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Research article Cadmium dispersal on a raised heathland in the Peak District National Park adjacent to a major trunk road
Andrew Pickett*
Staffordshire University, 22 Russell Street, Newcastle-under-Lyme, Staffs, UK. * Corresponding author: Email: andypickett@live.co.uk Supervisor: Professor John Dover, Staffordshire University, 22 Russell Street, Newcastle-under-Lyme, Staffs, UK.
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Heavy metals are naturally present in soils as trace elements but deposition from vehicle wear and tear increases concentrations found adjacent to highways and has been shown to disperse further in relation to trafc volume. The heavy metal cadmium (Cd), used in the manufacture of tyres, has toxic effects on some plant species, with soil acidity being a major factor in plant Cd uptake. In this study, levels of Cd in soil and root material from Calluna vulgaris were investigated along with soil pH on wet heather moorland in the Peak District National Park. In December 2009, samples were collected from 10 transects extending up to 125 m from a trunk road that has a daily vehicle use .23 000. The peat substrate of the study site was found to be highly acidic (mean pH + S.D.: 3.44 + 0.119). Reported Cd concentrations in peat core samples (50 200 mm depth) are within the UK rural soil distribution range (0.1 1.8 mg kg21), but increase progressively up to 85 and 125 m on either side of the road probably assisted by the wind. Root samples from C. vulgaris showed a degree of Cd accumulation (mean + S.D.: 17.78 mg g21 + 9.338) compared with normal concentrations in plants from unpolluted soils (0.1 mg g21). Coupled with data from previous research, results from this study suggest that increased soil Cd concentrations could affect the competitive balance between C. vulgaris and other moorland plants such as Molinia caerulea. Advances in analytical techniques allowing a better understanding of plant responses to metal toxicity are also discussed. Key words: cadmium, trafc pollution, heathland, Calluna vulgaris, Peak District National Park.
Submitted September 2010; accepted March 2011
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Introduction
Highway run-off contains numerous potential environmental pollutants that can adversely affect fauna and ora adjacent to roads, the effects of which have been shown to extend a greater distance from increased daily vehicle use.1 3 The dispersal of vehicle emissions and particulates from wear and tear also varies from place to place being inuenced by factors such as wind direction, local climate, topography and seasonal salt applications in severe winter weather.4,5 It has been estimated that 5.4% of Sites of Special Scientic Interest (SSSIs) in England lie partly within 200 m of a major road.6 In terms of nature conservation, a better understanding of pollutant effects on vegetation assemblages could help to develop techniques for use in the management of valued semi-natural habitats.

Potential trafc-derived pollutants include polyaromatic hydrocarbons, volatile organic compounds, heavy metals and particulates such as rubber from tyres, nitrogen oxides, ammonia and nitrous acid.7 Heavy metals are normal constituents of soil horizons as trace elements for which ora have locally adapted with regard to ion uptake, increased concentrations are persistent however, remaining in an undisturbed environment for decades.8 Derived from vehicle wear and tear, some of the most frequently reported metals are zinc (Zn) and cadmium (Cd) used in tyre manufacture; copper, manganese and chromium from brake systems; also iron, aluminium and nickel from engine component wear.4,9

Cd uptake in plants
Cd is a relatively rare element in terms of crustal abundance, but it is of concern as it is highly toxic to most prokaryotic

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2011 The Author(s). This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License

(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/2.5), which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, 149 provided the original work is properly cited.

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and eukaryotic organisms, entering the food chain through animal grazing or crop harvesting on plants that have accumulated Cd via root uptake.10 Humans are more vulnerable to Cd accumulation in organs from contaminated food than grazing stock due to their longer life span.11,12 Cd solubility in water can facilitate rapid distribution in the environment and entry into the food chain via crop plants has caused serious problems to human health in China and fatalities in the mid-20th century Japan.13,14 More recent observations of Cd burden in herbivores carried out in Norway have either noted a certain relationship with environmental Cd concentrations15,16 or found a weak or absent relationship.17,18 Small amounts of Cd are taken in by higher plants directly from the atmosphere; movement into plant cells is normally gained by way of micronutrient transporters in root epidermal cells. Due to the high mobility and solubility of Cd2 ions, entry to cortical tissue via transmembrane carriers used to uptake Ca2, Fe2, Mg2, Cu2 and Zn2 occurs readily19,20 and can reach the xylem when complexed with organic acids or phytochelatins.21 Adverse effects of Cd accumulation in plants include reduction in photosynthesis, water and nutrient uptake,22 disruption of cell transport processes and inhibition of enzyme activities23,24 and affects general root and shoot growth.25 Normal Cd concentrations in plants have been published as 0.1 mg g21.11 Cd availability to plants is inuenced by a number of factors such as amount of water in the soil which increases activity of hydrated Cd2 ions, whereas elevated concentrations of Zn and Fe can compete for root uptake of divalent cations. Organic matter content of the soil is inversely related to plant Cd uptake as it is effective in keeping Cd unavailable by complexion with agents in humic substances26,27 but the most important factor in controlling uptake of heavy metals is pH.28,29 A linear relationship has been shown between soil pH decreasing and Cd uptake increasing, the more naturally acidic substrate providing a greater level of toxic effect.12

suggested that this may be as a result of transformations carried out by metal-mobilizing and acid-producing bacteria.33

Calluna vulgaris
In this study, root samples from Heather (Calluna vulgaris) were used to assess Cd uptake in the dominant higher plant species native to the area. It has been suggested that C. vulgaris is dependent on an association with the ectomycorrhizal fungi Hymenoscyphus ericae for survival on acidic and/or heavy metal-polluted soils in the UK, by reducing heavy metal uptake.34 Over recent decades though, despite this defence mechanism, C. vulgaris has been experiencing a loss of cover in favour of Purple Moor grass (Molinia caerulea) due to eutrophication,30 although it is unclear whether Cd is a factor in this process.

Aims and objectives

The main aim of this project was to ascertain the extent of Cd dispersal in soil and plant material adjacent to a major road in an ESA characterized by strong acidity, surface water and substrate with high organic matter content. The objectives were to ascertain the local peat substrate pH value, compare available soil and root sample Cd concentrations in order to evaluate the effect of local conditions on the potential toxic effect of Cd to C. vulgaris. Also, using a further understanding of the processes that inuence plant Cd uptake and drawing on recent research, a further aim was to investigate whether Cd may be a factor affecting the competitive balance between C. vulgaris and M. caerulea.
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Materials and Methods

Site description
The study area is a raised wet heathland, designated an SSSI, in the South-West Peak District with an annual precipitation of 140 cm/year and comprises ombrotrophic peat 0.5 2 m thick (Peak District35). Through this locality the A537 Buxton to Maccleseld trunk road, which has a minimum predicted daily vehicle use of 23 708 in 2011 (Highways36), cuts across a sloping heather moorland between Wildboarclough and Upper Hartington Quarter over a height difference of 545 470 m through 2 km southwest to north-east.37 The section through Wildboarclough is exposed to prevailing south-westerly winds38 over a large area of surface water named Tinkerspit Gutter, an area likely to experience hydrological mobilization of Cd, sloping down to the source of the River Goyt over a distance of 2 km. The landowner, United Utilities, granted permission to carry out sampling following consultation with the tenant, Lord Derby and Natural England.

Raised heathland in the peak district

An acidic substrate is a characteristic of the upland blanket peat moorlands which cover around 8% of land area in the UK, contributing 10 15% of the total global resource.30 The Peak District National Park, situated in north-central England, contains two environmentally sensitive areas (ESAs), characterized by extensive heather moorland and blanket bog habitats.31 Payments are made to land managers to maintain these ecologically important landscapes, containing a number of SSSIs, and listed in the EU Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC) as Special Areas of Conservation (SAC) and Special Protection Areas.32 Recent research in the southern Pennines has raised concern regarding further acidication of the environment, showing a highly acidic pH level (3.00 3.14), it was

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Sampling
C. vulgaris root and peat core sampling from transects running perpendicular to the A537 was carried out in December 2009. Using two permanent trafc signs on either side of the road as an arbitrary origin at grid reference SJ 004 716,37 a random number generator38 set at 0 1000 (maximum 1 km distance) was used to assign starting points in metres for seven transects on the north (N) and three transects on the south (S) side of the A537 as shown in Fig. 1. A greater number of samples were taken from the north side of the main road due to the direction of the decreasing gradient and prevailing wind direction. Peat core samples to a depth of 200 mm below the surface were collected using a hardened carbon/steel peat auger at four points along each transect (5, 45, 85 and 125 m) and retained in sealed sample bags (n 40) for later analysis. Root samples were collected on the north side of the A537 only, due to limited resources, from ve transects at four sample points along each transect (5, 45, 85 and 125 m) and retained in sealed sample bags (n 20) for later analysis. Sample sizes were limited in order to minimize disturbance on the ESA, however the locations were recorded so that future analyses could be compared.

soil: water suspension.10 Each of the 16 suspensions was shaken for 15 min using a Bibby Stuart Scientic SF1 Flask Shaker (300 oscillations/minute) and analysed for pH using a Mettler Toledo Seven Multi-digital pH meter calibrated with standard solutions at pH 4, 7 and 9.

Peat samples (chelation using ethylene-diaminetetraacetic acid)

Following the method published in Rowell,40 peat samples were oven dried overnight at 758C and ground to 2 mm particle size using a brass sieve, available Cd was then extracted from each sample using 0.5 M ethylene-diamine-tetraacetic acid (EDTA). 3 5 aliquots from each sample (mean + S.D.: 5.012 g + 0.0202) were then transferred to 250 ml conical asks to which 50 ml (mean + S.D.: 49.89 ml + 0.153) of 0.5 M EDTA disodium salt dehydrate ( pH 7) was added and stirred for 1 h using a Bibby Stuart Scientic SF1 Flask Shaker set at 300 oscillations/minute. Samples were then ltered using Whatman no.541 hardened, ashless lter papers; solutions were then retained for later analysis by atomic absorbance spectrophotometry.

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Sampling handling and chemical analyses

Root samples (acid digestion)

Using the procedure set out in Milner and Whiteside,41 root samples were dried at 408C for 48 h, crushed to pass through a 0.7 mm brass sieve and the resulting powder oven dried at 1058C overnight. 0.2 g of each sample was then weighed into a long-necked Kjeldhal ask to which 1.0 ml sulphuric acid (H2SO4: S.G. 1.84), 5 ml nitric acid (HNO3: S.G. 1.42) and 1 ml perchloric acid (HClO4: 72%) were added. The mixture was then heated gently until the initial reaction subsided and then boiled until white sulphuric acid fumes appeared and then for a further 15 min. The digest was then transferred to 100 ml volumetric ask, made up to 100 ml with deionized water and retained for later analysis by atomic absorbance spectrophotometry.

Area pH value
Soil samples were selected at random (n 16) from the 40 samples obtained and pH was determined using a 1:10

Available soil Cd concentration analysis

Available soil Cd concentration for each sample solution was determined using graphite furnace atomic absorbance spectrophotometry (Unicam 939 AA spectrometer, GF90 furnace, FS90 auto-sampler) with deuterium lamp background correction and ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3: 5 mg ml21) matrix modier. Each run of samples was preceded by calibration using Cd standard solutions (10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 ng ml21), results given in ng ml21 were converted to sample concentration values for root and soil of mg g21 and mg kg21, respectively.

Figure 1. Sketch map of the study area showing positions of transects adjacent to the A537. Origin point of measurements recorded at grid reference SJ 004 71637 was two permanent trafc warning signs.

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Results
Area pH
From the 16 random soil samples, the study site was found to have a highly acidic pH (mean + S.D.: 3.44 + 0.119). No signicant trend was observed in pH values recorded on either side of the road or in proximity to the road.

Soil Cd concentration
Available Cd concentrations derived from peat samples taken along transects running perpendicular to the north (downward sloping) side of the A537 are summarized in Fig. 2. Median values, when viewed with interquartile ranges (boxes), show a steady increase as the distance from the road increases from 5 m to 125 m. Within each distance group, a large variation in concentrations can be observed with notable data skewness at 5 and 85 m. Results from analysis of samples taken along transects on the south side of the A537 shown in Fig. 3 illustrate a greater increase in available Cd concentrations than on the north side from 5 m to 85 m with a marked decrease at 125 m. Interquartile and total ranges within each distance group describe a large variation of values and a signicant degree of data skewness. Overall range across all distance groups 0.121.20 mg kg21, overall mean + S.D. 0.54 mg kg21 + 0.222.

Figure 3. Soil available Cd concentrations (mg kg21) from samples (n 35) taken along transects perpendicular to the south side of the A537. Boxplots show median, rst and third quartiles along with minimum and maximum values.

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Root Cd concentrations
Median, quartiles and range values for Cd concentration derived from collected C. vulgaris root samples, at distances from the A537, are summarized in Fig. 4. A considerable variation in root Cd concentration was recorded within each distance group, particularly at 45 m from the road where the Cd burden range 10.85 42.03 mg g21.

Figure 4. Root Cd burden in C. vulgaris (mg g21) from samples (n 20) taken at distances along transects perpendicular to the north side of the A537. Boxplots show median, rst and third quartiles along with minimum and maximum values.

Overall root mean 17.78 mgg21 + 9.338.

Cd

concentration + S.D.:

Soil/root Cd association
The strength of association between soil and root sample Cd concentrations was not signicant (rs 20.800 (20); P 0.2), results in this study showing a negative relationship.

Discussion
Figure 2. Soil available Cd concentrations (mg kg21) from samples (n 84) taken along transects perpendicular to the north side of the A537. Boxplots show median, rst and third quartiles along with minimum and maximum values.

The highly acidic condition of the study site reported in this paper (mean + S.D.) 3.44 + 0.119 compares well with previous research in the southern Pennines carried out by Linton et al.33 who reported a pH range of 3.003.14 over

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six sites. This has strong implications for the ora in the area as pH has been shown to be one of the most important factors,11 if not the most important factor,29 in determining the bioavailability of Cd in soils to plants. Studies by Kou et al., Sappin-Didier et al., and Tsalidas et al.42 44 each observed an increase in plant Cd uptake with a corresponding decrease in pH, although two studies in Canada point out the importance of the substrate organic content. Sauve et al.45 observed that organic matter had a high sorption afnity for Cd, which was as much as 30 times higher than mineral soil, another study carried out in Canada showed that organic matter was the primary sorbent for heavy metals.46 In this study, available Cd in soil concentrations reported (overall range: 0.121.20 mg kg21) are within the UK rural soil distribution range (0.1 1.8 mg kg21) published in the UK Soil and Herbage Pollutant Survey, although the overall mean Cd concentration found in this study (0.499 mg kg21) was higher than the mean UK rural and urban soil concentrations (0.39 and 0.49 mg kg21, respectively).47 It should be noted that gures published by this survey show extracts reuxed with Aqua Regia,48 which would normally be considerably higher than those found using the EDTA method employed in this study. Overall, available Cd concentrations were observed to be higher between 85 and 125 m, with the trend implying that additional sampling over 125 m on the north side of the road may have shown a further increase. These data support previous research on the consequences of trafc pollutant dispersal carried out by Angold49 who examined plant species composition adjacent to the A31 in Hampshire (12 h trafc ow 35 000) observing a maximum edge effect of 200 m from the dual carriageway. Results from this study are also substantiated by7 in their analysis of vegetation health adjacent to the M62 in northern England (mean motor vehicle ow 74 000 per day) and the M40 (mean motor vehicle ow 94 000 per day), concluding that background levels of motor vehicle pollutants were likely to be reached within 50 100 m of the road (Table 1). Available Cd concentrations in the peat substrate on the north side of the A537 showed a steady increase over the sampling distance from 5 to 125 m, which would follow the descending slope away from the road combined with the surface water characteristic of this particular area. Whilst variability of concentrations within distance groups was high, overall increases were observed to follow the downward gradient that has few erosion runnels or hillocks to prevent ground-level wind. It is possible in this case that the prevailing highly acidic conditions in the soil at the study site reduce the Cd binding effect of humic substances within the substrate thereby increasing the solubility of Cd2 ions that are leached from the roadside area, being carried over 125 m by the surface hydrology. The trend of Cd transport on the south side of the road showed a larger increase from 5 to 85 m than on the north side with a decrease being observed

Table 1. Soil (mg kg21) and root (mg g21) Cd concentrations with regard to distance
Distance from A537 (m)
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45

85

125

Soil Cd concentration North A1 A2 A3 B1 B2 B3 C1 C2 C3 D1 D2 D3 E1 E2 E3 F1 F2 F3 G1 G2 G3 South A1 A2 A3 B1 B2 B3 C1 C2 C3 0.69 0.61 0.29 0.3 0.27 # 0.16 0.15 0.16 0.35 0.23 0.21 0.89 0.85 0.67 0.76 0.54 0.8 0.96 0.82 0.88 0.39 0.49 0.53 1.2 1 0.68 0.7 0.72 0.63 0.77 0.71 0.68 0.56 0.39 0.59 0.12 0.36 0.2 0.12 0.54 0.14 0.42 0.52 0.39 0.54 0.63 0.56 0.5 0.44 0.45 0.24 0.26 0.25 0.59 0.69 0.68 0.53 0.4 0.39 0.7 0.63 0.55 0.48 0.42 0.4 0.39 0.39 0.44 0.31 0.34 0.47 0.48 0.36 0.35 0.43 0.43 0.2 0.68 0.74 0.73 0.73 0.82 0.86 1.01 1.01 0.69 0.44 0.55 0.5 0.52 0.44 0.55 0.41 0.3 0.32 0.4 0.43 0.63 0.77 0.76 0.83 0.28 0.3 0.28 0.85 0.87 0.6 0.61 0.57 0.91
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0.8 0.63 0.58 0.52 0.54 0.46 0.63 0.72 0.77

Root Cd concentration Sample NA NB NC ND NE 5m 25.15 12.98 14.34 23.38 19.54 45 m 42.03 10.88 13.74 32.21 7.97 85 m 9.2 15.63 27.86 10.09 18.69 125 m 16.48 9.55 14.98 5.87 26.42

at the 125 m sampling point. The gradient on this side of the road is a gradual incline which somewhat contradicts the explanation of Cd2 ions being transported by surface waters. These data presented in this paper support an

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explanation that pollutants from vehicles are dispersed by wind to a greater degree than by surface water, the elevated and open perspective of the landscape being subject to seasonal strong winds from a north-easterly and south-westerly direction.38 In their study assessing the effects of two motorways in Germany (64 000 and 103, 300 vehicles per day)50 also suggested an impact of wind, observing an edge effect extending up to 230 m downwind and 80 m upwind of the roads, with particulates decreasing in concentration over a shorter distance than gaseous constituents. The total biomass of C. vulgaris root material analysed was 4.0 g in total due to the sample size (n 20) and the mass of individual root samples digested (0.2 g), the results therefore give an indication of plant uptake rather than hard evidence of potential toxic effect from Cd. Cd concentrations extracted from root samples of C. vulgaris root showed a high degree of variation within each distance group, particularly at 45 m, the trend of Cd burden dropping off between 45 and 85 m. Across all four distance groups, a degree of Cd accumulation in the root biomass was observed that is higher than the normal concentration in plants from unpolluted soils (0.1 mg g21)11 but lower than concentrations derived from metal hyperaccumulator plants (!100 mg g21).11 Comparison of Cd concentration in soil and root material from each sample point implied a negative correlation, although more data would be required to draw any serious conclusions from this. Along with many other factors, this could mean that the organic matter content of the peat substrate is binding with Cd making it less available for plant uptake further from the road. It has been accepted for a number of years that metal nonhyperaccumulator plants show a progressive build up of heavy metals in root systems, whereas hyperaccumulators are able to transport absorbed toxic metals to the aboveground biomass,51 therefore a comparison of root, shoot and leaf Cd concentrations in C. vulgaris would be useful in assessing the plants ability to thrive in metal-contaminated soils. In their study in Norway, Brekken and Steinnes10 analysed Cd concentration in leaves, shoots and twigs from C. vulgaris, observing minimal transfer of background soil Cd levels (13 mg kg21) to the above-ground biomass of the plant (twigs 0.1 mg g21; leaves/shoots 0.05 mg g21) which, when coupled with data from this research showing a degree of accumulation in C. vulgaris root, suggests that it is a metal non-accumulator. In the same study, a seasonal trend in metal uptake was observed that also has importance with the ndings of this study in that the highest concentrations of Cd were reported from samples collected in summer with a 51% decrease being observed in autumn samples, therefore concentrations derived for this research (from samples collected in winter) would be expected to be the lowest of annual Cd burden in C. vulgaris. The success of C. vulgaris and other ericaceous species such as Vaccinium as colonists of acidic and heavy metal

contaminated soils has been ascribed largely to a heavy infection by mycorrhizal fungi, often observed in the roots of these species that reduces heavy metal uptake.52,10 Despite this defence mechanism, C. vulgaris has been observed to exhibit a darker colour in new growth near to a road and a general decrease in abundance,49 whereas grass species such as M. caerulea and Deschampsia exuosa appear to be more tolerant in polluted soils and are abundant in many parts of the Peak District. In D. exuosa, a very low uptake of Cd has been observed at varying levels of metal contamination and Cd concentrations have been reported for M. caerulea shoots that are 10-fold higher than C. vulgaris analysed in the same research.10,53 The spread of M. caerulea at the expense of moorland heather due to eutrophication from deposition of pollutants derived from anthropomorphic activities has been reported in a number of northern European countries over the last three decades.54 56,30 An established complete canopy of C. vulgaris can compete successfully with M. caerulea even with an increased availability of nutrients in the medium term57 yet dispersal of trafc-borne eutrophication and pollution increases the competitive ability of M. caerulea, particularly near to the roadside.58,49 The combination of biotic factors inuencing the success of in situ plant populations are numerous and dynamic but a better understanding of individual stress tolerances within species may help in developing techniques for conservation strategies. The response of plants to increasing concentrations of heavy metals can now be more fully understood through analysis of gene expression of the metal transporter gene HMA4, which is essential for root to shoot transport and a key determinant of the metal hyperaccumulation phenotype.25 A comparison of the level of expression in the owering plants Arabidopsis halleri (a metal hyperaccumulator) and A. thaliana (a metal non-tolerant) displayed a higher level of expression of the HMA4 transporter gene in the hyperaccumulator. The signicant role of this gene expression in metal transport has been further demonstrated by a single gene transfer of HMA4 into the non-accumulator A. thaliana, increasing its shoot metal uploading.59 A number of other mechanisms and processes have been reported within plants that enhance metal tolerance and accumulation such as chelation of metal ions and subsequent compartmentalization in vacuoles, increased enzyme activity and expression of the AtPCS1 gene.60 62 Research into plant metal tolerance mechanisms over the last decade has mainly focused on cash crops,11 biotechnology could also aid conservation efforts by allowing greater knowledge of environmental processes. Metal tolerance may well be one of the many factors affecting dominance between Heather and Purple Moor grass and indeed between other plant species. In Germany, the moss Hylocomium splendens has been observed to contain Cd levels three times higher than the background level of ,0.1 mg g2163 which could aid this species with regard to competitive ability with other

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bryophytes. In a delicately balanced ecosystem such as the raised wet heathland surveyed in this study, further knowledge of responses to metal pollution exhibited by characteristic species (ericaceous shrubs, graminoids and bryophytes) could be very useful to land managers when assessing the best way to conserve moorland oral assemblage. It is considered that phytoremediation, the use of hyperaccumulator plants to transfer metals to plant tissue which is then harvested, would not be sustainable or practical for landscape scale remediation.11 The most promising research examines the potential of tying Cd up in the soil, making it less available for plant uptake. Pierzynski and Hettiarachchi64 have listed several forms of phosphorus that could achieve this. Technological advances in analysis and microscopic techniques are generating new knowledge that professionals involved in conservation could manipulate to achieve their aims.

Author biography
A.P. is 45 years old and gained direct entry into year 2 of a BSc (Hons) Biology degree course at Staffordshire University in 2008 having carried out his rst year in Biological Sciences at Wolverhampton University in 2000/01. His main interests are conservation of biodiversity and semi-natural landscapes along with the chemistry of life processes. A.P. believes these interests are shown through in the project, which he enjoyed carrying out immensely, the results allowing a good discussion and the opportunity to compare with previously published articles. Following graduation A.P. has now begun a P.G.C.E. course at Manchester Metropolitan University in order to pursue a career teaching science in secondary schools.

References Conclusion
Cd disperses over great distances (over 125 m) from the A537 mainly assisted by wind but is also subject to hydrological leaching through surface waters because of its solubility. Acidic environments increase the availability of Cd to plants due to a reduction of binding effect from humic substances in the high organic content of the peat soils, metalmobilizing bacteria beneting from vehicle discharge may compound the problem of lowering pH. Each plant species differs greatly in response to raised levels of metals, particularly Cd, which has numerous adverse effects on nontolerant plant species. In the last decade, levels of Cd found in plant material have raised concern especially in food crops with a great deal of future research examining phytoremediation to address this problem. In terms of conservation however, a better understanding of inuences on plant population success using advances in technology is a non-invasive strategy to provide long-term sustainable solutions in maintaining valuable habitat characteristics.
1. Faus-Keller T, Kirchner M, Jakobi G (2008) Modelling the decay of nitrogenous compounds with distance from roads. Atmos Environ 42: 4589 4600. 2. Pliejal H, Karlsson GP, Gerdin EB (2004) On the logarithmic relationship between NO2 concentration and the distance from the high road. Sci Total Environ 332: 261 264. 3. Trombulak SC, Frissell CA (2001) Review of ecological effects of roads on terrestrial and aquatic communities. Conserv Biol 14: 18 30. 4. Bruen M, Johnston P, Quinn MK et al. (2006) Impact assessment of highway drainage on surface water quality. Irish Environmental Protection Agency. Main Report 2000-MS-13-M2. 5. Marsalek J, Rochfort B, Brownlee B, Mayer T, Servos M (1999) An exploratory study of urban run-off toxicity. Water Sci Technol 39: 33 39. 6. Wiegert K (2004) National RISK Assessment and Evaluation of the Number of Types of Sites of Scientic Special Interest (SSSIs) at Risk from Trafc Pollution. MSc. Thesis. University of Bradford. 7. Bignal K, Ashmore MR, Headley AD, Stewart K, Weigert K (2007) Ecological impacts of air pollution from road transport on vegetation. Appl Geochem 22: 1265 1271. 8. Sansalone J, Buchberger S (1995) An inltration device as a best management practice for immobilising heavy metals in urban highway run-off. Water Sci Technol 32: 119 125. 9. Legret M, Pagotto C (1999) Evaluation of pollutant loadings in the run-off waters from a major rural highway. Sci Total Environ 235: 143 150. 10. Brekken A, Steinnes E (2004) Seasonal concentrations of cadmium and zinc in native pasturelands: consequences for grazing animals. Sci Total Environ 326: 181 195. 11. Kirkham MB (2006) Cadmium in plants on polluted soils: effects of soil factors, hyperaccumulation and amendments. Geoderma 137: 19 32. 12. Tudoreanu I, Phillips CJC (2004) Modelling cadmium uptake and accumulation in plants. Adv Agron 84: 121 157. 13. Li Z, Li L, Pan G, Chen J (2005) Bioavailability of Cd in a soil-rice system in China: soil type versus genotypic effects. Plant Soil 271: 165 173. 14. Yeung AT, Hsu C-N (2005) Electrokinetic remediation of cadmium contaminated clay. J Environ Eng 131: 298 304. 15. Kalas JA, Framstad E (1993) Monitoring Program for Terrestrial Ecosystems. Trondheim: Norwegian Institute for Nature Research. NINA 221: 38. 16. Kalas JA, Oyan HS (1997) Monitoring Program for Terrestrial Ecosystems. Trondheim: Norwegian Institute for Nature Research. NINA 491: 22. 17. Ellefsen T (1997) Report 2. Oslo: Norwegian Food Control Authority, p. 31.
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Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank the landowners, United Utilities, the tennant Lord Derby and Natural England for permission to carry out sampling and analysis of Wildboarclough terrain. I would also like to thank Peter Martin (Senior Technician) for his assistance with the laboratory analysis of plant and soil samples along with the team of technicians at Staffordshire University for their support in my endeavours. The author is also grateful to Prof. John Dover (Project Supervisor) and Dr. Paul Mitchell (Personal Tutor) for their guidance in undertaking this study.

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