Prof. Dr.

Markolf Niemz
- Lecture notes -
- Exam preparation -

Introduction / literature
Chap. 1: Biomaterials
Chap. 2: Biosensors
Chap. 3: Ultrasound
Chap. 4: Radiology
Chap. 5: Magnetic resonance

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Biomaterials

natural cell smallest unit of life capable of independent existence

tissue group of similar cells plus extracellular material
organ group of tissues with a common function

natural (artifically put in place) transplant transfer of natural tissue or organ

artificial implant assistance to natural tissue or organ

prosthesis replacement of natural tissue by substitute

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Natural biomaterial

example: human skin cell

Epidermis tissue O

Dermis cell tissue

G

cell
Subcutis tissue N

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Biological tissue

type class function

connective proper, cartilage, bone, blood binding, support, protection, transport

epithelial covering and lining, glandular protection, filtration, secretion
muscular skeletal, cardiac, smooth contraction, movement
nervous Aα, Aβ, Aγ, Aδ, B, C monitoring, carrier of information

connective epithelial, muscular, nervous

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Organ systems

type organs function

circulatory heart, blood vessels, blood transport of blood

respiratory nose, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs exchange of O2 and CO2
digestive mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines digestion of nutrients
urinary kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethrae regulation of plasma composition
musculoskeletal bone, cartilage, tendon, skeletal muscle support and movement of body
immune thymus, lymphoid tissues defense against foreign invaders
nervous brain, spinal cord, nerves coordination of activities, consciousness
endocrine all glands secreting hormones regulation of activities
reproductive testes, penis, ovaries, uterus reproduction
integumentary skin protection, control of temperature

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Transplants, implants, prostheses

transplant • still natural tissue or organ, transferred from same patient or from donor
• to recover function of diseased or removed tissue or organ
• e.g. blood, bypass, heart, liver, skin

implant • artificial tissue, alloy, glass, metal, or electronics

• to assist function of diseased tissue or organ
• e.g. contact lens, hearing aid, hernial mesh, inlay, pacemaker, stent

prosthesis • artificial tissue, alloy, glass, or metal

• to replace diseased tissue
• e.g. denture, hip, joint, knee, leg

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Artificial biomaterials

material advantage disadvantage application

polymer
nylon ductile not strong suture
polyester light prone to creep vascular prosthesis
silicone easy to fabricate degradable breast prosthesis

metal
Ti, Ti alloy, Co-Cr alloy partly ductile prone to corrosion artificial joint
stainless steel strong release of ions bone plate, screw
Au, Ag, Pt tough dental root implant

ceramic
carbon biocompatible brittle, fragile inlay
aluminum oxide inert weak in tension denture
hydroxyapatite stiff orthopedic prosthesis

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Artificial biomaterials – part II

material advantage disadvantage application

composite
carbon polymer strong difficult to fabricate heart valve
metal-PMMA customized high cost bone cement

bioactive glass
Bioglass R directly bonds to brittle, fragile middle ear device
human bone jaw repair

bioactive glass-ceramic directly bonds to brittle, fragile spine surgery

Cerabone R human bone hip surgery

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Biomechanics

Hooke‘s law for elastic solids: σ = E ε

with stress σ (Pa), modulus of elasticity E (Pa), and strain ε

tissue

σ/2 σ/2
tissue

L+∆L
ε = ∆L/L

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Biomechanics – part II

stress–strain curves for

brittle and ductile materials Material failure

Brittle

Stress σ (Pa)
Hooke‘s law:
σ= E ε Ductile

toughness:
∫ σ dε
Toughness
slope:
modulus of elasticity E (Pa)
Strain ε

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Biosensors

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Thermosensors

Hg thermometer RTD thermistor thermocouple

expansion: 1.82 ml / oC resistive temp. detector semiconductor two metals

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Thermosensors - part II

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ECG: Limb leads

standard limb leads augmented limb leads

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ECG: Precordial leads

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ECG waves

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ECG: Normal

criteria of normal ECG:

• P and T waves upright in lead I
• q < 20 ms in leads I and aVL
• QT interval < 0.44 s
• PR interval < 0.2 s

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ECG: Myocardial infarction

criteria of myocardial infarction:

• R wave absent in leads I or V2−V5
• ST segment elevated in V2−V5
• T wave inversed in V2−V5

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EEG: Standard waves

type frequency location normal adult normal child

(Hz)

alpha 7.5 − 13 posterior eyes closed eyes closed

beta > 14 anterior alert alert

theta 3 − 7.5 all leads asleep < 13 years

delta <3 anterior asleep < 1 year

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EMG: Electromyography

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EOG: Electrooculography

• provides measure of retinal function

• voltage Uint corresponds to illumination
• Uint is estimated by measuring Uext
• Uext is measured when eye looks from side to side

maximum voltage under light adaption

Arden ratio:
minimum voltage under dark adaption

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Ultrasound

ultrasound: > 20 kHz

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Ultrasonic transducer

piezoelectric effect:
electric field mechanical force
mechanical force electric field

electric field: voltage

mechanical force: contraction, strain

piezoelectric materials:
e.g. quartz, polyvinyldifluoride (PVDF)

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Ultrasound: Reflection and refraction
c velocity velocity: c = λf
λ wavelength
f frequency impedance: Z = ρc
Z impedance
ρ density law of reflection: θi = θr

sin θi c1 λ1
law of refraction: = =
sin θt c2 λ2

Z2 cos θi − Z1 cos θt
reflection: R =
Z2 cos θi + Z1 cos θt

2 Z2 cos θi
transmission: T =
Z2 cos θi + Z1 cos θt

Z2 − Z1 2 Z2
normal incidence: R = T =
Z2 + Z1 Z2 + Z1

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Ultrasound imaging: A-mode and B-mode

signal: voltage
display: amplitudes

signal: voltage
display: brightness

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Doppler ultrasound

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Radiology

• computed tomography (CT):

x-ray

• nuclear medicine:
α, β, γ, neutron, heavy ion

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Electromagnetic
spectrum

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X-rays

type transition

Kα L → K
Kβ M → K
Kγ N → K
... ...
Lα M → L
Lβ N → L
Lγ O → L
... ...
Mα N → M
Mβ O → M
Mγ P → M
... ...

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CT scanner

rotation: 360o aperture of gantry: 60 − 70 cm

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Medical x-ray applications

organ indication

blood vessel bleeding

bone complicated fracture
brain hematoma, tumor
intestines tumor, metastases
liver cyst, tumor, metastases
lung tuberculosis, tumor, metastases
lymphoid tissue metastases
spine herniated disc
tooth caries

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Nuclear medicine

A
Z N: nucleus
A: number of protons
and neutrons
Z: number of protons

type of decay Z A example

α −2 −4 226Ra→ 222Rn + α
β− +1 ±0 32P → 32S + β−

β+ −1 ±0 11C → 11B + β+

γ ±0 ±0 99Tc → 99Tc + γ

e− capture −1 ±0 p + e− → n

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Radiation safety
traditional units SI units

activity Curie (Ci) = 3.7E10 dps Becquerel (Bq) = 1 dps

absorbed dose Rad = 0.01 J/kg Gray (Gy) = 1 J/kg
dose equivalent Rem = Rad × Q Sievert (Sv) = Gy × Q

dps = disintegrations per second

Q = quality factor

target exposure limit

public 1.5 mSv/year

radiation controller 5.0 mSv/year
radiation worker 50 mSv/year

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Radiation safety - part II

quality factor Q
20

10

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Magnetism

e.g. iron, nickel, cobalt e.g. oxygen, magnesium, gadolinum e.g. water, most tissues
µ >> 0 (magnetic susceptibility) µ >0 µ <0
able to maintain magnetization unable to maintain magnetization no intrinsic magnetization

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Spin and magnetic moment
nucleons (protons and neutrons) have a quantum property known as spin
spin L is analogue of momentum p
torque θ = δL/δt is analogue of force F = δp/δt

spinning nucleon causes magnetic moment µ spinning nucleons cause magnetization M = Σ µ

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MR active elements in tissues

half integer spins:

odd mass number

integer spins:
even mass number and
odd atomic number

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T1 images vs. T2 images

signal T1 image T2 image

bright fat water, blood, liquor, edema

middle muscle, cartilage, marrow fat, marrow
dark water, blood, liquor, edema, bone, calcification muscle, bone, calcification

tissue T1 (ms) T2 (ms)

fat 160 100

white matter (brain) 380 85
gray matter (brain) 520 95
water, edema 600 150
malignant tumor 800 200

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Gradient echo sequence

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Spin echo sequence

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MR instruments

B ≅ 1 − 2 Tesla
1 Tesla = 10 000 Gauss
earth: 0.5 Gauss MR scanner with superconductive magnets

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 University Mannheim Technical University
of Heidelberg Medical Center of Mannheim

Biomedical engineering: characterization and processing of biomaterials

internet database for tissue parameters
Medical physics: design of medical applicators and sensors
bioelectrical multichannel measurement devices
Laser medicine: laser-tissue interactions
medical applications of ultrashort laser pulses

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