The Educational Values of Trees and Forests

The Educational Values of Trees and Forests
Terry L. Sharik
Departments of Wildland Resources and Environment and Society College of Natural Resources Utah State University Logan, UT 84322-5215 February, 2009
T. L. Sharik Mar 2009 1
Context
When we think about the benefits provided by trees and forests, we tend not to think about how they contribute to enhanced learning ability, despite the mounting evidence (MEA 2005).
T. L. Sharik Mar 2009
Linkages between ecosystem services and human well-being (MEA 2005).
Conceptual framework of interactions between biodiversity, ecosystem services, human well-being, and drivers of change (MEA 2005).
Provisioning Services
Products obtained Food Fiber Fuel Genetic resources Biochemicals, natural medicines, pharmaceuticals Ornamental resources Fresh water
Regulating Services
Regulation of ecosystem processes Air quality regulation Climate regulation Water regulation Erosion regulation Water purification Disease regulation Pest regulation Pollination Natural Hazard Regulation
Supporting Services
Necessary for the production of all other services Soil formation Photosynthesis Primary production Nutrient cycling Water cycling
Cultural Services
Non-material benefits
Cultural diversity Spiritual and religious values Knowledge systems Educational values Inspiration Aesthetic values Social relations Sense of place Cultural heritage values Recreation and ecotourism
Objective
To review the literature on this topic with the intent of stimulating further research on the educational values of trees and forests, and fostering the application of this knowledge in the learning environment relative to natural resource/ecosystem management.
Approach
Complexities of the learning process Links of this process to nature, including ways of interacting with nature Role of trees and forests Conclusions
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COMPLEXITIES OF THE LEARNING PROCESS

Mediating Systems in Human Behavior (modified from Rue 2005)

Molecular Neural Reflex Perceptual Physiological Learning/Memory Emotional Cognitive Symbolic
E nv i r o n m e n t E c o s ys t e m s
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Learning/Memory Systems
(Rue 2005)
Experiential promotion of changes in neural structures that conserve the effects of experience across time. Virtually all higher behavioral functions depend on neural systems modulated by learning.
Object recognition Concept formation Emotional experience Anticipation Planning Problem-solving Comparing and contrasting Decision-making Language use
Three Major Modes of Learning

(Kellert 2002)
1. Affective or Emotional
Focuses on the formation of emotional and feeling capacities. Typically precedes cognition or intellect as a basis for maturation and learning.
2. Cognitive or Intellectual
Stresses the formation of thinking and problem-solving skills.
3. Evaluative
Emphasizes the creation of values, beliefs, and moral perspectives. Emerges from a synthesis of affective and cognitive perceptions and understandings.
Additional References: Iozzi 1989a, 1989b


(Kellert 2002)
1. Affective or Emotional 2. Cognitive or Intellectual 3. Evaluative

Emotional Systems
(Rue 2005)
A temporary subjective feeling that arises during the process of determining the narrative meaning of an event, i.e. during a period of cognitive appraisal.
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Emotional Systems
(Rue 2005)
PRIMARY SECONDARY TERTIARY
Presuppose minimal self-concept

interest anxiety frustration/ consternation affection gratitude sympathy resentment contempt
Presuppose explicit self-concept

love? agape "aesthetic emotions" hope nostalgia fago (Ifalukia) Laiya (India and Nepal) "religious emotions"
fear disgust anger desire happiness sadness
hatred outrage shame guilt envy jealousy pride grief
resignation admiration wonder compassion alienation humility amusement
Affective or Emotional Mode

Kellert (2002)
There is some evidence that contact with the natural world, especially during middle childhood (ages 6-12), is important in a persons emotional responsiveness and receptivity. Seems to be due to its dynamic, varied, often unique, surprising, and adventurous character. Elicits such responses as satisfaction, delight, joy, excitement, and curiosity.
References: Cornell 1977, Cobb 1977, Kellert 1985, Kellert 1996, Derr 2001, Ratanopojnard 2001, Sabal 1993

Kellert (2002)
Interactions with natural settings reduce stress or elicit positive feelings and thereby enhance cognitive functioning, creativity, and performance, especially regarding higher order tasks.
References: Olmsted 1865, Kaplan and Talbot 1983, Isen et al. 1985, Kaplan and Kaplan 1989, Isen 1990, Hartig et al. 1991, Ulrich et al. 1991a, Ulrich 1993, Kaplan 1995, Wells 2000, Wells and Evans 2003, Am. Institutes for Research 2005

Kellert (2002)
Attention Restoration Theory has been utilized to explain the restorative aspects of contact with nature following a period of directed or forced, focused attention and associated mental fatigue (Kaplan 1995). There is both psychological and physiological evidence for the restorative value of nature. Results in cognitive clarity and reflection, thereby enhancing creativity.
Additional References: Ulrich 1981, Ulrich and Simmons 1986, Ulrich et al. 1991b, Chang and Pergn 1998, Chang and Uan 1999, Hartig et al. 2003, Hammitt 2007, Chang et al. 2008. T. L. Sharik Mar 2009
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(Kellert 2002)

Cognitive Systems
(Rue 2005)
Internal representations of external affairs Ability to assimilate a diversity of information and process it in new ways Performing a wide range of operations on a wide range of mental objects (including perceptions, memory images, and concepts) Process of:
Encoding information representing the external world and the organisms vital interests Integrating these two forms of information to devise appropriate behaviors
Operators on mental objects include:

Reality (facts) Valance (values) Executive (outcomes)
Cognitive or Intellectual Mode

Kellert (2002)
Evidence that experiential contact with nature can have a positive impact on cognitive development comes from a number of sources. Bloom et al.s (1956) taxonomy of cognition has been used to frame this relationship (Table 2).
Additional References: Altman and Wohwill 1978, Ulrich 1993, Kahn 1999, Ratanapojnard 2001, Kellert 1997, Kellert 2002, Burdette and Whitaker 2005, Taylor and Kew 2006

Name of Cognitive Ability Knowledge Acquisition Definition Enhancing Activity in Nature Identifying and classifying various aspects of the natural world Translating specific knowledge of nature into categories of related functions and processes
Assembling facts and figures
Comprehension
Interpreting and understanding empirical realities
Application
Putting knowledge to use Distinguishing one in various situations environmental feature from another
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Name of Cognitive Ability Analysis Definition Teasing apart elements or patterns nested within an overall structure Integrating distinctive elements into an overall whole Discerning worth and importance Enhancing Activity in Nature Dissecting elements in nature
Synthesis
Integrating elements and processes in nature
Evaluation
Judging the relative significance of particular aspects of the natural world
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Borrowing from the work of Mednick (1962), it has been argued that higher order cognitive functioning, which involves integration or association of diverse and seemingly unrelated information or concepts in novel ways, is likely enhanced by exposure to nature (Ulrich 1993).
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(Kellert 2002)

Evaluative Mode
Kellert (1996) formulated nine values of the natural world that contribute significantly to human well-being (Table 3).
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Name of Value Dominionistic
Definition of Value Urge to master and control nature
Benefits Safety and protection; independence and autonomy; the urge to explore and confront the unknown; and willingness to take risks, be resourceful, and show courage Avoiding harm and injury; minimizing risk and uncertainty; and respect and awe for nature through recognizing its power to humble and destroy
Stage of Prominent Development (yrs.)* 3-6
Negativistic
Avoidance, fear, and rejection of nature
3-6
*The three age classes correspond to early, middle, and late (adolescent) childhood, respectively.
Name of Value Utilitarian
Definition of Value Material and commodity attraction of the natural world
Benefits
Stage of Prominent Development (yrs.)*
Physical and material 3-6 security; self-confidence and self-esteem through demonstrating craft and skill in nature; and recognition of human physical dependence on natural systems and processes Perceiving order and organization; developing ideas of harmony, balance, and symmetry; and evoking and stimulating curiosity, imagination, and discovery 6-12
Aesthetic
Physical attraction and appeal of nature
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Name of Value
Humanistic
Definition of Value
Strong affection and emotional attachment to nature
Benefits
Developing intimacy, companionship, trust, and capacities for social relationship and affiliation; and enhancing self-confidence and self-esteem through giving, receiving, and sharing affection Classifying and labeling abilities; language acquisition and counting; resolution of difficult aspects of psychosocial development through story and fantasy; and enhanced communication and discourse through the use of imagery and symbol

6-12
Symbolic
Natures role in shaping and assisting human communication and thought
6-12
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Name of Value
Scientific
Definition of Value
Empirical and systematic study and understanding of nature
Benefits
Intellectual competence; critical thinking; problem-solving abilities; enhanced capacities for empirical observation and analysis; and respect and appreciation for natural process and diversity

6-12, 13-17
Moralistic
Ethical and spiritual affinity for nature
13-17 Sense of underlying meaning, order, and purpose; the inclination to protect and treat nature with kindness and respect; and enhanced sociability from shared moral and spiritual conviction
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Name of Value Naturalistic
Definition of Value Desire for close contact and immersion in nature
Benefits
Inclination for exploration, 13-17 discovery, curiosity, inquisitiveness, and imagination; enhanced selfconfidence and self-esteem by demonstrating competence and adaptability in nature; and greater calm and coping capacities through heightened temporal awareness and spatial involvement
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Most Important Values to Learning

Those that contribute most strongly to the development of learning skills include the aesthetic, naturalistic, and scientific, and to a lesser extent the symbolic the latter mostly through the development of language skills.
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Multiple Intelligences (Gardner 1999)

Linguistic Logical-mathematical Spatial Bodily-kinesthetic Musical intelligence Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalist
Importance of Naturalist Perspective

Gardners (1999) inclusion of naturalist intelligence among the eight multiple intelligences he formulated to represent the entire spectrum of human cognition lends support to the importance of the naturalist perspective as a fundamental way of learning.
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WAYS OF INTERACTING WITH NATURE CAN MAKE A DIFFERENCE

Three ways in which (young) peoples experience of nature occurs

(Kellert 1996, 2005) Direct
Actual physical contact with nature in a spontaneous and unstructured way, including play
Indirect
Actual physical contact with nature, but more structured and planned. e.g., zoos, arboreta, botanical gardens, science museums, and nature centers; contacts with domesticated plants and animals; [outdoor lab instruction ? (TLS)]
Vicarious or symbolic
Representations or depicted scenes of nature Principally through the mass media (classroom? TLS)
Direct Experience of Nature

Considerable conceptual and empirical support for the argument that direct experience of nature plays a significant role in affective, cognitive, and evaluative development in humans that is not replaced by indirect and vicarious experiences, which are on the rise. Attributed to diversity and variability in space and time of the natural world, together with its unpredictiveness and challenges.
References: Searles 1959, Kaplan and Talbot 1983, Moore 1986, Kaplan and Kaplan 1989, Sebba 1991, Pyle 1993, Sobel 1993, Nabhan and Trible 1994, Kellert 1996, Kellert 2005, Burdette and Walker 2005
Reduced Contact with Nature

Considerable evidence that children (and adults) are spending increasingly less and less time experiencing high quality natural environments.
Due to a number of factors, including habitat destruction, species loss, environmental contamination, natural resource depletion, urban sprawl, human population growth, videophilia, and fear of violence.
References: Barney et al. 1980, Wilcox et al. 1991, Groombridge 1992, Wilson 1992, Myers 1994, Heywood 1995, Savage 1995, Kellert 2002, Pergams and Zaradic 2008
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Reduced Contact with Nature

Parental concern for the health and safety of their children, in turn related to increased violence in our society, real and imagined, is an increasingly important factor.
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Nature-Deficit Disorder
Louv (2005) labeled the health syndrome associated with this diminished experience of nature in children today as nature-deficit disorder as a way of creating heightened awareness of the problem. Has had a major impact on the development of impending federal legislation on no child left inside.
Additional References: Clements 2004, Karstan 2005, Farmer 2005, Veitch et al. 2006, Jackson and Tester 2008
Nearby Nature
Key point concerning childrens direct contact with nature is that it be ongoing and highly accessible, which in turn implies that it be nearby. Has important implications for regional and urban planning.
References: Quantz 1897, Kaplan and Kaplan 1989, Sobel 1993, Kaplan et al. 1998, Wells 2000, Kellert 2002, Taylor et al. 2002, Wells and Evans 2003, Bell and Dyment 2006
CONTRIBUTIONS OF TREES AND FORESTS TO LEARNING

Dendro-Psychoses
The first scholarly treatment of the origins of the fundamental relationship between trees and people was that of the psychologist J. O. Quantz (1897).
Created the term dendro-psychoses to represent this relationship. Provided several lines of biological and psychological evidence of an adaptive nature to support the argument that the earliest humans dwelled in trees. Examples of psychological evidence included the fear of wild animals, thunder and lightning, high winds, and falling; hide and seek games; rocking babies to sleep.
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A Central Role
There is considerable evidence that trees have played a central role in everyday life throughout human history, including: Source of food and shade Safe sleeping and eating places Vantage points for surveying the landscape Escape from predators Provision of shelter, weapons, tools, and medicine Inspiration (TLS)
References: Bourliere 1963, Lee 1979, Isaac 1983, Shipman 1986, Heerwagen and Orians (1993).
Perception
Process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory information (Wickipedia 2008) Information enhancers integrate active sense data with memory to produce a coherent perception (Rue 2005)
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Tree Forms
A B
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Tree Forms
Reference: Sommer and Summit 1996

Tree Forms
Orians (1980) hypothesized that tree forms that were most important in the survival of early humans in African savannas should be most preferred by humans today from the standpoint of aesthetics.
Referred specifically to the acacia form, with canopies broader than tall, trunks terminating and branching considerably below half the height of the tree, small leaves, and layered branching. Argued that such trees are easy to climb and their canopies offered greater protection from sun or rain. Hypothesis was tested on preferences of Americans for trees cultivated in Japanese gardens and for various dimensions of the dominant East African tree, Acacia tortilis.
Hypothesis was not rejected.
Additional References: Orians 1986, Heerwagen and Orians 1993
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Acacia Tree Form

Preference for the acacia tree form over other tree forms was subsequently investigated by utilizing college students from all major continents except Antarctica.
References: Sommer and Summit 1996, Sommer 1997

Tree Forms
eucalyptus
oak
conifer
palm
acacia
Reference: Sommer and Summit 1996

Tree Forms
Sommer and Summint (1996)
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Acacia Tree Form

In all cases, students preferred the acacia form over other forms (eucalyptus, oak, conifer, and palm). Moreover, they tended to prefer the most common tree experienced in their respective childhoods more so than students who grew up with other tree forms as most common, indicating that experience also shapes ones preferences of tree form.
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LANDSCAPE-LEVEL PREFERENCES
Landscape-Level Preferences
D
E
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At the stand or landscape level, the evidence suggests that people prefer natural environments over built environments and savanna-type natural environments over other natural environments (Ulrich 1986, Kahn 1999).
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Balling, Falk. Mean Preference Scores for Each Biome as a Function of Age Group (1982).
Balling, Falk. Mean Preference Scores for Each Biome Under Both Live and Visit Instructions (1982).
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(Balling and Falk 1982)
Young children (age 8-11 years) from the eastern U.S. preferred East African savannas over mixed hardwood forest (their home environment), boreal forest, rain forest, and desert, while older children showed an equal preference for savannas and mixed hardwood forest. Suggests the influence of both genetics and environment (familiarity) in such preferences.
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Savanna-like Environments
Preference for the savanna-like environment seems to be the result of being able to acquire new information (mystery) without becoming disoriented or lost (legibility).
References: Kaplan and Kaplan 1989, Kaplan 1992

May help explain the appeal for closed-canopy forest stands that have been thinned or for urban or suburban open spaces that are planted with scattered trees in a grassy matrix, i.e., are park-like.
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May also help explain the tendency of European settlers in North America to open up forested landscapes and plant trees in prairie landscapes. (Orians 1980)
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Ecological vs. Scenic Aesthetics

(Gobster 1999)
ECOLOGICAL preference for maintaining and restoring the ecological structure and function of ecosystems and for preserving and enhancing the health and diversity of native species and ecological communities. SCENIC a perceptual, affective reaction to the landscape: preference for scenic beauty or visual quality.
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Ecological vs. Scenic Aesthetics

(Gobster 1999)
Fire Dead and down wood Forest fragmentation
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CONCLUSIONS
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Conclusions
The development of learning skills, especially in children, and the realization of creativity and productivity in adults, seem to be enhanced significantly by direct and informal contact on a regular basis with natural settings, especially those that are savanna- or park-like. These findings may have important implications for the teaching and learning process in our society. In particular, the notion of less structured and more emotions- or value-laden environments for learning seem to run counter to traditional institutional approaches.
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Conclusions
Visual preferences for trees and forests may reflect adaptive behaviors in the early evolution of humans and conflict with the development of an ecological aesthetic, which may seem counter-instinctive or counter-intuitive.
Can learning/education remove this disconnect? (education of the emotions) The theory of visible stewardship (Sheppard 2001), which emphasizes caring for and attachment to a particular landscape, suggests it will be challenging.
Conclusions
It is natural that we should learn from nature.
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Contact Information
Terry.Sharik@usu.edu
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The Educational Values of Trees and Forests

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The Educational Values of Trees and Forests

T. L. Sharik Mar 2009

Linkages between ecosystem services and human well-being (MEA 2005).

T. L. Sharik Mar 2009

T. L. Sharik Mar 2009

T. L. Sharik Mar 2009

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T. L. Sharik Mar 2009

COMPLEXITIES OF THE LEARNING PROCESS

Mediating Systems in Human Behavior (modified from Rue 2005)

Three Major Modes of Learning

Additional References: Iozzi 1989a, 1989b

Three Major Modes of Learning

1. Affective or Emotional 2. Cognitive or Intellectual 3. Evaluative

Additional References: Iozzi 1989a, 1989b

T. L. Sharik Mar 2009

Presuppose minimal self-concept

Presuppose explicit self-concept

fear disgust anger desire happiness sadness

hatred outrage shame guilt envy jealousy pride grief

resignation admiration wonder compassion alienation humility amusement

Affective or Emotional Mode

Affective or Emotional Mode

Affective or Emotional Mode

Three Major Modes of Learning

1. Affective or Emotional 2. Cognitive or Intellectual 3. Evaluative

Additional References: Iozzi 1989a, 1989b

Operators on mental objects include:

Cognitive or Intellectual Mode

Cognitive or Intellectual Mode

Assembling facts and figures

Interpreting and understanding empirical realities

T. L. Sharik Mar 2009

Cognitive or Intellectual Mode

Integrating elements and processes in nature

Judging the relative significance of particular aspects of the natural world

T. L. Sharik Mar 2009

Cognitive or Intellectual Mode

T. L. Sharik Mar 2009

Three Major Modes of Learning

1. Affective or Emotional 2. Cognitive or Intellectual 3. Evaluative

Additional References: Iozzi 1989a, 1989b

T. L. Sharik Mar 2009

Name of Value Dominionistic

Definition of Value Urge to master and control nature

Stage of Prominent Development (yrs.)* 3-6

Avoidance, fear, and rejection of nature

Name of Value Utilitarian

Definition of Value Material and commodity attraction of the natural world

Stage of Prominent Development (yrs.)*

Physical attraction and appeal of nature

T. L. Sharik Mar 2009

Stage of Prominent Development (yrs.)*

Natures role in shaping and assisting human communication and thought

T. L. Sharik Mar 2009

Stage of Prominent Development (yrs.)*

Ethical and spiritual affinity for nature

T. L. Sharik Mar 2009

Name of Value Naturalistic

Definition of Value Desire for close contact and immersion in nature