Astronomy
Astronomy
is thescientific studyof celestial objects(such asstars,planets,comets, and
galaxies) andphenomenathat originate outside theEarth's atmosphere(such as the
cosmic background radiation). It is concerned with the evolution,physics,chemistry,
meteorology, andmotionof celestial objects, as well as theformation and development of
the universe.Astronomy is one of the oldest sciences. Astronomers of early civilizations performedmethodical observations of the night sky, and astronomical artifacts have been found frommuch earlier periods. However, the invention of thetelescopewas required beforeastronomy was able to develop into a modern science. Historically, astronomy hasincluded disciplines as diverse asastrometry,celestial navigation, observational
astronomy, the making of calendars, and evenastrology, but professional astronomy is
nowadays often considered to be identical with
astrophysics
. Since the 20th century, thefield of professional astronomy split intoobservationalandtheoreticalbranches.
Observational astronomy is focused on acquiring and analyzing data, mainly using basicprinciples of physics. Theoretical astronomy is oriented towards the development of computer or analytical models to describe astronomical objects and phenomena. The twofields complement each other, with theoretical astronomy seeking to explain theobservational results, and observations being used to confirm theoretical results.Amateur astronomershave contributed to many important astronomical discoveries, andastronomy is one of the few sciences where amateurs can still play an active role,especially in the discovery and observation of transientphenomena.Modern astronomy is not to be confused withastrology, the belief system that claims thathuman affairs are correlated with the positions of celestial objects. Although thetwo fields share a common origin and a part of their methods (namely, the use of ephemerides), theyare distinct.
Lexicology
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The word
astronomy
literally means "law of the stars" (or "culture of the stars" dependingon the translation) and is derived from theGreek
αστρονομία
,
astronomia
, from the words
άστρον
(
astron
, "star") and
νόμος
(
nomos
, "laws or cultures").
Use of terms "astronomy" and "astrophysics"
Generally, either the term "astronomy" or "astrophysics" may be used to refer to thissubject. Based on strict dictionary definitions, "astronomy" refers to "the study of objectsand matter outside the earth's atmosphere and of their physical and chemical properties"and "astrophysics" refers to the branch of astronomy dealing with "the behavior, physicalproperties, and dynamic processes of celestial objects and phenomena". In some cases,as in the introduction of the introductory textbook
The Physical Universe
byFrank Shu,"astronomy" may be used to describe the qualitative study of the subject, whereas"astrophysics" is used to describe the physics-oriented version of the subject. However,since most modern astronomical research deals with subjects related to physics, modernastronomy could actually be called astrophysics. Various departments that research thissubject may use "astronomy" and "astrophysics", partly depending on whether thedepartment is historically affiliated with a physics department, and many professionalastronomers actually have physics degrees. Even the name of the scientific journalAstronomy & Astrophysicsreveals the ambiguity of the use of the term.
History
A celestial map from the 17th century, by the Dutch cartographer Frederik de Wit.In early times, astronomy only comprised the observation and predictions of the motions of objects visible to the naked eye. In some locations, such asStonehenge, early culturesassembled massive artifacts that likely had some astronomical purpose. In addition to their ceremonial uses, these observatories could be employed to determine the seasons, animportant factor in knowing when to plant crops, as well as in understanding the length of the year.
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Before tools such as the telescope were invented early study of the stars had to beconducted from the only vantage points available, namely tall buildings, trees and highground using the bare eye.As civilizations developed, most notablyMesopotamia,Egypt,Persia,Maya,Greece,
India,China, and theIslamic world, astronomical observatories were assembled, and
ideas on the nature of the universe began to be explored. Most of early astronomy actuallyconsisted of mapping the positions of the stars and planets, a science now referred to asastrometry. From these observations, early ideas about the motions of the planets wereformed, and the nature of the Sun, Moon and the Earth in the universe were exploredphilosophically. The Earth was believed to be the center of the universe with the Sun, theMoon and the stars rotating around it. This is known as the geocentric model of theuniverse.A few notable astronomical discoveries were made prior to the application of thetelescope. For example, theobliquity of the eclipticwas estimated as early as 1,000 B.Cby the Chinese. TheChaldeansdiscovered thateclipsesrecurred in a repeating cycle
known as asaros. In the second century B.C., the size and distance of the Moon wereestimated byHipparchus.During the Middle Ages, observational astronomy was mostly stagnant inmedieval Europe, at least until the13th century. However, observational astronomy flourished in thePersian Empireand other parts of the world. Astronomers during that time introducedmany names that are now used for individual stars.
Scientific revolution
Galileo's sketches and observations of the Moon revealed that the surface wasmountainousDuring theRenaissance,Nicolaus Copernicusproposed aheliocentric modelof thesolar
system. His work was defended, expanded upon, and corrected byGalileo Galileiand
Johannes Kepler . Galileo innovated by using telescopes to enhance his observations.
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