CUTTING THEORY FOR EVERYONE

SHORT DESCRIPTION By Viktor P. Astakhov

Definition of metal cutting

The process of metal cutting is defined as a forming process, which takes place in the components of the cutting system that are so arranged that the external energy applied to the cutting system causes the purposeful fracture of the layer being removed. This fracture occurs due to the combined stress including the continuously changing bending stress causing a cyclic nature of this process. The most important property in metal cutting studies is the system time. The system time was introduced as a new variable in the analysis of the metal cutting system and it was conclusively proven that the relevant properties of the cutting systems components are time dependent. The dynamic interactions of these components take place in the cutting process, causing a cyclic nature of this process.

Consequences
It follows from this definition that, considered together (the system approach), the following features distinguish metal cutting among other closely related manufacturing processes and operations: 1. Bending moment. The bending moment forms the combined stress in the deformation zone that significantly reduces the resistance of the work material to cutting. As a result, metal cutting is the most energy efficient material removal process (energy per removed volume accounting for the achieved accuracy) compare to other closely related operations. 2. Purposeful (micro)fracture of the layer being removed under combined stress. The fracture occurs in each successive cycle of chip formation. Although not recognized by the prevailing notion in the metal cutting theory, computational fracture is a part of modern FEM. As such, a great number of separation criteria have been used based on the critical distance, normal failure stress, strain energy, strain energy density, etc. To achieve a reliable FEM simulation, and thus produce reasonable results, the separation criterion must be a sound criterion based on physics of fracture rather than on computation conveniences. Moreover, the energy associated with the formation of new surfaces should also be accounted for.

3. Stress singularity at the cutting edge. The maximum combined stress does not act at the cutting edge compared to other closely related forming operations. Rather, a (micro) crack forms in front of the cutting edge. As a result, when the cutting system is rigid and the cutting tool is made and run properly, the wear occurs at a certain distance from the cutting edge that allows maintaining the accuracy of machining over the entire time of tool life. 4. Cyclical nature. Metal cutting is inherently a cyclic process. As such, a single chip fragment forms in each chip formation cycle. As a result, considered at the appropriate magnification, the chip structure is not uniform. Rather, it consists of chip fragments and connectors. The frequency of the chip formation process (known also as the chip segmentation frequency) primarily depends on the cutting speed and on the work material. The cutting feed and the depth of cut (>1 mm) have very small influence on this frequency.

Basic Laws of Metal Cutting (Ignorantia juris non excusat - Ignorance is not an excuse)
The basic laws in any branch of applied science establish its foundation and underlying principles. For example, the laws of thermodynamics are amongst the simplest, most elegant, and most impressive products of modern science. Most physical laws are designed to explain processes which humans experience in nature. The laws of thermodynamics on the other hand, were developed to explain the absence of perpetual motion (a human concept) in nature. The best and the most general way to establish such laws is to consider the energy flow and transformation in a technical system distinguished by a given science because only system considerations result in physics-based and sound laws. As the above-provided definition of the metal cutting process is system based, the second law of metal cutting (the Astakhovs law) a.k.a. the deformation law is formulated as

Plastic deformation of the layer being removed in its transformation into the chip is the greatest nuisance in metal cutting, i.e., while it is needed to accomplish the process, it does not add any value to the finished part. Therefore, being by far the greatest part of the total energy required by the cutting system, this energy must be considered as a waste which should be minimized to achieve higher process efficiency.
The greater the energy of plastic deformation, the lower the tool life, quality of the machined surface, and process efficiency. Therefore, the prime objective of the cutting process design is to reduce this energy to its lowest possible minimum by the proper selection of the tool geometry, tool material, machining regime, coolant, and other design and process parameters. Simple and accurate method to assess the amount of plastic deformation in metal cutting has been developed and verified by the author that allows optimization of the metal cutting process and tool design even at the shop floor level.

The first metal-cutting law (Makarows law) formulated by Astakhov in the following form

For a given combination of the tool and work materials, there is the cutting temperature, referred to as the optimal cutting temperature opt, at which the combination of minimum tool wear rate, minimum stabilized cutting force, and highest quality of the machined surface, is achieved. This temperature is invariant to the way it has been achieved (whether the workpiece was cooled, pre-heated, etc)
The Makarows law, established initially for longitudinal turning of various work materials, was then experimentally proven for various machining operations. Therefore, the optimum cutting temperature for a given combination work material-tool material should be established and used as the only criterion for the suitability of this particular tool material for this particular work material. This temperature is a physical property and thus does not depend on the intrinsic details of tool design and geometry as well as on the parameters of a particular test setup. For cutting tools with various combinations of cutting geometry parameters as the rake, flank, inclination, tool cutting edge angles, nose and cutting edge radii, etc. the optimal cutting temperature corresponds to the points of minimum on the curves representing the dependence of tool wear rate on the cutting speed while the optimal cutting speed corresponding to each and every particular case varies in a wide range. The minimum tool wear rate is achieved at the same optimal temperature in dry cutting and in cutting with various cutting fluids (media) using various methods of cutting fluid supply. The optimal cutting temperature is the same for various combinations of the temperature of the preheated workpiece and uncut chip thicknesses. If the structure and/or hardness of the work material are changed, the optimal cutting speed is changed correspondingly, but the optimal temperature, remains the same. Therefore, the optimal cutting temperature depends upon only the compositions of the tool and work materials, so it can be determined once, and then used to optimize various cutting processes where the same combination of tool/work materials is used. This temperature does not depend on the type of cutting operation, tool geometry, parameters of machining regime, particular type and method of application of the cutting fluid, etc. Machining at optimal cutting temperature results not only in the minimum tool wear rate but also leads to obtaining the minimum cutting force and smallest roughness of the machined surface.

Literature to read
Astakhov, V.P., Geometry of Single-Point Turning Tools and Drills: Fundamentals and Practical Applications, Springer-Verlag: London 2010. Astakhov, V.P., Metal Cutting: System Outlook of Research and Application Aspects. Chapter in book Metal Cutting: Research Advances, Editor J.P. Davim, NOVA SCIENCE PUBLISHERS,INC, 2010, PP. 1-1-36. Astakhov, V.P., Tribology of Metal Cutting, Elsevier: London, 2006. Komarovsky, A.A. and Astakhov, V.P., Physics of Strength and Fracture Control: Fundamentals of the Adaptation of Engineering Materials and Structures to Operating Conditions, CRCPress, 2002. Astakhov V.P., Metal Cutting Mechanics, CRC Press, 1998/1999.