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Inverting input
NC V+ Output
Typical Package
IdealversusPracticalOpAmp
Ideal op-amp characteristics: Zin = ; Av = ; bandwidth = ; Zout = 0 Practical op-amp characteristics:
Zin = very high (M); Av = very high (>100,000); Zout = very low (<100 ) bandwidth = few MHz range Vout and Iout have limitations
Viin + Zin
AvVin
Vout Zo
Op-amp representation
TheDifferentialAmplifier
+VCC RC1 Input 1 Q1 RE Circuit VEE Outputs 1 2 Q2 An op-amp typically consists of two or more differential amplifier stages. RC2 1 Inputs 2 Input 2 1 Outputs 2 Symbol
DifferentialInputOperation
2Vp Viin 1 1 Vout1 2Vp 2 2 Vout2 -Vin Differential or double-ended input has two out-of-phase signals at the inputs. f h i l h i Output has a peak that is doubled the peak (Vp) for single-ended operation single ended operation.
0V 0V
2 Vin
Two signals with the same phase, frequency, and amplitude pp p p are applied to the inputs. Output is zero due to cancellations. Thus, unwanted signals (noise) appearing at both input lines are essentially cancelled by the diff-amp and do not appear at the outputs.
OpAmpParameters Op AmpParameters
InputOffsetVoltage,VOS isthedifferenceinthevoltage betweentheinputsthatisnecessarytomakeVout(error) = ( ) 0.Vout(error) iscausedbyaslightmismatchofVBE1 and VBE2.TypicalvaluesofVOS are2mV. InputOffsetVoltageDrift specifieshowVOS changes withtemperature.TypicallyafewV/oC. InputBiasCurrent isthedccurrentrequiredbythe C h d db h inputsoftheamplifiertoproperlyoperatethefirststage. Bydefinition,itistheaverageofthetwoinputbias Bydefinition itistheaverageofthetwoinputbias currents,IBIAS =(I1 +I2)/2.
OpAmpParameters(cont d) Op AmpParameters(contd)
DifferentialInputImpedance isthetotalresistance betweentheinvertingandnoninvertinginputs. CommonmodeInputImpedance istheresistance betweeneachinputandground. InputOffsetCurrent isthedifferenceoftheinputbias currents:IOS =|I1 I2|,andVOS =IOSRin(CM).TypicallyinnA range. OutputImpedance istheresistanceviewedfromthe outputterminals. t tt i l OpenLoopVoltageGain,Aol,isthegainoftheopamp withoutanyexternalfeedbackconnections. withoutanyexternalfeedbackconnections
OpAmpParameters(cont d) Op AmpParameters(contd)
CommonmodeRejectionRatio foropampisdefinedas CMRR=Aol/Acm or20log(Aol/Acm) indB. SlewRate isthemaximumrateofchangeoftheoutput voltageinresponsetoastepinputvoltage.Slewrate= vout/t,wherevout =+Vmax (Vmax).Theunitsforslew rateisV/s. FrequencyResponse isthechangeinamplifiergain h h lf versusfrequencyandislimitedbyinternaljunction capacitances. capacitances Otherfeaturesincludeshortcircuitprotection,nolatch up,andinputoffsetnulling. up andinputoffsetnulling
NegativeFeedback
Sincetheopenloopgainoftheopampisvery high,anextremelysmallinputvoltage(suchas VOS)woulddrivetheopampintosaturation. Byfeedingaportionoftheoutputvoltagetothe invertinginputoftheopamp(negative feedback),theclosedloopvoltagegain(A feedback) theclosed loopvoltagegain(Acl) can bereducedandcontrolled(i.e.stable)forlinear operations. operations Negativefeedbackalsoprovidesforcontrolof Zin,Zout,andtheamplifiersbandwidth. Z dth lifi b d idth
InvertingAmplifier I ti A lifi
Virtual Ground Ri Vin 0V + Rf
Vout
AssumingZin betweenveand+ve b d terminalsisinfinite, currentintove i terminaliszero. Therefore,Iin =Vin/Ri isequaltoIf =Vout/Rf Rearranging,
Acl ( I )
Rf Vout = = Vin Ri
Noninverting Amplifier
Rf Vf Ri Feedback voltage, Vf = BVout, where
B= Ri Ri + R f
Aol + Vin
VoltageFollower V lt F ll
VFisaspecialcaseof thenoninverting h i i amplifier. SinceB=1,Acl(VF)=1 IthasaveryhighZin, y g , andaverylowZout Idealasabuffer amplifier.
+ Vin
Vout
ImpedancesofFeedbackAmplifiers
Inverting Amplifier: Zin(I) Ri ; Zout(I) Zout Noninverting Amplifier: Zin(NI) = (1 + BAol)Zin
Z out ( NI ) Z out = 1 + BAol
BiasCurrentCompensation
Rf = Rs Vin Rs Rf Ri Viin
+ Rc = Ri//Rf Vout
Rf
Inverting Amplifier
InputOffsetVoltageCompensation
7 +V Offset null Invert Noninvert V1 741 8 2 NC V+ Output Offset null
741 + 1 4 5 10 k
-V With no input, the potentiometer is adjusted until the output voltage is 0V.
OpAmpRepresentation Op AmpRepresentation
R Vout
Aol =
Aol ( mid ) f 1+ f c ( ol )
fc
Vin
Aol(mid) + C Op-amp O
Phase shift:
f = tan f c
1
-45o -90o
Aol(mid)
Open-loop gain
fc(ol)
fc(cl)
OpAmpBandwidth Op AmpBandwidth
Openloopbandwidth:BWol =fc(ol) Closedloopcriticalfrequency: Closed loopcriticalfrequency: fc(cl) =fc(ol)(1+BAol(mid)) Sincef Si fc(cl) =BWcl,theclosedloopbandwidthis: BW th l d l b d idthi BWcl =BWol(1+BAol(mid)) GainBandwidthProduct isaconstantaslongas therolloffrateisfixed: Aclfc(cl) =Aolfc(ol) =unitygainbandwidth
PositiveFeedback&Stability
Positivefeedback,wheretheoutputsignalbeingfed backisinphasetotheinput,willcausetheamplifierto b k h h ll h lf oscillatewhentheloopgain,AolB=1. Phasemargin,pm ,istheamountofadditionalphase shiftrequiredtomakethetotalphaseshiftaroundthe feedbackloop360o. Toensurestabilityforallmidrangefrequencies,anop y g q , p ampmustbeoperatedwithanAcl suchthattherolloff ratebeginningatfc is= 20dB/decade. g g / Gainmarginistheamountofadditionalgainrequired tomakethetotalgainaroundthefeedbackloopequals 1whenthephaseshiftis360o.UsuallygivenindB.
PhaseCompensation
Aol Uncompensated Aol With some compensation With more compensation ti
fc1
fc2
fc3
CompensatingCircuit
Compensationisusedtoeithereliminateopen looproll offratesgreaterthan 20dB/decor looprolloffratesgreaterthan20dB/decor extendthe20dB/decratetoalowergain. TwobasicmethodsofcompensationforICop TwobasicmethodsofcompensationforICop amps:internalandexternal. IneithercaseanRCseriescircuitisaddedsothat I ith RC i i iti dd d th t itscriticalfrequencyislessthanthedominant (i.e.lowest)fc oftheinternallagcircuitsofthe (i l t)f fth i t ll i it fth opamp.
OpAmpCompensation Op AmpCompensation
Someopamps(e.g.741)arefullycompensated internally,i.e.,their 20dB/decslopeisextended internally,i.e.,their20dB/decslopeisextended allthewaydowntounitygain.Hence,theyare unconditionallystable. Adisadvantageoffullycompensatedopampsis thatthebandwidthandslewratearereduced. thatthebandwidthandslewratearereduced Manyopamps(e.g.LM101A)haveprovisionsfor externalcompensationwithasmallcapacitor. t l ti ith ll it Thisallowsforoptimumperformance.
Because of the high open-loop voltage gain, a very small gain difference voltage between the + and - inputs drives the amplifier output into either +Vsat or -Vsat. p p
+ Vin
Vref can also be set by other means, e.g. a battery or a zener diode.
ComparatorWithHysteresis (SchmittTrigger)
Vin
+Vsat Vout R1 R2 0 -Vsat VUT Vin 0 VLT Hysteresis is achieved by positive i i hi d b ii feedback and makes the comparator less sensitive to noise on the input. input t t
OutputBoundingWithOne Zener
D Vin R +VZ Vout 0 Vout Vin 0 -0.7 t
A single zener diode can be used to limit the output voltage to the zener voltage in one direction and to the forward diode on the other.
OutputBoundingWithtwo Zeners D D
1 2
Vin
Two zener diodes would limit the output voltage to the zener voltage plus the forward voltage drop (0.7V) of the forward-biased zener . g p( )
WindowComparator
VU Vin VL _ + _ + R Vout 0 t D1 D2 VU Vin VL 0 Vout
The window comparator detects when an input voltage is between two limits, an upper and a lower, called a window.
ComparatorApplication#1 C t A li ti #1
+V R1 R Wheatstone bridge R1 isathermistor. Attemperaturesbelowset value,R1 >R2;opampoutput gg isVsat anddoesnottrigger alarmcircuit. Whentemperaturerisesand p exceedscriticalvalue,R1 <R2; opampoutputturnsto+Vsat whichturnsonalarmor hi h l initiateanappropriate response. response
+ R2 R
To alarm circuit
ComparatorApplication#2
Vref Vin (analog) R R R R + _ + _ + _ The simultaneous or fl h analog-toflash l digital converter (ADC) uses parallel D1 Binary comparators to p D0 output compare the linear input signal with various reference lt d l d voltages developed by a voltage divider. Enable input p
OperationofFlashADC
WhenVin exceedsVref foragivencomparator,its outputbecomeshigh. Thepriorityencoderproducesabinarynumber representingthehighestvalueinput. representingthehighestvalueinput Theencodersamplesitsinputonlywhen enabled. bl d Thehigherthesamplingratethebetterthe accuracy. 2n 1comparatorsarerequiredforconversionto p q anndigitbinarynumber.
SummingAmplifier
Vin1 Vin2 R1 R2 Rf By making R1 = R2 = = RN = R:
Vout
VinN
RN
Vout =
Rf R
OpAmpIntegrator Op AmpIntegrator
C Ri Vin Vin
Vout 0 0
t t
Vout
OpAmpDifferentiator Op AmpDifferentiator
Rf C Vin Vin
Vout 0 Vo t out
Vout
Viin = R f C t
Vin1 +Vcm
BasicInstrumentation Amplifier p
+ R3 1 R5
RG
R1 R2
+ R4 3
Vin2 +Vcm + 2
R6
2R Acl = 1+ RG
NotesonInstrumentation Amplifier p
Themainpurposeofaninstrumentation amplifieristoamplifysmallsignalsthatare ridingonlargecommonmodevoltages. Commonlyusedinenvironmentswithhigh commonmodenoise,e.g.,remotetemperature orpressuresensingoveralongtransmissionline. orpressuresensingoveralongtransmissionline Itsmaincharacteristicsare:highZin,highCMRR, lowoutputoffset,andlowZ l t t ff t dl Zout AtypicalICinstrumentationamplifier:AD521
OperationalTransconductance Amplifiers
TheOTAisprimarilyavoltagetocurrent amplifierwhereIout =gmVin. ThevoltagetocurrentgainofanOTAisthe transconductance,gm =KIBIASwhereKis t d t KI h Ki dependentontheinternalcircuitdesign.
_ Inputs + IBIAS Output
BasicOTACircuit B i OTACi it
+V RBIAS Vout RL -V Inverting amp with fixed voltage gain
Vin
R1
_ OTA +
R2
Thevoltagegainof theamp.,|AV| mRL h |A |=g Forvariablegain, connectapot.to RBIAS IfRBIAS isconnected toaseparatebias p voltage:VBIAS + V 0.7 +
I BIAS = RBIAS
OTAAmplitudeModulator
+V V MOD R1 RBIAS Vout RL -V Vout VMOD Vin
Vin
_ OTA +
R2
I BIAS
LogAmplifiers
Thebasiclogamplifierproducesanoutput voltageasafunctionofthelogarithmofthe inputvoltage;i.e.,Vout =Kln(Vin),whereKisa constant. Recallthattheadiodehasanexponential characteristicuptoaforwardvoltageof approximately0.7V. Hence,thesemiconductorpnjunctioninthe H th i d t j ti i th formofadiodeorthebaseemitterjunctionofa BJTcanbeusedtoprovidealogarithm BJT b dt id l ith characteristic.
Diode&BJTLogAmplifiers
Vin R1 _ Vout + + Vin R1 _ Vout
Vout
Vin V 0.025 ln I R R 1
Vout
Vout
Atransistorora diodecanbeusedas di d b d theinputelement. Theoperationofthe circuitisbasedonthe factthatVout =RfIC, andIC =IEBOeVin/K whereK 0.025V
ConstantCurrentSource C t t C tS
IL
Forthebasic constantcurrent circuit,theopamp hasaveryhighZin, h hi hZ thus,IL =Ii. IfRLchanges,IL remainsconstantas longasVIN andRi are heldconstant.
Ri Ii VIN
_ +
RL
VIN I L = Ii = Ri
CurrenttoVoltageConverter C t t V lt C t
Rf Sincetheinverting Ii If terminalisatvirtual Vin i li i l _ ground, Voutt Vout =IfRf =IiRf + Astheamountof lightchanges,the Circuit for sensing light level currentthroughthe g and converting it to a d i i photocellchanges; proportional output voltage thus Vout =|Ii|Rf
VoltagetoCurrentConverter V lt t C tC t
NeglectingVIO,the() V in and(+)terminalsare d( ) i l atthesamevoltage, Vin.Therefore,VR1 = Th f V Vin. SinceI=0, IL =I1 =Vin/R1
+ _ I=0
IL I1
RL R1
PeakDetector P kD t t
Whenapositive voltageisapplied,the l i li d h outputchargesthe Vin capacitoruntilVC = i ilV Vin(max). Ifagreaterinput peakoccurs,the capacitorchargesto thenewpeak.
Ri + _ Vout Rf C
VA
R1 R2 R3
Comparator
1 R2 f = 4R1C R3