Professional Documents
Culture Documents
THE BASICS OF
POWER QUALITY
Table of Contents
What is Power Quality? Sources of Poor Power Quality Power Factor Harmonics Disturbances IDEAL Power Clamps IDEAL SureTest Circuit Analyzer IDEAL Power Analyzer IDEAL. The way every job should be. 2 3 4 8 12 14 16 18 20 22 23
Technical Definitions Power Clamp Features & Ordering SureTest Features & Ordering
Power Analyzer Features & Ordering 24 Technical Support Toll Free 877-201-9005 www.testersandmeters.com
Supply
This is the initial source of power from the utility company such as the main transformer of a commercial building. Its where power coming into the facility can be monitored.
Internal Distribution
80% of all power quality problems occur in a companys distribution and grounding systems. Corroded connections, defective conduit, defective electrical devices, improper wiring and improper grounding are just some of the obstacles to be dealt with.
A facilitys incoming power is typically monitored at the main transformer, referred to as the supply.
Internal Loads
Everything from variable speed drives and high-tech devices to unsophisticated loads such as heaters and lights contribute to the quality of electrical power in a circuit. Internal loads can cause poor power factor, harmonics and disturbances.
Industrial machines containing variable speed drives can cause a variety of costly power quality problems.
Power Factor
Power Factor is the ratio of true power to apparent power in a circuit, or in other words, a circuits level of power efficiency. It is expressed as a ratio by using the equation below.
Power Factor In-Phase
Voltage
PF = W VA
Watts Power Factor = Volts x Amps
To determine power factor, divide true power (watts) by apparent power (volt amps). If true power and apparent power were equal, the result would be a power ratio of 1.00.
Current
The most common reason to measure power factor is to determine the amount of power in a commercial or industrial environment that is supplied but not utilized. When the power factor ratio is 1.00 it means that every watt of power arriving from the utility company is put to use. But unfortunately, motors and electronic equipment apply a load to the circuit which can result in out-of-phase power. (See illustration on next page) A power factor of less than 0.90 is considered poor. It means that a considerable amount of incoming power is being used inefficiently. To make matters worse, utility companies apply a penalty charge when power factor drops to low levels. Maintaining a healthy power factor is an important part of maximizing power efficiency.
Current
When power is in-phase, voltage and current travel congruently, meaning they reach maximum height and zero simultaneously. A large motor load can cause current to lag behind voltage. This lagging effect, or phase shift, can cause a poor power factor.
Large motors make industrial operations especially susceptible to a poor power factor.
Implement a Solution
A power clamp, such as the IDEAL 61-802 pictured above, is the best way to monitor a circuits power factor. With a single reading directly at the transformer, a power clamp can measure true power, apparent power and power factor.
The most common means of correcting a low power factor is to compensate the circuit with additional components. Most often, this compensation comes in the form of capacitor banks. While capacitor banks are a permanent solution, it is wise to continue monitoring the circuit for any new problems.
Harmonics
Fundamental Sine Wave
Widespread use of electronic equipment in todays commercial and industrial environments has made harmonics an important but complex power quality issue. Most simple electric devices like motors and incandescent lighting are linear loads, which means AC impedance is constant regardless of the applied voltage. In this case, the fundamental AC sine wave, pictured below, is unaffected.
60Hz Sine Wave
2nd Harmonic
3rd Harmonic
Notice that the fundamental frequency requires twice as long as the second harmonic and three times as long as the third harmonic to complete a single waveform.
Harmonic Distortion
In the United States, the fundamental frequency of electricity is 60Hz. This illustration shows one cycle of that frequency.
On the other hand, non-linear loads such as personal computers and copy machines strip off AC power and convert it to DC power. This process adds harmonics to the fundamental frequency. By definition, a harmonic is a frequency which is an integer of the fundamental 60Hz wave. For example, the second harmonic of the fundamental frequency is 120Hz, the third harmonic is 180Hz and so on. The addition of harmonics to a system results in distortion to the voltage and current waveforms. The impact to the electrical system depends on the total amount of distortion present and on which harmonic the distortion is located.
Total harmonic distortion (THD) is the percentage of distortion to the fundamental frequency. As a general rule, THD should not exceed 5% of voltage or 20% of current.
Harmonic Factorization
Breaking down the total harmonic distortion into individual harmonics is an analysis called harmonic factorization. Typically, only the odd-numbered harmonics are analyzed. They are created by non-linear loads and have the greatest impact on an electrical system. The two most important categories for commercial and industrial settings are the zero sequence, or triplen harmonics (3rd, 9th, 15th, etc.) and the negative sequence harmonics (5th, 11th, 17th, etc.) The triplen harmonics are most commonly found in commercial settings and are caused by computers and other electronic office equipment. Negative sequence harmonics are commonly found in industrial environments and are caused by variable speed drives and other electronic equipment. 9
Commercial Environments
In the 3-phase, 4-wire electrical system commonly found in commercial buildings, current flows through each phase conductor and returns in a common neutral conductor. In a balanced system, the neutral currents from each phase will mathematically cancel each other out. Any imbalance in phase current will return on the neutral at the fundamental frequency (60Hz). As this return current is typically small, it is generally not considered a problem. The characteristics of the triplen harmonics (3rd, 9th, 15th, etc.) disrupt this balance. Rather than canceling each other out on the neutral, the triplen harmonics from all three phases are mathematically added together in the neutral conductor. This can result in a higher than expected current which can cause excessive heat in the neutral conductor and transformer.
Troubleshooting Harmonics
Preventing harmonics from causing damage to electrical circuits and expensive equipment can be a difficult task. To effectively troubleshoot the problem, the total harmonic distortion and harmonic factorization should be analyzed. Knowing the amount and characteristics of the harmonics will aid in identifying a solution.
The IDEAL Power Analyzer can collect data concerning harmonic distortion as well as power quality issues like disturbances.
Industrial Environments
The electrical loads within an industrial plant can be greatly affected by the negative sequence harmonics (5th, 11th, 17th, etc.). These harmonics counteract the energy created by the electrical power system. For example, in a motor the negative sequence harmonics will try to force the motor to turn in a reverse direction. The impact to the rotation of the motor depends on the magnitude of the current harmonics. A level of 20% distortion on the fifth harmonic means 20% of the energy is working against the motor. This has a serious impact both to the torque produced by the motor and the heat given off. This affects both production being run on the machine and the life of the motor. In our commercial example, harmonics are not usually removed. Removal of harmonics requires the use of filters or devices that minimize the effects on the circuit, and these are not always cost-efficient solutions. The alternative to removing harmonics is to minimize the effect they have on the system. Oversizing the neutral conductor or derating the existing transformers are possible solutions for a 3-phase, 4-wire system affected by triplen harmonics. While derating a motor is possible, it is more common to use snubbers or filters to reduce the effects of harmonics in an industrial facility.
10
11
Disturbances
The term disturbances is actually used to describe any kind of fluctuation in power. The most common types of disturbances are sags, swells, overvoltages, undervoltages, transients and outages.
Transients
Transients are short-duration, high-amplitude pulses superimposed on a normal voltage waveform. They can vary widely from twice the normal voltage to several thousand volts and last from less than a microsecond up to a few hundredths of a second. Transients are caused by a rapid release of energy stored in an inductive or capacitive source in the electrical system, or from an external source such as lightning.
Transient Voltage
While the duration of transients is unnoticeable to a human observer, their effect on power quality is still considerable. A single lightning strike can result in a transient large enough to destroy electronic devices.
Troubleshooting Disturbances
Disturbances may require a certain degree of monitoring in order to properly diagnose. The nature of disturbances in industrial settings is often systematic but infrequent. By tracking a circuit over an extended period of time with the IDEAL Power Analyzer, data can be saved and analyzed later on a computer. This makes disturbances easier to pinpoint. Unlike harmonics, reoccurring disturbances are often fairly easy to eliminate once theyve been properly identified. For example, devices like surge protectors are a simple way to protect against transients. 13
Though they are caused by different factors, sags and swells often follow each other as the system attempts to compensate. This further increases their potential to cause damage.
12
True RMS
An easy-to-read dual display is a useful feature for viewing measurements like: power factor and kW, volts and amps, or frequency and volts.
Calculates readings for both threephase, three-wire and three-phase, four-wire circuits
14
15
Circuit/Harmonics Analyzer
In the past, measuring total harmonic distortion (THD) was a task for bulky and expensive equipment, but the SureTest Circuit Analyzer has changed that. The SureTest is designed to troubleshoot an electrical distribution system, analyzing both common circuit and power quality problems. It is the first handheld circuit analyzer capable of applying a full 15-amp load without causing interruption to equipment on the circuit. It identifies and locates loose connections, bad splices or receptacles, loose ground connections and high-resistance grounds. The SureTest model ST-1THD is specifically designed for commercial and industrial environments where electronic lighting and electronic equipment are present. The SureTest captures True RMS measurements, analyzes power measurements such as watts and power factor, and measures harmonic distortion to the 31st harmonic.
Large, easy-to-read LED display
The SureTest Circuit Analyzer is used for a multitude of power quality measurements including total harmonic distortion (THD).
16
17
1 MB memory
The versatility of the IDEAL Power Analyzer enables four testing programs to run simultaneously for extended durations of time.
18
19
Technical Definitions
Ampere - A unit of measure for the rate of current flow. Measured in Amps.
Apparent Power - Applied voltage multiplied by current.This is the power utilized by a load or electrical system. Measured in Voltamperes (VA). Frequency - The number of cycles per second that a wave form repeats itself. Measured in Hertz (Hz). Harmonics - A frequency that is an integer (multiple) of the fundamental frequency caused by electronic equipment. Harmonics cause distortion to the voltage and current waveforms. Harmonic Factorization - Analysis where the total harmonic distortion is broken down into the individual harmonics. Linear Loads - A load where the load impedance is constant. The relationship between the voltage and current drawn from the circuit are proportional. Examples of linear loads are motors and incandescent lighting. Negative Sequence Harmonics - Odd-numbered harmonics with a phase sequence opposite to the fundamental frequency (5th, 11th, 17th, etc.). They have a reversal effect on motors within an industrial facility. Non-Linear Loads - A load where the load impedance is not constant. The relationship between the voltage and current is unique to the type of load, resulting in harmonics on the circuit. Examples of non-linear loads are computers and variable speed machines. Odd-Numbered Harmonics - Odd-numbered integer of the fundamental frequency (60Hz). The 3rd harmonic of the fundamental frequency is 180Hz, the 5th is 300Hz, etc. Oddnumbered harmonics are typically created by non-linear loads. Outage - The total loss of AC power for greater that one minute. Outages typically last from 15 minutes to a few hours.
Power Factor - The ratio of true power (watts) to the apparent power (voltamperes). It is an indication of the efficiency of an electrical system. Power Quality - A broad term used to describe the measurement of electrical power performance. Sag - A reduction in AC voltage up to 20% below nominal level lasting for a duration from one half cycle up to a few seconds. Swell - An increase in AC voltage up to 20% above nominal level lasting for a duration from one half cycle up to a few seconds. Transient - A release of positive or negative energy creating a disturbance within a single cycle of the AC waveform. Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) - The percentage of distortion to the fundamental frequency caused by harmonics within the electrical system. Triplen Harmonics - see zero sequence harmonics. True Power - The power extended when one ampere of current flows through a resistance of one ohm. Measured in Watts. Voltage - A unit of measure of the electrical pressure in an electrical system. Measured in Volts. Voltamperes - Applied voltage multiplied by current. This is the power utilized by a load or electrical system. Watt - Often referred to as true power. It is the power expended when one ampere of current flows through a resistance of one ohm. Zero Sequence Harmonics - Also called triplen harmonics, these are concurrent in direction with the fundamental frequency (3rd, 9th, 15th, etc.). They produce an amplitude that is triple any one phase when they combine on the neutral of a 3-phase, 4-wire electrical system.
20
21
61-802
2000A AC/DC current capability kVA kVAR Power factor Frequency Dual display Memory recall
61-800
2000AAC current capability 2500ADC current capability Temperature Analog output (current ranges) Relative mode Min/max Audible continuity
Description ST-1 Circuit Analyzer ST-1P+ Circuit Analyzer ST-1D Circuit Analyzer (120VAC) ST-1THD Circuit/Harmonics Analyzer ST-1THDC Circuit/Harmonics Analyzer for use with Amp Clamp ST-1THDC Circuit/Harmonics Analyzer Kit, 61-181 Clamp Adapter Included Ground Continuity Adapter Isolated Ground Adapter Extension Cord Carrying Case 500 Amp Clamp Adapter
Cat. No. 61-150 61-151 61-152 61-156 61-157 61-158 61-175 61-176 61-177 61-179 61-181
22
23
Standard Equipment
Power Analyzer
Power Measurements
Kilowatts (kW) Voltamperes (VA) Inductive reactive power (kvarL) Capacitive reactive power (kvarC) Power factor (PF) Frequency (Hz) Kilowatt hours (kWh) Reactive power per hour (kvarhL, kvarhC)
Description 800 Series Power Analyzer Disturbances Program Check-Meter Program Fast-Check Program 2000/200AAC Clamp Adapter 500AAC Clamp Adapter
Harmonics Measurements
Total harmonic distortion (%THD) Harmonic factorization to 51st harmonic 24 25
Printed in U.S.A.