Geology Rocks and Minerals

- the study of rocks

The Earth was formed about 4.6 billion years ago. The planet was so hot that the entire Earth was molten or liquid. As the Earth cooled, the lightest materials floated to the top and the heaviest materials sank to the center. The outer part of the Earth, the crust, consists of the lightest rock

Rocks
- are made of two or more different minerals that have been: cemented together, or squeezed and heated together, or melted and cooled together. - make up the majority of the Earth's crust.

Classification of rocks

The three main rock classifications are Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic. Rocks are classified into these groups by the way they were formed.

Rocks that formed from magma are called igneous rocks. Igneous comes from the Latin word ignis which means "fire". Rocks that are formed from heat and pressure are called metamorphic rocks. Rocks that are formed from the cementing together of small pieces of rocks or shells are called sedimentary rocks.

Igneous Rocks
Came from the Latin word igneus which means fire. Formed when molten or partially molten material, called magma, cools and solidifies

Two types of Igneous rocks

Intrusive or Plutonic rocks -formed when magma inside the earth solidifies and hardens. Ex: Granite, Dacite and Gabbro. Extrusive or Volcanic rocks -brought about the magma coming out of the earths surface through cracks or which gushed out of volcanoes. Ex.: Basalt, Andesite, and Pumice

Igneous Rocks

Granite is an igneous rock that is composed of four minerals. These minerals are quartz, feldspar, mica, and usually hornblende. Granite forms as magma cools far under the earth's surface. Because it hardens deep underground it cools very slowly. This allows crystals of the four minerals to grow large enough to be easily seen by the naked eye. Look at the photo of granite above, notice the different crystals in the rock. Granite is an excellent material for building bridges and buildings because it can withstand thousands of pounds of pressure. It is also used for monuments because it weathers slowly. Engravings in the granite can be read for hundreds of years, making the rock more valuable.

Igneous Rocks Basalts are dark

colored, fine-grained extrusive rock. The mineral grains are so fine that they are impossible to distinguish with the naked eye or even a magnifying glass. They are the most widespread of all the igneous rocks. Most basalts are volcanic in origin and were formed by the rapid cooling and hardening of the lava flows. Some basalts are intrusive having cooled inside the Earth's interior.

Igneous Rocks

Dacite is an extrusive igneous rock. The principle minerals that make up dacite are plagioclase, quartz, pyroxene, or hornblende.

Igneous Rocks

Obsidian is a very shiny natural volcanic glass. When obsidian breaks it fractures with a distinct conchoidal fracture. Notice in the photo to the left how it fractures. Obsidian is produced when lava cools very quickly. The lava cools so quickly that no crystals can form. When people make glass they melt silica rocks like sand and quartz then cool it rapidly by placing it in water. Obsidian is produced in nature in a similar way. Obsidian is usually black or a very dark green, but it can also be found in an almost clear form. Ancient people throughout the world have used obsidian for arrowheads, knives, spearheads, and cutting tools of all kinds. Today obsidian is used as a scalpel by doctors in very sensitive eye operations.

Igneous Rocks

Obsidian is a very shiny natural volcanic glass. When obsidian breaks it fractures with a distinct conchoidal fracture. Notice in the photo to the left how it fractures. Obsidian is produced when lava cools very quickly. The lava cools so quickly that no crystals can form. When people make glass they melt silica rocks like sand and quartz then cool it rapidly by placing it in water. Obsidian is produced in nature in a similar way. Obsidian is usually black or a very dark green, but it can also be found in an almost clear form. Ancient people throughout the world have used obsidian for arrowheads, knives, spearheads, and cutting tools of all kinds. Today obsidian is used as a scalpel by doctors in very sensitive eye operations.

Igneous Rocks

Gabbro is a darkcolored, coarse-grained intrusive igneous rock. Gabbro is very similar to basalt in its mineral make up. It is composed mostly of the mineral plagioclase feldspar with smaller amounts of pyroxene and olivine.

Igneous Rocks

Rhyolite is very closely related to granite. The difference is rhyolite has much finer crystals. These crystals are so small that they can not be seen by the naked eye. Rhyolite is an extrusive igneous rock having cooled much more rapidly than granite, giving it a glassy appearance. The minerals that make up rhyolite are quartz, feldspar, mica, and hornblende

Igneous Rocks

Pumice is a very light colored, frothy volcanic rock. Pumice is formed from lava that is full of gas. The lava is ejected and shot through the air during an eruption. As the lava hurtles through the air it cools and the gases escape leaving the rock full of holes. Pumice is so light that it actually floats on water. Huge pumice blocks have been seen floating on the ocean after large eruptions. Some lava blocks are large enough to carry small animals. Pumice is ground up and used today in soaps, abrasive cleansers, and also in polishes.

Sedimentary Rocks

came from the Latin word sedere which means to settle. forms when layers of sediment are compacted and cemented together
Sediment forms by erosional processes, such as weathering by wind or water currents.

Three categories of Sedimentary Rocks:

Clastic Rocks- a fragment of rock produced by the breaking down of larger rocks. (small pieces of rocks) Ex: sandstone, siltstone and shale. Chemical Rocks- are formed from precipitation or solidification of minerals usually from seawater or lake water. Ex: rock gypsum, rock salt, chert/flint. Organic Rocks- form when traces of animals and plants accumulate. Ex: coal and peat.

Sedimentary Rocks

Conglomerate is a clastic sedimentary rock that forms from the cementing of rounded cobble and pebble sized rock fragments. Conglomerate is formed by river movement or ocean wave action. The cementing agents that fill the spaces to form the solid rock conglomerate are silica, calcite, or iron oxides.

Sedimentary Rocks

Breccia is formed in a very similar fashion to conglomerate. The difference between the two rocks is that breccia's rock fragments are very sharp and angular. These rock fragments have not been transported by water, wind, or glaciers long enough to be rounded and smoothed like in the conglomerate. The cementing agents silica, calcite (CaCO3), and iron oxides are the same as in conglomerate.

Sedimentary Rocks

Chert is a very hard sedimentary rock that is usually found in nodules in limestone. Chert is light gray to dark gray in color. It probably formed from the remains of ancient sea sponges or other ocean animals that have been fossilized. Silica has replaced the tissue forming the sedimentary rock. Flint is a very dark form of chert. It breaks like obsidian with conchoidal fractures making it widely used by ancient people to make arrowheads, spear heads, and knives.

Sedimentary Rocks

Halite is common table salt. It forms where brackish (salty) lakes or sea beds dry up. This evaporation of the water causes the salt to precipitate forming the salt crystals. Halite frequently occurs in crystal form. It is usually colorless but can be reddish brown because of iron oxides in the water that it forms in. Halite has perfect cleavage and a hardness of 2.5 on the Mohs hardness scale.

Sedimentary Rocks
Limestone is the most abundant of the non-clastic sedimentary rocks. Limestone is produced from the mineral calcite (calcium carbonate) and sediment. The main source of limestone is the limy ooze formed in the ocean. The calcium carbonate can be precipitated from ocean water or it can be formed from sea creatures that secrete lime such as algae and coral. Chalk is another type of limestone that is made up of very small single-celled organisms. Chalk is usually white or gray in color. Limestone can easily be dissolved by acids.

Sedimentary Rocks

Sandstone is a clastic sedimentary rock that forms from the cementing together of sand sized grains forming a solid rock. Quartz is the most abundant mineral that forms sandstone. Calcium carbonate, silica, or iron has been added to the water that is in contact with the sand grains. These minerals grow crystals in the spaces around the sand grains. As the crystals fill the gaps the individual sand grains are now transformed into a solid rock.

Metamorphic Rocks

Came from the Latin word meta which means change and morphe which means form. Formed when extreme temperatures and pressures deep within the earth alter the mineralogical or structural aspects of existing rock. Transformation from one set of minerals to another set of minerals in the rock is called metamorphism.

Two types of Metamorphic Rocks

Foliated- minerals have been rearranged into visible layers. Ex: slate, schist, and gneiss. Non-Foliated- which does not show layering or bonding. Ex: marble, quartzite and serpentinite.

Metamorphic Rocks

Marble is metamorphosed limestone or dolomite. Both limestone and dolomite have a large concentration of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Marble has many different sizes of crystals. Marble has many color variances due to the impurities present at formation. Some of the different colors of marble are white, red, black, mottled and banded, gray, pink, and green. Marble is much harder than its parent rock. This allows it to take a polish which makes it a good material for use as a building material, making sink tops, bathtubs, and a carving stone for artists. Today, headstones are made from marble and granite because both of these rocks weather very slowly and carve well with sharp edges.

Metamorphic Rock

Slate is a fine-grained metamorphic rock with perfect cleavage that allows it to split into thin sheets. Slate usually has a light to dark brown streak. Slate is produced by low grade metamorphism, which is caused by relatively low temperatures and pressures. Slate has been used by man in a variety of ways over the years. One use for slate was in the making of headstones or grave markers. Slate is not very hard and can be engraved easily. The problem with slate though is its perfect cleavage. The slate headstones would crack and split along these cleavage planes. This is not a desirable attribute for a head stone. Slate was also used for chalk boards. The black color was good as a background and the rock cleaned easily with water. Today it is not very advantageous to use this rock because of its weight and the splitting and cracking over time.

Metamorphic Rocks

Schist is a medium grade metamorphic rock. This means that it has been subjected to more heat and pressure than slate, which is a low grade metamorphic rock. As you can see in the photo above schist is a more coarse grained rock. The individual grains of minerals can be seen by the naked eye. Many of the original minerals have been altered into flakes. Because it has been squeezed harder than slate it is often found folded and crumpled. Schists are usually named by the main mineral from which they are formed. Bitotite mica schist, hornblende schist, garnet mica schist, and talc schist are some examples of this.

Metamorphic Rocks

Gneiss is a high grade metamorphic rock. This means that gneiss has been subjected to more heat and pressure than schist. Gneiss is coarser than schist and has distinct banding. This banding has alternating layers that are composed of different minerals. The minerals that compose gneiss are the same as granite. Feldspar is the most important mineral that makes up gneiss along with mica and quartz. Gneiss can be formed from a sedimentary rock such as sandstone or shale, or it can be formed from the metamorphism of the igneous rock granite. Gneiss can be used by man as paving and building stone

Metamorphic Rocks

Quartzite is composed of sandstone that has been metamorphosed. Quartzite is much harder than the parent rock, sandstone. It forms from sandstone that has come into contact with deeply buried magmas. Quartzite looks similar to its parent rock. The best way to tell quartzite from sandstone is to break the rocks. Sandstone will shatter into many individual grains of sand while quartzite will break across the grains

Metamorphic Rocks

Organic sedimentary rocks form from the build up and decay of plant and animal material. This usually forms in swamp regions in which there is an abundant supply of growing vegetation and low amounts of oxygen. The vegetation builds so quickly that new layers of vegetation bury the dead and decaying material very quickly. The bacteria that decay the vegetation need oxygen to survive. Because these decaying layers are buried so fast the bacteria use up what oxygen there is available and can not finish the decomposition of the vegetation. The overlaying layers become so heavy that they squeeze out the water and other compounds that aid in decay. This compressed vegetation forms coal. The longer and deeper that coal is buried makes it of higher quality. Peat is the first stage of coal formation. Lignite is the next grade of coal followed by bituminous and the highest grade, anthracite. Anthracite is actually a metamorphic rock. It forms during mountain building when compaction and friction are extremely high. This form of coal burns very hot and almost smokeless. It is used in the production of high grade steel.

Most of the Earth's surface rocks are covered by soil or clay. Soil contains very small crushed pieces of rock and organic (plant and animal remains) material. Plants such as grass and trees grow in this region of the crust. The photo above shows a recent eruption of ash that has covered and burned an area of dense vegetation in Hawaii. The lava has cooled and is now a volcanic rock called basalt. The weathering process will break the basalt down into small, finer pieces of rock called soil. This process can take a few years or thousands of years to produce soil fine enough for plants to grow well in. The soil will become fertile when bacteria decomposes plant and animal material adding nutrients for living plants. Rocks are produced in a variety of ways and have been cycled in some area many times. This cycling of the rocks is called the rock cycle.

The Rock Cycle

The rock cycle shows how the earth's rocks are changed again and again. The rocks can be changed at times to another type of rock. The rock cycle can begin anywhere in the cycle.

Diagram 1 shows layers of rocks around and under a volcano. The white blocks are a sedimentary rock called limestone. Limestone forms on the bottom of the ocean over many, many years. The fish and shelled sea animals decompose and their bones and shells break down into a chemical called calcium carbonate (CaCO3). This is the cementing agent that binds the sediments that fall to the sea floor into the rock called limestone. Magma has pushed its way to the surface and is now coming into contact with the surrounding rock layers. Diagram 2 shows the limestone being heated by the magma and changing to the metamorphic rock called marble (Yellow).

The Rock Cycle

-the study of minerals

There are 92 naturally occurring elements on earth but only eight elements make over 98% of the minerals on the Earth's crust. There are over 2000 minerals on Earth, but only 100 are commonly found. 30 minerals make up the majority of the rocks on Earth.

Minerals

are inorganic compounds that are found naturally on the earths crust. is a solid material, made of one substance, that occurs naturally on Earth.

Visible Characteristics of Minerals

Color Streak Luster Crystal

Form Cleavage Fracture

Color

Is the easiest of the properties to see, but it is not always the best way to identify mineral. Many minerals have more than one color because of impurities that were present during the formation of the mineral

Triclinic crystal

Streak

is a test used by a geologist to see the color of the mineral under the top layer or coating on the mineral. it allows the geologist to see under the outer layer which could have a different color due to the mineral being exposed to the atmosphere.

Luster

is a property of a mineral that tells how the mineral reflects light. it gives you an indication of how "Shiny" a mineral is. The two main ways that geologists categorize a mineral's luster is Metallic and Non-metallic.

Crystal Form

Most of the common minerals are made of crystals. A Crystal is a solid formed by a repeating, threedimensional pattern of atoms, ions, or molecules and having fixed distances between the different parts.

Triclinic crystal

Crystal Form

Hexagonal crystal

Apatite crystal

Crystal Form

Minerals that do not grow in these regular or crystalline patterns are called Amorphous solids. Some minerals can be both crystalline and amorphous. Quartz is a mineral made from one substance SiO2 (Silicon Oxide) that has a definite chemical composition, but can be amorphous or crystalline.

Cleavage

Some minerals have a tendency to split or crack along parallel or flat planes. These planes along which the mineral breaks are called cleavage planes. If the mineral splits easily along these planes the mineral is then said to have perfect cleavage.

Fracture

is related to cleavage. occurs when a mineral breaks at random lines instead of at consistent cleavage planes. Many minerals that have no cleavage or poor cleavage fracture easily.

The Biotite mica on the far left splits into sheets that are perfectly parallel (perfect cleavage). They form because of weak and strong bonds between the mica layers.

The feldspar breaks into two planes at consistent angles. Feldspar is an example of a mineral with cleavage in more than one direction.

Quartz is a mineral that has no cleavage at all. Quartz shatters likes glass when struck with a hammer. Quartz is a mineral that has (glass-like) conchodial fracture. The obsidian on the far right is a good example of a rock that also has conchodial fracture.

Special Properties of Minerals

Magnetism Electrical properties Fluorescence and phosphorescence Radioactivity Temperature of fusion Optical property

Magnetism

Only two minerals on earth are magnetic. They both have high quantities of iron. Magnetite is one of the magnetic minerals and pyrrhotite is the other. Magnetite was used by ancient sailors for compasses. They would chip off needles of magnetite and float them on water and watch the needle point to the north

Measurable Physical Qualities of Minerals

Hardness is the resistance to being scratched. It is determined by the strength of the bonds holding the minerals together. Specific Gravity - is a number that tells how many times heavier a given volume of the substance is than equal volume of water.

Two Main Groups of Minerals

Silicates contain a basic silicon-oxygen tetrahedral unit either alone or connected together in the crystal structure. This group does not only contain silicon and oxygen but other elements as well. It is dived into 3 subgroups: ferromagnesian made up of iron, magnesium, calcium, and other elements (ex: olivine, biotite, augite, hornblende) o Non-ferromagnesian do not have iron and magnesium (ex. Feldspar, white mica or muscovite, quartz); o Clay materials (ex. Kaolinite, chlorite)

Two Main Groups of Minerals

Non silicates comprise 8% of the minerals on the Earths crust. This group is not made up of silicon-oxygen tetrahedrons. It is subdivided into group namely, Carbonates (ex. Calcite, dolomite); o Sulfides (ex. Pyrite, galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite); o Phosphates (ex. Apatite); o Halides (ex. Halite, fluorite) o Oxides (ex. Aluminum oxides, hematite, magnetite); o Sulfates (ex. Anhydrite, gypsum); o Hydroxides o Native elements

Some Examples of Minerals

Native Copper
Sulfur Native Platinum

Native Silver

Iron-Nickel

Gold

Native Gold

Native Mercury

Augite is a greenishblack mineral that is found in many igneous rocks. It is found in many basic and ultrabasic igneous rocks such as gabbro and basalt. Augite has a hardness of 5-6.5 with a vitreous luster and a prismatic cleavage.

Magnetite is a mineral that has a very high iron content. Magnetite has a black or brownish-red color and a black streak. It has a hardness of about 6 on the Mohs hardness scale. It is one of two minerals in the world that is naturally magnetic. Magnetite, also known as lodestone. Magnetite is an important source of iron ore and occurs in many igneous rocks.

Hematite is the most important source of iron ore in the world. The production of iron has been important to nations of the world for over 2500 years. Today the addition of other minerals to iron has lead to the production of steel which is vital to the economy of the major countries on Earth. Hematite has a red or black color but the streak is always red. The iron in the hematite turns red when it comes in contact with water and oxygen. In other words this rock is rusted!! Hematite has a metallic or earthy luster. The hardness of hematite is about 5 on Mohs hardness scale. It has no cleavage and breaks with an uneven fracture. The reddish landscape of Mars is due to the oxidized iron on its surface. This tells us that water and oxygen must have been present on Mars at one time.

Quartz is a common mineral that is found in many different types of rocks. The chemical formula is silicon oxide (SiO2). One type of quartz is easily identified by its hexagonal crystals, but quartz can also be found in a large mass. Quartz can be broken or weathered into the tiny pieces we know as sand. Quartz is a very hard mineral and in fact is the hardest of the common minerals. Quartz is number seven on the Mohs hardness scale. Quartz is also chemically stable, which means that it weathers very slowly. Quartz is used by humans in producing optical instruments and electical devices. It is also used to make sandpaper and grinding tools.

Galena (PbS) is an important source of lead. Galena may also contain silver. Lead was used in pencils and paint until it was found to be poisonous to humans . Today pencil "lead" is made of another mineral called graphite. Lead is used for fishing weights. Galena usually occurs in cubic crystals. Hitting a sample of galena with a hammer it will shatter into small perfect cubic crystals. It has a metallic luster and a black to dark gray color and streak. Galena has a hardness of about 2.5 on Mohs hardness scale which is about as hard as your finger nail.

Pyrite is also known as iron sulfide. It is one of the most common minerals on the Earth's surface. Many people call pyrite "Fools Gold" because the crystal resemble gold in color. Pyrite is much harder than gold and it looses its glitter quickly when exposed to the air. When it is rubbed on a streak plate the streak will be green to dark gray. Pyrite has a hardness of 6.5 on the Mohs hardness scale. Its cleavage is cubic or not distinct.

Pyroxene is one of the three main minerals that makes up basalt. The most common pyroxenes are magnesium, calcium, and iron silicates. A common pyroxene is augite which is very abundant in many igneous rocks such as basalt and gabbro.

Hornblende is a mineral that contains magnesium, iron, silica and aluminum. Hornblende is black, brown and green in color. It occurs in crystals of many igneous rocks.

Diamond

Graphite is very similar chemically to a diamond. (Both are both pure carbon). The difference is the amount of heat and pressure that has been put onto the two minerals. Diamond is the hardest natural element on Earth with a hardness of 10 which is the maximum on the Mohs hardness scale, while Graphite is a very soft mineral with a hardness between 1 and 2. Graphite has a black streak and was probably formed by the metamorphism of plant remains or by the crystallization of ancient magmas. Today graphite is used for "lead" in pencils. Lead is poisonous to humans and has not been used for many years in pencils. Graphite is also used in the paint industry.

Feldspar is the most abundant mineral in rocks that are located at or near the earth's surface. Feldspar can have glassy white, blue, green, or red crystals. All feldspars contain silica and aluminum.

When feldspars are exposed to the atmosphere they break down or weather easily. When they are broken down, feldspar forms other minerals, many of which are clay minerals. Feldspars also contain potassium which is a major nutrient for plant growth.

The clays formed by weathered feldspar are used by pottery manufacturing plants. Kaolinite is the highest quality of the feldspar clays used by potters. Feldspar is number 6 on the Mohs hardness scale.

Plagioclase is a member of the feldspar mineral family. Plagioclase feldspars are yet another silicate that contains considerable sodium or calcium. Feldspar crystals are stubby prisms, generally white to gray and a glassy luster. This variety of plagioclase, called albite, is rich in sodium.

Potassium feldspar is another member of the feldspar mineral family. Like plagioclase feldspar, potassium feldspars are silicate minerals that contain a considerable amount of -you guessed it- potassium. Feldspar crystals are stubby prisms, often pink to white. Some potassium feldspars, such as the one shown to the left have a streaky appearance called perthitic texture.

Micas are another group of silicate minerals It is a mineral that can be split into very thin sheets. These sheets can be so thin that 1000 can be layered into mica 1 inch high.

Mica can be clear, black, green, red, yellow, and brown. Clear mica is called Muscovite because it is found near Moscow, Russia and was used as window glass in the Muscovite's homes. Muscovite contains water which helps to make it clear. Biotite mica is dark green to black in color because it contains iron and magnesium. It is used in the manufacturing of electronic and electrical devices.

All micas form flat, book-like crystals that peal apart into individual sheets on cleavage planes. Crystals cleave into smooth flakes. Biotite is dark, black or brown mica; muscovite, shown here, is light-colored or clear mica. Mica is so soft that you can scratch it with a fingernail.

The amphiboles are a family of silicate minerals that form prism or needlelike crystals. Amphibole minerals generally contain iron, magnesium, calcium and aluminum in varying amounts along with silicon, oxygen, and water. Hornblende, shown in this image, is a common dark green to black variety of amphibole; it is a component in many igneous and metamorphic rocks.

Olivine is another silicate mineral containing iron and magnesium. It is a green, glassy mineral that forms at high temperature. It is common in basalt and in ultramafic rocks. Gem-quality olivine is called peridote. A rock made up entirely of olivine is called dunite.

Calcite is made of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Generally white to clear, it is easily scratched with knife. Most seashells are made of calcite or related minerals. It is found in limestone and marble. It is the cementing agent that binds sediments together into sedimentary rocks. Marble is metamorphosed (changed by heat and pressure) limestone.

The crystals formed from pure calcite are in the form of a perfect rhomboid. A rhomboid is a six-sided solid object in which the opposite sides are parallel. It has perfect cleavage in three directions. Hitting calcite with a hammer will break it into smaller but perfectly shaped rhomboids. Calcite is number two on Mohs hardness scale. Calcite is the material that forms stalactites and stalagmites in caves. Calcite is used as a fertilizer, cement, chalk, building stone, and for the manufacture of optical instruments.

Dolomite is both a mineral and a rock. Dolomite is a calcium-magnesium carbonate. It is very similar to calcite and limestone in its chemical make up. Dolomite is white or light pink in color. It has a hardness of 3.5 - 4 and only will react to acid when it is heated or in powdered form. Dolomite is used as a building stone and as a source of magnesium.

Talc is a mineral that has perfect cleavage and a greasy or soapy feel. It is given the distinction of being number 1 on Mohs hardness scale. Talc is also called soapstone which is used by artists for sculptures. Talc can be ground up into talcum powder. Ground talc is also used to make crayons, paint, paper, and soap.

end of the second presentation