EP

G -
F - 1

b
b
b Q

K , - 600006.

 I
F - 2005
,
I , ,
,
A
M, , I
,
CK
v, C K, ,
F , CK, G K,
F H, C K, ,
F M, ,
Fx M, ,

e
M, ,
F
FF M, , T R H LI,

CK
AwF M, A PJ K,

F ,
M .
K : I OM
, I
60 T.v.. O C
J C:


I , , M
C E
P. EPJ G .
EPJ M . E
, Y
.
F, QQ J, F I M
FA EP. QQ O
A. I C bF
A.
EPJ MM. Q ,
G, A
.
EP . EP
, C b
K . , EP
K
C.
FJ,
1. , , F
P.
2. EP A
P .
3. EPJ F E J
O .
4. I, F N
H P
.
F K, EP
P P J.
iii

EP I P A.
PF
O . ,
.
P P , O
K , , F
J F .
FJ CK, e F,
O K I
F. O K
.
EP , I F E
P Q F F
A. .
( I)

, F

iv

EP P

1.1

EPJ

1.2

, , G

1.3

10

1.4

EP

15

25

2.1

25

2.2

H,

26

2.3

FG

27

2.4

28

2.5

FG

29

2.6

FG - G

30

2.7

FG H G

33

2.8

FG - FG

34

2.9

35

2.10

Pf

36

2.11

G E

40

2.12

L E

45

EPJ

58

3
3.1

EPJ
F

58

3.2

61

3.3

E - (ALU)

65

3.4

67

3.5

k, Of

70

92

4.1

92

4.2

L H

106

4.3

113

4,4

115

4.5

HO

118

4.6

IQ E

121

144

5.1

144

5.2

149

5.3

I M

151

EP K

159

6.1

159

6.2

159

6.3

C A

159

6.4

160

6.5

160

6.6

161

6.7

162

6.8

J F

164

6.9

164

vi

6.10

K A

166

6.11

168

6.12

(MODEM)

168

6.13

169

6.14

169

6.15

171

6.16

K P

171

6.17

GA ?

172

6.18

F F

172

6.19

172

6.20

175

6.21

178

6.22

, O

179

vii

 1
EP P
1.1 EPJ
1.1.1

EP Q J A
FA.
N , C, M, ,
C, , , , M, F
O EP F
A.
EP
A.
EP ?
C C
I OA?
L, C,
F P .

. EPJ F
F OM.

1.1 EP

EP I F. , N,
, E
.
I . H
F .
MJ J
P .
1

E,
EP. L, I F
.
LHP .
Q F FF
.
MO O ,
C AN A.
O WP
. C , E F.
H A. F
A. M L
J M, I
M . I
EP.
C P K
FJ .
1.1.2 F
A.. 2500 - v

1.2 v

EF H M v
.
F L, P E .
F () G,
E F P. M
F A E P.
L
v , N .
H
, MK.
2

A.H. 1,614 - H C

1.3 H C

M .

H (John Napier) v
.
F F C .

C, A
M .
A.H. 1,633 - (Slide Rule)

1.4

ML (William Oughtred)
A.
K (logarithm) J
A.
O G , M
. F ,
, , N .
3

A.H. 1,642 - E

1.5 E

Hv v (Blaise Pascal) H P
.
EP
. F H P (levers and gears) .
J E M v
A.
.
A.H. 1,822 - v T (Difference Engine)

1.6 v T

v x (Charles babbage) A
.
E PJ O
P.
EPJ
A, EPJ
A.
4

A.H. 1,890 - K IS
(Hollerith Tabulating Machine)

1.7 K IS

J , P
, C
M.
1.1.3 EPJ
EP N F
O, C I A. E
PJ F, , FK
. M .
A N O
J EPJ HK.

P .
- 1,940 - 1,956: P
P (vaccum tube) IP,
G F EP
A.
M K, F
.
F I .
F EPJ
5

 .
EP NJ (Machine Language) .
,
A k (input) . Of
(output) P N C O.

EP F E
F .

1.8 P

Q (Universal Automatic Computer - UNIVAC) Q GK

(Electronic Numerical Integrater and Calculator - ENIAC) P
H .
- 1,956 - 1,963: Cv
P F Cv (Transistor)
.
, I
. Cv F OJ, EP
C O .

JL PJ.
F k , Of
P .
EP NJL O
N (Assembly Language) P. F C
.
6

 1.9 Cv.

F (COBOL), (FORTRAN) G NO (High Level Languages)

F .
J G
F (magnetic core) .
I, GF
N P.
- 1,964 - 1,971:
Cv A, CL (chip) A
(Integrated Circuits).
EPJ F, I FF
F.

1.10

 M (keyboard), F (monitor)
k, Of .
EPJ
F GA (operating system)
P.
F
b
.
- 1,971 - : L
CL A
L (Microprocessor) .
EP
J F F G .

EP .

EPO A.
M (Internet)
.

1.11 L

- Q : P
CF
P (Artificial Intelligence) A. E
P A C
A.

1.2 , , G
EP C b .
(Data) (Instructions) ,
O , A.
8

1.12 , ,

O F F
.
GM , C
F (Information) . ,
,

GM F

OF J
.
F .
.

, , , O
.
.

K .

, A, K
A.
K
P .
,

EF

OL P

(Algorithm)
E
KF,
. , K
9

 . L,
E .
E
P N P, C .
EP G (Program) , PH C
b O .
, O
c A G.
G (Programmer), C FK b
, N
.
G NJ
.
G, EP
NJ , b
A.
, C b CL
P, b .

L CL
P .
M
E P . G
K P, K .

1.3

1.3.1 P
EPJ A F .
(Hardware) (Software).
P
. , E
P .
1.3.2 EP
EP , k (Input) ,
, P OJ (Output)
. H I
(Storage) .
.

EPJ H W
10

G
G

Yd

Of

1.13 EP

, G EPJ F
k 
. M (Keyboard), (Mouse), (Scanner)
k .
 (Central Processing Unit - CPU)
 , E I
A.
E
A.
GM GF,
F , A F G
 (Memory). EP I G,
GF I cA M.

N G (Volatile Memory) .
E O
Of  . F (Monitor)
P Of .
GM , I G
ML N G
(Storage) . EP
A.
EP k, Of,
, M (Peripheral Equipment) .
11

1.3.3 EP
E NO
. , ,
W ,
, FI, K
F . (System Software),
(Application Software)
.
EP

1.14

EPJ F F K
J .
MJP EP .
EP,
.
M
.

, EP
J MA. (Operating
System), (Complier)
J .

1.15

12

 O I A
. EPJ C F
A. EP
(user) J
A. EP . v (DOS Disk Operating System), Qv (Unix), Lv (Linux) M
v (Windows) .
G G NJ .
N EP NJ
EP K. N
(Compiler) .
, KF,
O .
G

G
1.16

(FORTRAN), (COBOL), C(C), C v v

N QQ
.
(C++)

EP
A.

A.

A.
J F, (Word Processing),
Q PM, M
. QQ AA.

O C - L, MK
(Spread Sheet), (Data Base Management),
(Graphics).
13

I F M L
.
OF K
FM.
J II
O.
F
F. , IA.
L O, F, , I
, C .
O A F
F A J. M
L, O F, P
A. (function) .
P, M .
M, MK.

, MO P, M
K FA.

.
v 1-2-3, (Excel)
MK.
Y J A
(Data Base) . F O
F
.
O, Y
. A, M, J F
O AA.

MK

QEP
O
.
P

O, C
, ,A
L, E
,
.
,
F

14

(Word
Perfect), v
(Microsoft Word),

(Word Star)

(Microsoft
Excel),v1-2-3
(Lotus 1-2-3)

v (Microsoft
A (Oracle)

Access)

1.4

EP

1.4.1 P
I EP P
NJ HK HK.

, , , G A

1.4.2 N
(analog), (digital), H
(hybrid) F .
EP

1.17 EP

F M
EP . x, , ,
.
L L , J
M .

0-1, -, K- , -
G J
EP. GO K A
. , M L A.
N J E
15

A. , N (0), (1)
A. MO
J F. C, N
, , O
EP A.
Q C b
EP . C EP
. A C b
EP . ,
G F C b.

EP .
H
C
, F,
J H .
,
.
.
J C
K HKM , ,
A.

. M
EP A.
A. G E
. G P P
KM.

Q
A.
1.4.3 N
F, , G , , M
EP
HK. - e EP (Super Computer), G
EP (Mainframe Computer), C EP (Mini Computer),
EP (Micro Computer).
16

 EP

e
EP

G
EP

C
EP

EP

1.18 EP

e EP
F MJ I .
MJ
.
I F E ,
C, F C C , Q
PM,
A.
G EP
F K .
M C
. P M F. F
M .
A, M G, J
G, M , M P
A.
C EP
G EPJ M F ,
M F .

F .
M
, F
.
G EPM MJ, F
.
, M MJ I
EPO F FK, C EP
MF.
EP
A C
17

L, EP PF.

EP C EPM M .
EP

E
G

EP

EP

EP

1.19 EPO

EP HK.
E G, EP, EP,
F CP EP HK.
, F , P
- k, , Of.
E G
E
F . H C F
.
EG.
EPM F . E
P N (Computer Aided Design - CAD), C
O (simulation) P K
A.

1.20 EG

18

 () EP

1.21 EP

EP dn (PC)
EP. EP
A.
Q A F
J M I .
L, C A.
EP

1.22 EP

C M .
M , EP
A.
EPJ F,
O ,
I .
F
A.
19

 CP

1.23 M

, C CJ F k
EP .
EP , M (Personal
Digital Assistant - PDA) A. EP
I CP, F N
A.

EP I F. , N,
,
.

v E .

Hv v A E,
EPJ .

v x EPJ
A.

EP P
O, G .

J P F
Cv .

J .
20

J A CL L
.

O HL E .

O HL
.

E
KF .

C b G
A.

EPJ , A
.

E O GA.

EP J
A.
F ,
.

EPJ .

E
.

EP F
.

EP, QQ G F
.

C
H .

e EP MJ
.

G EP MJ
.

M C E
P.
21

L ( C Yd) EP
A.

EP, EG, EP,

EP CP HK.

JC
I.

1.

___________ EPJ
A.

2.

___________ H.

3.

EP ___________ P,
___________ G F

4.

___________ E
PJ .

5.

___________ EPJ P
A

6.

EP k, Of

___________ .

7.

___________ EP G
P.

8.

___________, ___________
HK.

9.

___________ EPJ
GO .

10.

___________ G, G A.

11.

___________ F A,
YF , A.

12.

___________ EP S ,
(Integration) .

13.

EP ___________, ___________,
___________ HK.
22

14.

___________
FI .

15.

___________ EPJ
k A.

16.

___________ EP k
A.

17.

EP ___________
A.

18.

dn ___________.

19.

___________ O, Y, C
A.

20.

E ___________.

II. W K, .
1.

I EP H
.

2.

I F EP e E
P .

3.

S
A Hv v

4.

K v T .

5.

G NJL P N
A.

6.

L .

7.

EP
.

8.

k
F A.

9.

, O C
A H .

10.

EP EP
.
23

III. W M M .
1.
2.

EP ?
x x F ?

3.

M ?

4.

5.

6.

7.

L ?

8.

H ?

9.

EP ?

10.

EP ?

IV. W M MK MO.
1.

EPJ , P A
M.

2.

, M
M.

3.

, MK.

4.

e EP, G EP, C EP

EPO
A

M.

24

 2

2.1. P
O . , , F, , L,
OC . J ,
C Pf . F ,
. , LJ .

OCJ .
EP K J
.
EP , O
.
, HK.
J F C, O
. L, P J
.
J O F QQ .
G O K PH.

EP
A.
H (Bit) (Byte)
J A.
N (0) (1) H
. H F . EP
F H A,
GM ,
H
A.
, E
P 32-H L, 128 G (RAM)
40 A .
F E (Arithmetic Logic Unit -ALU) ,
A.
EP O
A.
(Integer) H (Fraction). F
H I O J ( Floating Point Representation)
25

A.
O.
H
.

QQ .
A P
H, P, P P
C.

2.2. H
PHA, F
AA
. F .
FG. ( decimal) .
.
G J (binary) , E
P M . G
, E (octal), FG (hexa decimal)
P C.
H(Bit) BInary digiT . 0, 1
F . G
HO K .
H K.
8
H 256 K .
0
255 , W P
.
0 = 0000 0000
1 = 0000 0001
2 = 0000 0010
3 = 0000 0011
.
.
.
254 = 1111 1110
255 = 1111 1111

26

J A , F
C Pf, PH
. vA Pf (American Standard Code for
Information Interchange - ASCII). EPO
A. F 0 127 J F
A.
A O WG 26
vA Pf 65 90 , 0 9
48 57 , PHA.
O
Pf (Space) 32.
GO A ,
.
K J A
J (1,000) P. , EP J
1,024 (2 10 ) P.W O
F A.

A (Kilo)
(Mega)
A (Giga)
(Tera)
d (Peta)
(Exa)
n (Zetta)
(Yotta)

()

2^10*

2^20

2^30

2^40

2^50

2^60

2^70

2^80

*
2GB (A )
2,147,483,648 I.
. n,
O K M.

2.3 FG
, F
J (radix) . 0 9 J
.
F PH
27

A.
F F F,
A.
Pf (positional notation) .
Pf FM
.
FL F
, F ( power of 3)
.
948 FG E F
A .
WPf
A.
94810 = 9 X 102 + 4 X 101 + 8 X 100

H PH. F F
O (decimal point) H
F FJ .
, 948.23
F A .
948.2310 = 9 X 102 + 4 X 101 + 8 X 100 + 2 X 10-1 + 3 X 10-2

,
X = { .x2x1x0 . x-1x-2x-3. },

F E FH
X = i xi10i

where i = .2, 1, 0, -1, -2, .

A .

2.4 G
G J 0, 1
.
F
PH .

(radix). J E F
Pf AA.
FG
J F , J 2
A.
10111 2 G
2310 F .
101112 = 1 X 24 + 0 X 23 + 1 X 22 + 1 X 21 + 1 X 20
= 16 + 0 + 4 + 2 + 1
= 2310

28

G J H, F G
J PH FH. ,
0.10112 = 1 X 2-1 + 0 X 2-2 + 1 X 2-3 + 1 X 2-4
= 0.5 + 0 + 0.125 + 0.0625
= 0.687510

2.5 FG
O F ,
PH A.

23 , FG J
, G J
PHA. FP J
E .
F? 24 = 16. .
EP OA .
FG 16 .

K 0 9 . eF
? A, B, C, D, E, F Pf 10, 11, 12,
13, 14, 15 F PH .
J D 13 FG P
. 1016 F P. 2C 4410 P.
2C16 = 2 X 161 + C X 160
= 32 + 12
= 4410

H F .
G , 0 F
F AA.
H FG .
0000 = 0
0001 = 1
0010 = 2
0011 = 3
0100 = 4
0101 = 5
0110 = 6
0111 = 7

1000 = 8
1001 = 9
1010 = A
1011 = B
1100 = C
1101 = D
1110 = E
1111 = F

29

 I A. ,
G , I O FG
. . FL
A H .

N . Q
H F FG P
.
.
,
1100 1001 1101 = C9D16
C
9
D

FG E ,
, K P,
J C .
O G
F E M.

2.6

FG - G

G FG O.

A .
FG G
N .
2.6.1
FG , eF 0
1 . FF ,
eF K .
I A
G A. M
r1 eF, M A
. F r1 0 1 . ,
M = 2 * M1 + r1
r1 = 0 1
M1 , eF r2 , M M2
.

M1 = 2 * M 2 + r 2
r2 = 0 1

M = 2 (2 * M2 + r2) + r1
= 22M2 + r2 * 21 + r1* 20

30

 M2 . M M3 , eF r3

M2 = 2 * M3 + r3
M = 2 (2 * (2 * M3 + r3) + r2) + r1

= 22(2 * M3 + r3) + r2 * 21 + r1* 20

= 23 M3 + r3 * 22 + r2 * 21 + r1* 20

F F .
M 0 .
M = 1 * 2k + rk * 2k-1 + . + r3 * 22 + r2 * 21 + r1* 20

23 10 G .

eF
23/2
11
1 (LSB) 
11/2
5/2
2/2
1/2

5
2
1
0

1
1
0
1 (MSB)

vH ( LSB - Least Significant Bit) C F H

, vH (MSB - Most Significant Bit) F
H P.
G ,
eF WN , I .
2310 = 101112

G E ?
M , CP
H .
.
, 23 E 5 .
16 < 23 < 32
24 < 23 < 25

J, G J
,
F A
P.
36 .
,
32 < 36 < 64
25 < 36 < 26

31

, 36 G E 6 H .
2.6.2 O
FG , O
H ,
.
, 36 .
.
M CP
, H.
3610 > 3210

.
32 F 1 .

, EL, N.
36 - 32 = 4
.
32 16, eF (4) M
F.
16 4 N .
,
16 F 0 .
.
16 8, eF (4) M
F.
8 4 N .
,
8 F 0 .
. H F 4. eFJ (4)
N .
eF 0.
4 F 1
.
.
eF 0 , F 2
( = 2 ), 1 ( = 2 0 ) O 0 .
,
1

36 = 1001002

.
32 16
1
32 16
1 0
32 16
1 0

8 4 2 1
8
0
8
0

32

4 2 1
1
4 2 1
1 0 0

36 32 = 4
44= 0
3610 = 1001002

:
91 10 F G
.
91 CP K 64,
64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1
91-64 = 27
64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 1
91-(64+16) = 11

32 > 27 , 32 H 0 .
< 27 , 16 H 1 .
,

16

64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1

1 1

91-(64+16+8) = 3

64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1

1 1 0 1

91-(64+16+8+2) = 1

64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1

1 1 0 1 1
91-(64+16+8+2+1) = 0
9110 = 10110112

2.7 F G H G
1/2, 1/4, 1/8 H G
L .
O J
.
0.510 = 1 * 2-1 = 0.12
0.2510 = 0 * 2-1 + 1 * 2-2 = 0.012
0.12510 = 0 * 2-1 + 0 * 2-2 + 1 * 2-3 = 0.0012

5/8 = 4/8 + 1/8 = 1/2 + 1/8

5/8 = 1 * 2-1 + 0 * 2-2 + 1 * 2-3
= 0.1012

O H
33

 G J L PH .
, 0.2 10 .
FK
L PH .
,
H .
J G.

H F .
MJ
F P .
0 1 .

MJ F MM.
F e .

, H F 0
. H F F A
G.
A FO , H
P G .
:

F
0.2 * 2 = 0.4
0.4 * 2 = 0.8
0.8 * 2 = 1.6
0.6 * 2 = 1.2

0
0
1
1

0.2 * 2 = 0.4

(H F F A)
F L W ,
I , H O . ,
0.210 = 0.001100112

2.8

F G F G

F GJL F G
, G . O
C O .
K
. F F F
34

 C.
FP
H CP, M K,

E F GJ .
948 F G
, .
(163 = 4096) > 948 > (162 = 256)
162 161 160
3

948 (3 * 256) = 180

162
3

161 160
B

948 (3 * 256 + 11 * 16) = 4

162
3

161 160
B 4

948 (3 * 256 + 11 * 16 + 4) = 0

94810 = 3B416

F F F J
G W:
16 , eF A
. 0 15 eF F
G PH.
N , eFJL
FG .

948 / 16 =

59

59 / 16 =
3
3 / 16 =
0
94810 = 3B416

2.9.

eF
4 (LSB)

11 (B)
3 (MSB)

E 8.
J 0 7
.

E F G ,

F A,
35

M .
:

7118 E F F ?
7 * 82 + 1 * 81 + 1 * 80 = 45710

F F , F
JL E . G;

F ,
eF P
.
eF E ( 0 7
) .

N F F M
.
6410
E ?

64/8
8/8
1/8

eF

8
1
0

0 (LSB) 
0
1 (MSB)

, 6410 = 1008

2.10 Pf
F Pf F,
G OF
. F EP
. O F Pf -
.
EP 0, 1 M K. ,
G E H
Pf F. 0 . 1
F.
2.10.1 Pf + PH
Pf PH O
N, H, F 1
. n H , F eF n - 1 H
36

 E P.
F,

0100 = +4
1100 = -4

J C .
O PH.

, N

0000 = +010
1000 = -010

, N , M
O K . Pf Q
, E Q F Q .
I F.
, M C A
.
G C
b .
2.10.2.

Pf G

, Pf
.
F G
N .
. G E H,
0 , 0 1 .

. M .

, F ( H
O)
G .
G K
.
PH c
G .

,
F N .
E e
.
H
. A.
37

 EPJ 8 HO PH
A . 2310 G
.
G C W P
H .
N
23 G => 10111.
=> 01000
=> 01001
N 8 => 00001001 => +9

K N
23 G 10111
N 8 H => 00010111
=> 11101000
=> 11101001 => -23
2.10.3. G
O N
1.
F .
1 ,
, F
.
2. H , N
, N P .
E c L K .
1.

-4 , 4 H,
.

4 G , O =>

0100

P , ,
=> 100
, , P
=> 1100 => -4
38

-23 H H, G .
-23 G , O => 0001 0111
P

=> 1

=> 1110 1001 => -23

2.10.4. Pf

G O F, G
J Pf .
Pf G
.
A
E F . , 1110 0110
F .
Pf G ,
F 230.
111001102 = 23010

, G J
F -26 10.
H I A.
F , O
FH .
,
x

= 1001,

= 0011 ,

M x K?

M J
.
Pf
, x = 9, y = 3. x > y.
, G J , x F
, y . y > x.
39

2.10.5. O i
H , Pf
, 0 15 P
. H F
, H 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 16 MF
. n H 2n .
0 2n-1 PH .
Pf J
, 2n O F
, eF N F .
0
n
2 -1 J
, -1 2n-1
F P.

2.11 G E
J EP A.

G J A. Pf
G A.

E .
2.11.1 G - Pf
J ,
M C O PH
. .
, 9 + 7 =
16. F 6 (sum) , 1
F , (carry)
A
G E ,
, 0
1 .
,
0+0=0 0
0+1=0 1

1+1=1 0

40

 H
M HO F,

F H H, F F H
H .
1

1100

1011
1100
1011

10111


H
2

10111 + 10110 A.
111
10111
10110

101101

Carry bits

,
, (addend)
A.

(Augend)

2.11.2. G - Pf
Pf ,
cF A.
F
F F H Pf A
K.
1

2 + 5 G Pf
.
41

+2
0010
+5
0101

+7
0111


H
Pf H

M J
I , K M .
2: G J

H H, G J -7
5 .
L -7 G .
G J 7,
0111
H 1000

1001
1 0 0 1 (-7)
0 1 0 1 (5)

1 1 1 0 (-2)

M G J .
C O, O PH cM, M
J c F. F H M
M, K M A!
?
Pf
K.
3:
4 H H GJ -4 +4
1100
(
0 1 0 0 (+4)

1 0000 =0

G J -4)

42

F, F H A.
Pf , MM.
H K M .
F H MF
Pf
M Pf ,
F A . F M .
,
F, M,
PH F.
4

-7 -5, 4 H H, G
J .
(

1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 

1 0 1 0 0

G J

( G J

-7)
-5)

(=4) M

F .
M (0100)
J .
( H
H ).
, F
H A.
M A.
2.11.3 G N
N .

EL NA N (minuend)
. NA N (substratend)
.
C G O N W
.
00
10
11
10 1

=
=
=
=

0
1
0
1

43

NJL N, F
F HL A.
F
H, N .
F N ,
P .

N . FL,
N, .
1

N : 1101 1010
01

1101
-1010

(N )
(N )

0011

F H P
N, F, N E 0 .

, F
A.
F 10
N, eF 1 A. 10 - 1 = 1.
0 A.
2

N : 1000 101
011
1000
-101

0011

A H P N
0 1 1 10
1 0 1

(N )

 N H eF

N MF .
N
E F, G J F, N
.
44

(+2) - (+7) (+2) + (-7) ?

.
3:

4 H H (+2) - (+7) N
0 0 1 0 (+2)
0 1 1 1 (+7)
1 0 0 1

( G J -7)

0 0 1 0 (2)
+ 1 0 0 1 (-7)

1 0 1 1 (-5)

4:

4 H H N

(-6) - (+4)

-6

1 0 1 0

-4

1 1 0 0

G J

1 0 1 1 0

F. M ( H
) J A.
F
H Q. F H MF
J M .
-10 4 H PH
M .
N F .

EPJ (circuit) .
N F.

2.12 L E
x (George Boole) A
M E . EPJ G J E
45

 (circuit) F
L E.
P
k, Of H
A.
EF P (variable), PL (constant),
A (operators) .
0, 1
, PL .
L
P FO . P
PL A .
,
AND, OR NOT.
,
, .
O, P, vH P
(over bar) PH.
(function)

AND

=A.B

OR

=A+B

NOT

= A

(or Aa)

L P, PL A
, L (Boolean expression) .
OR A M H
(operand) .
1 F ,
AND A 1 M .

O 0 M .
AND

P F 1 OR A 1
M .
0 M 0.
(OR) A M HJ
e . M HJ F P
.
1 0 , 0 1 P M.
AO
O K. (Truth Table)
.
46

2.12.1. L A
AND

A . M H
(1) (1) M
.
W .
A, B
Y M.
M H.
AND

A
0
0
1
1

B
0
1
0
1

Y
0
0
0
1

P L
Y=AB
OR

A, MH (1)
M (1) . OR

0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1

0
1
1
1

A, B M H.

M.

P L Y = A + B
.
NOT

A M HJ e .
FH P OJ.
A M
H. Y M.
A
0
1

Y
1
0

AJ , Y = Aa PH.
47

L . A
(1), Bb.C D J F
1 . O 0 . Bb.C
, B = 0, C = 1 1 . , A= 1
, , A = 0, B = 0, C = 1 D = 1 .
D = A + (Bb.C)

NAND

NAND AND NOT .

L
A OJ M, NOT A P
OJ.

AND

Y = Ac.BC

PH.

A
0
0
1
1

B
0
1
0
1

Y
1
1
1
0

A NAND B = NOT (A AND B)

NOR A
NOR OR NOT F .
L
OR A OJ M, NOT A P
.
, W .
Y = A+B
A
0
0
1
1

B
0
1
0
1

Y
1
0
0
0

A NOR B = NOT (A OR B)

2.12.2. L E MF
L E F L O
.
, I O
48

O E .
I P
F . L O
.

L
MF
1 0 , 0 1
.
1 :

A=0

, Aa = 1.

2 :

A=1

Aa = 0

3 :
AND

AJ

F A.

Abd= A

AJ
4 :
A=0

M 0.
A=1

M 1.

A.1=A

, M H 1
, M H 1

, M A .
5 :

A.0=0

M H 0 , A ,
M 0.
6 :

A. A = A

O A M O.
7 :
A

A.Ac= 0

F , M 0.

OR AJ

8 : A + 1 = 1
AJ

F , M H 1
, M 1 .
49

 9 : A+0 =A
MJ F AJ F .
10 : A+A = A
MJ F AJ F
11 : A+Ac = 1
AJ

F , M 1 .

2.12.3. L O
O C E K
.
G (Literal)
L P GH G .
(Product term)
G L
A AND A .
AND Pf O .
- ABc, AC, Ac Cc, Eb
C (Min term)
Q P,
GH , C .

L K X, Y, Z P , XYZ, XaYZ,

Xc Yc Zc C .
(standard product term) .
(sum term)
G OR L
A , A .
:

A + Bc + D.

(max term)
K P,
GH , .
50

 P , x + y + z, x + ya + za
.
(standard
sum term) .
x, y, z

O (SOP- sum of products)

OR A
, O .
:

Ac+ AB + AcBcCc

C
C .
: ABC + ABCc + Ac BCc

O (POS - product of sums)

AND A
, O .
: (A) (A+B) (A+D)

, C .
: (A+B) (A+Bc) (Ac+Bc)

12:

MF (commutative law)

M H
A, M H
K ,
M ,
MF A .
,
, L A
AI. 5 + 3 = 3 + 5. MF
. , MF .
N, MF .
A MF .

AND, OR

A + B = B + A,
AB = BA

13. MF (Associative Law)

A ,
P A L M A
, A MF .
51

 ,
MF .
N,
.
5 + ( 3 + 2 ) = 10 = ( 5 + 3 ) + 2
5 . ( 3 .

2 ) = 30 = ( 5 . 3 ) . 2

5 - ( 3 - 2 ) = 4; ( 5 - 3 ) - 2 = 0
8 / ( 4 / 2 ) = 4; ( 8 / 4 ) / 2 = 1
AND, OR

A MF .

A+(B+C)=(A+B)+C
A(BC)=(AB)C

14: A MF (Distribute Law)

A , P
P MF .
L EF A MF .
A(B+C) = AB+AC
A+(BC) = (A+B) (A+C)

EF, MF .
MF Q .

MF L EF A
W F.
A

BC

0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1

0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1

LHS
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
52

A+B

A+C

RHS

0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1

0
1
0
1
1
1
1
1

0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1

O (minimum sum of products)

L O
F EJ
, O A.
W
Ac B Cc+ Ac B C + A Bc Cc + A Bc C + A B C
MF F
= (Ac B Cc + Ac B C) + (A Bc Cc + A Bc C) + A B C
= Ac B(Cc+C) + A Bc(Cc+C)+ABC
11 F
= Ac B (1) + A Bc (1) + ABC
4 F
= Ac B + A Bc + ABC

, O F
. L 10
.
AcB Cc + Ac B C + A Bc Cc + A Bc C + A B C + A Bc C (A Bc C + A Bc C = A Bc C)
= (Ac B Cc + Ac B C) + (A Bc Cc + A Bc C) + (A B C + A Bc C)
= Ac B (Cc + C) + A Bc (Cc + C) + A C(B + Bc)
= Ac B + A Bc + A C

L MO
O .

W L /O
AcBCc + AcBC
x = AcB, y = Cc

, ,

53

x y + x yc
= x(y + yc)
= x = Ac B
A + A?B = A + B

GH

A MFJ,
A + Ac B = (A + Ac)(A + B) = 1 (A + B) = A + B

W L .
Ac Bc Cc + Ac B Cc + Ac B C + A Bc Cc
= Ac Cc(Bc + B) + Ac B C + A Bc Cc
= Ac Cc + Ac B C + A Bc Cc
= Ac(Cc + BC) + A Bc Cc
= Ac(Cc + B)(C + C) + A Bc Cc
= Ac(Cc + B) + A Bc Cc
= Ac Cc + Ac B + A Bc Cc ( A .)
K, , .
,
Ac Bc Cc + (Ac B Cc + Ac B C) + A Bc Cc
= Ac Bc Cc + Ac B(Cc + C) + A Bc Cc
= Ac Bc Cc + Ac B + A Bc Cc
= Bc Cc(Ac + A) + Ac B
= Bc Cc + Ac B

(I A .)

2.12.4
15: A + B = AcBc
16: AB = Ac + Bc
L EF F .
GH.
54


f (A, B, C, D) = DAc B + ABc

GH H

+ DAC

L H

fc (A, B, C, D) = D Ac B + A Bc + D A C
( 15)
= (D Ac B) (A Bc) (D A C)
( 16)
= (Dc + A + Bc)(Ac + B)(Dc + Ac + Cc)

A, L ,
O .
GH O
.
O, W A.
L K, W
, F .
1.
P P GH .
A OR A
2.
AND
3.
F GH .

E O ,
, E O , PL
, L
F .
L E P
.
L N .
F I
F .

JC
I

1.

H ________ O .

2.

E ________ , F
G ________
A.
55

3.

4.

LSB, MSB

5.

L ________ ,
________ PH.

6.

NL M H ________, ________
.

7.

5864 FG E G
________, F G ________.

8.

HO NJ G
________.

9.

EPJ E ________,
________ O
A.

10.

________ H.

11.

IL MB , 1 HL
H ________ PHA.

12.

68 M K, CP ________.
68 G F ________
.

II.

H Pf , ________
EL, P.
________ , ________
PL .

H M MO.

1.

W FG , G, E
F G .
. 512
. 1729 . 1001
. 777
. 160

2.

-27 10 8H GJ .

3.

Pf : +15 10
+ 3610 . 8 H G
.

4.

Pf 8 H O K,
CP, F G O
.
56

5.

W Pf G
.
. 1010 + 1510

6.

. 1210 + 510 . 1410 - 1210 . ( 210) - (-610)

W G FG
. 10112

7.

. 110102

G .

. 1A816

5E916

. 7710

. (A + B)(A + C) = A + BC

W L .
. Ac Bc Cc + Ac B C + A Bc Cc

14.

. Ac Bc Cc + Ac Bc C + A Bc Cc + A Bc C

F, W L

.

15.

. 9510

L E F, W
GH.
. A + AB = A

13.

. 101110 - 1011

G NJ, W FG
G .
. 4110

12.

CAFE16

W G E .
. 11011001 + 1011101

11.

39EB16

W F G FG
.
. B616

10.

. 1111010000102

W F G
. F216

9.

. 10100112

W G F G .
. 1012

8.

. 1011102

A C + B+C

(Ac + Bc + Cc)

((AC) + B) + C

57

 - 3
EPJ
3.1 EPJ
F
3.1.1. P
EP Q H.
,
, , I ,
GML
.
Q , , , ,
, A.
J
A A. H GM
A.
Q
A.
EPJ A.
, Q .

G . G
(CPU - Central Processing Unit).

3.1.2. EPJ
EP
, ,
. k, Of ,
, G . GO
O .
3.1.3. EPJ
EP M
. EPJ
JP , F
J
58

 .
EP
.

, G .

GM ,
.

GL PH, F,
.

, F
HK.

Of

I L I H .

. H 3.1 MA

O
f

G
3.1 EPJ

k
, G KI , E
PJ . M, ,
O, F C k.
59

Of
EP OJ , Q
J P Of .
F
, P K Of
.

(CPU - Central Processing Unit)

E,

F
3.2

EPJ .
F E ,
(logical operations) F .
E ( ALU - Arithmetic Logic Unit)
. , E ,
AND, OR .
F, G k, O
f F, ,
L F .
(Control Unit) .
FO PL
H
F.
HO (BUS)
. , I
QQ .

G
E , ,
G, EPJ GF
60

. EP M .
G, I G
GM .
I GM
G .
P H G
A A.
G (Secondary Storage) .
I F, M .
3.1.4 G
(John Von Neumann) K .
A :
n

EH , G GF
.

E A, GL
F .

QK f
.

G GF
FJ P .

3.2
3.2.1. F E
EPJ .
A.
n

EPJ F F
A.

E A.

YdM K F .

E (ALU- Arithmetic Logic Unit)

(Control Unit)

F (Register)

61

 E F, ,
E , AND, OR, <=
A. G
FL , F F
GF . A
F, M F FO .

e GF .
EPJ FO
A. GL
A.
F
I H A.

F F A, GL E .

Of

3.3 YdM E

62

3.2.2 YdM E
G, Yd A
.
G, , P
OJ. F
1. a F ( M N).
2. b F ( M N).
3. = a + b
4. J F FJ OJ
G F G .
1 . L G EPJ A.
E F F
A.
2. K A.
M HHA.
3. a FH M N
A.
4. GF, a K
F
HHA. G
A.
b

5. G 2 4 F
P A.

6. E .
, a, b F G F
O I H
HA. a, b F FO GA.
, M A.
7. F , M
F A.
, ,
GF FH
63

 I A.

GF A.
8. , F G
MF HHA. G
F , F FJ H
A.
9. GL G,
G A.
F ,
3.4 A.

a K

k
F

a F

b K

b F

J K

J F

/
OJ
F

3.4 YdM

64

3.3. E -
EH E , N,
, ,
C Pf H, AND,
OR, NOT F .
,
E
bQ, HH
.
3.3.1. E
E ,
PH FO .

I ,
F ,
P N . P M M
F . , , Q
Q .
F G W
.
1. ( 5, 8 ) GF
O .
2. , O
, FO A.
3. ,
A.
4. M (13) GMF (memory buffer)
A.
5. M,
GM
F F A
65

 3.5 E

3.3.2.
H , CP, K
, AND, OR, NOT F .
3.3.3 E M
, , AND
.
F (AREG), O F
(ACCUM - )
F .
K M e
A.

3.6 M E M.

66

 3.6 M E H
HA.
E
I A.
FO , E
, (enable) I KMA.
HJ 1 H H, E
A.

3.4 G
GO .
-
G (Random Access Memory - RAM) G
(Read Only Memory - ROM), G G (Programmable Read Only Memory - PROM), I N G
G (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only
Memory - EEPROM).

3.7 G

G (RAM)
EPO G
.
P , G
A. , FL
. I G, F
N M.

F
M

G (ROM)
F , CL F
. .
I
F N.
EP
67

 G
O A.
G G (PROM)
N G.
F
. CL
F. Q
G .
N G G (EPROM)
CL, GA
N . ( ) O
NA. N G.
I N G G
(EEPROM)

N G.
N
O J.
I F N
M. N G. Hw G (flash
memory) . G
.
G G
F G.

K .
MFJ
, O C
. P .

P .
K JL
K .
PH K J F
. ,
F .
GF , (write)
, FL , (Read) P
H. G
G A.
68

EPJ G, ROM
G.

G
8 H F (Byte) .
O .
EPO 4MB ( ) , K
EPO GB (A ) G A
. GF (access time)
C (cycle time) MO .
G
.
C .
G GO HK.

F M F.
E
A .
A.

GJ w (cash) G.
F . , F
M .
G M
F.
Yd
G A.

GJ RAM
G.

C F G .

G G, N .
C
N (I G).
EP
H O A.
E
, , G, O GFL
GF .
O GF I F. , M
I . GO F M
. , F, w, G, O
G KJ P M .
69

3.5 k, Of
E
PJ A . EP
J k, M OJ
Of A.
P
.
3.5.1. k
, EP
A. EP k
.
, EP K
MF H .
M
O F M
. F J M
.
A , , O
G Pf, C
M .
F M
vA Pf (ASCII) EP A.

3.8 M

L , AF Mouse
A.
FJ
(cursor) A.
J C
. J e . , .

70

 , I EP H
.
, e ,
J .

AO .

e .

3.9

(Scanner)
, O .
e
AF EP
.
F ,
, P C
(OCR - Optical Character Recognition software) .

3.10

71

 Pf (Bar Code Reader)

P (, M
) O J M
O F C.

Pf .
, Q .
, O , M
EP .
C O K
A.
EO I
A

3.11 Pf,

, EP .
.
. EP F
.

3.12

72

F (Touch Sensitive Screen)

FJ H P P ,
M e M . F ,
EP .

3.13 F

(Magnetic Ink Character Recognition MICR)

3.14 C

C AO K A.
F A
, J C. F
, . IA.

.
73

O N (OCR - Optical Character Recognition)

3.15 O

C ,
J ,
ON .

C J. .
C O N K, PH H
C .

P M
K .
A, I N
K .
K
, P .
O N Pf (Optical Mark Recognition - OMR)

3.16

74

 C C O
C . P C
J G .
, G EP KM. J C E F O .
K M
FK FHA. NO F
.
O (Light Pen)
M F
.
FJ e ,
O A, P.
O F. F
F.
FJ
C.

3.17 O

(Magnetic Reader)
, .
(credit card), (ATM card),
(petro card) LP K M
.

3.18

75

 (Smart Card)
J C LJ
F . P .
H
EP .
J, A F F A.

3.19

P (Notes Taker)
F , P F
A.
P F
OJ. F, H (clip) F
J .
FL EP .

, LP O,
K AA.
FL P
Q .
,
I P A.

3.20 P

76

 C (Micro Phone)
L EP
. C,
P .
M,
K
.
I .
N
F G M.
C
O C G .

3.21 C

3.5.2. Of
EPJL O OJ
EP . P
F, P A.
F (Monitor)
F M Of . C
F A.
EP
F, C
.

3.22 F

77

 F F (Monochrome)
F P.
. A. FJ
O O ,
. O H (pixel - picture element) .
OO E 640 x 480, 800 x 600, 1024
x 768 MO .
F
OO E. W
OO E. 4 : 3 MAF
. MA (aspect ratio)
. OO E F F
L K
P (printer)
(hard copy) ,
C EPJL
P.
, P
.
P HK
. (Inpact), (non-inpact) .
P

O E
P

P P

3.23 P

J, C H AF e
O .
.
, AF M
78

(ribbon)

. FL F

O E (Dot Matrix) J 14 8 C
H , , .
K PJ, F
K .
PO

J AF e O/
A.

M, C I F
CF K A.

F .

F.

,
.

O O C .

J, O, , ,
O, d A.
PO

, F.

O OF .

F .

O O C .

. F
A.

K P (Line Printer)
I M, F K C F
.
, GIF 150 3,000 K
79

C.

P .

M C

, F , I O
F .

3.24 K P

O E P (Dot Matrix Printer)

C H O , ,
.
I .

, ,
P F M .
M
300 C.

3.25 O E P

80

 P (Thermal Printer)
O F I F
KA.
C ,
, O O A. L
(Fax), E (calculator) P
A.
K O, O
F. C O F C
A M.
I

3.26 P

P (Laser Printer)
O,
.
I CP O F
.
F C.

, F O .
A 300 2,400 J O O
F .

3.27 P

81

d P (Inkjet Printer)
F J I C O O dC
A.
I K J H
A. O AF e
A.
(cyan),
(magenta), (yellow) G A.

G .
G Q HJ (catridge) .

3.28 d P

LA (Speaker)
L J, OJ
LA.
JL Q
.
Of, M G,
A, Q P A.

3.29 LA

82

M (Plotter)
i , P
O K
M .
3.5.3 (Storage Devices)
F , F F A F,
EP
. (backup storage)
.
, A , , Y (CD ROM)
.
K , I
M I F P PF
.
(Hard Disk)
F O .
.
(track) .
HK (sector) HK.
F F .
GIF 3,600
. , I A
() .
L F
G.
H F HKM
.
.
.
? O (
), PH
. 0 ,
F 0 A.
, , O .
, ,
0, 1 A A.
83

 3.30 F HK

, PH F G CP
.
H,
, HK,
J .
(Rotational Latency)
.
K F
F. HK /
.
HK
A MM .
.
L
. O .

F QQ / .
C O O
F.

3.31 A

84

 M A.
O E x O E x
F HKO E x HKM
O E.
A M .

, HK (formatting) .
(magnetic tape)
Hv M e
. P M 7 9 O
.
K , M
.
OJ
, 0 1
.
9 O , F O,
eF OO 0 ( 1)
J P.
O
J HM.

3.32

F M K F .
F / .

F.
W .
,
M M ,
.
K (sequential)
A.
F ,
K .

, A
.
- Q . ,
I A.
85

A (floppy disk)

3.33 A

A L Hv O O
.
.
, F G.

F .

HK HK.
C, ,
.

. GIF 360 .
8' F A, H 51/4' A, 31/2'
AM.
1.44 H (MB).
FF e e F
N M ,
.
J C F, A
C F .
A
.
A


M L
O

86

 (Compact Disk)

3.34

Y (CD ROM) Compact Disk- Read Only Memory

. F A O
FL C .
F 0, 1 , , .
O .
A
O A.
Y HK.

K .
F .
- F .
E
P .
F N
. J EPJ .

F N, F e .
F (650 MB, 700 MB), I
M P FK.

, A , GML
, C , EP
Q H.
EP
, .

k, Of, , G
O .

87

 G,
O .

A.

k N, EP

EPO, F, P
M Of.

Yd EPJ A.
F E , , G
(F) .

k, Of, G, E
F GA F

, , E
, E
.

GF G,
A. EP G J
A.
P .

CP H .
0 1
F .
Binary Digit FL .

, I A
G G G .

I k M

J .

F F M Of.

- , A ,
.

88

JC
I.

G.
1.

EP ________
, ________
A.

2.

________ EP O
A.

3.

Yd ________ .

4.

________ .

5.

(RAM) ________ .

6.

(ROM) ________ .

7.

G A ________.

8.

G ________ A.

9.

GF F ________ , ________
PHA.

10. GF ________.
11.

FJ ,
________.

12. O ________.
13. FF ________.
14. FJ C O ________
A.
15. P ________, ________
HK.
II.

W K .
1.

2.

M Of .

3.

F k.
89

4.

G N G.

5.

E .

6.

F G G.

7.

Pf k .

8.

O k .

9.

d P P.

10. Y Compact Disk - Read Only Memory

.
W M MO.

III.

1.

EP Q ?

2.

EPJ A F ?

3.

EPJ F ?

4.

G J A ?

5.

F A ?

6.

GF ?

7.

GF ,
M.

8.

G ?

9.

EPROM

M EEPROM J C?

10. ROM A?
11.

k ?

12. k ?
13. Of ?
14. C Of .
15. ?
16. F C .
17. M E ?
90

18. F E ?
19. F MK.
2 0 . (BUS) ?
W M MK MO.

IV

1.

F HK MK M.

2.

YdM (CPU)
M.

3.

G P .

4.
V

C k/Of P .

FE
1.

W GL E
KF .
(i) a

FH

(ii) b

FH

(iii) c = a + b
(iv) c

2.

FH OJ.

k, Of, G,
EPJ H F, P
.

91

 - 4
J
4.1 J
I O J.
J H
k A. H Of OA
. k/OfO F HJ,
F IF .
I A M, , A
+5 ( O
) 1 P. A I
M , , A 0
, 0 P.

I L M, 0, 1
L PH .
J C.
E L A.


Input Signal

Output Signal

1
0
Input

Logic
Gate

Output

1
0

0
Time

4.1

F J, H
I k A.
H O
f A.
, ,
x I PA.

kO F 0 1 A.
, O
92

f F 0 1 .
JO (AND),
(OR), (NOT) J. , NAND, NOR,
P NAND,
XOR XNOR .
NOR J, J .
J .
JO C,
Q .
J (AND gate)
k (1) Of
(1) .
O Of
.
.
J C
4.2 .

C = AB

B
4.2 JL C

JL L
.
C = A AND B

L EF, Pf O
PA.
C = A.B
C = AB

O .
C A, B
C equals A, and B .
k , MO
O.
00, 01, 10 11. ,
k 0 .
93

C = A.B
= 0.0
= 0

JL W .
k
Input

A
0
0
1
1

Of
Output

B
0
1
0
1

C
0
0
0
1

4.1 JL

J (OR Gate)
kO , Of
. F, k
Of , A.

.

4.3 JL C

JL ,
C = A OR B

PH.
.
C=A+B

F OR A + P

94

 C A B .
F A, B k 1 ,
.

C=A+B=1+1=1

JL W .

k
Input

Of
Output

4.2 JL

J (NOT Gate)
k .
k
P . 0 1 , 1 0 P
.
C,
A

C=A

4.4 JL C

JL PH
C = NOT A

L EF , J
C = A?

95

, C A C equals NOT A
.
A=0

, C = 0? = 1

A=1

, C = 1? = 0

Input
k

Output
Of

4.3 J

J (NOR Gate) ( J)
JL O M
J H,
FL O
JL .
F, k
0 , Of 1 .

M k 0 M .
JL , C
W .
 A

A+B

C=A+B

4.5 JL

 A

C

B

4.6 JL C

96

 JL ,
C = (A + B)

PH. , C A B
.
C equals Not of A or B
.
k 0 ,
C = ( 0, ,+ ,0, ), = 0? = 1

JL W


k
Input

Output
Of

4.4 JL

I J ( Bubbled And Gate)

J 4.7 MA.
A

A
C=A.B

4.7 I J

97

 JL ,
C = A? . B?

.
Q C .
F, J k O C
 A

B
4.8 I JL C

.
k, J A
.
A=0

B = 0

C = ( 0? . 0? ) = 1 . 1 = 1

A=0

B = 1

C = ( 0? . 1? ) = 1 . 0 = 0

A=1

B = 0

C = ( 1? . 0? ) = 0 . 1 = 0

A=1

B = 1

C = ( 1? . 1? ) = 0 . 0 = 0

k
A
0
0
1
1

Of
B
0
1
0
1

C
1
0
0
0

4.5 I J

98

I JL ,
JL .
,
J, P F
. ,
( A + B ) = A? . B?

Q GHA.
J (NAND gate) ( J)
JL O F,
JL H, A M,
JL Of .
k
, Of
. O Of .
4.9 JL MA.
 A

(A . B)

C = (A . B)

4.9 JL

JL CF, J , O
f F C .
 A

4.10 JL C

JL
C = ( A . B )A

PH.
C , A, B
, , C equals NOT of A And B .
, k 1 ,
C = ( 1 . 1 ) = 1? = 0

99

 JL W .
k
A
0
0
1
1

Of
B
0
1
0
1

C
1
1
1
0

4.6 JL

I J (Bubbled OR Gate)
 A

A
C=A+B

4.11 I JL

P Of .
C = A? + B?

P, JL k O
C PH.
A

4.12 I JL C

100

 k
A
0
0
1
1

Of
B
0
1
0
1

C
1
1
1
0

4.7 I JL

,
. J,
P F .
,
( A . B ) = A? + B?

Q GHA.
J (XOR gate)
(OR) JL, k
1 , M 1 .
A
(Inclusive OR)
, k
1 , 1 Of .
.

.
Of
- .
,
,
F .

.

.
, F
- , F F ,
G F
.
, A J .
Exclusive OR .

P .
101

)

).*

C= A?.B + A.B?
)
*

).*

*

4.13 J

JL Of
C = A? B + A B?

J W ,
Of

k
A
0
0
1
1

B
0
1
0
1

C
0
1
1
0

4.8 JL

L EF Pf N
P. ,
C=A+B

J C 4.14 .
A
B

4.14 JL C

v J (XNOR gate)
v
Exclusive NOR .
JL Of, J
H, FL Of .
102

k , Of 1 .
-

4.15 v J
C

= A + B
= A?.B + A.B?
= AB + A? B?

(Using De Morgans Theorem)

L EF, N O, v A
PHA. ,
C=A B

C,

4.16 v JL C

v JL W .
Of

k
A
0
0
1
1

B
0
1
0
1

C
1
0
0
1

4.9 v J

103

 J F, C
.
CL J
.

N , CL J
O E FK .
JO C,
.
Logical Gates

Symbol

Truth Table
A
0
0
1
1
A
0
0
1
1

AND

OR

B
0
1
0
1
B
0
1
0
1
A
0
1

NOT
A
0
0
1
1
A
0
0
1
1
A
0
0
1
1
A
0
0
1
1

NAND

NOR

XOR

XNOR

4.10 JO

104

AB
0
0
0
1
A+B
0
1
1
1
A
1
0

B
0
1
0
1
B
0
1
0
1
B
0
1
0
1
B
0
1
0
1

AB
1
1
1
0
A+B
1
0
0
0
A+B
0
1
1
0
AB
1
0
0
1

, JO
, , , J ,
L . J
O J P
F M .
L H
J .
J J (Universal gate) A.
, J J.
J ,
J
A.

4.17 JL

4.18 JL

105

4.2 L H
L H O .

. .

(I) . .
PL . C
.
L L
L, M k
Of .
D = (A B) + C?

.

k . 2 3 = 8 M k
A.
k, Of A
.
, H Pf A
O. EF
.
M E . A
,

= 0, B = 0, C = 0,

D = ( A . B ) + C?
= ( 0 . 0 ) + 0?
= 0 + 0?
= 0 + 1
= 1

M A L
E O.
H
.
106

k
Input

J
Intermediate

Of
Output

AB

L L
L , , ,
, J P
.
,
E = A? + ( B C? ) + D?

.
F
k .
F J
, Of A.

107

 F
L .

P Of J
H A Of .
JL k A
Q.
MFJ, FA.
P L A
AI.

108

 PL L
P
.

I .

J kO , O
J FH PH.
,
CJ Of H
.
k A, B, C , Of D
PH.

, -

D=AB + BC
109

L L
NO .
C F,
AJ , O N.
GO .
L k
C F .
,
kO K
.
J O .
.
PH k k 0
F A, kO e
.
C F. PH
k 1 FH Q.

1010 k k .
A, B, C, D , A.B?.C.D?
CF.
1110 C F A.B.C.D?.


)
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1

k
Input

B
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1

C
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

Of
Output

D
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0

4.11
L O Of 1
.
k, QQ C
F .
W HA.

110

k
Input

Of
Output

C F

)

Minterms

ABC

ABC
ABC
ABC

C F A
A M.
D = ( A? B? C? ) + ( A? B C? ) + ( A B? C?) + ( A B C?)

F G . L
A.
, O k
Of PA.

(Block diagram) A.
,
A. M k A
A.
, L
A.
, A.
111

C, C , F
A.
.
G 1 :
k, Of . P
k 1 Of 1
. O Of 0
.
G 2: k Of P.
F k,
Of KA. A, B, C
. ,

G 3: K
k 4 M k .

Of

k
A
0
0
1
1

B
0
1
0
1

C
0
1
1
0

G 4: L
Of 1 K CF .
112

 A .
Of
Output

k
Input

CF

Minterm

A B

A B

A ,
D = ( A= B ) + ( A B= )
G 5: L .
A
)
)*
*
B

D=AB+AB
)
*

)*

(Half adder)

E F

. G
, G
A.
M k
.
W
.
0 + 0 = 0
0 + 1 = 1
1 + 0 = 1
1 + 1 = 10
113

 P OA.
F A. F
, G PA. K O

0 .
, Of
k

A
0
0
1
1

B
0
1
0
1

S
0
1
1
0
0

L
CF

A.B
A.B

C
0
0
0
01

L
C F

L S = A> . B + A . B>
C=A.B
A.

4.19 J
114

A.B

 A .

J, J .
F , ,
F OJ.
4.4 (Full Adder)
,
. GJ
, .
.
A,B
. C1 GJL
. S
, C2
PH. k 8
M k . L 8
K M Q.
K Q.

115

Of

C1

C2

0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1

0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

0
0
0
1
0
1
1
1

0
1
1
0
1
0
0
1

4.12
kO
1 ,
1 A. kO, J
( ) 1 , 1
A.
K kO 1 , 0 A.
CF ,
F L .

S = A B C1 + A B C1 + A B C1 + A B C1
C2 = A B C1 + A B C1 + A B C1 + A B C1

(A B) C1 =

( A B + A B ) C1

( A B + A B ) C1 + ( A B + A B ) C1

( (A B) (A B) ) C1 + ( A B + A B ) C1

( (A + B) (A + B) ) C1 + ( A B + A B ) C1

116

=S

( A A>= BB> = 0 )

C2

A B C1 + A B C1 + A B C1 + A B C1

( A B + A B) C1 + A B ( C1 + C1 )

( A B) C1 + A B

S = ( A B ) C1 and
C2 = ( A B ) C1 + AB
, k
, J, J
A. .

Half adder

C2

4.20 J
117

, , J
.
F k O
f (Combination circuit) .
P O Of
P Of
(seqnential circuit) .
, .
(Flip Flop) .

HO

KP . PH P
k Of
F (Synchronous Sequential Circuit) .
kO O
f ,
F ( Asynchronous
Sequential Circuit) .
4.5 HO (Flip Flop)
H GM F,
P GO .
I.

HO
J
HO H .
. O HO H F G
(0, 1) . J GJ
c. I H F,
G ( GM N
P) OJ. H k G
P.

J HO
J F
118

 HO A.

4.21 J HO
OfO Q , Q\
. kO S(set) ,
R(Reset)
. P O Of
, F P k .
k
0 GJ .
G k
.
F
S = 1 , R = 0 .
Q = 0 A. Q = 0 J
A.  R = 0
, Q = 1
OA. Q = 1, F J
A. S = 1 , Q F
.
S = 1, R = 0 , Q = 1, Q? = 0 GA
. S I GF, S
= 0 , Q = 1, Q> = 0 .
, S = 0, R = 1 , Q = 0, Q? = 1 .
S = 0, R = 0 A, Q = 0, Q? = 1
.
S = 1, R = 0
, Q = 1
GM . S = 0, R = 1 , Q = 0
GM .
119

 L S

S =(after
1, R =S0 =
1 and R =

H
0)

S = 0,
R = 1S
(after
= 0 and R =H
1)

O, Q,Q? 0 .
, k M.
S = 1, R = 1

HO GO GA. Q = 1
G G (Set state) , Q = 0 N G (Reset
state ) .

HO

HO H J
.

4.22 J HO
120

 P
S

Q>

S = 1, R = 0

S = 0, R = 1

J S, R 1 F
P. I A F S = 0 A, H
S = 1 AMA . Q = 1, Q?> = 0
A. HO G G
A.
( S = 1, R = 1 ), A F
R = 0 A, H F R =1 AMA .
Q = 0, Q> = 1 A. HO H N
G A.
S = 0, R = 0
0 , Q, Q?
1 . k M
.

HO O, R-S , J-K , D , T .
. O
P Of GM
P G A. ,
EPJ O A A
.
4.6 IQ E
4.6.1 P
IQ , P
, IQ E A. F ,
J K, P
K .
121

 Mv
. F M (Drag and drop) . A
, M C . ,
L .
F , H
.
C (MultiSim) IQ E. F
P F .
4.6.2
CI
F , J
P
.
J C CP
A, .
P ( Logic Converter ) F
MO .
4.6.3 J
1. Start, Programs P A
L C . CI 4.23 .

122

Filename

4.23 CI
2. H K
. , File, Save as ( 2.24).
L File Name J Circuit1 F,
(OK) AO .
E J W F K ( 2.23).

4.24
123

3. Place, Component K
( 4.25). FO L,
F F (Data base), M (Group),
F (family) , H
FO P (4.26).

4.25

4.26 F
124

4. F, L ,
EJF (workspace) F M.
FJ e AO . F F
J , PH ( 4.27).
M , FJ e AO
.

4.27 F
4.6.4 O
J, H L , CP
P F G .

F
J F W NO E
J .
(i) Place, Component

AO .
125

(ii) E J
Components

AO , O Place
K ; , Ctrl + W M
J . Ctrl M
PA.
F
FJ e AO .
F P
. F
F J F,
F W
F , J M.
F F .
F F (highlight) .

F
F Edit, Copy .
Ctrl + C . Edit, Paste K
, H J F E
J M . , F
.

F
1. F
F
.

, Circuit K ,
P

2. FJ AO .
F . P
. H Accept AO .

F
F . ,
F M. F H
PM.
126

F c
F , Edit, Delete
Edit, Cut
AO . c ? H c.

P
H
L H FJ
J AO A , HJ
F M. H K
.

P C
. F
C K
.
File, Print

P I
P K I File, Save .
K
I, File, Save as .
F, H .

I P F
K , F
H , F AO
.
File, Open

J, J
P .
L J EJ .
J K . E J
J , . Paste
, F . FO
4.28 , H
.

127

 4.28

4.6.5 P
CI L , ,
P PL
.
1.

C

2.

3.

C

A L

4.

5.

6.

P Simulate, Instruments, Logic

converter K ( 4.29).
128

 4.29 P
PJ C 4.30
J . F W CP O 8
, Of P F 8
Of
.

E
k
k

4.30 EJ P
PJ CF AO , E
J PJ 4.31
129

 8 Input Terminals
(A to H)

1 Output Terminal

Boolean expression goes here

4.31 PJ

8 k A H J K
. Of Out P. F
W :
130

CL

CA L

L C

L C

L C J

4.6.6 PL
1. P F .

131

2. P k, Of W
F H .

132

3. PJ F L
.
PJ F .

4.6.7 L L

L
.
 a L P .
 a A H J k P
C AO .
133

 a A,B,C . k
K KA. Of ? P A.
a ? PJ e AO 0
. AO 1 . AO
Of .

AO , F J J L
A.
134

ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC

AA. A GH A PHA.
F.

4.6.8 L A L
C L A .
L
L ,

AO .
M F WFJ J .
AC + AB + ABC .

135

4.6.9 L K
L , F J J F
M,
AO
.
A.
L A+BC+B
.

4.6.10 L K
L , F J J F
M,
AO
, E J .
AB+BC+ABC .
136

4.6.11 L K J
  L , F J J
FM,
AO
, , J
E J . AB+BC+ABC
.

137

4.6.12 L
A M P
, L KA.
A L A. H
A. L
O AA. . K.
a () , A L
AA. ABC+ABC
a , EJ
.

P K .
F F.

138

W M N

A.

FFrom

To

Options

Truth
Table

Boolean
..
Expressions
Simplified Boolean
A ..
Expressions
Logic Circuit

..

NAND-gate only

logic
circuit..
Boolean
Table
L Truth
..
Expressions
Logic
.. Circuit
NAND-gate
only
...
logic circuit
Simplified Boolean
Expressions
...
Logic
Circuit

Truth
Table
..
Boolean
Expressions

..

Simplified Boolean
Expressions
...

4.13
139

, , J .

, , , v J .

J J
.

M .

G .

G .

GM
HO .

I IQ
E.

,
IQ E C.

140

JC
I. G

1.

k J
L Of ________ .

2.

k
JL Of ________ .

3.

________ .

4.

J , J
________ J .

5.

________ J , J
J .

6.

________,

________ J, J.

7.

________, ________, ________ J.

8.

G ________

9.

,
________
________ J .

10. O HO
.

________ F G

II. W K, .
1.
2.

J
k .
J
Of .

3.

J.

4.

J.

5.

J J
.

141

III.

6.

, J

.

7.

J
.

8.

J J
J .

9.

HO G A.

P KO MO.
1.

J ?

2.

J ?

3.

J
A?

J-

4.

J J
?

5.

J J
?

6.

k J

7.

8.

9.

10. ?
IV W M MO.

1. E = A> + ( B . C ) + D>
L
K.
2.

W L
.
142

V.

Of

3.

L .

4.

L
E = A> B + B>C + A B C
P

5.

P F G
?

6.

JO ?
M? C
?

FE

1. J , P
P
, JO K.
143

2.

P A, ,
H. P .
3. P F
AC + AC + AC + AC
P .
4. ,
PJ M H.

k
Input
B
A
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1

0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1

C
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

144

Of
Output
D
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
1

 5

5.1 P
EPJ , , , J
H. ,
J. P
. O
. EPJ F
(System
Software) . EP .
E
(Application Software) .
EP I C .
A. P

, A, GA
M . K ,
H EH , H
O AM.
, GA F
O M,
A.
F G EP
F. EPJ KA, C
F , FA.
P, P
, OA
. (Operating System)
. F
C OJ K M.
OJ ,
.
, , OA
J (interface) A.
145

 , O A
?
? MJ?
J? ?
F ? FH ? A
C ? C C
A .
F. C M
c , H A
Al.
, , , C, P
K. ,
. J , M
,
Al.
. ,
, C ,
O .
EP
I CP
P P,
K
P O A A .
EP OA.
F, EPJ I F
M
. O
.
PM.
EP .

146

1. EPJ O.
2. K G O .
3. EPJ FO F F M
.
EPJ OA ,
C M F .
EPJ O PF
C i . , ,
F, , N PJA.
MO M
. .
M FO
. K Yd
C
GA F .
F , F
. P .
F .
G F, G H
.
O .
F N
. .
EJ I A. AA

M ! G
, G G FJ
G J GF
.
OF E F
. P M
. O C
. J, M
. M, O
F .
147

 H
F G EP
G A. PM C
P.
F , F
. GO ,
G .
G , EPJ
C. EP EP
E (Computer Operator) P.
G EP
M. G A, GL
F 6 E F G .
YdM
M I F , F
J E P.
FK E F, K
. H, E F , G
, E O J.
EP H EK I .
Yd C O .
, Q E K (Automatic Job
Sequencing) P. E (Resident
Monitor) . H
.
PM EO, A F .
Yd F . k, Of
. E
EO k, Of F . Cd
I .
M O C F
JP A. , C
J , i .
148

 F O

. ,
. I . Yd JP .
, F
EP . ,
G GF (Buffer) . , K
EP FL .
Of G GF F .
K EP JP .
(Direct Memory Access) F
. F YdM MJP, GF,
FL N . (spooling)
N A. F, G
F , P Q
Q, k, Of
. O , E ,
Of, K O F M. GL
AM ,
M GO E . YdM
i .
Of O , PJ F
, C. G G M C .
J, E EP F
. G (Multi Programming) .
F , G PH A
.
A (Time sharing) . F C J,
G A.
O (terminal) G ,

E EP A
.
149

5.2 H A
5.2.1.
F
.
1.
vv (MS DOS- Microsoft Disk Operating System)
.
2.
F .
A J A. Qv (Unix)
.
5.2.2 k, Of
G .
G . ,
Y . G EJF
, G P M. F
.

GM . GL
, GM
. , G ,
M. KA.
, k, Of
G . H
A.
L
G ,
? F
O . P M.
L I . FK GJ
A E .
G , k Of
150

 G
. F, G ,
G . G F C
J, P H,
PJ, M
O !
EPJ , G, k
Of, G
. GL
?
?
GF ,
K, G K
K H, M.
K M G .
kFL
GL .
. F
H (system call) .
, , .
k, Of P NJ
? H
. K, G
M. , k,
Of C M G
, G IA.
G ,
J, , H
, E M
.
5.2.3 P
EP AI A N A.
EP C AF FK
151

 A. F, P
. P G
F M
. F C
.
A.
, G C ,
P . Q
F . O K F
G. K

H
Q G . O C
C .
EPJ
. G
. PQ K,
GM .
G A .

5.3 H I M
5.3.1
Q
. F F
. O
. ,
,
.
(Graphical User Interface - GUI) I
A. C .
G , O M K
.
, AO

MA.
L (Linux)
A. F
152

 P C H:
1. O . F M
MF.
2. . C ,
.
3. K F F
.
4. OF F G .
F F .
.
5.
.
6. F FF .
G M H F .
EP J.
O . , ,
L F ,
.
5.3.2 G
O ,
F . G
F HK, .
A.
O , H
GF . O
GF N.
G F HK
F O.
G F HKA, F
F , .
G,
GF . C .
153

 FK O G
(Virtual Memory) F A. F,
GF .
GF , O G
FL .
GM , I F G
.
C
K J.
F .
5.3.3
.
F (process)
.
, F P
. N
. P C1. FIFO
2. SJF
3.

4.

L L (FIFO- First In First Out)

KJ GA. L
L A. CK
FF KJ G
. KJ G J
FA.
A.
PH. K
J, .
, .
154

CP L (Shortest Job First)

M CP E
. L L
, CP E, c
. C K E
F CP E F ,
M. K E
CP F J. ,
F A, B E G. F A
J
5 A, B J 8 A
. F L A
O. H B .
K (Round Robin)
F E CP Yd .
, E K
. F E M ,
E e KJ CJ G, F
Cd . , A,B,C
E , , A, B, C, A, B, C, A, B ..........
KJ Yd .
K
J K
A. O K
F A, Yd . ,
A K 5 , B 7 ,
L B Cd .
Yd W (CPU
. :

Scheduling)

1. Yd F .
2. PH M
. .

155

 ( Networks)
, (Internet) F M
A. I (email) , ,
J , KFL
F A. , L,
O O .
EP (LAN - Local Area Network) A. EP O
KP A. JL
A. (Tele
communication) K A.
EPO .
EPO .
GA O. E
A.
5.3.4
KI
H I A E. GO
A.
1.

2.

3.

H ,
,
. , H
EP GA .
GJ, PH
E P F.
Mv vd, Lv
J A.
J O C M.
F J EP
156

. K O A.
5.3.5 H
H
(Robust) . ,
. H M,
E . H
I C.
5.3.6. F
K F
.
5.3.7.
J EP .
K . EP
.
EPJ E, J
EP JP , Q
. EPJ
.
. P K
. C E
.
EPJ ,
G .

(Distributed Operating System) . Q F
J . EP
Q , FJ
.
O H
P .

157


O, ,
.
, .
, J
A.
H, ,
.
k, Of
.
,
.
GFL GF
, YdM
P
.
C OJ GA
. G G M
C.
E J, G F
.
H M :
1.
2. G
3. E
4.
5.
6.
7. H
8.
9. .
158

JC
I. G.

1.

________

2.

, EP
J ________ MA.

3.

________ .

4.

________ EP
.

II. W K, .

1.

G F
H E.

2.

H .

3.

F K E, K
E M M A.

4.

H,
EPJ K KF .

III. W M MO.

1.

EPJ
?

2.

v (OS) ?

3.

v F (role) A?

4.

vR A E ?

5.

E, G
A?

6.

k, Of
A?
159

7.

P P .

8.

H C A
.

160

 6
EP K
6.1 P
F .
F, , , PH
Pf H .
, , F, C , F EP
F A.
EP , H, ,
, C (Infra Red)
GA. EP P, M
1965 G. , E
P M A
FA.

6.2 (Network)
EP, IH, O, ,
C N ,
A. EP
(node) . ,
(resource) A , G
KP A.

6.3 A
* A: L I, M F
F A . - M
P EPJ
.
* A: EPJ F
. EP FL
.
EPJ
i. M.
* : EPJL
EP O,
M .
161

, OJ M, M
P , , F E
P . ,
P (update) .
OJ .

6.4 J
W O K A.
a IQ N K
a (tele conference)
a C
a H C
a , M
a M, J, CQ, P F
a F
a (QA P ATM)
a A
E G, M G
J A.

A F, F EO EF
K OA.

6.5 J
a C Q .
a A , G F
.
a A F .
a M A .
EP A
.

(Safe) - H
.

(Secure) - H P
162

 .
(Reliable) - H K
H F .

6.6 J

a (Local Area Network, LAN)
a (Metropoliton Area Network, MAN)
a (Wide Area Network, WAN)
A
EP
.
C H . Q
H
HJ .
A
H (twisted pairs), H (coaxial cables),
O (optical fibre) .
HJ J ,

A. J EP
O J A. HJ H
.

6.1
J L EP
. J, ,

A . Q
163

, O
EP, (file server)
(network server) .
F EP
(MAN).
A O EP
(WAN). F EP, H, O ,
NO .

6.7 J
J EP (node)
A. EP
T (Network Topology) .
H . F
, F, HO ,
.
J . F, ,
, H, H (FDDI)
A.

(Star Network)

F .
EP
, H
(Unshielded Twisted Pair -UTP) ( 6.2).

6.2 F
164

 (Ring Network)
J, EP, M
M ( 6.3). F
FJ . EP
.
F HM. EP .
A.

6.3

(Bus Network)
(Bus) HF
( 6.4). EP
F. F
. F FL

6.4
165

H (Hybrid Network)
,
H .

H (FDDI Network)
Fiber Distributed Data Interface .
I. M F. F ,
L , O L C M
A.

6.8 J F
J A F .

1. (Network Services)
O .

2. K

(Transmission Media)

EP H, HJ
A PA. N K
GA.

3. MF (Protocols)
MF MF,
A F. MFO J
K IP A.

6.9 (Common Network Services)

O
.

6.9.1
J K C
. F GA A.
166

 K
- H , ,
, M
F F .
- C F
. C O H ,
I C . ,
O OJ, C E F
M C. ,
G G
, M , O
GF K .
- H O .
F O P .
, O

G (File archiving)- H
O . ,
O
, H K G
.

6.9.2
J P G,
. P C

- J EP

JL P .
PO E .

F ,
F PJ C.

F C - E, KJ

C. PJ
M.

M P A

F, C , K M
167

C P M F.
P .

(Fax Service)

F .
, A I.

6.9.3
F , G , , L,
OC I ,
.
EP,
EP
, J .

6.9.4
KP . F
J EPO F A
OA. EP
EP . O
C .

6.10 K A
IM F
F , EP J
. A
.
K GA Q .
(Network Interface Card - NIC) .
N EP, O EP
. (Ethernet), (Arc Net), K (Token
Ring) .
J M , M
,

. K , ,
C .
168

 MF . MF
(Protocols) .
EP
H, CL .
1978 , G, v (OSI- Open
System Interconnection) MF PF.
F G . P E 6.5
.

7 Application

for communicating:
1. Purpose
Ge-mail, file transfer,
Hclient/server
K .

6  Presentation

2.Rules

Gfor data
conversion
K

Session 3. 5G
Starts, stops and governs
A
Transmission order.
N

Transport

4. G
-
Ensures delivery of
Complete message

G
3
Network
5. G
Routes data to
K
A,

different networks
F,

Data link

6 . Transmits
C G data
- to
Different
networks

G
1
Physical G7.
Passes bits on to
K
Connecting median
O  G

6.5 MFJ G
169

6.11 K
F .
1. ,
2. .
J F
. , C . F
IF (x) P
.
EP KF

K A. F I A (On),
(off) G, 0, 1 PA.
I
, 6.6 ,
A. K,
M F , .

0

1 0

1 01

6.6 J
6.12 (Modem)
CJ J A.
L, I H
N A. J e
L A. L KF
CP , J.
.

C N
Fd.

G
P C N
. J, GJ , G
P
.
170

 EP A.
C P EP, C J
. (MODEM - Modulator, demodulator).
6.7 EP, , C
G H.

6.7 F
F E MKA, F
C , F
.
FL A.
6.13
F N F
A MJ H (Bits per second)
A. .
6.14 K
F ( 6.8)
(a)

(b)

(c)

N
171

6.14.1 N (Simplex Mode)

F F J .
J . FJ
. F FJ . C
L L . L/O

1. N

2. N

3. N

6.8 K
G, . L/
C . F
. L GF, L J
F .
J NJ A.
6.14.2 N (Half Duplex mode)
F , .
F, ,
. F .
P P .
. F J
172

 . A A
J Fd.
.
6.14.3 N (Full duplex mode)
F , F F
, . C .
F F NO
.
K EPO A.
e N
J A.
6.15

(Internet)

A M, CP K, EP
. 200 O , 50
IL EP .
F EPO
. K C,
CK,
C,
G, P E,
E.
F
EP (host)
. F EP K
. , EP .
K O O
. F P
(Internet Protocol - IP) .
6.16 K P
F K (Packet Switeching)
J A. F,
173

C A. P,
K, K .
QQ H .
J CI. A NJ
, K EP .
F KF,
PL
, P
.
NJ, Yd, d P
. F Y d (TCP - Tranmission Control Protocol)
HK, F
F .
d (IP - Internet Protocol)
EPJL EP A
bQ P A.
6.17 GA ?
F Q G .
G A
G. F F K
F A.
(ICANN - International Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers) G
K F GAA. ,
F A.
6.18 F F
20 A I
C A. ,
P ;
;
C, NF K FK.
174

6.19 F
F C A Q .
M (Word Wide Web)
F F . F F
.
A , . F,
, L, ,
.
F, .
.
F .
(website)
. H ,
(home page) . F
P . ,
, J . 6.9 vM
(ISRO- Indian Space Research Organisation) HA.
(web pages)

6.9 vM
175

 F Q K .
(URL - Uniform Resource Locator) A.
,
http:// www.country-watch.com/India
. http Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
. www World Wide Web .
F country_watch.com F .
, F
J , H .
J , (Browsing)
. M (Browser) .
, O ,
FJ HA. v
(Internet explorer) v M (Netscpe Navigator)
F M.
O
. C
. Q
F H. e
.
F I (Hyper Link)
PA. F AO . M
PH A,
FJ .
M J I A . C
AOO A O F,
FJ ,
KF F!
I (Email)
H O I.
, OF, M
KP . F Q
176

K . K ,
F .
J .
F, F F . L
, F , N
IL .
v F (Usenet News Groups)
PH O I
. v user network . PH
H F F OJ.
(Mailing List)
I J .
I M
H .
d (FTP)
. F,
EPJL EP
. O, M, , ,
.
File Transfer Protocol

(Telnet)
P EPJL M
EP A.
EP EP
A.
6.20
O N .
:
n EP
n
C
n
n
vd ( )
177

 v d (ISP - Internet Service Provider) , F

J G.
CP F, O
. W O
.
a - Q
a -
,
a I K - Q K.
I K
a C - C E
A.
FK ,  (dial-up connection)
. 6.10 , J F
H. F K
O , F 8
( * PJ
- ), C
. F Dial
AO , N, vd
.

6.10
178

C , H (cable) N,
HJ J (wireless)
.
NO .
F K, MJ K
J AO . K KM
J. PO (Search engines) M
K H . ,
FJ C A PJ ,
(C O A!)
O K, M(!) . F
KJ e AO , F
F F .
F F, i
.
(yahoo), v (Lycos), M v (Altavista),
(Hotpot), vpv (Ask Jeeves), A (Google)
C P.

6.11 J
v MJ, M O,
M C .


1

3 4 5
6.12
179

1. H (Back)
,
F A. F
CP AO ,
O . F
, FJ .
H F.
2.

(Forward)

, M,
M .
A, KJ, A
. F C
, O
. F .
G (Stop)
AO M F
C O, J bQ,
AO .
i .

3.

H (Refresh)
C O F
F. H AO ,
M .

4.

5.

(Home)

I F, F
MM , CP F,
F .
F i F,
MJ i P, F
M, F .
6.21 J
C
C F,
180

C G,
d, FK P
L . , .
www.encarta.com
www.ipl.com (Internet Public Library)
www.loc.gov (Library of congress)

(Chatting)

F KP
.

(Freeware)

C O M
, L A.
NM
M G O
F
F. i
. ,
NJ M A.
N
Y F , O M
, A GA,
J , M M
A.

GO, F
P A. G
, J F A
A. PH
G . G

O F. C G
.
6.22 , O (Intranet, Extranet)
GF EP, O .
181

 EPO , ,
GO A . ,
Yd/d F
A. F O
, GF
A. (Intranet). F F
I,
, d,
F .
MKF, GF
, M, F
J
F
O (Extranet) A. F
PH O F.
H C F M I
.

182

JC
I. G

1.

________ A FO
.

2.

________ H EP
H .

3.
4.

M J ________
A.
KF M ________ .

5.

v H ________
.

6.

EP ________
A.

7.

________
I C
F .

8.

________

K .

9.

EP EP
P ________ .

10. A , P

________ .
II. W M MO

1.

F ?

2.

EP C .

3.

EP KF ?

4.

O ?

5.

(WAN) M

6.

MO A?
183

7.

KF ?

8.

Yd (TCP) ?

9.

Q (ICANN) ?

10. (URL) ?

184