Fingerprint Identification

PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION
By MELCON S. LAPINA, MSCrim

4th Place, Criminologists Licensure Board Examinations, October 1996, Manila
CHAPTER 1
History of Fingerprint Identification
HISTORY OF FINGERPRINTS
Why Fingerprint Identification? Fingerprints offer an infallible means of personal identification. That is the essential explanation for their having supplanted other methods of establishing the identities of criminals reluctant to admit previous arrests. The science of fingerprint Identification stands out among all other forensic sciences for many reasons, including the following:
Compiled by Melcon S. Lapina, MSCrim
www.criminologyreviewer.weebly.com
Has
served all governments worldwide during the past 100 years to provide accurate identification of criminals. No two fingerprints have ever been found alike in many billions of human and automated computer comparisons. Fingerprints are the very basis for criminal history foundation at every police agency.
Established
the first forensic professional organization, the International Association for Identification (IAI), in 1915.
Established
the first professional certification program for forensic scientists, the IAI's Certified Latent Print Examiner program (in 1977), issuing certification to those meeting stringent criteria and revoking certification for serious errors such as erroneous identifications.
Remains
the most commonly used forensic evidence worldwide in most jurisdictions fingerprint examination cases match or outnumber all other forensic examination casework combined.
Continues
to expand as the premier method for identifying persons, with tens of thousands of persons added to fingerprint repositories daily in America alone - far outdistancing similar databases in growth.
Outperforms
DNA and all other human identification systems to identify more murderers, rapists and other serious offenders (fingerprints solve ten times more unknown suspect cases than DNA in most jurisdictions).
Other visible human characteristics change fingerprints do not. In earlier civilizations, branding and even maiming were used to mark the criminal for what he was. The thief was deprived of the hand which committed the thievery. The Romans employed the tattoo needle to identify and prevent desertion of mercenary soldiers.
Before the mid-1800s, law enforcement officers with extraordinary visual memories, so-called "camera eyes," identified previously arrested offenders by sight. Photography lessened the burden on memory but was not the answer to the criminal identification problem. Personal appearances change.
Around 1870, a French anthropologist devised a system to measure and record the dimensions of certain bony parts of the body. These measurements were reduced to a formula which, theoretically, would apply only to one person and would not change during his/her adult life.
This Bertillon System, named after its inventor, Alphonse Bertillon, was generally accepted for thirty years. But it never recovered from the events of 1903, when a man named Will West was sentenced to the U.S. Penitentiary at Leavenworth, Kansas. You see, there was already a prisoner at the penitentiary at the time, whose Bertillon measurements were nearly the same, and his name was William West.
Upon investigation, there were indeed two men who looked exactly alike, but were allegedly not related. Their names were Will and William West respectively. Their Bertillon measurements were close enough to identify them as the same person.
However, a fingerprint comparison quickly and correctly identified them as two different people. (Per prison records discovered later, the West men were apparently identical twin brothers and each had a record of correspondence with the same immediate family relatives.)
Prehistoric
Picture writing of a hand with ridge patterns was discovered in Nova Scotia. In ancient Babylon, fingerprints were used on clay tablets for business transactions. In ancient China, thumb prints were found on clay seals.
In 14th century Persia, various official government papers had fingerprints (impressions), and one government official, a doctor, observed that no two fingerprints were exactly alike.
1686 - Malpighi In 1686, Marcello Malpighi, a professor of anatomy at the University of Bologna, noted in his treatise; ridges, spirals and loops in fingerprints. He made no mention of their value as a tool for individual identification. A layer of skin was named after him; "Malpighi" layer, which is approximately 1.8mm thick.
1823 - Purkinje In 1823, John Evangelist Purkinje, a professor of anatomy at the University of Breslau, published his thesis discussing 9 fingerprint patterns, but he too made no mention of the value of fingerprints for personal identification.
1856 - Herschel The English first began using fingerprints in July of 1858, when Sir William Herschel, Chief Magistrate of the Hooghly district in Jungipoor, India, first used fingerprints on native contracts. On a whim, and with no thought toward personal identification, Herschel had Rajyadhar Konai, a local businessman, impress his hand print on a contract. The idea was merely "... to frighten [him] out of all thought of repudiating his signature." The native was suitably impressed, and Herschel made a habit of requiring palm prints--and later, simply the prints of the right Index and Middle fingers on every contract made with the locals. Personal contact with the document, they believed, made the contract more binding than if they simply signed it.
Thus, the first wide-scale, modern-day use of fingerprints was predicated, not upon scientific evidence, but upon superstitious beliefs.
Herschels fingerprints recorded over a period of 57 years
As his fingerprint collection grew, however, Herschel began to note that the inked impressions could, indeed, prove or disprove identity. While his experience with fingerprinting was admittedly limited, Sir Herschel's private conviction that all fingerprints were unique to the individual, as well as permanent throughout that individual's life, inspired him to expand their use.
1880 - Faulds During the 1870's, Dr. Henry Faulds, the British Surgeon-Superintendent of Tsukiji Hospital in Tokyo, Japan, took up the study of "skin-furrows" after noticing finger marks on specimens of "prehistoric" pottery. A learned and industrious man, Dr. Faulds not only recognized the importance of fingerprints as a means of identification, but devised a method of classification as well. In 1880, Faulds forwarded an explanation of his classification system and a sample of the forms he had designed for recording inked impressions, to Sir Charles Darwin. Darwin, in advanced age and ill health, informed Dr. Faulds that he could be of no assistance to him, but promised to pass the materials on to his cousin, Francis Galton.
Also in 1880, Dr. Faulds published an article in the Scientific Journal, "Nature" (nature). He discussed fingerprints as a means of personal identification, and the use of printers ink as a method for obtaining such fingerprints. He is also credited with the first fingerprint identification of a greasy fingerprint left on an alcohol bottle.
1882 - Thompson In 1882, Gilbert Thompson of the U.S. Geological Survey in New Mexico, used his own thumb print on a document to prevent forgery. This is the first known use of fingerprints in the United States.
1882 Bertillon Alphonse Bertillon, a Clerk in the Prefecture of Police of at Paris, France, devised a system of classification, known as Anthropometry or the Bertillon System, using measurements of parts of the body. Bertillon's system included measurements such as head length, head width, length of the middle finger, length of the left foot; and length of the forearm from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger.
In 1888 Bertillon was made Chief of the newly created Department of Judicial Identity where he used anthropometry as the main means of identification. He later introduced Fingerprints but relegated them to a secondary role in the category of special marks.
1883 - Mark Twain (Samuel L. Clemens) In Mark Twain's book, "Life on the Mississippi", a murderer was identified by the use of fingerprint identification. In a later book by Mark Twain, "Pudd'n Head Wilson", there was a dramatic court trial on fingerprint identification. A more recent movie was made from this book. 1888 - Galton Sir Francis Galton, a British anthropologist and a cousin of Charles Darwin, began his observations of fingerprints as a means of identification in the 1880's.
1891 - Vucetich Juan Vucetich, an Argentine Police Official, began the first fingerprint files based on Galton pattern types. At first, Vucetich included the Bertillon System with the files.
Right Thumb Impression and Signature of Juan Vucetich
1892 - Vucetich & Galton Juan Vucetich made the first criminal fingerprint identification in 1892. He was able to identify Francis Rojas, a woman who murdered her two sons and cut her own throat in an attempt to place blame on another. Her bloody print was left on a door post, proving her identity as the murderer.
Francis Rojas' Inked Fingerprints
Sir Francis Galton published his book, "Fingerprints", establishing the individuality and permanence of fingerprints. The book included the first classification system for fingerprints.
Galton's primary interest in fingerprints was as an aid in determining heredity and racial background. While he soon discovered that fingerprints offered no firm clues to an individual's intelligence or genetic history, he was able to scientifically prove what Herschel and Faulds already suspected: that fingerprints do not change over the course of an individual's lifetime, and that no two fingerprints are exactly the same. According to his calculations, the odds of two individual fingerprints being the same were 1 in 64 billion.
Galton identified the characteristics by which fingerprints can be identified. These same characteristics (minutia) are basically still in use today, and are often referred to as Galton's Details.
1897 - Haque & Bose On 12 June 1897, the Council of the Governor General of India approved a committee report that fingerprints should be used for classification of criminal records. Later that year, the Calcutta (now Kolkata) Anthropometric Bureau became the world's first Fingerprint Bureau. Working in the Calcutta Anthropometric Bureau (before it became the Fingerprint Bureau) were Azizul Haque and Hem Chandra Bose. Haque and Bose are the two Indian fingerprint experts credited with primary development of the Henry System of fingerprint classification (named for their supervisor, Edward Richard Henry). The Henry classification system is still used in all English-speaking countries (primarily as the manual filing system for accessing paper archive files that have not been scanned and computerized).
1900 - Henry The United Kingdom Home Secretary Office conducted an inquiry into "Identification of Criminals by Measurement and Fingerprints." Mr. Edward Richard Henry (later Sir E.R. Henry) appeared before the inquiry committee to explain the system published in his recent book "The Classification and Use of Fingerprints." The committee recommended adoption of fingerprinting as a replacement for the relatively inaccurate Bertillon system of anthropometric measurement, which only partially relied on fingerprints for identification. 1901 - Henry The Fingerprint Branch at New Scotland Yard (London Metropolitan Police) was created in July 1901 using the Henry System of Classification.
1902 First systematic use of fingerprints in the U.S. by the New York Civil Service Commission for testing. Dr. Henry P. DeForrest pioneers U.S. fingerprinting.
1903 The New York State Prison system began the first systematic use of fingerprints in U.S. for criminals.
1904 The use of fingerprints began in Leavenworth Federal Penitentiary in Kansas, and the St. Louis Police Department. They were assisted by a Sergeant from Scotland Yard who had been on duty at the St. Louis World's Fair Exposition guarding the British Display. Sometime after the St. Louis World's Fair, the International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP) created America's first national fingerprint repository, called the National Bureau of Criminal Identification.
1905 U.S. Army begins using fingerprints. U.S. Department of Justice forms the Bureau of Criminal Identification in Washington, DC to provide a centralized reference collection of fingerprint cards. Two years later the U.S. Navy started, and was joined the next year by the Marine Corp. During the next 25 years more and more law enforcement agencies join in the use of fingerprints as a means of personal identification. Many of these agencies began sending copies of their fingerprint cards to the National Bureau of Criminal Identification, which was established by the International Association of Police Chiefs. 1907 U.S. Navy begins using fingerprints. U.S. Department of Justice's Bureau of Criminal Identification moves to Leavenworth Federal Penitentiary where it is staffed at least partially by inmates. 1908 U.S. Marine Corps begins using fingerprints.
1908 U.S. Marine Corps begins using fingerprints.

1915 Inspector Harry H. Caldwell of the Oakland, California Police Department's Bureau of Identification wrote numerous letters to "Criminal Identification Operators" in August 1915, asking them to meet in Oakland for the purpose of forming an organization to further the aims of the identification profession. In October 1915, a group of twenty-two identification personnel met and initiated the "International Association for Criminal Identification" In 1918, the organization was renamed the International Association for Identification (IAI) due to the volume of noncriminal identification work performed by members. Sir Francis Galton's right index finger appears in the IAI logo. The IAI's official publication is the Journal of Forensic Identification.
1918 Edmond Locard wrote that if 12 points (Galton's Details) were the same between two fingerprints, it would suffice as a positive identification. Locard's 12 points seems to have been based on an unscientific "improvement" over the eleven anthropometric measurements (arm length, height, etc.) used to "identify" criminals before the adoption of fingerprints.
1924 In 1924, an act of congress established the Identification Division of the FBI. The IACP's National Bureau of Criminal Identification and the US Justice Department's Bureau of Criminal Identification consolidated to form the nucleus of the FBI fingerprint files.
1946 By 1946, the FBI had processed 100 million fingerprint cards in manually maintained files; and by 1971, 200 million cards. With the introduction of automated fingerprint identification system (AFIS) technology, the files were split into computerized criminal files and manually maintained civil files. Many of the manual files were duplicates though, the records actually represented somewhere in the neighborhood of 25 to 30 million criminals, and an unknown number of individuals in the civil files.
The Fingerprint Society
1974 In 1974, four employees of the Hertfordshire (United Kingdom) Fingerprint Bureau contacted fingerprint experts throughout the UK and began organization of that country's first professional fingerprint organization, the National Society of Fingerprint Officers. The organization initially consisted of only UK experts, but quickly expanded to international scope and was renamed The Fingerprint Society in 1977. F.F.S. used behind a fingerprint expert's name indicates they are recognized as a Fellow of the Fingerprint Society. The Society hosts annual educational conferences with speakers and delegates attending from many countries.
1977 At New Orleans, Louisiana on 1 August 1977, delegates to the 62nd Annual Conference of the International Association for Identification (IAI) voted to establish the world's first certification program for fingerprint experts. Since 1977, the IAI's Latent Print Certification Board has proficiency tested thousands of applicants, and periodically proficiency tests all IAI Certified Latent Print Examiners (CLPEs). IAI CLPE status is considered by many identification professionals to be a measurement of excellence. During the past four decades, CLPE status has become a prerequisite for journeyman fingerprint expert positions in US state and federal government forensic laboratories.
2007 The largest AFIS repository in America is operated by the Department of Homeland Security's US Visit Program, containing over 63 million persons' fingerprints, primarily in the form of twofinger records (non-compliant with FBI and Interpol standards). The US Visit Program is migrating from two flat (not rolled) fingerprints to ten flat fingerprints during 2007. "Fast capture" research funded by the US government will enable implementation of ten "rolled print equivalent" fingerprint recording (within 15 seconds per person fingerprinted) in future years.
The FBI's Integrated AFIS (IAFIS) in Clarksburg, WV has more than 50 million individual computerized fingerprint records for known criminals. Old paper fingerprint cards for the civil files are still manually maintained in a warehouse facility (rented shopping center space) in Fairmont, WV, though most enlisted military service member fingerprint cards received after 1990, and all military-related fingerprint cards received after 19 May 2000, have now been computerized and can be searched internally by the FBI. In the "Next Generation" of IAFIS, the FBI may make civil file AFIS searches available to US law enforcement agencies through remote interface.
All US states and many large cities have their own AFIS databases, each with a subset of fingerprint records that is not stored in any other database. Thus, law enforcement fingerprint interface standards are very important to enable sharing records and reciprocal searches for identifying criminals.
Reference
www.onin.com/fp/fphistory.html
CHAPTER 2
Scientific Basis of Friction Skin Identification
FINGERPRINT defined
Fingerprint is an impression of the friction ridge of all or any part of the finger. SWGFAST, Glossary - Consolidated 09-09-03 ver. 1.0 http://www.swgfast.org/Glossary_Consolidated_ver_1.pdf
TENETS OF FRICTION SKIN IDENTIFICATION
Unique Friction skin is unique. All areas of friction skin are totally individual. When sufficient detail is present, it can be individualized. In other words, when someone is identified as the donor of a print, it establishes that person as the only person in the world who could have that print. Permanent Friction skin is permanent. Friction skin is formed during fetal life. The location, appearance and relationships of the features remain unchanged throughout a persons lifetime, with the exception of permanent damage such as injuries that result in permanent scars. The fact that friction skin can be individualized and does not change, makes friction skin one of the best forms of personal identification available.
THE NATURE OF FRICTION SKIN

Located along the undersides of the fingers, palms, toes, and soles appear corrugated skin structure known to the biologist as volar skin; to the fingerprint examiner, it is known as friction skin; and to the public, its commonly referred to as just, fingerprints. Friction skin is made up of elevated areas called ridges with depressions between the ridges known as furrows. Friction is constructed of two main layers. The outer layer is the epidermis and the inner layer is the dermis. The epidermis is made up of several smaller layers. The innermost layer of the epidermis is the generating layer. New cells are created in the generating layer. The outer layer of the epidermis is made up of mostly dead cells.
The dermis is covered with double rows of peg-like formations called papillae. Each of these double rows appears under one ridge. Each friction ridge is made up of a series of ridge units joined together to form the ridge. Each ridge unit contains one sweat gland one pore. A close examination of a friction ridge reveals that each ridge is not merely a line, but has a unique structure and appearance. Even the pores appearing along the tops of the ridges have random placement resulting in unique arrangements and appearance on the ridge.
General patterns on the volar areas are determined by heredity and genetic master plan. Friction ridges are randomly formed because of biological variation. Biological variations are due to environmental influences occurring during fetal development. Environmental influences: pressures, stresses, and other physical factors such as disease and nutrition. Thus, no two areas of friction skin will ever be the same. Identical twins may have similar friction skin patterns but their individual ridge formations will not be the same. Ridges are formed and become unique and permanent during approximately the fourth month of fetal life.
Reference
Leo, William, Fingerprint Identification, 2004, LawTech Custom Publishing, Inc.
CHAPTER 3
Fingerprint Pattern Interpretation
TYPES OF PATTERNS
I. ARCH a. Plain arch. b. Tented arch. II. LOOP a. Radial loop. b. Ulnar loop. III. WHORL a. Plain whorl.
b. Central pocket loop.
c. Double loop.
d. Accidental whorl.
Plain Arch
Tented Arch
Ulnar Loop Right Hand
Radial Loop Right Hand
Plain Whorl
Central Pocket Loop (Whorl)
Double Loop Whorl
Accidental Whorl
LOOP PATTERNS
A loop is that type of pattern in which one or more ridges enter upon either side, recurve, touch or pass an imaginary line between delta and core, and pass out or tend to pass out upon the same side the ridges entered.
Basic Requirements of a Loop: There are three basic requirements of a loop:

1. Sufficient recurve 2. Delta 3. Ridge count across a looping ridge
Ridge Counting Draw a line between delta and core. As long as you touch or cross a ridge, you have a ridge count. One ridge must be a looping ridge. The delta and core are not included in the ridge count.
TYPES OF LOOPS
1.
2.
Ulnar loops flow toward the little finger Ulna bone An ulnar loop is indicated by a diagonal line in the direction the loop flows.
The deltas for the right hand, fingers 1-5, are on the left side of the pattern. The deltas for the left hand, fingers 6-10, are on the right side of the pattern.
Remember!
Right hand ulna.
Delta on left
side.
Left hand ulna. Delta on right side.
3.
4.
Radial loops flow toward the thumb Radius bone Radial loop is indicated by a Capital R in fingers two and seven and by a small r in all other fingers.
The direction of flow applies to the fingers on the hand and not as they appear on the fingerprint card.
The deltas for the right hand, fingers 1-5, are on the right side of the pattern. The deltas for the left hand, fingers 6-10, are on the left side of the pattern.
Remember! side. side.

Right hand radial. Delta on right
Left hand radial.
Delta on left
ARCHES
There are two types of arches: Plain Arch and Tented Arch Tented Arch: A tented arch is that type of pattern which possesses either an angle, an upthrust, or two of the three basic characteristics of the loop.
Angular Type Tented Arch:

1. Formed by two ridges meeting at an angle. 2. One continuous ridge cannot form an angle. 3. Angle must be 90 degrees or less.
Upthrust Type Tented Arch: 1. An upthrust must be an ending ridge a ridge which ends in space. 2. An upthrust must make a definite change of direction from the basic ridge. It must be an angle of forty-five degrees or more from base ridge. 3. An upthrust must be as high as the surrounding ridges are thick.
Dots have no direction.

Loop Type (Lacking One Characteristic): This form of tented arch, the one which approaches the loop, may have any
combination of two of the three basic loop characteristics, lacking the third. These
three loop characteristics are, to repeat: A sufficient recurve. A delta. A ridge count across a looping ridge
Tented arches are indicated by: Capital T in fingers number 2 and 7. Small t in fingers other than 2 and 7.
Plain Arch: A plain arch is that type of pattern in which the ridges enter upon one side, make a rise or wave in the center, and flow or tend to flow out upon the opposite side. A plain arch cannot have a looping ridge, an upthrust ridge, an angle, or a recurve. Plain arches are indicated by: Capital A in fingers number 2 and 7. Small a in fingers other than 2 and 7.
TYPES OF WHORLS
Plain Whorl A plain whorl consists of one or more ridges which make or tend to make a complete circuit, with two deltas, between which, when an imaginary line is drawn, at least one recurving ridge within the inner pattern area is cut or touched.
Remember Two deltas and at least one ridge making a complete circuit or variant of a circle. An imaginary line drawn from delta to delta must cut or touch at least one recurving ridge within the inner pattern area.
Central Pocket Loop Whorl A central pocket loop whorl consists of at least one recurving ridge, or an obstruction at right angles to the line of flow, with two deltas, between which, when an imaginary line is drawn, no recurving ridge within the inner pattern area is cut or touched.
Recurving Type: Similar to plain whorl, two deltas and at least one ridge making a complete circuit. Difference from a plain whorl An imaginary line drawn from delta to delta must not cut or touch a recurving ridge in front of the inner delta.
Double Loop Whorl A double loop whorl consists of two separate loop formations, with two separate and distinct sets of shoulders and two deltas. Remember Two separate loop formations. Two separate and distinct sets of shoulders. Two deltas.
No ridge count is needed for loops in a double loop whorl. The appendage rule for double loops in the same as that for plain loops. Plain loop appendage rule Sufficient recurve consists of the space between the shoulders of a loop, free of any appendages which abut upon it at a right angle on the outside of the recurve.
S type whorls and interlocking loops are not double loop whorls.
Accidental Whorl An accidental whorl consists of a combination of two different types of patterns with the exception of the plain arch, with two or more deltas, or a pattern which possesses some of the requirements for two or more different types or a pattern which conforms which conforms to none of the definitions.
Remember Combination of two different types of patterns with the exception of the plain arch. Two or more deltas. Only pattern which may possess two or more deltas. Patterns possessing some of the requirements of two or more different types, with the exception of the plain arch. Patterns conforming to none of the definitions.
A combination of a loop and tented arch formation must have the loop formation appearing over the tented arch. Any loop and tented arch formation not in this position shall have the loop formation as the preferred pattern. The overall impression would then be given the classification of either an ulnar or radial loop.
WHORL SYMBOLS
Plain Whorl W Double Loop D Central Pocket C Accidental X For classifying and general searching, W is used to indicate all whorl types below the fingerprint block. Type of whorl should be indicated in the upper left hand corner of the fingerprint block.
FINGERPRINT IDENTIFICATION
When a sufficient number of fingerprint points, which are in the same unit relationship to each other, are present on both fingerprints in question it is possible to a scientific certainty to say that the fingerprints originated from the same source.
CHARTED FINGERPRINT IDENTIFICATION
The above prints are both inked prints from the same individual taken on different dates. Note the inking variations of each print. Also the print on the left was not rolled nail to nail as the print on the right. However, each print contains enough fingerprint minutiae data to ascertain that they originated from the same source.
References
The Science of Fingerprints, FBI Henry Fingerprint Classification and Identification, Sirchie Crime Scene Technology School Youngsville, North Carolina
CHAPTER 4
Rules In The Selection of Typelines, Core & Delta
TYPELINES
Typelines are the two innermost ridges that start or go parallel, diverge and surround or tend to surround the pattern area. The pattern area includes the core, delta and ridges which are used in the classification of a loop.
RULES
1.
Typelines are not always two continuous ridges, but are often broken. When there is a definite break in a typeline, the ridge immediately outside of it is considered as its continuation.
2.
When locating typelines, it is necessary to keep in mind the difference between a divergence and a bifurcation.
3.
The arms of a bifurcation on which the delta is located cannot be used for typelines.
4.
Angles cannot be considered for typelines.
THE DELTA
The delta is that point on a ridge at or nearest to the point of divergence of two typelines, and is located at or directly in front of the point of divergence.
DELTA RULES
1.
When there are two or more possible bifurcation deltas that conform to the definition, the one nearest the core should be chosen.
2.
(A) The delta may not be located in the middle of a ridge running between type lines towards the core, but at the end nearest to the core.
(B) A dot may be used as a delta. A dot has no direction.
3.
The delta may not be located at a bifurcation that does not open toward the core.
4.
When there is a choice between a bifurcation and another type of delta, the bifurcation is selected.
THE CORE
The core is the approximate center of the pattern. It is placed upon or within the innermost sufficient recurve.
1.
The core is located on the shoulder of the innermost loop farthest from the delta.
2.
The core is located on the spike or rod in the center of the innermost recurve, provided the spike or rod rises high as the shoulders.
3.
If there is an even number of spikes or rods shoulder-high, the core is located on the end of the farthest of the innermost spikes from the delta, whether or not the spike or rod touches the inside of the recurve.
Remember, first find sufficient recurve.

4.
If there is an odd number of spikes or rods at shoulder-height, the core is located on the end of the center spike, whether or not it touches the inside of the recurve.
5.
Interlocking loops: Join the two loops with an imaginary recurve, making one loop with a rod or rod inside. Count the rod(s) shoulder-high and then fix the core.
Reference
Latent Fingerprints: From Crime Scene to Courtroom, Sirchie Fingerprint Laboratories, Inc.
CHAPTER 5
Fingerprint Classification
Since the early 1900s, the Henry System of classification of fingerprint has been in use in the United States. The basic Henry System served for many years, but as files grew it became necessary to modify it. The modified Henry System is recommended for all agencies currently maintaining fingerprint files although not all steps in the classification formula are used.
CLASSIFICATION FORMULA
The first step in classifying a fingerprint record card is the Blocking Out step. To block out a card, the technician first identifies all ten fingers as to pattern type. For the Henry System, the following letters are used to identify patterns.
A.
Under the Index Fingers (No. 2 and No. 7) use a capital letter to indicate the pattern type except an ulnar loop.
Arch: A Tented Arch: T Radial Loop: R Ulnar Loop: in any finger are designated by
a diagonal line slanting in the direction of the loop.

Whorl: W
B.
Under all other fingers, use a small letter except for ulnar loops. All whorls, regardless of the type of whorl or which finger it is on, are designated with a capital W:
Small Letter Designation: a, t, r Ulnar Loop: Right Hand \ Left Hand /
C.
The classification formula is composed of the following divisions:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5. 6.
Primary Secondary Subsecondary (may be replaced by the Small Letter classification.) Major Final Key plus Extensions
1. R. Thumb 2. R. Index
3. R. Middle
4. R. Ring
5. R. Little
WHORL
ULNAR LOOP \
7. L. Index
ARCH
ULNAR LOOP \
9. L. Ring
WHORL
w
6. L. Thumb
a
8. L. Middle
w
10. L. Little
WHORL
ARCH
TENTED ARCH
ULNAR LOOP
RADIAL LOOP
w
r
The various positions in the classification line for these divisions when completely applied are as follows:
Key 20 Major M L Primary 1 1 Secondary U U Sub-secondary Final IOI 10 IOO 10
This example gives the numerical values for each finger.
1. Primary Classification: Numerical values are assigned to each of the ten fingers. Whenever a whorl occurs, it takes the number assigned to that particular block. Therefore, if a whorl occurs on finger number two, it has the value of sixteen. a. After blocking out the card, complete the Primary Classification. To do this, add up the total values of all even numbered blocks containing whorls (Fingers 2, 4, 6, 8, 10). Add 1 and place the total above the Class line of the record card. This number is referred to as the numerator.
b. Add up all the odd numbered finger blocks containing whorls, add 1 and place the total below the Class line. This number becomes the denominator. Note: The purpose of adding 1 is so that a whole number will always appear in the Primary Classification. If the record card had no whorls on any fingers, then the Primary would be: 1 1
c. A record card having all whorls ould have primary classification of: 32 32 d. Here is a practical example. The various patterns of the example are listed left to right. The right hand is on the top and the left hand is below. (See the diagram) Note that whorls exist only on fingers numbered 2, 4 and 7.
Add the values of the even fingers: 16+8=24+1=25. Finger No. 7 has a value of 2+1=3. Thus the Primary Classification for this card would be: 25 3 Remember always add 1. If no whorls are present on the even fingers, the value given is 1. if no whorls are present on the odd fingers, the value is 1. There are 1,024 possible Primary combinations: 1 32 to 1 32
2. Secondary Classification. a. Capital Letter. The Secondary Classification is found by determining the type pattern of appearing on the index fingers (Fingers No. 2 and 7). Capital letters are used to indicate patterns. (See the diagram) A Plain Arch T Tented Arch R Radial Loop U Ulnar Loop W Whorl (all types)
There are 25 possible combinations in the Secondary. The Secondary Classification is placed to the right of the Primary in the classification formula. 25 In the previous example, the Primary was 3 Since both Index fingers in this example were whorls, then the Primary and Secondary classification is: 25 W 3W In writing the Secondary to the Classification line, the right hand is placed above the line and the left hand is below the line.
Back
b. Small Letter During the blocking out of the record card, the Index Finger patterns were indicated with capital letters (A, T, R, U, W). Unless they happened to be whorls or ulnar loops, patterns on all of the other fingers were denoted with a small letter (a, t, r). The Secondary Small Letter Classification seeks the small letter patterns of the arches, tented arches and radial loops on fingers No. 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10.
In the previous example, the formula so far is 25 W 3W

In that example, both little fingers were arches (Fingers no. 5 and 10). So, when the Small Letter Classification is brought up to the classification line the formula changes to: 25 W - - a 3 W--a The dash (-) indicates that each finger between the Index (W) and the arch is not a Small Letter.
Here is another example: 1 2 3 4 5 a W a \ a (Right Hand) / W w a / (Left Hand) 6 7 8 9 10 Remember that the slash (\) [Right Hand] or (/) [Left Hand] symbol indicates an ulnar loop. To classify this record from the beginning, you must first determine the Primary and Secondary. 19 W 3 W
The Small Letter Classification is then added:

Right Thumb
19 a W a - a 3 W - a
Note that it is not necessary to use a dash (-) if the thumb is not a small letter as is the case with the left hand in the above example. When the thumb is a small letter; it is placed between the Primary and the Secondary.
One more point with the Small Letter Classification formulas: if two or more small letter patterns exist consecutively, you may use a number to indicate the series such as: The classification for this record is: \ R \ \ a \ U a a \
(If the little finger in this record had been an arch too, we would have used 3a to indicate this.)
3. Sub-secondary Classification. Note: It is necessary to perform the Subsecondary Classification for most filing systems if a Small Letter classification was possible. Even one Small Letter such as a plain arch, tented arch or radial loop out of ten fingers is enough to eliminate this step. The Sub-secondary Classification is found through the examination of Fingers No. 2, 3, and 4 on the right hand and Fingers No. 7, 8, and 9 on the left hand.
In the Sub-secondary, only loops and whorls are considered. In order to perform this step, the technician must have first made a ridge count of the loops and a ridge tracing of the whorls appearing on the above fingers. If whorls are present, the ridge tracing of the I (Inner), M (Meeting) or O (Outer) is used in the formula. When loops appear on any of the above six fingers, then a special formula is used.
When loops appear, the ridge counts are placed in one of the two categories: I or O. Note that the O is a capital letter O and not a zero.
19=I 10+ = O for Finger 2 Finger 7 1 10 = I 11+ = O for Finger 3 Finger 8 1 13 = I 14+ = O for Finger 4 Finger 9
Here is an example: I I 12 \ W W \ \ (Right Hand)

Finger No. (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Finger No. (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
I 17 5 / W / / W (Left Hand)
Formula = 18 W I I I 11 W I O I The sub-secondary is brought up to the classification line to the right of the Secondary.
4. The Major Division The Major Division is concerned only with the thumbs (Fingers No. 1 and 6). As indicated below, there are two formulas for the right thumb. These formulas are used when there are loops or at least one whorl on either thumb. The Major Division may be eliminated if a Small Letter Classification was possible. When loops and/or whorls are present on the thumbs, ridge-count the loops and ridge-trace the whorls.
If both thumbs are whorls, perform a ridge tracing on each and place the resulting I, M, or O on the classification line to the left of the primary. The right hand tracing goes above the line, and the left hand goes below the line.
Major I M Primary 32 32 Secondary Sub-secondary W IOO W IIO
In this example, whorls appear on all fingers. The right thumb has an Inner trace (I), and the left thumb was a Meeting trace (M). When a Loop appears on either or both thumbs, proceed as follows: a. Look at the left thumb first b. If the ridge count on the left thumb is from 1 to 11, it is given the designation of S (Small). If the count is 12 -16, it is an M (Medium), and if the count is 17 or more, it is an L (Large).
c. Now look at the right thumb. When the left thumb is 16 or less or it is a whorl, use the following formula: No. 1 1 11 = S; 12 16 = M; 17 or more = L When the left thumb is 17 or over, use the following: No. 2 1 17 = S; 18 22 = M; 23 or more = L Note: If the left thumb is a whorl and the right thumb is a loop, use formula No. 1 above.
Example:
16 \ 18 / Major 5 U M W I W 7 / 9 \ 8 / 5 \ 6 / (Right Hand) (Left Hand) SubSecondary III MII
The classification through the Major Division is:

Primary Secondary
Example: In this case, the left thumb is a whorl with an Outer trace.
S L
1 11
U W
12 10 11 14 O \ U \ \ W O 11 11 12 9 W U / / / The classification through the Major Division is:

M O 5 5 U U O O O O O I
5. The Final The Final is taken from the little fingers, Fingers No. 5 and 10. If both little fingers are loops, Finger No. 5 has priority. When a loop and a whorl occur, the loop is given priority. If no loops occur, a whorl is used. A whorl pattern is treated as an ulnar loop (if no loops are present), and ridges are counted. A loop on
Finger No. 5 eliminates the need to ridge-count a whorl on Finger No. 10. Thus, a whorl on the right
hand is ridge-counted from the left delta. A whorl on the left hand is ridge counted from the right delta.
Special Whorl Situations: a. Horizontal double loop whorls are counted from the delta (selected per the above) to the
nearest core.
b. A vertical double loop whorl is counted from the left delta to the upright loop. c. If there are two or more cores (accidental whorls), the ridge count is made from the left delta (right hand) or right delta (left hand) to the nearest core.
Example: If Finger No. 5 is a loop with a ridge count of 7 and Finger No. 10 is a whorl, the classification may look something like this:
Major Primary Secondary Sub-Secondary Final M 9 W IOO 7 L 3 W OOI Note: If Fingers No. 5 and 10 are arches or tented arches, there is no final
6. The Key The key is found by ridge-counting the first loop appearing on the fingerprint record card beginning with the right thumb exclusive of the little fingers (which are used for the Final). The Key, no matter where it is found, is always placed to the extreme left of the numerator of the classification formula:
Key Major Primary Secondary
M 9 L 3 Compiled by Melcon S. Lapina, MSCrim 8 W W SubFinal Secondary IOO 7 OOI www.criminologyreviewer.weebly.com
7. Extensions: When filing systems become too large or cumbersome, further subdivision may be needed. WCDX Extension: Used for large Whorl Groups such as: 32 Primary. 32 W,C,D,X (capital letters) denotes type of whorl pattern on index fingers. w, c, d, x (lower case letters) denotes a type of whorl pattern on all other fingers.
The symbols are brought up to the classification line above the sub-secondary (instead of using a second sub-secondary). W = Plain Whorl C = Central Pocket Loop Whorl D = Double Loop Whorl X = Accidental Wwd (Right Hand) Example: Dwd (Left Hand) 1 32 W OOI 9 32 W OII
8. Second Sub-Secondary is used when a group of fingerprints becomes too cumbersome and unwieldy. The Second Sub-Secondary is brought up directly above the Sub-Secondary. Use the following chart (based on ridge counts).
Index Middle Ring 15=S 18=S 1 10 = S 6 12 = M 9 14 = M 11 18 = M 3 or more = L 15 or more = L 19 or more = L
Example: Wwd (RH) Second Dwd (LH) Sub-Secondary U IOO 6 U IOO
O L
9 17
The NCIC Classification System

A second classification system currently in use in the United States is the National Crime Information Center (NCIC) Classification System. NCIC is a computerized database that allows law enforcement agencies nationwide access to among other thinsg, wanted bulletins and warrants for outstanding suspects and fugitives.
This system was developed and used as a short cut to the Henry System so that an individual suspected of being a subject of want or warrant could be eliminated quickly. If it was determined that the subject matched the NCIC classification further investigation would be required including a full fingerprint search.
The following two letter or number codes are used to identify the fingerprint pattern type in the NCIC classification system: 1. Plain arch AA 2. Tented arch TT 3. Ulnar loop The ridge count 4. Radial loop The ridge count plus 50 5. Plain whorl P plus the tracing I, M, or O. 6. Central Pocket loop C plus the tracing I, M, or O. 7. Double loop whorl small d plus tracing I, M, or O. 8. Accidental X plus the tracing, I, M, or O. 9. Missing finger XX 10. Scar or mutilation SR
The fingers are listed in the order of the finger numbers on a ten-finger fingerprint card, starting with the right thumb as number 1. A typical NCIC classification would appear as follows: AA5612CIPMdM661415XX This classification is placed in the twenty small boxes that appear just above the fingerprint boxes.
Reference
Latent Fingerprints: From Crime Scene to Courtroom, Sirchie Fingerprint Laboratories, Inc. Leo, William, Fingerprint Identification, LawTech Custom Publishing, Inc.
CHAPTER 6
Fingerprint Recording
(Methods and Recommended Procedures)
Introduction
There are presently four methods for taking fingerprints. Each utilizes one of the following elements: (1) an ink slab and roller; (2) PRINTMATIC Roller; (3) Porelon Pads, PRINTMATIC Impeccable Ceramic, Thermoplastic and Flawless Pads; and (4) KlearInk Ceramic Pads.
METHOD ADVANTAGES
The ink Slab and Roller method requires more skill than the pre-inked roller and pad method, but the prints obtained tend to be cleaner and of sharper contrast. That makes them ideally suited for computer enhancement and database storage. The pre-inked PRINTMATICTM Roller method requires no advance preparation because it contains a built-in ink supply. The main advantage of this method is that it requires less skill to roll out a uniform coating of ink to obtain satisfactory prints.
The pre-inked pad method is an outstanding SIRCHIE innovation that includes distinctively different ink pads that include the PRINTMATIC Impeccable Ceramic and Flawless Pads, and Porelon Pads as well as the KlearInk Ceremic Pad. The pre-inked method combines the advantages of the slab and roller method with the best qualities and usefulness of pre-inked pads.
PRECAUTIONS
Consult appropriate Material Safety. Data Sheets (MSDS) found in www.sirchie.com/msds.asp, prior to using. Serious injury can result from improper use or modification of this instrument. Do not attempt to replenish ink in the PRINTMATIC roller or any of the pre-inked pads as this will damage them. Do not clean pre-inked rollers or pads with solvents as this will damage them. Use only a clean, dry cloth, paper towel or No. FPT1C Super Cleaner Towelette.

WORK TABLE HEIGHT

For best results, the inking area and cardholder should be approximately 39" from the floor. This height allows the forearm of a subject of average height to be approximately parallel to the floor, at which position it is best to roll and record fingerprints.
PREPARING THE INK SLAB

Slab and Roller Method: STEP 1First, ink the roller. Apply a small amount (about a 1/4" [.6cm] stream) of fingerprint ink on the right side of the slab, toward the back. Roll a 2-3" (5.1cm-7.6cm) wide layer of ink on the back portion of the slablifting the roller off the slab after each stoke and returning to the starting point (do not use a back-and-forth motion with the roller). Repeat several times until a thin film of ink forms on roller.
STEP 2Next, using the same roller motion (without rolling back-and-forth), spread the layer toward the front edge of the slab until a smooth, uniform coating of ink forms. The front edge is where the fingerprints are rolled. When the ink on the front edge becomes too thin, replenish the roller on the back edge of the slab and repeat STEP 2.
PRINTMATIC Method:
Like the Slab and Roller method, the PRINTMATIC method requires that the operator roll ink onto an inking slab. The difference is that with the PRINTMATIC preinked roller, coating the slab requires only a few passes of the roller in the same direction to apply a thin, even layer of ink (Fig. 1).
Pre-inked Pad Method:

No advance preparation is needed to use preinked pads. However, the pad surface should be cleaned occasionally to remove oil and dirt deposits by wiping the surface lightly with a soft, dry, lint-free cloth.
INKING AND ROLLING THE FINGERS

The following recommended procedure is practiced by the FBI. To avoid possible smearing, always begin the fingerprint taking procedure by inking and rolling the fingers on the right hand.
It is recommended that each finger be inked and rolled individually (i.e., ink the thumb then roll it immediately, ink the forefinger, then immediately roll it, etc.). If all the fingers are first inked and then rolled, there is the chance some ink may be transferred from a finger as it is curled out of the way prior to rolling, thus causing that finger to print lightly when rolled.
After the fingerprints on the right hand are recorded, ink and roll the fingers on the left hand. When that is accomplished, record the plain impressions of both hands. An examination of the fingerprint record card reveals that these steps follow the order of the space allotted for each set of impressions.
1.
The subject stands to the right and rear of the operator (Fig. 2). The operator grasps the subjects right hand with his right hand, cupping his fingers over the subjects fingers and tucking under those fingers not being inked. He uses his left hand to guide the finger being inked. The right thumb is inked and rolled first. The thumb is inked by rolling it from right to left, toward the subjects body. The thumb is inked from nail to nail to a point just below the first joint. Apply ink one time only.
2.
Once the thumb is inked, immediately transfer the ink to the record card in the space numbered 1 (Right Thumb). Roll the thumb from the right side to the left side (toward the subjects body).
3.
Next, ink the right forefinger by rolling the finger from left to right (away from the subjects body, Fig. 3). Ink from nail to nail and just below the first joint. Transfer the ink to the record card by rolling from left to right in space No. 2 (Forefinger). Repeat this process for the remaining fingers by inking and rolling each finger individually (Fig. 4).
4.
Reposition the record card to permit adding impressions from the left hand. Ink the left thumb by rolling it from left to right (toward the subjects body), and then transferring the ink to the record card, Finger No. 6 space, by rolling from left to right.
5.
Ink the left forefinger by rolling it from right to left (away from the subjects body). Transfer the ink to the record card by rolling it from right to left. Ink and roll the remaining fingers individually.
6.
Plain (Slap) impressions are taken last. Reposition the record card to permit entry to the bottom area of the record card. Ink the left thumb by pressing it straight down onto the ink pad. Transfer the ink to the Left Thumb box in the plain impression area.
7.
Ink the remaining four fingers of the left hand simultaneously by pressing them straight down onto the pad (Fig. 5). Position all four fingers at a slight angle and press them onto the plain impression area for the left hand of the record (Fig. 6). This angle is necessary to permit all four finger impressions to be recorded in the space provided.
8.
Repeat this procedure for the thumb and remaining fingers of the right hand.
Reference
Technical Information: Fingerprint Taking Procedures and Methods, SIRCHIE Laboratories, Inc., Youngsville, N.C.
CHAPTER 7
Latent Print Development
Why are latent prints develop? The purpose is to make is visible so that it may be preserved and compared. Development of latent fingerprints is a process where positive identification of a criminal may be established. Fingerprints located at crime scenes can be classified as visible, plastic, or latent prints. Locating visible or plastic prints at the crime scene normally presents little problem to the investigator, because these prints are usually distinct and visible to the eye.
Latent prints, on the other hand, are difficult to located. They can only be seen after the surface on which they are imprinted has been treated with powders or chemicals. In developing latent prints, the investigator is influenced by the kind of surface that is being examined in choosing a developing method. For example, prints on porous evidence such as paper, unfinished wood, cardboard, etc. are normally developed by treatment with a chemical.
On the other hand, prints on nonporous evidence such as plastic, glass, metal, foil, etc., are either develop by powdering method or super glue fuming method.
Composition of Latent Fingerprints

Most natural fingerprints consist of secretions of the skins glands. In the main, three types of glands are responsible: the eccrine glands, the sebaceous glands and the
apocrine glands.
GLAND ECCRINE
INORGANICS chlorides, metal ions, ammonia, sulfates and phosphates
ORGANICS
SEBACEOUS
APOCRINE
amino acids, urea, lactic acid, choline, uric acid, creatinine and sugars fatty acids and glycerides, alcohol and hydrocarbons Ions like sodium, proteins, potassium and iron carbohydrates and cholesterol
ECCRINE GLANDS secrete largely water with inorganic and organic contaminants. Inorganic components of this type of sweat include chlorides, metal ions, ammonia, sulfates, and phosphates. Organic components are metabolic by-products such as amino acids, urea, lactic acid, choline, uric acid, creatinine and sugars.
SEBACEOUS GLANDS are secretors of fatty or greasy substances. These include organic compounds such as fatty acids and glycerides, as well as alcohols and hydrocarbons.
APOCRINE GLANDS secrete cytoplasm and nuclear materials, including inorganic compounds such as ionic iron, and organic compounds such as proteins, carbohydrates and cholesterol.
Successfully developing a latent print requires choosing an agent that reacts with some combination of these components, but not with the surface on which the print exists. However, just which components exist in a fingerprint and in what concentration are subject to change. Factors such as age, exposure to the environment and the surface on which they reside have profound effects. Water and alcohols are of the first components lost from a print.
Choice of Developing Agent
Thus, agents that react primarily with water will become less effective with the passage of time, whereas agents that rely on reactions with fatty constituents may be more successful. Of course, the surface on which the print is placed may act to absorb or diffuse the fatty components, leaving no discernible ridge detail.
It may be necessary for the latent technician to attempt a number of developers in sequence. However, many development reactions are destructive in that they change the chemical nature of the fingerprint constituent with which they react. When this destruction occurs, the chemical is no longer available within the print to be detected. It is essential that the technician understands the accepted sequence of use of development products.
Powdering and Lifting Impressions

Considerations before Powdering: When a latent print is plainly visible, it should be photographed before any effort is made to develop it. No attempt should be made to brush or apply powder to prints in dust, obviously greasy prints, or bloody prints, as this will almost surely destroy them.
Objects which have been wet or immersed in water may still bear identifiable latent impressions. Before any examination is attempted, however, the object must be dried. A powder should be used which will contrast with the color of the surface. Photographic contrasts should also be considered.
Procedure: A very small amount of powder is placed on the brush for application to the surface. Once the contour of a print is visible, the brush strokes should conform to the direction of the ridges. All excess powder should be brushed from between the ridges. Too much powder and too little brushing are the chief faults of beginners.
CHAPTER 8
POWDERING METHOD
Introduction
Developing latent print with powder simply means applying powder to the print in a manner that the powder will adhere to the moisture left by the ridges of the finger. In applying powder, a fingerprint brush is used because powder cannot be sprinkled directly on the surface, as too much powder will render the print very difficult to identify. Fingerprint brushes include camelhair, squirrelhair, nylon, feather duster and fiberglass.
Some investigators give preference to a particular type of brush claiming that it is easy to use with excellent results. But whatever brush is used, what is important is the technique, the training and the practice of the crime scene investigator.
Types of Powders
can be classified into two: traditional and advanced. Traditional Powder includes black, white, silver, red, and gray. The choice of powder depends on the kinds of surface on which the print is found. But when in doubt as to which powder is used, a practical rule of thumb is to make a test print on the same or similar surface first.
Powder
Disadvantages of Black Powder: 1. The investigator has to carry two jars of powder, two brushes and two sets of backing cards. The purpose of these pairs of supplies is to anticipate the color of the surface. Black powder is used for light colored surfaces. A separate brush should be used in each type of powder..
When latent print has been developed, it can then be lifted with a lifting tape (adhesive tape). The lifting tape is then pressed on a backing card. If the powder used is black, the backing card should be white. A black backing card should be used for gray powder
2.
3.
4. 5.
Powder cannot be applied to greasy or bloody prints, as this will destroy them. When too much powder is applied to the surface, the excess powder is difficult to take away. It is difficult in overhead surfaces. Fingerprint brush ruins dried out prints on the surface.
BLACK POWDER
GRAY POWDER
FIBERGLASS LATENT PRINT BRUSHES

LATENT PRINT DUSTERS
LATENT PRINT BRUSHES
LATENT PRINT LIFTERS
PRINT LIFTER BACKINGS
Advanced Powders include, but are not

limited to the following:
1.
Magnetic Powders are composed of some 98% iron filings with only one to two percent (1-2%) developing powder. They can develop better prints on the following surfaces: shiny
magazine covers, boxes with a coated surface, and some plastic materials.
They are very useful in developing prints found in overhead and slanting surface. Their advantage lies in the fact that after dusting, a magnetic applicator can be brought in contact with the dusted surface, removing excess powder on the object and the surrounding area.
Magnetic Powder and Applicators
Disadvantage of Magnetic Powders: 1.1 Once the 1-2% developing powder has been consumed any further marks will not be developed. 1.2 They cannot be used on metal surfaces.
2.
Fluorescent Powder Fluorescent powder is composed of 98% Anthracene and 1% aluminum dust. It is suitable for rough, contaminated and multi-colored surfaces. Latent prints treated with this powder can only be seen after exposing the print to radiation.
Fluorescent Powders
3.
Bichromatic Powder Bichromatic powder can be used on either light or dark surface. It appears black when used on a light colored surface and silver on a dark colored surface. When a print developed by a bichromatic powder is lifted with tape and placed on a white backing card, the latent print will appear dark.
4.
K9 Magneta Flake It is important to note that the powder used in developing latent prints contains amino acid that has high affinity to the components of latent prints.
Magnetic powder, while overcoming some of the problems of traditional powder, contains only small amount of amino acid as there are only 2% developing powder it is composition. When this 2% developing powder has been used up, many valuable prints may be overlooked by this powder.
K9 Magneta Flake solves this problem by coating the milled iron flaked powder with amino acid to a specific weight. In other words, every particle of the powder is guaranteed to react with latent prints as it contains amino acid.
Procedure in Powdering Method

1.
2.
3.
One half to one teaspoon of power (approximately one milliliter) is placed into a shallow dish. The fingerprint brush is gently dipped into the dish, and rotated by twirling the brush handle slowly between the thumb and index finger. Before powdering a particular surface, excess powder is tapped from the brush back into the dish.
4.
5.
6.
The brush is swept gently back and forth across the surface. When the first hint of a latent fingerprint began to develop, care is taken to neither overdevelop nor erase the latent print. The brush is painted with the flow of ridges rather than against the ridge flow.
7.
8.
After the print is developed, a piece of tape is pressed on the surface making sure that complete contact is made. The tape is removed from the surface and pressed into a latent print backing card.
Conclusion
Advanced powders may be more effective than the traditional, but their costs may prevent most police agencies in their acquisition. But whether the powder used is tradition or advanced, developing clear prints depends much on the skill of the crime scene investigators. This skill can be acquired through proper training and sufficient practice.

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Fingerprint Identification

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PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION

By MELCON S. LAPINA, MSCrim

History of Fingerprint Identification

Compiled by Melcon S. Lapina, MSCrim

Compiled by Melcon S. Lapina, MSCrim

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Compiled by Melcon S. Lapina, MSCrim

Compiled by Melcon S. Lapina, MSCrim

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Herschels fingerprints recorded over a period of 57 years

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Right Thumb Impression and Signature of Juan Vucetich

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Francis Rojas' Inked Fingerprints

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1908 U.S. Marine Corps begins using fingerprints.

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The Fingerprint Society

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Scientific Basis of Friction Skin Identification

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TENETS OF FRICTION SKIN IDENTIFICATION

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THE NATURE OF FRICTION SKIN

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Leo, William, Fingerprint Identification, 2004, LawTech Custom Publishing, Inc.

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Fingerprint Pattern Interpretation

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Ulnar Loop Right Hand

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Radial Loop Right Hand

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Central Pocket Loop (Whorl)

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Double Loop Whorl

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Compiled by Melcon S. Lapina, MSCrim