Journal of Coastal Research

24

1A

151160

West Palm Beach, Florida

January 2008

Energy Balance and Mixing Timescales in a Stirring Tropical Estuary, Itamaraca, Brazil
Fabiana S. Leite, Moacyr Araujo* **, Carmen Medeiros**, and Jean-Philippe Endres
Laboratorio de Oceanograa Fsica Estuarina e Costeira Departamento de Oceanograa da Universidade Federal de PernambucoLOFEC/ DOCEAN/UFPE Av. Arquitetura s/n, 50739-540 Campus Universitario, Recife, PE, Brasil moa@ufpe.br Ecole Nationale Superieure dElectrotechnique, dElectronique, dInformatique, dHydraulique et des TelecommunicationsENSEEIHT 2 rue Charles Camichel, BP 7122 31071 Toulouse Cedex 7, France

ABSTRACT
LEITE, F.S.; ARAUJO, M.; MEDEIROS, C., and ENDRES, J.-P., 2008. Energy balance and mixing timescales in a stirring tropical estuary, Itamaraca, Brazil. Journal of Coastal Research, 24(1A), 151160. West Palm Beach (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208. Stratication and mixing dynamics in estuaries are controlled by different physical processes, which determine estuarine hydrodynamics and the transport of plankton, nutrients, and organic compounds. In this paper, we present an investigation of features that control the dynamics of the Itamaraca estuary, Pernambuco (northeastern Brazil) through quantitative and comparative analyses between stratication processes (surface heating, rainfall precipitation, and differential advection of the longitudinal density gradient resulting from the vertical velocity structure) and mixing processes (stirring of bottom tidal stress, stirring of surface wind stress, and surface evaporation). Thermodynamic and cinematic eld data were obtained during rainy and dry seasons. Results indicate that mixing intensity in the water column was about one and a half to twice as high as the potential capacity of external forcing in promoting vertical stratication. The bottom tidal stirring was the most important cause of vertical mixing. A theoretical analysis showed that, during the dry season, the stratication timescale (30 min) was greater than the turbulence decay timescale (910 min) and also greater than the slack water timescale. During the rainy season, the stratication timescale (7 min) had the same order of magnitude as the turbulence decay timescale (910 min). The Itamaraca estuary is a vertically well-mixed/weakly-stratied system during both periods (dry and rainy), except during rainy slack water periods, when stratication can be expected. These theoretical results are in agreement with previous eld data and recent works involving numerical simulations at the Santa Cruz Channel. ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS: Estuary dynamics, tidal circulation, turbulence-stratication, Santa Cruz Channel.

INTRODUCTION
The intensity of stratication in estuaries is an important driven function because it controls water column stability and the vertical mixing (or vertical uxes) of water properties such as momentum, heat, salt, dissolved oxygen, and nutrients. Predicting when and how long stratication will occur in these systems is a difcult and challenging task; it seems to be more complex than the equivalent offshore heating-stirring problem that has been extensively studied over the last 20 years (GARGETT, 1989; GREGG, 1987). This extra difculty is probably a result of a broader timescale variability of dominant processes acting in near-shelf and estuary areas (BLUMBERG and OEY, 1985; DARBYSHIRE and WEST, 1990). In spite of this inherent obstacle, understanding the processes that control mixing-stratication dynamics is a priority. A primary and useful tool to search for system dynamics is
DOI: 10.2112/04-0399.1 received 18 January 2005; accepted in revision 14 February 2006. * Corresponding author. ** CNPq fellow.

the employment of general methods, which seek quantitative indications on energy balance, characteristic timescales for the mixing- and stratication-inducing mechanisms, or both. These quantitative approaches began with the works of PRITCHARD (1952, 1954, 1956), in which the tidally averaged values are calculated. Pritchards contribution pointed out one of the most important estuarine characteristicsthe role of the density current over estuarine circulation. Baroclinic (or gravitational) circulation is a consequence of the longitudinal density gradient that drives the system dynamics in the longitudinal-vertical plane. As a function of estuary type, this behavior can lead to two boundary situations: at one extreme, we nd highly stratied estuaries, in which circulation can dominate the observed currents. At the opposite side, we nd the unstratied or vertically well-mixed estuaries, in which circulation is resolved as a long-term mean ow normally hidden by strong wind- or tidally driven currents. Despite the importance of the earlier insights by PRITCHARD (1952, 1954, 1956), a relevant feature of recent works has been the focus on the inuence of intratidal variability and turbulence in estuarine dynamics (see, e.g., DYER, 1986,

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1997; LEWIS, 1997; OFFICER, 1976; PRANDLE, 1990; UNCLES, 2002). In fact, the strength of gravitational circulation is not simply specied by the intensity of density gradient but depends, in a nonlinear way, on the intensity of ambient turbulence. In highly turbulent systems, a considerable part of momentum resulting from the horizontal density gradient and used for circulation is diffused vertically. In this situation, one can observe weak circulation intensities, about one to two orders of magnitude when compared with the case of tranquil waters. Vertical turbulent ux of horizontal momentum acts by controlling the rate at which buoyancy is advected horizontally by the circulation, keeping also in mind that buoyancy advection affects in turn the vertical stability of the system and hence the turbulence itself. As a result of this nonlinear feedback mechanism, turbulence exerts a fundamental role over the strength of circulation in estuaries. One of the most efcient ways to achieve intratidal variabilities in estuarine dynamics is the use of mathematical models, in which momentum, energy, and thermodynamic properties are numerically balanced (BLUMBERG and OEY, 1985; DYKE, 2001). These methods are particularly applicable when there is large quantity of eld data and information about the system to be modeled. However, that is not the situation always found in many tropical estuaries, and it seems useful to investigate the performance of less complex methods in representing the general stratication-mixing balance observed in situ. This is the approach we used herein. This study aims to investigate the physical processes controlling stratication and mixing of the Santa Cruz Channel, Itamaraca, Brazil, a tropical, vertically well-mixed/weakly stratied strain-induced estuary. In particular, we identify the main turbulence-buoyancy ux interactions, which drive mass and energy transports throughout the system. The combination of empirical and theoretical analyses is performed through the application of the method proposed by NUNES VAZ, LENNON, and SAMARASINGHE (1989). This method allows achieving into the relative importance of the stratication/mixing controls in poor data situations. Despite the simplicity of the proposal of NUNES VAZ, LENNON, and SAMARASINGHE (1989), it is important to stress that the most important limitation of these bulk methods is the absence of nonlinear interactions among the involved forces (e.g., disregarding the interaction between mean and turbulent ows). To overcome this limitation, particular attention should be given to the estimation of mixing coefcients because they should represent the mean transfer of momentum along the water column. In this study, we have dealt with this model lack in a specic section of the paper. Field measurements (ARAUJO et al., 2000a; LEITE, 2005; MEDEIROS and KJERFVE, 1993; MESQUITA, 2003) and results from numerical simulation exercises (ARAUJO et al., 2000a, 2000b) are used as input data and also as experimental evidence to validate the analysis. Because system behavior is marked by strong differences in seasonal freshwater inputs, dry and rainy situations have always been considered separately.

Figure 1. Study area along the Santa Cruz Channel, Itamaraca, Brazil.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Itamaraca is an island located 55 km north of Recife, Per nambuco, in northeastern Brazil between latitudes 7 34 S

and 7 55 S and longitudes 34 48 W and 34 52 W. It is a tropical estuarine system surrounded by the elongated, U-shaped Santa Cruz Channel (SCC; 20 km long), which receives freshwater from six small rivers (Catuama, Carrapicho, Congo, Arataca, Botafogo, and Igarassu) and connects to the South Atlantic Ocean at two ends, the Catuama and Orange River mouths. The Itamaraca system occupies an area of 824 km2, con sisting of intertidal mangrove wetlands and upland areas, and being situated between two drainage basins: the Goiana River basin to the north and the Capibaribe River basin to the south. Prevailing winds are southeast trade winds with a mean speed of 3.2 m/s. Tides at both mouths are strongly semidiurnal and range 2.2 m during spring tides, whereas during neap tides, this measurement is 1.3 m. Annually, rainfall and evaporation averages are 1.5 and 1.2 m, respectively, with a mean air temperature of 26 C. The climate is hot and humid, type Aws (Koppen), in the Itamaraca basin exhibiting two well-dened seasons. From September to January, the season is dry, with a negative hydrological balance, when monthly rainfall is less than 60 mm. From February to August, the rainy season occurs, with a positive hydrological balance, mainly during April and June when monthly precipitation sometimes exceed 400 mm. The study area was located in the Itamaraca estuary along the SCC (Figure 1). Fieldwork was carried out during peak rainy season, June to August (1987), and during peak dry season, December (1987) to January (1988), after the four tidal stages (high, ebb, low, and ood) of neap and spring tidal cycles. Seven stations were selected along the channel.

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E1 was located at the north entrance, E2 was 4.4 km further inland, E3 was at the conuence with Rio Congo, E4 was within the midsection of the channel, E5 was at the Itapissuma bridge, E6 was located half way from this bridge, and E7 was at the south entrance, near Forte Orange. Field data included time series measurements of depth and vertical current proles for stations E4, E5, and E6 and for each tidal stage during a spring tide to determine the velocities distribution in time and depth. The choice of a spring tide was intended to maximize the effects of tidal forcing. Sampling stations were located at the midsection of the channel, where depth was maximum, to reduce the inuence of local cross-channel currents and to have accurate current proles. Local current speed and direction measurements were obtained at different levels with Sensordata SD-30 and SD6000 currentmeters. These data were obtained for each 20 and 40 cm (according to depth) from the bottom to the surface, to have greater accuracy for further analysis of depthvarying velocity. Conductivity data were collected with a portable Beckman RS5-3 salinometer, and its measurements were taken at the center of the navigational channel of each station at two water depths: 0.2 m below the surface and 0.5 m above the bottom. Bathymetry was also measured with a Raytheon DC2000Z recording fathometer from a boat traveling at constant speed. Field measurements of tides (amplitude and phase) attest that there are no signicant differences in tides at both mouths of the SCC (MEDEIROS and KJERFVE, 1993). Although the general features of the Santa Cruz Channel are not controversial, we now seek more indications and quantities concerning the relative role of each mechanism over system dynamics. A useful and simple approach proposed by NUNES VAZ, LENNON, and SAMARASINGHE (1989) is then used to investigate the main mechanisms acting on the estuarine dynamics on the basis of an estuarine energy balance. Expressions of stratication and mixing mechanisms in estuaries are quantied to show their contributions to changes of water column stability. The resulting expression can be used to construct a stratication parameter for estuaries of the relatively well-mixed type. A quantitative basis for deciding whether mixed or stratied conditions might prevail in a given estuary is provided by the estuarine vertical circulation, on levels of wind and tidally produced turbulence, in both time-dependent and spatial senses. The formulation allows the construction of a nondimensional parameter, similar to the Richardson number, which describes the limiting state between mixed and stratied conditions. This method states that the greatest longitudinal mass ux in wide and relatively well-mixed estuaries occurs at times when the turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) in the water column is at a minimum and stratication is at a maximum. In addition, these authors state that the spring-neap cycle is of particular importance, when considering the long-term mass balance of estuaries, as the period of modulation increases and also does the net ux of mass through the estuary. However, some signicant changes to the state of stratication and to the corresponding mass transport can occur

in association with slack water periods. These authors consider as the amount of energy per unit volume, which must be provided to change a stratied water column to its corresponding well-mixed situation, g H
0

(
H

)z dz

(1)

where z is a vertical coordinate measured upward from the water surface, g (m/s2) is the acceleration of gravity, and

1 H

(z) dz
H

is the depth mean density (kg/m3) of the uid column of depth H (the mean depth in the deepest part of the estuary). Mixing or stratifying tendencies are quantied in terms of temporal variations of . This quantity is related to the surface buoyancy ux, B (m2/s3), according to Equation (2). d dt

g d H dt

(
H

)z dz

1 B 2

(2)

In the following discussion, mechanisms causing stratication or mixing in the SCC are evaluated in terms of Equation (2).

Causes of Vertical Stratication

Three processes could be responsible in promoting estuarine stratication. They are (1) surface heating, (2) rainfall precipitation, and (3) differential advection of the longitudinal density gradient as a result of vertical velocity structure.

(1) Surface Heating

The most important (and also the most documented) external stratifying mechanism in ocean and shelf seas, surface heating, can have a relatively limited inuence in shallower waters. Tropical systems like the SCC, for example, have weak vertical salinity stratication, and the normal levels of estuarine turbulence are sufcient to distribute the heat uniformly from the surface to the bottom. This inuence is quantied by Equation (3),
H

1 2

gQ cP

(3)

where T (K 1) is the volume expansion coefcient, cP (m2 s 2 K 1) is the specic heat capacity at constant pressure, and Q (J m 2 s 1) is the rate of applied heating.

(2) Rainfall Precipitation

Analogous rainfall contribution to the stratication is given by Equation (4),

P

1 2

Sg P

(4)

where S is the salt contraction coefcient, P (m/s) is the observed precipitation rate, and S and are surface salinity and density (kg/m3), respectively.

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(3) Differential advection resulting from vertical structure A

Stratication induced by freshwater buoyancy input is a key determinant of the system dynamics. In well-mixed/ weakly stratied environments, the vertical prole of axial velocity of the gravitational circulation can be approximated by the solution used in NUNES VAZ and SIMPSON (1985), as in Equation (5), U( ) gH 3 (8 48 t x
3 2

Table 1. Average salinity values in the surface and bottom layers of the cross sections for the low and high stages of a spring tide during dry and rainy seasons.
Dry Season Cross Sections Low Tide High Tide Rainy Season Low Tide High Tide

Surface Bottom Surface Bottom Surface Bottom Surface Bottom

(5)

where z/H is the normalized depth, x is distance measured along the estuary, and t (m2/s) is a constant eddy viscosity. In our case, a bottom boundary layer is considered for 12 and 6. The vertical prole dewhich we have scribed in Equation (5) could induce vertical stratication by differential advection of the longitudinal density gradient because we have [ (z)]/ t U(z)( / x). This effect is quantied by Equation (6).
A

E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6 E7 Sref

34.60 36.10 33.00 34.20 32.70 32.70 33.20 33.20 33.50 33.60 34.00 34.20 34.50 34.80 33.88

37.10 37.00 36.10 35.90 33.80 34.00 34.40 34.40 34.60 34.60 35.60 35.70 36.50 36.60 35.45

28.00 29.30 24.00 26.50 24.40 24.70 25.50 25.60 25.60 26.00 26.70 26.80 29.10 29.40 26.54

32.40 33.00 29.80 30.70 26.40 26.90 26.80 27.20 27.60 29.90 30.50 32.30 33.60 34.50 30.11

where kS is the surface drag coefcient, W is the wind speed (m/s), air is the air density (kg/m3), and S is the surface mixing efciency coefcient.

g2H4 30 t x

(6)

(6) Surface Evaporation

Causes of Vertical Mixing

Mixing in coastal seas is fundamentally a result of the mechanical stirring of tidal stress on the bottom and wind-induced stress at the air-water interface. Turbulence generated on both these boundary layers will be used to mix the interior of the water column. This process will be more intense as the vertical diffusion of kinetic energy into the stratied region becomes more efcient and also the more easily this energy is converted to potential energy (also seen as a change of ). Three main processes that cause vertical mixing in the SCC will be considered: (4) mechanical stirring of bottom tidal stress, (5) mechanical stirring of surface wind stress and, nally, (6) surface evaporation, which is also taken into account as a contribution to the destabilization of stratication.

The mixing inuence of evaporation results from the buoyancy ux caused by increasing surface salinity and latent heat loss, which are respectively computed by the two terms in Equation (9),
E

1 2

Sg E

1 2

gLE cP

(9)

where L (J/m3) is the latent heat of transformation from water to vapor, and E is the observed rate of evaporation (m/s).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Average salinity values in the surface and bottom layers of the cross sections, for the low and high stages of a spring tide during dry and rainy seasons, are shown in Table 1. The averages for the seven cross sections from both water depths (surface and bottom) were computed in the reference salinity (Sref) values for the low and high tidal stages. The longitudinal distributions of instantaneous salinity to reference salinity ratio are shown in Figure 2. Along the estuary, a weak longitudinal salinity gradient was always present, and its strongest presentation was observed during the rainy high tide (26.9 at E3 to 34.5 at E7). Vertical salinity differences from the surface to the bottom are always less than one salinity unit during the dry period, except for stations E1 and E2 during the low tide. During the rainy season, one can observe more important differences between surface and bottom salinity values at the sampling stations situated near the Catuama River mouth (low tide, stations E1 and E2) and all along the southern branch of the SCC (high tide, stations E5, E6, and E7).

(4) Stirring of Bottom Tidal Stress

The production rate of TKE by bottom tidal stirring has been associated to the working rate of bottom stress, which is quantied as Equation (7),
B

kB UB 3 H

(7)

where kB is the bottom drag coefcient and UB is the velocity (m/s) measured near the bottom. B is a dimensionless coefcient of mixing efciency, which represents the part of the energy dissipated as shear stress that contributes to the TKE mixing.

(5) Stirring of Surface Wind Stress

The analogous rate of TKE production by surface stirring associated to the wind stress is given by Equation (8),
W

Combined Effects and Relative Inuences at the Santa Cruz Channel

All six different contributions described above were calculated for the SCC system. Their combination gives the changing rate of potential energy in the water column. In general

kS

air

(8)

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Table 2. Normalized stratication-mixing components at the Santa Cruz Channel.

Rainy Season

Normalized Component

Dry Season

Stratication sources (1) Surface heating ( H / B ) (2) Precipitation ( P / B ) (3) Differential advection ( A / B ) (2) (3) (1) Mixing sources (4) Bottom tidal stirring ( B / B ) (5) Surface wind stirring ( W / B ) (6) Surface evaporation ( E / B ) (5) (6) (4) Mixing/stratication ratio 0.01.

0.50 () 0.02 0.52 1.00 0.09 () 1.09 2.09

0.35 0.02 0.47 0.84 1.00 0.16 () 1.16 1.38

Figure 2. The ratio of the instantaneous salinity, S, to the tide-averaged ) and bottom ( ) depths along the Santa salinity (Sref) at surface ( Cruz Channel during low and high stages of a spring tide.

terms, for both dry and rainy seasons, we had the relationship of Equation (10).
H

(10)

Stratification sources

Mixing sources

Equation (10) conrms the dynamic nature of the SCC, which is a well-mixed/weakly stratied system (also stated by eld measurements and numerical simulations studies). Computed terms of Equation (10) indicate bottom tidal stirring as the most important cause of mixing. Because we are interested in the relative inuences of these processes, it seems useful to normalize each contribution by the major component B . Calculated values are presented in Table 2. Results in Table 2 show diurnal surface heating (tropical solar radiation) as a potential mechanism trying to produce vertical stratication during the dry season at the SCC. Precipitation has negligible effects as a potential source of stratication for both (dry and wet) situations. In the same way, water surface evaporation has no marked contribution in mixing the water column when compared with the stirring processes acting at the surface and bottom boundary layers. Concerning the inuence of differential advection, distinct seasonal behaviors were observed. It is easily understood; the

SCC is an elongated U-shaped channel, which connects ocean waters at both ends (Orange and Catuama River mouths) and receives freshwater runoff from six small rivers. The existence of two natural estuarine entrances contributes signicantly to keep small horizontal density gradients along the estuary axis. As a consequence, the effects of differential advection of horizontal densities by the vertical velocity structure are attenuated when compared to other tropical onemouth systems (ARAUJO, MEDEIROS, and RIBEIRO, 1999). It is clearly observed during the dry season, for which A is insignicant. When freshwater runoff is more intense (rainy season), the originated higher longitudinal density gradients can be transported by differential advection, and its effects as stratication source are felt through the calculated value of A / B . In both periods, mixing mechanisms dominate estuarine dynamics. Bottom stirring of tidal currents appears to be the most important component for vertical mixing. A small estuary usually offers a great deal of sheltering from wind effects, but in large estuaries and gulfs, the contribution from wind mixing can become quite important. The energy input from surface wind stress at the SCC is small (monthly average wind speed does not exceed 4.0 m/s); it accounts only for about 10% to 16% of total mixing sources. These results have been conrmed by the numerical experiences of A RAUJO et al. (2000a) as well. The ratios between total mixing processes and total stratication processes are shown in Equations (11).

Dry

( ( ( (

H H

P P

) ) A
E

2.1
Dry

(11) 1.4

Rainy

) A)
E

Rainy

These expressions indicate a mixing intensity about one and a half to twice as high as the potential capacity of external forcing in promoting vertical stratication. The smallest value obtained for the wet season suggests the possibility of establishing vertical density anomalies, which is in accord with the weak stratication observed at the SCC during rainy months.

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Table 3. Mixing constants used in computations.

Mixing Constant Value

Bottom mixing efciency, B Bottom drag coefcient, k B Surface mixing efciency, S Surface drag coefcient, (*) k S

4.0 2.5 3.5 7.0

10 10 10 10

3 2 2 5

(*) Because the classical formulation UW 0.03W is incorporated into the drag coefcient, where UW is the surface drift velocity, given as a function of wind speed, W.

Mixing Efciency: Estimation of Parameters

Equations (3) to (10) provide an energy balance and a means of deciding, on numerical grounds, the likelihood of encountering signicant structure in the water column. Meanwhile, the means by which some component terms were calculated need the following cautionary remarks. Regardless of the use of geophysical eld data obtained directly in the SCC and the use of physical uid-dependent constants, special attention has been given to the estimation of parameters related to the turbulent properties of ow. The rst comment is about the appropriate choices of mixing constants B and S in Equations (7) and (8), respectively. They represent the efciency of conversion of bottom- and surfacegenerated TKE into potential energy. Oceanographic literature offers references for the empirically estimated values. SIMPSON and BOWERS (1981), for example, suggest B 3.7 10 3 (which means that only about 0.4% of the TKE generated by tidal stirring works against buoyancy forces) and the ratio S 6 B for shelf sea regions. On the other hand, NUNES VAZ and LENNON (1987) found that S B gives a better t to their data. It appears that this discrepancy is due to the different forms of buoyancy inputs in the two cases, as NUNES VAZ and LENNON (1987) worked at a nearer shore area, normally submitted to stronger effects of a modulated turbulence. Regardless of a possible (and probably) functional dependence of B and S to the vertical coordinate z, in calculations, we used values of mixing constants (mixing efciency parameter and drag coefcient) very much closer to those proposed by SIMPSON, SHARPLES, and RIPPETH (1991) for the estuarine Liverpool Bay area. They are presented in Table 3. It should be pointed out that the ranges of variation found in geophysical uid mechanics literature for these constants will not be able to produce reasonable changes in the estimations (and the relative inuence) of mixing terms for the SCC (see Table 2); the effects of bottom tidal stirring will be always much more important than the action of surface wind for vertical mixing in shallow estuarine systems. A second remark is reported to the values of eddy viscosity used for estimating the contributions of the differential advection of vertical structure as stratication producing mechanism (Equation 6). Estimation values for t are normally based on the vertical integration of the most realistic theoretical parabolic proles, in which the turbulent surface boundary layer is considered analogous to the turbulent bottom boundary layer (Couette ow). On the other hand, the use of constant eddy viscosity

seems to be less critical to well-mixed/weakly stratied systems (such as the SCC) because signicant density variations in the water column (variations in buoyancy ux) should be computed in terms of changes in vertical distribution of momentum diffusivity. A more simple (and also widespread) method for estimating global diffusivity values employs dimensional grounds to propose semiempirical formulations normally based on typical spatial and velocity ow scales. An example of this approach is Boldens classical formulation, t 3.3 10 3 HUB, which has been currently used in various estuarine studies (i.e., NUNES VAZ, LENNON, and SAMARASINGHE, 1989; SIMPSON, SHARPLES, and RIPPETH, 1991). In spite of the attractive simplicity of semiempirical formulation, the vertical eddy viscosity average was estimated from numerical simulation results from ARAUJO et al. (2000a). These authors used a modied (k- ) model that included buoyancy effects to investigate two congurations about surface boundary conditions for TKE. These congurations were reported to production-dissipation (condition I) or diffusion-dissipation (condition II) equilibrium of TKE under a wind-wavy surface. Surface eddy viscosity of about one order of magnitude higher was obtained from condition II, which allowed a best eld data t. Numerical results showed also that longitudinal momentum dispersion is not very sensible to potential diffusion, whereas salt distribution is more effectively affected by the differences in induced surface turbulence. In this numerical study, a spatial discretization of estuary allowed the computation of eddy viscosity values t for each control volume, for which the Prandtl-Kolmogorov formulae give t C k2 1, where k is the TKE, is the dissipation rate of TKE, and C is a diffusivity coefcient. The values of t used in Equation (6) were calculated by integrating numerical results obtained for n cells situated in the deepest central part of the estuary as in Equation (12),

1 Vol

ncell t 1

(x, y, z)Vcell

(12)

ncell where Vcell is the cell volume and Vol Vcell. The es1 timated values of t were used in Equation (5) for evaluating the parameters and to be used in energy balance calculations. Theoretical vertical current proles were compared with eld measurements, as exemplied in Figure 3.

Timescale Analysis
In this paragraph, SCC dynamics is investigated with a timescale analysis. As a rst approach, one can consider an initial vertically well-mixed state, a typical observed situation at the SCC system. A theoretical question might be posed: How long would it take before a signicant stratication could develop if we remove all sources of turbulence? This question seems to be relevant when we want to anticipate a stratication to be observed during slack water periods, in what, at others times, seems to be a continuously wellmixed estuary. First, it should be remarked that even where the production of turbulence ceases abruptly (which is not usual because it would be equivalent to simultaneous rest waters and ab-

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that under conditions of small freshwater inputs in the SCC, the time necessary to establish stratication is greater than the time decay of turbulence after the source has been removed (and also greater than typical slack water timescales at the SCC), so the estuary will be vertically well-mixed during dry slack water periods. In contrast, the estimated timescale for tilting vertical isopycnals in rainy situations has the same order of magnitude as the turbulence relaxation time, indicating that stratication can be expected to develop in the SCC for observed higher freshwater inputs into the estuary. These results also correspond to eld data and the numerical simulation prognosis, as indicated by the previous works cited above.

CONCLUSION
Estuarine systems undergo different physical processes that simultaneously control their stratication and mixing dynamics. In this article, we presented a combination of empirical and theoretical analyses to achieve the relative importance of the stratication processes and mixing processes acting at Itamaraca estuary, a tropical estuarine system sur rounded by the elongated U-shaped Santa Cruz Channel. Results indicate that the energy available to mix the water column was 2.1- and 1.4-fold greater than that available to promote stratication during dry and rainy seasons, respectively. The bottom stirring caused by the tides was the major source of energy for vertical mixing. A theoretical analysis revealed that, during the dry season, the stratication timescale (30 min) was greater than the turbulence decay timescale (910 min). However, during the rainy season, the stratication timescale (7 min) had the same order of magnitude as the turbulence decay timescale (910 min). These results indicate that the Itamaraca estuary is a vertically well mixed/weakly stratied system during both periods (dry and rainy), except during rainy slack water periods, when stratication can be observed. Vertical eld proles of salinity and density obtained at SCC are shown in Figure 4. These measurements were sampled during the peak of rainy seasons and represent typical stratication levels observed at SCC (LEITE, 2005; MESQUITA, 2003). These eld data are in agreement with the theoretical results presented in this study, thus indicating that under conditions of important freshwater inputs, the available TKE falls to minimal levels during slack water periods, and a weak stratication can be expected to develop in the SCC. Despite the usefulness of global methods as important tools for examining the dynamics of data-poor systems, it is evident that further work at the SCC must look for a more detailed evaluation of the inuence of intratidal variability and turbulence on estuarine dynamics. This topic has been more effectively studied at temperate systems (DYER, 1986, 1997; LEWIS, 1997; OFFICER, 1976; UNCLES, 2002), whereas shallow tropical estuaries have little data. Signicant advances have been made recently because of developments in proling instrumentation (e.g., FLY, MSS, SWAMP, and SCAMP microstructure prolers). S IMPSON, SHARPLES, and RIPPETH (1996), for example, used a free-fall FLY proler to determine the variation in turbulent energy dissipation through the wa-

Figure 3. Representative comparison between measured ( ) and ana) current proles evaluated by the normalized depth (z/H) lytical ( vs. the normalized horizontal velocity (U/Um).

sence of surface wind stress), there is a nite decay timescale during which TKE is still available within the water column to work against buoyancy forces. This decaying delay is classically associated as the overturning time of the largest eddy, i.e., tT H(u 2) 1/2, where (u 2)1/2 is the root mean square turbulent velocity. Taking O(U(u 2) 1/2) 100 (typically (u 2)1/2 is on an order of 1%5% U), the turbulence decay timescale at the SCC is approximately 910 minutes for both seasons (dry and rainy). It is consequently reasonable to suppose that under this situation, the available TKE falls to minimal levels during slack water periods. On the other hand, in a nonturbulent environment, a set of initially vertical isopycnals might, following release, tilt under the action of gravity to produce stratication. This process has an order of timescale associated with the inverse of the Brunt-Vaisala frequency given by tS (g/l)( / ) 1/2, where l is the length of saline intrusion and is the density difference in the water column. Calculated values of tS are not the same for dry and rainy seasons. For dry periods, tS 30 minutes, whereas the rainy season yields tS 7 minutes. These results show initially

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Figure 4. Field vertical proles of salinity and density at the Catuama and Orange River mouths during the rainy season.

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ter column over a semidiurnal tidal cycle at mixed and stratied sites in the Irish Sea. They found that dissipation exhibited a strong quarter-diurnal variation and had a pronounced phase lag that increased with height above the bed. Other proling observations in coastal areas under freshwater inuence showed similar intratidal salinity variations to those observed in estuaries (GEYER, TROWBRIDGE, and BOWEN, 2000; NEPF and GEYER, 1996; RIPPETH, FISHER, and SIMPSON, 2001; UNCLES, 2002). The dominant mechanisms controlling stratication/mixing is the bed-generated turbulence, which induces an upward mixing that can be reduced/ suppressed in the presence of a density interface. These processes were also identied by L HERITIER (2001) and ARAUJO et al. (2005) at the coastal tropical zone of Suape Harbor (situated about 70 km southward of SCC). These authors combined high-resolution measurements (obtained with a freefall SCAMP probe) and one-dimensional numerical modeling for evaluating the vertical TKE balance during spring and neap semidiurnal tides. Results conrmed that tidal straining of the longitudinal salinity eld can result in nearly mixed or stratied conditions, depending on the strength of tidal currents. A priori, these are features that would be anticipated for tropical shallow estuaries in which tidal current speeds maximize twice per tide. All these recent studies indicate that the combination of numerical modeling and highfrequency eld measurements is a useful approach for understanding (and for quantifying) the intratidal variability of mixing-stratication dynamics in tropical estuarine systems like the Santa Cruz Channel.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are grateful to Isaac Cristiano de Freitas, Jose Vidal de Freitas, and Celine Stretta for their invaluable assistance during eldwork.

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RESUMO Os mecanismos de estraticac o e de mistura em estua a rios sa controlados por diferentes processos fsicos, que determinam a hidrodina o mica e o transporte de plancton, nutrientes e compostos organicos. Este artigo investiga as caractersticas que controlam a dinamica do estuario de Itamaraca Pernambuco (Nordeste do , Brasil), atraves de uma analise quantitativa e comparativa entre processos indutores de estraticac o, e processos indutores de mistura. Dados termodina a micos e cinematicos foram obtidos em campo durante as estacoes chuvosa e seca. Os resultados indicam que a intensidade de mistura na coluna da gua foi cerca de 1,5 a 2 vezes maior do que a capacidade de promover a estraticac o vertical. A turbule a ncia causada pelo cisalhamento das correntes de mare foi o fator mais importante para manter a mistura na coluna dagua. Durante a estacao seca, a escala de tempo de estraticac o (30 min) e maior do que a escala de tempo para o decaimento a turbulento (910 min), e tambem maior do que a escala de tempo tpica dos estofos de mare. Durante a estacao chuvosa, a escala de tempo para a estraticac o (7 a min) e da mesma magnitude da escala de tempo de decaimento turbulento (910 min). O estuario de Itamaraca comporta-se como um sistema verticalmente bem misturado/fracamente estraticado durante os perodos seco e chuvoso, exceto durante os estofos de mare da estac o chuvosa, quando e possvel ocorrer uma a estraticac o. Estes resultados teo a ricos conrmam as ana lises de dados de campo realizadas previamente, e os estudos recentes envolvendo simulac o nume a rica da circulacao no Canal de Santa Cruz.

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