To clarify the roles of top management in a new organization Consensus Focal role

87

First step: analysis by individual Role, place in organization, rationale for existence, place in achieving overall organizational goals etc. Discussed with team Addition and deletion Second Step: Incumbents expectation of others Agreed to by gp. Third step: - explicating others expectation and desired behavior

88

Written summary is made Role profile It is (a)A set of activities classified as to the prescribed and discretionary elements of the role (b)The obligation of the role to each role in its set (c) The expectation of this role from others in this set

89

RA is a structured exercise to provide:

(a) An overall picture of what the role is supposed to achieve and the rationale for the existence of that role (b) The contribution of that role to the achievement of the overall roles (c) The inter-linkages to the other related roles in the organization.

90

RA helps the organization to: Bring role clarity to the role occupants Bring clarity across functions between the related roles in the organization Bring greater understanding to the expectations from the focal role as seen by the members who are affected by the performance of the focal role Build trust, collaboration, team spirit and internal customer orientation

91

Set clear objectives for planning of work, its monitoring and review Give and receive objective feedback on performance Facilitate realistic identification of training and development needs Aid potential appraisal, career planning, succession planning.

92

Interdependency Exercise
Useful if team members have desire to improve cooperation among themselves and other units Latent issues Suppose top 10 people are present:
2 straight lines, facing each other Interview about the importance of interdependence Shifted rows Pairing in the same row Great deal of data for diagnostic purpose.

93

Role Negotiation Technique

Helps when the causes of team ineffectiveness is based on peoples behavior that they are unwilling to change Role negotiations intervenes directly in relationships of power, authority and influence within the group The change effort is directed towards work relationships. Assumption is most people prefer a fair negotiated statement to a state of unresolved conflict One cannot be effective without the help and cooperation of others Others will not help unless they get help and cooperation in return to become effective

94

Role Negotiation Technique

The idea The expectations of others largely decide a person's role. When these are clear, role conflict and role ambiguity can reduce. Everyone knows what everyone else expects. Role negotiation is a process for clarifying these expectations. You negotiate with an individual not a group. The method Each person writes down privately the following: - In order for me to achieve my objective (For example to contribute effectively to the work), I would like you to: -

95

Do these three things................................................... ............................................................. .... Keep doing these three things................................................... .................................................... Stop doing these three things................................................... ...................................................... Each person then shares their information with their partner. At this stage just listen and seek clarification, don't argue or get defensive! It helps to have equal time to talk. The parties now negotiate their expectations. A party can: -

96

Say "Of course I will accede to your request". This would be sensible if the request is easy and gives you an immediate benefit. Say "I can't do that because......" The request might violate your values, by being (say) unethical, or it might be politically impossible.. Say "I would be prepared to meet your request if you would help me with this one of mine". The request might not give you an immediate benefit and demand work. Acceding would help your colleague and the team. You would also get something back directly. 4 The parties record and preferably display their agreements. This helps people to follow through with their decisions.

97

The Appreciations and concerns exercise

One deficiency :lack of expression of appreciation Another is avoidance of confronting concerns and irritations

Steps 1. Each member to jot down 1-3 appreciations for each gp. Member 2. 1-2 irritations 3. Facilitator may make suggestions 4. 1 Volunteer all mention appr. & concerns about him 5. Each group member listens inturn.

98

Responsibility Charting RACI

Charting

99

Objectives
To understand the need for and ultimately the benefits of having clearly defined roles and responsibilities To be able to analyze and develop an effective RACI chart

100

So What is RACI Charting?

A systematic and participative technique to: Identify all functions (activities, tasks, and decisions) that have to be accomplished for effective operation Clarify roles and individual levels of participation in relation to each function Develop best methods for individuals to fill these roles

101

Therefore, With Clear Roles and Responsibilities, We Should Expect to See...

Increased productivity through well defined accountability Increased capacity by eliminating overlaps and redundancies Less confusion/misunderstandings by encouraging teamwork Streamlined work process by eliminating unnecessary interfaces and assigning accountability where it belongs Improved organization effectiveness by allowing disciplines to cooperate and share responsibility

102

Unclear Roles and Responsibilities Result in Comments Like These...

My boss always overrules my decisions whenever he/she wants The approval process for even the simplest item takes so long today It seems every department has someone putting together a spreadsheet on the same data Things are always slipping through the cracks I have the responsibility, but not the authority, Clear roles and responsibilities can be identified to get thethrough RACI charting job done

103

RESPONSIBLE: Do The Job. Execute.

R: Responsible

A: C: I:

Accountable Consult Inform

These are the individuals who actually complete the task or activity and are responsible for action and/or implementation. Responsibility is often shared, with each individuals degree of responsibility determined by the individual with the A.

ACCOUNTABLE: Make the Decision. Take 104 Ultimate Ownership.

R: A: Responsible Accountable

This is the individual who carries the yes or no authority and has full veto power for an activity. It is important to clarify the levels of accountability and to distinguish between management accountability and operational accountability. Only one A can be assigned to a task or activity and authority must accompany accountability.

C: I:

Consult Inform

CONSULT: Communication Before. In The Loop.

R: A: C: Responsible Accountable Consult

105

These are the individuals who must be consulted prior to a final decision or action. Consult implies two-way communication.

I:

Inform

INFORM: Need To Know. Do Not Change The Decision.

R: A: C: I: Responsible Accountable Consult Inform

106

These are the individuals who need to be informed after a decision or action is taken because they, in turn, may take action or make a decision based on the output. Inform is FYI and implies only one-way communication.

107

RACI Chart for the Grading/Regrading

Regrading Activities
1 Prepare/ revise job description 2 Validate request and decide to continue

AR I

C AR I I I A A A A A C A A A I R R R R R R A R R R

Grading
3 Check f or similar roles 4 Evaluate new / changed role 5 Schedule review f or gtading Committee 6 Decision by Grading Committee 7 Add decision and description to matrix an database 8 Inf orm stakeholders

R I I I I I

I I I I I

Grading 28-and above

7 Aproved grade by BoM 8 Add decision and description to matrix an database 9 Inf orm stakeholders

R = Responsible (execute) A = Accountable (Yes or No) C = Consulted before I = Informed After

C& B Re pre se nt a t iv e Gr ad Co ing mm it te e

HR Re pre se nt a t iv e VP HR

Mg mt

Lin e

VP

HR

SL I

108

The 4Step Process

1

Determine the activities Prepare a list of functional roles

Develop the RACI chart Get feedback and buy-in (validate)

109

Step 1: Determine the Activities

There are several sources of activities: Current State" or Future State" Brown Papers Best Practices Review Functional Decomposition Interviews Problem Solving Process

Guidelines for Developing the Activity or Decision List

1. Avoid obvious or generic activities, e.g., attending meetings 2. Each activity or decision should begin with a good action verb. Examples:
Evaluate Record Update Develop Report Schedule Determine Collect Inspect Review Write Operate Approve Train Authorize Monitor Prepare Conduct Publish Decide

110

3. When the action verb implies a judgment or decision (e.g., evaluate, monitor, inspect, review) add a phrase to indicate the primary outcome.
Examples: - Monitor phone service handling of customer requests to identify training needs - Analyze data to locate source of delay

4. Activities or decisions should be short, concise, and apply to a role or need, and in general not to a specific person

111

Step 2: Prepare List of Functional Roles

Roles can be individuals, groups, or entire departments Roles can include people outside the department or even outside the company if appropriate

Suppliers Customers
Roles may be based on the current state" organization or the future state" organization depending on your purpose

112

Step 3: Develop the RACI Chart

Functional Roles
A R R A C R R R C R A I I C I R

Activities (Or Tasks) / Decisions

A I R A

113

Guidelines for Developing a RACI Chart (To-Be)

Remember new culture philosophy when defining roles and responsibilities:  Eliminate checkers checking checkers  Encourage teamwork  100% accuracy not always required Place accountability (A) and responsibility (R) at the lowest feasible level There can be only one accountability per activity Authority must accompany accountability Minimize the number of consults (C) and informs (I) All roles and responsibilities must be documented and communicated

114

Vertical Analysis: Chart Analysis and Review

If You Find: Then Ask:

No R's or A's Should this functional eliminated? Have processes changed to a resources should be re-utilized?
Lots of R's Can the functional role much? Can the activity be broken more manageable

role be point where

stay on top of so decision / into smaller, functions?

No Empty Spaces involved in C's

Does the individual(s) need to be so many activities? Could management by exception principles be used, perhaps reducing to I's?

115

Too many A's Does a proper "segregation of duties exist? Should other groups be accountable for some of these activities to ensure checks and balances and accurate decision making throughout the process? Is this a bottleneck in the process and is everyone waiting for decisions or direction? Qualifications Does the type or degree of participation fit the qualifications of the functional role?

116

Horizontal Analysis: Chart Analysis and Review

Then Ask: If You Find: No R's Is job getting done? Some roles may be waiting to approve, be consulted, or informed. No one sees their role to take the initiative. Too many Rs No A's should be Too many As confusion because should be Too few As & Rs performed Is this a sign of over the wall activities? Just get it off my desk ASAP! Why not? There must be an 'A'. Accountability pushed down to the most appropriate level. Is there confusion? I thought you had it! It also creates every person with an A has a different view of how it is or done. The process must slow down while the activity is on an ad hoc basis. Or the procedure may be outdated or it can be streamlined if not needed.

Lots of C's Do all the functional roles really need to be consulted? Are there justifiable benefits in consulting all the functional roles? Lots of I's or Do all the functional roles need to be only in exceptional circumstances? routinely informed

117

Step 4: Obtain Feedback and BuyIn

The RACI chart is shown to people that represent the functional roles on the chart These individuals are asked for their input, and the RACI chart is revised as appropriate The RACI chart may be validated in conjunction with the other products generated by the Process Teams

118

Common Errors
RACI everything (instead of thinking about what is value-added) Do not take into account that people are trying to justify their jobs Do not eliminate the "coordinators & consolidators" Do not use enough action verbs in constructing the Activities list Do not understand it will change Do not consider "interface" issues Learn about it in training and think they can do it without practice

An Example: Employee Expense Statement Processing

Functional Roles Activities
1. Document Expenses 2. Complete Expense Acct. Form 3. Forward To Supervisor 4. Review 5. Approve 6. Forward To Region Accounting 7. Classify Expenses 8. Audit 9. Determine Payment Type
EMPLOYEE

119

AR AR A C I

I R AR AR R A I

AR AR AR

RE ION SECRETARY SUPERVISOR ACCOUNTIN

ENERAL ACCOUNTIN

120

Section B Organisation process approaches

Confrontation meeting Intergroup relations Large-group intervention Grid Organization Development Normative approach

Confrontation meeting
Designed to mobilize the resources of the entire organization to identify problems, set priorities and action targets and begin working on identified problems Developed by Beckhard. Particularly useful when organization is in stress and when there is a gap between top and rest of the organization.

122

Confrontation meeting process

Schedule the meeting Create a master list Create groups representing multiple perspectives Form problem-solving groups Rank the issues and opportunities, develop an action plan, specify timetable

Set ground rules Groups identify problems and opportunities Report out to the large group

Provide periodic reports to large group

123

Intergroup relations: Microcosm Groups

Small groups that solve problems in the larger system Small group member characteristics must reflect the issue being addressed (e.g. if addressing diversity, group must be diverse) Primary mechanism for change is `parallel processes

124

Microcosm groups: steps for implementation

Identify an issue Convene the group Provide group training Address the issue Dissolve the group

125

Resolving intergroup conflict

Convening to address issues within set time limits Groups work independently to answer questions and clarify Groups discuss discrepancies and contributions Groups work to develop action plans for key areas.

126

Large-group interventions
Steps for implementation Preparing for the large-group meeting Conducting the meeting Follow-up on the meeting outcomes

127

Grid Organization Development (Blake and Mouton)

Phase 1: The Grid seminar Phase 2: Teamwork development Phase 3: Intergroup development Phase 4: Developing an ideal strategic organisation model Phase 5: Implementing the ideal strategic model Phase 6: Systematic critique

128

129

Summary
Section A: interpersonal process approach T-groups and process consultation Third-party intervention and team building Section B: Organisation process approaches Confrontation meeting and intergroup relations Large-group intervention and Grid Organization Development Normative approach