a s th e p ro c e s s o f ta k in g o f m o le c u le s o f o n e s u b s ta n c e in to a n o th e r s u b s ta n c e . A b s o rp tio n m a y b e e ith e r a p h y s ic a l o r a c h e m ic a l P h y s ic a l a b s o rp tio n d e p e n d s o n th e s o lu b ility o f th e s u b s ta n c e a b s o rb e d , e m ic a l

n of m olecules to the surfaces of solids, as opposed to absorption, in w hich e c u le s a c tu a lly e n te r th e a b s o rb in g m e d iu m . C h a rc o a l, fo r e x a m p le , w h ic h eat surface area because of its porous nature, can adsorb large volum es of n c lu d in g m o s to fth e p o is o n o u s o n e s , a n d th u s is u s e d in g a s m a s k s a n d S o lv e n t e x tra c tio n is d e fin e d a s a p ro c e s s a im e d a t th e s e p a ra tio n o f th e e n ts o f a s o lu tio n b y tre a tm e n t w ith a n im m is c ib le s o lv e n t in w h ic h o n e o r th e c o m p o n e n ts o f th e s o lu tio n a re s o lu b le . M e m b ra n e te c h n o lo g y in v o lv e s taneous passage of a liquid from

d riv in g fo rc e s rive the econom ics of each process. W hat w e m ean by this statem ent is d b y w a y o f a n e x a m p le . In m a n y s itu a tio n s , fo r e x a m p le , d is tilla tio n is a c tiv e m e a n s fo r th e s e p a ra tio n o f c o m p o n e n ts , b u t it is a ls o tru e th a t s o lv e n t n is s o m e tim e s p ra c tic a b le w h e re o rd in a ry d is tilla tio n is u n e c o n o m ic a l o r im p o s s ib le . A c e tic a c id c a n b e re c o v e re d fro m a d ilu te s o lu tio no fa c e tic w a te r b y d is tilla tio n o r b y e x tra c tio n w ith a s o lv e n t lik e to lu e n e , in w h ic h is s o lu b le a n d th e w a te r is in s o lu b le . In c o n tra s t, c lo s e -b o ilin g p e tro le u m s , d iffe rin g c h e m ic a lly , m a y b e a lm o s t im p o s s ib le to s e p a ra te b y d is tilla tio n e a s ily s e p a ra b le b y m e a n s o f s o lv e n t e x tra c tio n .

p te r p ro v id e s a v e ry e le m e n ta ry o v e rv ie w o f th e e n g in e e rin g b a s ic s o f fo u r nt m ass separation techniques. Fundam ental concepts are stressed rather u a l e q u ip m e n t, la rg e ly b e c a u s e e q u ip m e n t a n d a p p lic a tio n s a re o fte n s p e c ific sed to off-the-shelf or standardized designs. T he techniques are based on ifferent separation techniques than those that rely on physical m eans, such tio n , s e ttlin g , c e n trifu g a tio n , a n d o th e rs . P h y s ic a l s e p a ra tio n te c h n o lo g ie s ipm ent are discussed in Chapter6 .T h e s u b je c t m a tte r tre a te d p re s e n tly is

p a rtic u la rly io n a n d e x tra c tio n , w e re e s ta b lis h e d n e a rly7 0 y e a rs a g o fo r a p p lic a tio n s in o le u m

and chem ical processing industries. The fundam ental engineering s d e v e lo p e di n th e1 9 3 0 's th ro u g h e a rly1 9 5 0 's a re s till q u ite a p p lic a b le to d e s ig n s a n d c o n tin u e d to b e u s e d .

tio n is a n o ld b u t s till w id e ly u s e d te c h n iq u e th a t is u s e d in th e s e le c tiv e l of a gaseous contam inant or product from a gas m ixture. T he constituent re m o v e d b e c a u s e o f its e c o n o m ic v a lu e , o r a s a s ta g e in th e p re p a ra tio n o f o m p o u n d , o r b e c a u s e it is a n

R e m o v a l is o fte n b y a b s o rp tio n in a liq u id in w h ic h o n ly th e g a s c o n c e rn e d is s o lu b le . It is es also

d b y c o n ta c t w ith a n in s o lu b le g a s , in w h ic h c a s e th e p ro c e s s is k n o w n a s g (the reverse of absorption). Com m on exam ples of these processes are n th e a b s o rp tio n o f s u lp h u r trio x id e in th e m a n u fa c tu re o f s u lp h u ric a c id a n d the scrubbing of plant exit gases to free them from

h y d ro g e n s u lp h id e o r d io x id e b e fo re d is c h a rg in g th e m in to th e a tm o s p h e re , a n d th e s trip p in g o f d io x id e fro m

je c tiv e o f a b s o rp tio n e q u ip m e n t is to p ro v id e in tim a te c o n ta c t b e tw e e n th e o n c e rn e d a n d g a s , th u s fa c ilita tin g th e a b s o rp tio n p ro c e s s . W h e n a la rg e o f g a s is a b s o rb e d p e r u n it v o lu m e o f liq u id , a m a rk e d ris e in te m p e ra tu re s u lt a n d d e v ic e s fo r th e re m o v a l o f th e h e a t e v o lv e d a re th e n a n im p o rta n t of the

to w e r s , th e ty p e s o f e q u ip m e n t ed here include agitated vessels, bubble-plate tow ers, cooler-absorbers and w ers.

nd is m echanically dispersed by m eans of a suitable agitator. T hey are used w h e re th e a b s o rp tio n is a c c o m p a n ie d b y a s lo w c h e m ic a l re a c tio n b e tw e e n o lv e d g a s a n d s o m e c o n s titu e n t o f th e liq u id , a n d s u ffic ie n t tim e h a s to b e fo r th is re a c tio n to p ro c e e d to th e re q u ire d e x te n t. A lte rn a tiv e ly , th e y m a y w here close control of the process is required

cannot be d w ith in in d iv id u a l v e s s e ls , a n d it is th e n a lm o s t a lw a y s n e c e s s a ry to u s e a f vessels arranged in m ultiple stages. The pressure-drop through agitated is h ig h

r d is tilla tio n . T h e y c o n s is t o f a n u m b e r o f s h a llo w p la te s o r tra y s o v e r e a c h h th e liq u id flo w s in tu rn o n its w a y d o w n th e to w e r. T h e g a s e n te rs a t th e o f th e to w e r a n d is m a d e to flo w th ro u g h a n u m b e r o f b u b b le c a p s o n e a c h hese caps m ay be of various shapes, though they usually take the form of d cups, and their edges are slotteds oth a t th e g a s e s c a p e s f r o m th e m in to th e n th e fo rm o f b u b b le s . T h e la y o u t o f a ty p ic a l p la te is illu s tra te d F ig u re4o f r4(p a g e 1 6 8 ). T h e illu s tra tio n s h o w s th e a rra n g e m e n t o f b u b b le c a p s o n a g e th e r w ith th e ris e rs th ro u g h w h ic h th e g a s e n te rs th e b u b b le c a p s a n d th e m ers w hich carry the liquid from

plate to plate. T he inlet w eir assists in tin g th e liq u id o v e r th e p la te , w h ile th e o u tle t w e ir m a in ta in s th e d e s ire d f liq u id . B u b b le -p la te to w e rs m a y b e p re fe rre d to p a c k e d to w e rs w h e n :(a ) id rate iss olo w th a t a p a c k e d to w e r c o u ld n o t b e u s e d e ffe c tiv e ly s in c e th e w o u ld n o t b e a d e q u a te ly w e tte d ; (b ) w h e n a d iffic u lt a b s o rp tio n d u ty is d , i .e . th e c o m p o s itio n o f th e g a s a t e ith e r e n d o f th e to w e r a p p ro a c h e s th a t o n d in g

liq u id tio n c a n g e n e ra lly b e to le ra te d in a p a c k e d to w e r, th e y m a ys o m u c h re d u c e ie n c y u n d e r th e s e c o n d itio n s a s to p re v e n t th e d e s ire d p e rfo rm a n c e

c h ie v e d ; (c ) th e re is a ris k th a t s o lid m a tte r m a y b e d e p o s ite d . B u b b le -p la te w h ic h c a n b e fitte d w ith m a n h o le s , a re m o re e a s ily c le a n e d th a n p a c k e d o n fig u ra tio n s ; (d ) a s lo w c h e m ic a l re a c tio n o c c u rs in th e liq u id .A s w ith v e s s e ls , th e u s e o f a b u b b le -p la te to w e r a llo w s tim e fo r th e c h e m ic a l to p ro c e e d to th e d e s ire d e x te n t.

w ith th a t fo r tow ers and is of the order of1to2 in . o f w a te r p e r p la te . F o r d iffic u lt io n

a a tio n o f p a c k in g a n d b u b b le p la te s m a y lie c o n s id e re d - In th is a rra n g e m e n t la te s a re in s ta lle d a t th e e n d o f th e to w e r w h e re th e c o m p o s itio n o f th e g a s h e s th a t c o rre s p o n d in g to e q u ilib riu m w ith th e liq u id . T h e p e rfo rm a n c e o f p la te to w e rs is e x p re s s e d in te rm s o f p la te e ffic ie n c ie s . T h e s e in d ic a te th e o w h ic h e q u ilib riu m b e tw e e n g a s a n d liq u idi sa tta in e d o n th e p la te . T h o u g h fic ie n c ie s h a v e b e e n a c h ie v e d w ith b u b b le -p la te c o lu m n s in d is tilla tio n , it is n t to re a liz e th a t p la te e ffic ie n c ie s in a b s o rp tio n o r s trip p in g m a y b e le s s

, a n im p o rta n t fu n c tio n o f th e a b s o rp tio n e q u ip m e n t is th e re m o v a l o f th e n e ra te d . T h is m a y b e a c c o m p lis h e d b y u s in g a n u m b e r o f to w e rsi ns e r i e s , id fro m e a c h to w e r b e in g c irc u la te d th ro u g h a n e x te rn a l c o o le r. T h e re a re t types of cooler-absorbers in w hich processes of this type can be carried s in g le u n it. T h e m a te ria ls o f w h ic h th e s e c o o le r-a b s o rb e rs a r e c o n s tru c te d b e o f h ig h th e rm a l c o n d u c tiv ity a n d re s is ta n t to c o rro s io n b y th e s u b s ta n c e s the process.A sa n e x a m p le , in th e m a n u fa c tu re o f h y d ro c h lo ric a c id o f th e