Giáo Trình Toán R I R C - Vũ Kim Thành

Trng i hc Nng nghip H Ni Gio trnh Gio trnh Ton Ri rc...
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B GIO DC V O TO
TRNG I HC NNG NGHIP H NI

V KIM THNH

TON RI RC
(Gio trnh dnh cho sinh vin ngnh cng ngh thng tin)

H ni 2008
Trng i hc Nng nghip H Ni Gio trnh Gio trnh Ton Ri rc...1

MC LC

Li ni u
5
Chng 1. THUT TON
1. nh ngha
2. M t thut ton bng lu
3. M t thut ton bng ngn ng phng Pascal
4. phc tp ca thut ton
5. Thut ton tm kim
6. Thut ton quy
7. Mt s thut ton v s nguyn
BI TP CHNG 1
7
7
8
9
14
18
19
23
28
Chng 2. BI TON M
1. Nguyn l cng v nguyn l nhn
2. Chnh hp. Hon v. T hp.
3. Nguyn l b tr
4. Gii cc h thc truy hi
5. Bi ton lit k.
6. Bi ton tn ti
BI TP CHNG 2
32
32
35
42
44
51
61
64
Chng 3. CC KHI NIM C BN V TH
1. Cc nh ngha v th v biu din hnh hc ca th
2. Biu din th bng i s
3. S ng cu ca cc th
4. Tnh lin thng trong th
5. S n nh trong, s n nh ngoi v nhn ca th
6. Sc s ca th
BI TP CHNG 3
69
69
79
82
84
88
91
93
Chng 4. TH EULER, TH HAMILTON, TH PHNG
1. th Euler
2. th Hamilton
3. thi phng
BI TP CHNG 4
98
98
103
108
113
Chng 5. CY V MT S NG DNG CA CY
1. Cy v cc tnh cht c bn ca cy
2. Cy nh phn v php duyt cy
3. Mt vi ng dng ca cy
117
118
122
126

4. Cy khung (cy bao trm) ca th
5. H chu trnh c lp
6. Cy khung nh nht
BI TP CHNG 5
131
134
136
142
Chng 6. MT S BI TON TI U TRN TH
1. Bi ton ng i ngn nht trong th
2. Tm, Bn knh, ng knh ca th
3. Mng v Lung
4. Bi ton du lch
BI TP CHNG 6
147
147
152
153
160
166
Chng 7. I S BOOLE
1. Hm Boole
2. Biu thc Boole
3. nh ngha i s Boole theo tin
4. Biu din cc hm Boole
5. Cc cng logic
6 Ti thiu ho hm Boole
BI TP CHNG 7
172
172
174
176
177
183
185
193
Ph chng. I CNG V TON LOGIC
1. Lgic mnh
2. Cng thc ng nht ng v cng thc ng nht bng nhau trong
lgic mnh
3. iu kin ng nht ng trong lgic mnh
4. Lgic v t
BI TP PH CHNG
197
197

201
205
208
213
Mt s bi tp lm trn my tnh
Mt s thut ng dng trong gio trnh
Ti liu tham kho
216
218
221


LI NI U
Ton Ri rc (Discrete mathematics) l mn ton hc nghin cu cc i tng ri
rc. N c ng dng trong nhiu ngnh khoa hc khc nhau, c bit l trong tin hc
bi qu trnh x l thng tin trn my tnh thc cht l mt qu trnh ri rc.
Phm vi nghin cu ca Ton Ri rc rt rng, c th chia thnh cc mn hc khc
nhau. Theo quy nh ca chng trnh mn hc, gio trnh ny cp n cc lnh vc:
Thut ton v bi ton m; L thuyt th; i s Logic v c chia thnh 8
chng:
- Chng 1 cp n mt trong cc vn c bn nht ca Thut ton l
phc tp v thi gian ca thut ton.
- Chng 2 ni v cc nguyn l c bn ca Bi ton m.
- Cc chng 3, 4, 5 v 6 trnh by v L thuyt th v cc ng dng. y l phn
chim t trng nhiu nht ca gio trnh. Trong c cc chng v cc khi nim c
bn ca th, cc th c bit nh th Euler, th Hamilton, th phng, Cy
cng cc ng dng ca cc thi c bit ny. Ring chng 6 dnh cho mt vn
trng l mt s bi ton ti u trn th hoc bi ton ti u c gii bng cch ng
dng l thuyt th.
- Chng 7 l cc kin thc c bn v i s Boole, mt cng c hu hiu trong
vic thit k cc mch in, in t.
Cui gio trnh l ph chng: Nhng khi nim c bn v ton Logic ngi
hc c th t nghin cu thm v Ton Logic.
Trong mi chng chng ti c gng trnh by cc kin thc c bn nht ca
chng cng cc th d minh ha c th. V khun kh s tit hc nn chng ti
lc b mt s chng minh phc tp. Cui mi chng u c cc bi tp ngi hc
ng dng, kim chng cc l thuyt hc, ng thi cng cung cp mt s p s ca
cc bi tp cho.
Cng cn ni thm rng ton Ri rc khng ch c ng dng trong tin hc m
cn c ng dng trong nhiu ngnh khoa hc khc. Bi vy gio trnh cng c ch
cho nhng ai cn quan tm n cc ng dng khc ca mn hc ny.
Tc gi xin chn thnh cm n cc bn ng nghip ng vin v gp cho
vic bin son gio trnh ny. c bit chng ti xin cm n Nh gio u t Nguyn
nh Hin hiu nh v cho nhiu kin ng gp b ch v thit thc.
V trnh c hn v gio trnh c bin son ln u nn khng trnh khi cc
thiu st. Tc gi rt mong nhn c cc kin ng gp ca cc ng nghip v bn
c v cc khim khuyt ca cun sch.
TC GI

CHNG1.
THUT TON

1. nh ngha.
2. M t thut ton bng lu .
3. M t thut ton bng ngn ng phng Pascal.
3.1. Cu lnh Procedure (th tc) hoc Function (hm).
3.2. Cu lnh gn.
3.3. Khi cu lnh tun t.
3.4. Cu lnh diu kin.
3.5. Cc cu lnh lp.
4. phc tp ca thut ton.
4.1. Khi nim tng ca hm.
4.2. tng ca t hp cc hm.
4.3. phc tp ca thut ton.
5. Thut ton tm kim
5.1. Thut ton tm kim tuyn tnh (cn gi l thut ton tm kim tun t).
5.2. Thut ton tm kim nh phn.
6. Thut ton quy.
6.1. Cng thc truy hi.
6.2. Thut ton quy.
6.3. quy v lp
7. Mt s thut ton v s nguyn.
7.1. Biu din cc s nguyn.
7.2. Cng v nhn trong h nh phn.
1. nh ngha
Thut ton (algorithm) l mt dy cc quy tc nhm xc nh mt dy cc thao tc
trn cc i tng sao cho sau mt s hu hn bc thc hin s t c mc tiu
t ra.

T nh ngha ca thut ton cho thy cc c trng (tnh cht) c bn ca thut ton
l:
a. Yu t vo, ra:
u vo (Input): Mi thut ton c mt gi tr hoc mt b gi tr u vo
t mt tp xc nh c ch r.
u ra (Output): T cc gi tr u vo, thut ton cho ra cc gi tr cn
tm gi l kt qu ca bi ton.

b. Tnh dng:
Sau mt s hu hn bc thao tc thut ton phi kt thc v cho kt qu .
c. Tnh xc nh:
Cc thao tc phi r rng, cho cng mt kt qu d c x l trn cc b x l khc
nhau (hai b x l trong cng mt iu kin khng th cho hai kt qu khc nhau).
d. Tnh hiu qu
Sau khi a d liu vo cho thut ton hot ng phi a ra kt qu nh mun.
e. Tnh tng qut
Thut ton phi c p dng cho mi bi ton cng dng ch khng phi ch cho
mt tp c bit cc gi tr u vo.
C nhiu cch m t thut ton nh: Dng ngn ng t nhin; dng lu (s
khi); dng mt ngn ng lp trnh no (trong gio trnh ny dng loi ngn ng m t
gn nh ngn ng lp trnh Pascal v gi l phng Pascal);
2. M t thut ton bng lu
Sau khi c thut ton gii bi ton, trc khi chuyn sang ngn ng lp trnh, ngi
ta thng phi th hin thut ton di dng s . S gi l lu ca thut ton.
Cc k hiu quy c dng trong lu c trnh by trong bng 1.
Bng 1. Cc k hiu quy c dung trong lu thut ton
Tn k hiu K hiu Vai tr ca k hiu
Khi m u
hoc kt thc
Dng m u hoc kt thc
thut ton
Khi vo ra

a d liu vo v in kt qu
Khi tnh ton

Biu din cc cng thc tnh ton
v thay i gi tr cc i tng
Khi iu kin

Kim tra cc iu kin phn nhnh

Chng trnh con

Gi cc chng trnh con
Hng i ca
thut ton
Hng chuyn thng tin, lin h
gia cc khi
Th d: Thut ton gii phng trnh bc hai ax
2
+ bx + c = 0 gm cc bc sau:
1) Xc nh cc h s a, b, c (thng tin u vo)
2) Kim tra h s a:
- Nu a = 0: Phng trnh cho l phng trnh bc nht, nghim l:
b
c
x = .
- Nu a 0: Chuyn sang bc 3.

3) Tnh bit thc = b
2
4ac.
4) Kim tra du ca bit thc
- Nu 0: Phng trnh c nghim thc
- Nu < 0: Phng trnh c nghim phc
5) In kt qu
Lu ca thut ton c trnh by trong hnh 1

3. M t thut ton bng ngn ng phng Pascal
gii bi ton trn my tnh in t phi vit chng trnh theo mt ngn ng lp
trnh no (Pascal, C, Basic, ...). Mi ngn ng lp trnh c mt quy tc cu trc ring.
thay vic m t thut ton bng li, c th m t thut ton bng cc cu trc lnh
tng t nh ngn ng lp trnh Pascal v gi l ngn ng phng Pascal.
Cc cu lnh chnh dng m t thut ton gm c: Procedure hoc Function; cu
lnh gn; cc cu lnh iu kin; cc vng lp. Ngoi ra khi cn gii thch cc cu lnh
bng li, c th cc li gii thch trong du (* ... *) hoc {}.
Ngha l ngn ng phng Pascal hon ton tng t ngn ng lp trnh Pascal, nhng
khng c phn khai bo. Tuy nhin, phi nu r u vo (Input) v u ra (output) ca
thut ton.
Bt u

Nhp a, b, c

Sai a = 0 ng

= b
2
= 4ac
b
c
x =

Sai 0 ng

Phn thc =
a 2
b

2a
b
x
1
+
=
Phn o =
2a

2a
b
x
2
+
=

Thng bo kt qu

Kt thc

Hnh 1. Lu gii phng trnh bc hai


3.1. Cu lnh Procedure (th tc) hoc Function (hm)
ng ngay sau cu lnh ny l tn ca th tc hoc tn hm. Cc bc thc hin ca
thut ton c m t trong th tc (hm) c bt u bi t kha begin v kt thc bi
t kha end.
Th d 1
Function Max(a, b, c) (* Hm tm s ln nht trong 3 s a, b, c *)
Begin
(* thn hm*)
End;
Th d 2
Procedure Giai_phuong_trnh_bac_hai (* Th tc gii phng trnh bc hai *)
Begin
(* thn th tc *)
End;
Ch rng, khi m t thut ton bng function, trc khi kt thc (end) thut ton
phi tr v (ghi nhn) gi tr ca function .
3.2. Cu lnh gn
Dng gn gi tr cho cc bin. Cch vit:
Tn bin := gi tr gn
Th d: x := a; (*bin x c gn gi tr a*)
max := b; (*bin max c gn gi tr b*)
3.3. Khi cu lnh tun t
c m u bng t kha begin v kt thc bng end nh sau:
begin
Cu lnh 1;
Cu lnh 2;
... .....
Cu lnh n;
end;
Cc lnh c thc hin tun t t cu lnh th nht n cu lnh cui cng.
3.4. Cu lnh iu kin
C hai dng: dng n gin v dng la chn.
a. Dng n gin: Cch vit:
if <iu kin> then cu lnh hoc khi cu lnh;
Khi thc hin, iu kin c kim tra, nu iu kin tha mn th cu lnh (khi cu
lnh) c thc hin, nu iu kin khng tha mn th lnh b b qua.

b. Dng la chn: Cch vit:
if <iu kin> then cu lnh hoc khi cu lnh 1 else cu lnh hoc khi cu lnh 2;
Khi thc hin, iu kin c kim tra, nu iu kin tha mn th cu lnh (khi cu
lnh) 1 c thc hin, nu iu kin khng c tha mn th cu lnh (khi cu lnh) 2
c thc hin.
Th d 1. Thut ton tm s ln nht trong 3 s thc a, b, c.
- u tin cho max = a;
- So snh max vi b, nu b > max th max = b;
- So snh max vi c, nu c > max th max = c.
Function max(a,b,c)
Input: 3 s thc a,b,c;
Output: S ln nht trong 3 s nhp;
Begin
x := a;
if b > x then x:= b;
if c > x then x:= c;
max := x;
End;
Th d 2. Thut ton gii phng trnh bc hai ax
2
+ bx + c = 0
Procedure Giai_phuong_trinh_bac2;
Input: Cc h s a, b, c;
Output: Nghim ca phng trnh;
begin
if a = 0 then x := -c/b;
if a 0 then
begin
:= b
2
4ac;
if 0 then
begin
x
1
= ( b )/2a ;
x
2
= ( b + )/2a;
end
else
begin
Phn thc := -b/2a;
Phn o := ( )/2a;
end;
end;
end;

3.5. Cc cu lnh lp
C hai loi: Loi c bc lp xc nh v loi c bc lp khng xc nh.
a. Loi c bc lp xc nh: Cch vit nh sau:
for bin iu khin := gi tr u to gi tr cui do cu lnh hoc khi cu lnh;
Khi thc hin, bin iu khin c kim tra, nu bin iu khin nh hn hoc bng
gi tr cui th cu lnh (khi cu lnh) c thc hin. Tip bin iu khin s tng
thm 1 n v v qu trnh c lp li cho n khi bin iu khin ln hn gi tr cui th
vng lp dng v cho kt qu. Nh vy ht vng lp for s bc lp l gi tr cui (ca
bin iu khin) tr gi tr u cng mt.
Th d: Tm gi tr ln nht ca dy s a
1
, a
2
, ,a
n
.
Thut ton: u tin cho gi tr ln nht (max) bng a
1
, sau ln lt so snh max
vi cc s a
i
(i = 2, 3, , n), nu max < a
i
th max bng a
i
, nu max > a
i
th max khng i.
Function max_day_so;
Input: Dy s a
1
, a
2
, ,a
n
;
Output: Gi tr ln nht (max) ca dy s nhp;
begin
max := a
1
;
for i:= 2 to n do
if a
i
> max then max := a
i
;
max_day_so := max;
end;
Ch thch: Vng lp for cn cch vit li bin iu khin nh sau:
for bin iu khin := gi tr cui downto gi tr u do cu lnh hoc khi cu lnh;
Vic thc hin cu lnh ny tng t nh khi vit bin iu khin tng dn.
b. Loi c bc lp khng xc nh: C hai cch vit
Cch th nht: while iu kin do cu lnh hoc khi cu lnh;
Khi thc hin, iu kin c kim tra, nu iu kin c tho mn th cu lnh
(khi cu lnh) c thc hin. Nu iu kin khng tho mn th vng lp dng v cho
kt qu.
Th d: Kim tra xem s nguyn dng m cho c phi l s nguyn t khng?
Thut ton nh sau: S m l s nguyn t nu n khng chia ht cho bt c s nguyn
dng khc 1 no nh hn hoc bng m.
Tht vy, nu m l mt hp s (khng phi l s nguyn t), ngha l tn ti cc s
nguyn dng a, b sao cho:
m = a.b a m hoc b m
Vy, nu m l s nguyn t th m khng chia ht cho mi s nguyn dng i, 2 i m

Procedure nguyento(m);
Input: S nguyn dng m;
Output: True, nu m l s nguyn t; False, nu m khng phi l s nguyn t;
begin
i := 2;
while i m do
begin
if m mod i = 0 then nguyento := false
else nguyento := true;
i := i+1;
end;
end;
Cch th hai: repeat cu lnh hoc khi cu lnh until iu kin;
Khi thc hin, cu lnh (khi cu lnh) c thc hin, sau iu kin c kim
tra, nu iu kin sai th vng lp c thc hin, nu iu kin ng th vng lp dng v
cho kt qu.
Th d: Thut ton -clit tm c s chung ln nht ca hai s nguyn dng a, b
nh sau: Gi s a > b v a chia cho b c thng l q v s d l r, trong a, b, q, r l
cc s nguyn dng:
a = bq + r
suy ra: CLN(a, b) = CLN(b, r)
v s d cui cng khc khng l c s chung ln nht ca a v b.
Tht vy: Gi s d l c s chung ca hai s nguyn dng a v b, khi : r = a
bq chia ht cho d. Vy d l c chung ca b v r.
Ngc li, nu d l c s chung ca b v r, khi do bq + r = a cng chia ht cho d.
Vy d l c s chung ca a v b.
Chng hn, mun tm c s chung ln nht ca 111 v 201 ta lm nh sau:
201 = 1. 111 + 90
111 = 1. 90 + 21
90 = 4. 21 + 6
21 = 3. 6 + 3
6 = 2. 3
Vy CLN(111, 201) = 3 (3 l s d cui cng khc 0).
Function UCLN(a, b)
Input: a, b l 2 s nguyn dng;
Output: UCLN(a, b);
begin

x := a;
y : = b;
repeat
begin
r := x mod y; (* r l phn d khi chia x cho y *)
x : = y; y := r ;
if y 0 then uc := y;
end;
until y = 0;
UCLN := uc;
end ;
Ch : Khi gii cc bi ton phc tp th thng phi phn chia bi ton thnh
cc bi ton nh hn gi l cc bi ton con. Khi phi xy dng cc th tc hoc hm
gii cc bi ton con , sau tp hp cc bi ton con ny gii bi ton ban u
t ra. Thut ng tin hc gi cc chng trnh gii bi ton con l cc chng trnh con.
Th d: Tm s nguyn t nh nht ln hn s nguyn dng m cho.
Procedure So_nguyen_to_lon_hon(m);
Input: S nguyn dng m;
Output: n l s nguyn t nh nht ln hn m;
begin
n := m + 1;
while nguyento(n) = false do n := n + 1;
end;
4. phc tp ca thut ton
C hai l do lm cho mt thut ton ng c th khng thc hin c trn my tnh.
l do my tnh khng b nh thc hin hoc thi gian tnh ton qu di. Tng
ng vi hai l do trn ngi ta a ra hai khi nim:
- phc tp khng gian ca thut ton, phc tp ny gn lin vi cc cu trc
d liu c s dng. Vn ny khng thuc phm vi ca mn hc ny.
- phc tp thi gian ca thut ton, phc tp ny c th hin qua s lng
cc cu lnh v cc php gn, cc php tnh s hc, php so snh, c s dng trong
thut ton khi cc gi tr u vo c kch thc cho.
4.1. Khi nim tng ca hm
Trc ht xt th d: Gi s thi gian tnh ton ca mt thut ton ph thuc vo kch
thc n ca u vo theo cng thc:
t(n) = 60n
2
+ 9n + 9


Bng sau cho thy khi n ln, t(n) xp x s hng 60n
2
:
n t(n) = 60n
2
+ 9n + 9 60n
2
10
100
1 000
10 000
9099
600 909
60 009 009
6 000 090 009
6000
600 000
60 000 000
6 000 000 000
nh ngha: Cho f(x) v g(x) l hai hm t tp s nguyn hoc tp s thc vo tp
cc s thc. Ngi ta ni f(x) l O(g(x)) hay f(x) c quan h big-O vi g(x), k hiu f(x) =
O(g(x)), nu tn ti hai hng s C v k sao cho:
| f(x) | C. | g(x) |, x k.
Th d 1. t(n) = 60n
2
+ 9n + 9 = O(n
2
)
Tht vy: n 1, ta c: | 60n
2
+ 9n +9| = 60n
2
+ 9n +9
=
|
\
|
+ +
2
2
n
9
n
9
60 n
n
2
(60 + 9 + 9) = 78n
2
.
Vy C = 78; k = 1.
Tng t ta c th chng minh:
P
n
(x) = a
0
x
n
+ a
1
x
n-1
+ ... + a
n
= O(x
n
) , x R.
Th d 2. f(n) = 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n < n + n + n + ... + n = n.n = n
2
.
Vy f(n) = O(n
2
).
Th d 3. Ta c: n! < n
n
, suy ra: n! = O(n
n
); (C = k = 1)
Th d 4. n: n! < n
n
, lg(n!) < n lgn ,
suy ra lg(n!) = O(nlgn); (C = k = 1)
Th d 5. Ta c: lgn < n , suy ra lgn = O(n) ; (C = k = 1)
C th hiu n gin quan h f(x) = O(g(x)) l f(x) v g(x) l "cng cp", tuy nhin
g(x) l hm n gin nht c th i din cho f(x) v ln cng nh tc bin thin.
4.2. tng ca t hp cc hm
nh l: Nu f
1
(x) = O(g
1
(x)) v f
2
(x) = O(g
2
(x))
Th: 1) (f
1
+ f
2
)(x) = O(max{g
1
(x), g
2
(x)}).
2) (f
1
.f
2
)(x) = O(g
1
(x).g
2
(x))
Chng minh: Theo gi thit, ta c: | f
1
(x)| C
1
| g
1
(x)) | , x > k
1

| f
2
(x)| C
2
| g
2
(x)) | , x > k
2

Chn k = max(k
1
; k
2
) th c hai bt ng thc u tho mn. Do :
1) |(f
1
+ f
2
)(x)| = |f
1
(x) + f
2
(x)| |f
1
(x)| + |f
2
(x)|
C
1
|g
1
(x)| + C
2
|g
2
(x)| (C
1
+ C
2
)g(x)
y g(x) = max{|g
1
(x)|, |g
2
(x)|}.


2) |(f
1
.f
2
)(x)| = |f
1
(x)|.|f
2
(x)| C
1
C
2
|g
1
(x)|.|g
2
(x)| = C
1
C
2
|g
1
(x)g
2
(x)|
H qu: Nu f
1
(x) = O(g(x)), f
2
(x) = O(g(x)) th (f
1
+f
2
)(x) = O(g(x))
Th d. Cho nh gi O ca cc hm:
1/ f(n) = 2nlg(n!) + (n
3

+ 3)lgn , n N.
2/ f(x) = (x + 1)lg(x
2
+ 1) + 3x
2
, x R.
Gii: 1) Ta c: lg(n!) = O(nlgn) 2nlg(n!) = O(n
2
lgn)
(n
3
+ 3)lgn = O(n
3
lgn)
Vy f(n) = O(n
3
lgn)
2) Ta c: lg(x
2
+ 1) lg2x
2
= lg2 + 2lgx 3lgx , x > 1
lg(x
2
+ 1) = O(lgx) (x + 1)lg(x
2
+ 1) = O(xlgx)
Mt khc: 3x
2
= O(x
2
) v max{xlgx; x
2
} = x
2
.
Vy f(x) = O(x
2
).
4.3. phc tp ca thut ton
Nh ni phn u ca mc 4, chng ta ch cp n phc tp v thi gian
ca thut ton. phc tp v thi gian ca thut ton c nh gi qua s lng
cc php ton m thut ton s dng. V vy phi m cc php ton c trong thut ton.
Cc php ton phi m l:
- Cc php so snh cc s nguyn hoc s thc;
- Cc php tnh s hc: cng, tr, nhn, chia;
- Cc php gn;
- V bt k mt php tnh s cp no khc xut hin trong qu trnh tnh ton.
Gi s s cc php ton ca thut ton l f(n), trong n l kch thc u vo, khi
ngi ta thng quy phc tp v thi gian ca thut ton v cc mc:
phc tp O(1), gi l phc tp hng s, nu f(n) = O(1).
phc tp O(log
a
n), gi l phc tp logarit, nu f(n) = O(log
a
n). (iu kin a
> 1)
phc tp O(n), gi l phc tp tuyn tnh, nu f(n) = O(n).
phc tp O(nlog
a
n), gi l phc tp nlogarit nu f(n) = O(log
a
n). (iu kin
a > 1)
phc tp O(n
k
), gi l phc tp a thc, nu f(n) = O(n
k
).
phc tp O(a
n
), gi l phc tp m, nu f(n) = O(a
n
). (iu kin a > 1)
phc tp O(n!), gi l phc tp giai tha, nu f(n) = O(n!).
Th d 1. Tm phc tp ca thut ton gii bi ton: Tm s ln nht trong dy n
s nguyn a
1
, a
2
, , a
n
cho:
Procedure max(a
1
, a
2
, , a
n
);
Input: Dy s a
1
, a
2
, ... , a
n
;
Output: S ln nht (max) ca dy s cho;
begin
max := a
1
;
for i := 2 to n do


if a
i
> max then max := a
i
;
end;
Mi bc ca vng lp for phi thc hin nhiu nht 3 php ton: php gn bin
iu khin i, php so snh a
i
vi max v c th l php gn a
i
vo max; vng lp c (n 1)
bc (i = 2, 3, , n) do nhiu nht c c thy 3(n - 1) php ton phi thc hin. Ngoi
ra thut ton cn phi thc hin php gn u tin max := a
1
.
Vy s php ton nhiu nht m thut ton phi thc hin l:
3(n 1) + 1 = 3n 2 = O(n)
phc tp v thi gian ca thut ton l phc tp tuyn tnh.
Th d 2. phc tp ca thut ton nhn ma trn.
Procedure nhn_matran;
Input: 2 ma trn A = (a
ij
)
m x p
v B = (b
ij
)
p x n
;
Output: ma trn tch AB = (c
ij
)
m x n
;
Begin
for i:=1 to m do
for j:=1 to n do
begin
c
ij
:= 0;
for k:=1 to p do
c
ij
:= c
ij
+ a
ik
b
kj
;
end;
End.
S php cng v s php nhn trong thut ton trn l: Vi mi phn t c
ij
phi thc
hin p php nhn v p php cng. C tt c m.n phn t c
ij
, vy phi thc hin 2mnp php
cng v php nhn.
xc nh phc tp ca thut ton, ta gi s A, B l hai ma trn vung cp n,
ngha l m = n = p. nh vy phi cn 2n
3
php cng v php nhn. Vy phc tp ca
thut ton l O(n
3
) phc tp a thc.
Mt iu th v l, khi nhn t 3 ma trn tr ln th s php tnh cng v nhn ph
thuc vo th t nhn cc ma trn y. Chng hn A, B, C l cc ma trn c kch thc
tng ng l 3020, 2040, 4010. Khi :
Nu thc hin theo th t ABC =A(BC) th tch BC l ma trn kch thc 2010 v
cn thc hin 20.40.10 = 8000 php tnh cng v nhn. Ma trn A(BC) c kch thc
3010 v cn thc hin 30.20.10 = 6000 php cng v nhn. T suy ra cn thc hin
8000+6000 = 14000 php tnh cng v nhn hon thnh tch ABC.
Tng t, nu thc hin theo th t ABC = (AB)C th cn thc hin 30.20.40 php
tnh cng v nhn thc hin tch AB v 30.40.10 php cng v nhn thc hin tch
(AB)C. Do s cc php tnh cng v nhn phi thc hin hon thnh tch ABC l
24000+12000 = 36000 php tnh.
R rng hai cch nhn cho kt qu v s lng cc php tnh phi thc hin l khc
nhau.

5. Thut ton tm kim
Bi ton tm kim c pht biu nh sau: Tm trong dy s a
1
, a
2
, , a
n
mt phn t
c gi tr bng s a cho trc v ghi li v tr ca phn t tm c.
Bi ton ny c nhiu ng dng trong thc t. Chng hn vic tm kim t trong t
in, vic kim tra li chnh t ca mt on vn bn,
C hai thut ton c bn gii bi ton ny: Thut ton tm kim tuyn tnh v thut
ton tm kim nh phn. Chng ta ln lt xt cc thut ton ny.
5.1. Thut ton tm kim tuyn tnh (cn gi l thut ton tm kim tun t).
em so snh a ln lt vi a
i
(i = 1, 2, , n) nu gp mt gi tr a
i
= a th ghi li v tr
ca a
i
, nu khng gp gi tr a
i
= a no (a
i
a. i) th trong dy khng c s no bng a.
Procedure Tim_tuyen_tinh_phan_tu_bang_a;
Input: a v dy s a
1
, a
2
, ... , a
n
;
Output: V tr phn t ca dy c gi tr bng a, hoc l s 0 nu khng tm
thy a trong dy;
begin
i := 1;
while (i n and a
i
a) do i := i + 1;
if i n then vitri := i else vitri := 0;
end;
Nh vy nu a c tm thy v tr th i ca dy (a
i
= a) th cu lnh i := i + 1 trong
vng lp while c thc hin i ln (i = 1, 2, , n). Nu a khng c tm thy, cu lnh
phi thc hin n ln. Vy s php ton trung bnh m thut ton phi thc hin l:
O(n)
2
1 n
2n
1) n(n
n
n 2 1
=
+
=
+
=
+ + + . . .

Vy, phc tp ca thut ton tm kim tuyn tnh l phc tp tuyn tnh.
5.2. Thut ton tm kim nh phn.
Gi thit rng cc phn t ca dy c xp theo th t tng dn. Khi so snh a
vi s gia dy, nu a < a
m
vi
(
+
=
2
n 1
m (cn nhc li rng phn nguyn ca x: [x] l
s nguyn nh nht c trong x) th tm a trong dy a
1
, ,a
m
, nu a > a
m
th tm a trong dy
a
m+1
, , a
n
. i vi mi dy con (mt na ca dy cho) c lm tng t ch phi
tm phn t c gi tr bng a mt na dy con . Qu trnh tm kim kt thc khi tm
thy v tr ca phn t c gi tr bng a hoc khi dy con ch cn 1 phn t.
Chng hn vic tm s 8 trong dy s 5, 6, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22
c tin hnh nh sau:
Dy cho gm 14 s hng, chia dy thnh 2 dy con:
5, 6, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13 v 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22

V 8 < 13 nn tip theo ch cn tm dy u tin. Tip tc chia i thnh 2 dy: 5, 6, 8, 9
v 11, 12, 13; v 8 < 9 nn li ch phi tm dy 5, 6, 8, 9. Li chia i dy ny thnh 2 dy
con 5, 6 v 8, 9 thy ngay 8 thuc v dy con 8, 9 v qu trnh tm kim kt thc, v tr ca
s 8 trong dy cho l th ba
Procedure Tim_nhi_phan_phan_tu_bang_a;
Input: a v dy s a
1
, a
2
, ... , a
n
xp theo th t tng;
Output: V tr phn t ca dy c gi tr bng a, hoc l s 0 nu khng tm thy
trong dy;
Begin
i := 1; (* i l im mt tri ca khong tm kim*)
j := n; (* j l im mt phi ca khong tm kim*)
while i < j do
begin

(
+
=
2
j 1
: m ;
if a > a
m
then i := m+1
else j := m;
end;
if a = a
i
then vitri := i else vitri := 0;
end;
phc tp ca thut ton tm kim nh phn c nh gi nh sau: Khng gim
tng qut c th gi s di ca dy a
1
, a
2
, , a
n
l n = 2
k
vi k l s nguyn dng.
(Nu n khng phi l ly tha ca 2, lun tm c s k sao cho 2
k 1
< n < 2
k
do c th
xem dy cho l mt phn ca dy c 2
k
phn t). Nh vy phi thc hin nhiu nht k
ln chia i cc dy s (mi na dy ca ln chia i th nht c 2
k 1
phn t, ca ln chia
i th hai c 2
k 2
phn t, , v ca ln chia i th k l 2
k k
= 2
0
= 1 phn t). Ni
cch khc l nhiu nht c k vng lp while c thc hin trong thut ton tm kim nh
phn. Trong mi vng lp while phi thc hin hai php so snh, v vng lp cui cng khi
ch cn 1 phn t phi thc hin 1 php so snh bit khng cn 1 phn t no thm na
v 1 php so snh bit a c phi l phn t hay khng. T thy rng thut ton
phi thc hin nhiu nht 2k + 2 = 2[log
2
n] + 2 = O(logn) php so snh.
Vy, phc tp ca thut ton tm kim nh phn l phc tp logarit.
6. Thut ton quy
6.1. Cng thc truy hi
i khi rt kh nh ngha mt i tng no mt cch tng minh, nhng c th
nh ngha i tng qua chnh n vi u vo nh hn. Cch nh ngha nh vy gi l
cch nh ngha bng truy hi hoc nh ngha bng quy v n cho mt cng thc gi l
cng thc truy hi.

nh ngha: nh ngha bng truy hi bao gm cc quy tc xc nh cc i
tng, trong c mt s quy tc dng xc nh cc i tng ban u gi l cc iu
kin ban u; cn cc quy tc khc dng xc nh cc i tng tip theo gi l cng
thc truy hi.
Th d 1. Dy s a
n
c nh ngha bng quy nh sau:
a
0
= 3; a
n
= a
n 1
+ 3.
Trong a
0
= 3 l iu kin ban u, cn a
n
= a
n 1
+ 3 l cng thc truy hi.
Th d 2. nh ngha bng quy giai tha ca s t nhin n l:
GT(0) = 1; GT(n) = n.GT(n 1).
V GT(n) = n! = n(n-1)(n-2)1 = n.GT(n-1). Trong GT(0) = 1 l iu kin ban u, cn
GT(n) = n.GT(n 1) l cng thc truy hi.
Th d 3. Dy s F
0
, F
1
, F
2
, , F
n
c nh ngha:
F
0
= 0; F
1
= 1; F
n
= F
n 1
+ F
n 2
.
chnh l nh ngha bng quy ca dy s c tn l dy Fibonacci. Trong
F
0
= 0, F
1
= 1 l cc iu kin ban u, cn F
n
= F
n 1
+ F
n 2
l cng thc quy.
D thy mt s s hng u tin ca dy l: 0; 1; 1; 2; 3; 5; 8; 13; 21;
6.2. Thut ton quy.
Nhiu khi vic gii bi ton vi u vo xc nh c th a v vic gii bi ton
vi gi tr u vo nh hn. Chng hn:
n! = n . (n-1)! hay UCLN(a, b) = UCLN(a mod b, b) , a > b
nh ngha: Mt thut ton gi l quy nu thut ton gii bi ton bng cch
rt gn lin tip bi ton ban u ti bi ton cng nh vy nhng vi d liu u vo nh
hn.
D thy c s ca thut ton l cng thc truy hi.
Th d 1. Tnh giai tha ca s t nhin n bng quy.
Function GT(n);
Input: S t nhin n;
Output: Gi tr ca n!;
Begin
if n = 0 then GT(0) := 1
else GT(n) := n*GT(n 1);
End;
Th d 2. Tnh s hng ca dy Fibonacci bng quy.
Function Fibonacci(n);
Input: V tr th n ca dy Fibonacci;
Output: Gi tr F
n
ca dy Fibonaci;
Begin

if n = 0 then Fibonacci(0) := 0
else if n = 1 then Fibonacci(1) := 1
else Fibonacci(n) := Fibonacci(n-1) + Fibonacci(n-2);
End;
Th d 3. Thut ton quy tm UCLN(a, b).
Function UCLN(a, b);
Input: Hai s nguyn dng a v b;
Output: c s chung ln nht ca a v b;
Begin
if b = 0 then UCLN(a, b) := a
else if a > b then UCLN(a, b) := UCLN(a mod b, b)
else UCLN(a, b) := UCLN(b mod a, a);
End;
By gi chng ta th tm phc tp v thi gian ca mt vi thut ton vit bng
quy. Chng hn xt thut ton quy tnh s hng ca dy Fibonacci, tnh F
n
ta biu
din F
n
= F
n 1
+ F
n 2
, sau thay th c hai s ny bng tng ca hai s Fibonacci bc
thp hn. Qu trnh tip tc nh vy cho n khi F
0
v F
1
xut hin th c thay bng cc
gi tr ca chng trong nh ngha.
Mi bc quy cho ti khi F
0
v F
1
xut hin, cc s Fibonacci c tnh hai ln.
Chng hn gin cy hnh 2 cho ta hnh dung cch tnh F
5
theo thut ton quy. T
c th thy rng tnh F
n
cn thc hin F
n + 1
1 php cng.

phc tp ca thut ton quy tm c s chung ln nht ca hai s nguyn
dng a, b (th d 3): UCLN(a,b) = UCLN(a mod b,b), nu a b (a mod b l phn d khi
chia a cho b) c nh gi bng cch ng dng dy Fibonacci.
Trc ht bng quy np ton hc chng ta chng minh s hng tng qut ca dy
Fibonacci tha mn:
F
5

F
4
F
3

F
3
F
2
F
2
F
1

F
2
F
1
F
1
F
0
F
1
F
0

F
1
F
0

Hnh 2. Lc tnh F
5
bng quy

F
n
>
n 2
, n 3, trong
2
5 1+
= . (1)
Tht vy:
Ta c: < 2 = F
3
, ngha l (1) ng vi n = 3.
Gi s F
n
>
n 2
ng vi n, xt vi n+1. D thy l mt nghim ca phng trnh
x
2
x 1 = 0 nn suy ra
2
= + 1. T :
n 1
=
2
n 3
= ( + 1)
n 3
=
n 2
+
n 3
.
Theo gi thit quy np, nu n 4, ta c F
n 1
>
n 3
v F
n
>
n 2
. Thay vo nh
ngha ca dy Fibonacci:
F
n + 1
= F
n
+ F
n 1
>
n 2
+
n 3
=
n 1

Vy F
n
>
n 2
, n 3.
Cng thc (1) c chng minh.
Tr li thut ton quy tm c s chung ln nht ca hai s nguyn dng a, b (a
b). phc tp ca thut ton c nh gi qua s lng cc php chia dng trong
thut ton ny.
t r
0
= a, r
1
= b, ta c: r
0
= r
1
q
1
+ r
2
; 0 r
2
< r
1
,
r
1
= r
2
q
2
+ r
3
; 0 r
3
< r
2
,
.....
r
n

2
= r
n 1
q
n 1
+ r
n
; 0 r
n
< r
n 1
,
r
n 1
= r
n
q
n
;
Nh vy phi dng n php chia tm r
n
= UCLN(a,b). Cc thng q
1,
q
2
, , q
n 1
lun
ln hn hoc bng 1, cn q
n
2. T suy ra:
r
n
1 = F
2
,
r
n 1
2r
n
= 2F
2
= F
3
,
r
n 2
r
n 1
+ r
n

F
3
+ F
2
= F
4
,
...
r
2
r
3
+ r
4
F
n 1
+ F
n 2
= F
n
,
b = r
1
r
2
+ r
3
F
n
+ F
n 1
= F
n + 1
.
trong F
n
l s hng th n trong dy Fibonacci.
Vy nu n l s cc php chia trong thut ton -clit tm c s chung ln nht ca hai
s nguyn dng a, b th b F
n + 1
, trong F
n
l s Fibonacci th n.
Do F
n + 1
>
n 1
vi n > 2 v
2
5 1+
= nn b >
n 1
.
T : lgb > (n 1) lg >
5
1 n
( v lg 0,208 >
5
1
).
Vy: n 1 < 5lgb n < 5lgb + 1 = O(lgb).

Ngha l phc tp ca thut ton -clit vit theo quy l O(lgb).
Qua y c th thy trong nhiu trng hp, vic nh gi phc tp ca mt thut
ton qu l khng d dng.
6.3. quy v lp
Hu nh cc bi ton gii c bng lp th cng gii c bng quy. Thng
thng, nu dng phng php lp th s php tnh s t hn; chng ta minh ha iu ny
bng th tc tnh s Fibonacci bng thut ton quy v thut ton lp.
Trong th d 2, mc 6.2. chng ta tnh s php cng theo thut ton quy tnh
s Fibonacci th n l F
n + 1
1. By gi ta xt th tc lp tnh s Fibonacci:
Function Lap_Fibonacci(n);
Input: V tr th n + 1 ca dy Fibonacci;
Output: Gi tr f
n
ca dy;
Begin
if n = 0 then y := 0
else
begin
x := 0; y:=1
for i := 1 to n 1
begin
z := x + y;
x :=y; y := z
end;
end;
Lap_Fibonacci := z;
End.
Thut ton ny khi to x nh l F
0
= 0 v y nh l F
1
= 1. Qua mi bc lp tng ca x
v y c gn cho bin ph z. Sau x c gn gi tr ca y v y c gn gi tr ca z.
Vy qua vng lp th nht, ta c x = F
1
v y = F
2
. Khi qua vng lp th n 1 th x = F
n 1
.
Vy ch c n 1 php cng c thc hin tnh F
n
. R rng s lng cc php tnh ny
nh hn khi tnh bng quy.
Tuy s lng cc php tnh khi dng quy nhiu hn khi dng lp, nhng nhiu khi
ngi ta vn thch s dng quy hn. C l l do l ch chng trnh quy thng
gn hn, mt khc c nhng bi ton ch gii c bng quy m khng gii c bng
lp.
7. Mt vi thut ton v s nguyn
7.1. Biu din cc s nguyn
nh l: Cho b l mt s nguyn dng ln hn 1, khi nu n l s nguyn dng
ty th n c th biu din duy nht di dng:
n = a
k 1
b
k 1
+ a
k 2
b
k 2
+ + a
1
b + a
0
. (1)

trong k l s nguyn khng m, a
0
, a
1
, , a
k 1
l cc s nguyn khng m v nh hn b
ng thi a
k 1
0.
Chng ta khng chng minh nh l ny. Biu din ca s n theo cng thc (1) gi l
khai trin c s b ca n v c k hiu l (a
k 1
a
k 2
a
0
)
b
. c bit, nu l c s 10 (h
thp phn, b = 10), ngi ta quy c khng cn vit c s km theo. Ngoi h thp phn
cn c h nh phn (c s 2), h bt phn (c s 8) v h thp lc phn (c s 16) l hay
c dng trong tin hc.
Th d 1: Xc nh khai trin thp phn ca s nguyn t cc h c s khc:
(245)
8
= 2.8
2
+ 4.8 + 5 = 165
(10101111)
2
= 1.2
7
+ 0.2
6
+ 1.2
5
+ 0.2
4
+ 1.2
3
+1.2
2
+ 1.2 + 1 = 175
H thp lc phn c 16 ch s 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F, trong A, B,
C, D, E, F tng ng vi cc s 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 trong h thp phn. chng hn:
(2AE0B)
16
= 2.16
4
+ 10.16
3
+ 14.16
2
+ 0.16 + 11 = 175 627
By gi xt bi ton ngc, xc nh khai trin theo c s b ca s t nhin n cho
trong h thp phn. Trc ht chia n cho b c s d l a
0
:
n = bq
0
+ a
0
, 0 a
0
b ( a
0
= n mod b)
khi a
0
l chnh l ch s cui cng trong h c s b. Tip theo chia q
0
cho b c s d
a
1
chnh l s ng trc a
0
trong h m c s b:
q
0
= bq
1
+ a
1
, 0 a
1
b ( a
1
= q
0
mod b)
Qu trnh tip tc cho n khi nhn c thng bng 0.
Th d 2: Tm khai trin c s 8 ca 12345. Ta c:
12345 = 8. 1543 + 1
1543 = 8. 192 + 7
192 = 8. 24 + 0
24 = 8 . 3 + 0
3 = 8 . 0 + 3
Vy: 12345 = (30071)
8
.
Thut ton tm khai trin c s b ca s t nhin n nh sau:
Procedure Khai_trien_co_so_b;
Input: S t nhin n v c s b;
Output: Khai trin n theo c s b (a
k
a
k 1
a
0
)
b
;
Begin
q := n;
k := 0;
while q 0 do
begin
a
k
:= q mod b;

(
=
b
q
: q ;
k := k + 1;
end;
End;
7.2. Cng v nhn trong h nh phn
Cc thut ton thc hin cc php tnh vi cc s nguyn h nh phn c vai tr
quan trng trong tin hc. Bi vy phn ny m t hai thut ton thc hin php cng v
php nhn hai php ton s hc c bn nht cc s nguyn trong h nh phn.
Gi s c hai s nguyn a v b di dng nh phn:
a = (a
n 1
a
n 2
a
1
a
0
)
2
v b = (b
n 1
b
n 2
b
1
b
0
)
2
.
(Nu cn thit c th t thm cc bt 0 ln phn u ca cc khai trin nh phn ca a
hoc b)
a. Php cng
cng a v b, trc ht cng hai bit cui:
a
0
+ b
0
= c
0
.2 + s
0
.
y s
0
l bit cui trong khai trin nh phn ca tng a + b v c
0
l s nh. Sau l cng
hai bit tip theo v s nh:
a
1
+ b
1
+ c
0
= c
1
.2 + s
1
.
y s
1
l bit tip theo trong khai trin nh phn ca tng a + b v c
1
l s nh. Tip tc
nh vy cho n:
a
n 1
+ b
n 1
+ c
n 2
= c
n 1
.2 + s
n 1
.
t s
n
= c
n 1
ta c khai trin nh phn ca tng a + b:
a + b = (s
n
s
n 1
s
1
s
0
)
2
.
Thut ton c m t bng ngn ng phng Pascal nh sau:
Procedure Cong_hai_so_nguyen_duong_dang_nhi_phan;
Input: Hai s nguyn dng a v b di dng nh phn
(a
n 1
a
1
a
0
)
2
v (b
n 1
b
1
b
0
)
2
;
Output: Tng a + b di dng nh phn (s
n
s
n 1
s
1
s
0
)
2
;
Begin
c := 0
for j:=1 to n do
begin

(
+ +
=
2
c b a
: d
j j
;

=
0
a
ab
j
s
j
:= a
j
+ b
j
+ c 2d;
c := d;
end;
s
n
:= c;
End;
C th hiu l php cng trong h nh phn cng c tin hnh nh h thp phn,
nhng lu rng:
0 + 0 = 0; 0 + 1 = 1 + 0 = 1; 1 + 1 = 10
Chng hn tnh (1110)
2
+ (10111)
2
l:
+
0 1110
1 0111
10 0101
phc tp ca thut ton c nh gi nh sau: Mi bit trong khai trin nh phn
ca tng a + b c tnh bng cch cng mt cp bit v c th phi cng thm bit nh. Nh
vy c mi bit ca tng cn nhiu nht 3 php cng. Mi khai trin nh phn c n bit.
Vy phi thc hin ti a 3n php cng hai s nguyn n bit, ngha l thut ton ton c
phc tp tuyn tnh O(n).
b. Php nhn
Theo lut phn phi, ta c:
a.b = a ( )

=
=
=
1 n
0 j
j
j
1 n
0 j
j
j
2 ab 2 b
D thy:
, nu b
j
= 1
, nu b
j
= 0
v mi ln nhn mt khai trin nh phn vi 2 l dch chuyn khai trin mt v tr v bn
tri bng cch thm mt s 0 vo cui khai trin . Do c th nhn c tch (ab
j
)2
j

bng cch dch khai trin nh phn ca ab
j
v bn tri j v tr, ni cch khc l thm j bit 0
vo cui khai trin nh phn ab
j
. Cui cng nhn c tch ab bng cch cng n s nguyn
dng ab
j
2
j
vi j = 0, 1, , n 1.
Th d: Tm tch ca a = (110)
2
v b = (101)
2
.
ab
0
.2
0
= (110)
2
.1.2
0
= (110)
2

ab
1
.2
1
= (110)
2
.0.2
1
= (0000)
2

ab
2
.2
2
= (110)
2
.1.2
2
= (11000)
2

v, cui cng ta cng (110)
2
, (0000)
2
v (11000)
2
vi nhau
c ab = (11110)
2
.
D thy cch thc hin php nhn trong h nh phn cng ging nh trong h thp
phn.
Thut ton c m t bng ngn ng phng Pascal mh sau:

110
101
+
110
000
110
11110

Procedure Nhan_hai_so_nguyen_dang_nhi_phan;
Input: Hai s nguyn dng a v b di dng nh phn
(a
n 1
a
1
a
0
)
2
v (b
n 1
b
1
b
0
)
2
;
Output: Tch ab di dng nh phn;
Begin
for j := 0 to n do
if b
j
= 1 then c
j
:= a c dch sang tri j v tr
else c
j
:= 0;
(* c
0
, c
1
, , c
n 1
l cc tch ring phn *)
p := 0;
for j

:= 0 to n 1 do p := p + c
j
; (* p l gi tr ca tch ab *)
End;
phc tp ca thut ton nhn 2 s nguyn dng nh phn bng cch tnh s cc
php cng bit v dch bt ca thut ton c nh gi nh sau:
Cc tch ring c
j
= ab
j
2
j
khng cn dch chuyn khi b
j
= 0, v khi c
j
= 0 v n phi
dch chuyn j v tr khi b
j
= 1. V th vi tt c n tch ring c
j
cn thc hin ti a:
2
) 1 n ( n
) 1 n ( . . . 2 1 0

= + + + +
php dch ch. Vy s php dch ch ti a l O(n
2
).
Sau khi dich ch s nguyn c
n 1
= ab
n 1
2
n 1
c 2 n bit, theo thut ton cng hai s
nguyn s c ti a O(n) s php cng bit cng tt c n cc tch ring c
j
.
Vy phc tp ca thut ton nhn 2 s nguyn dng nh phn l O(n
2
).

BI TP CHNG 1
1.1. Chng minh rng:
a) ) x ( O
1 x
1 x
2
=
+
+
; b) 2
n
+ 17 = O(3
n
).
1.2. Tm mt s nguyn n nh nht sao cho f(x) = O(x
n
), nu:
a) f(x) = 2x
3
+ x
2
lgx; b) f(x) = 3x
5
+ (lgx)
4
;
c)
1 x
1 x x
) x ( f
3
2 4
+
+ +
= ; d)
1 x
x lg 5 x
) x ( f
4
3
+
+
= .
1.3. Chng minh rng x
2
+ 4x + 17 l O(x
3
), nhng x
3
khng l O(x
2
+ 4x + 17).
1.4. Hy cho mt nh gi big-O tt nht c th c i vi cc hm sau:
a) (n
2
+ 8)(n + 1); b) (nlgn + n
2
)(n
3
+ 2);
c) (n! + 2
n
)(n
3
+ lg(n
2
+ 1)); d) (2
n
+ n
2
)(n
3
+ 3
n
);
e) (x
2
+ x(lgx)
3
)(2
x
+ x
3
).
1.5. Lp v m t thut ton bng ngn ng phng Pascal cho cc bi ton sau:
a) Tnh x
n
vi x l s thc v n l s nguyn. (Gi : trc ht lp th tc tnh x
n
vi
n l s nguyn dng, sau m rng th tc cho n l s nguyn m
n
n
x
1
x =
,
nN
+
)
b) Ch dng cc lnh gn bin b ba s (x, y, z) thnh (y, z, x). S ti thiu cc lnh
gn l bao nhiu?
c) Chn 1 s nguyn x vo v tr thch hp trong dy cc s nguyn a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
n

c xp theo th t tng dn.
d) Tm s nh nht v s ln nht trong dy gm n s nguyn cho.
1.6. Xc nh s cc php nhn c dng tnh
k
2
x bt u vi x ri lin tip bnh
phng ( tm x
2
, x
4
, ). Cch ny c hiu qu hn cch nhn x vi chnh n mt s ln
thch hp khng?
1.7. Lp v m t thut ton bng ngn ng phng Pascal cho bi ton sau: m cc bit 1
trong mt xu bit bng cch kim tra tng bit ca xu xem c phi l bit 1 khng. Cho
nh gi big-O i vi cc php so snh c dng trong thut ton.
1.8. Thut ton tnh gi tr ca a thc P(x) = a
n
x
n
+ a
n 1
x
n 1
+ ... + a
1
x + a
0
ti x = c nh
sau:
function Dathuc(c, a
0
, a
1
, ..., a
n
);
u vo: c, a
0
, a
1
, ..., a
n
;
u ra: y = P(c);
begin
power := 1;
y : = a
0
;

=
0
1
b a
ij ij
=
0
1
b a
ij ij
for i := 1 to n do
begin
power := power *c ;
y := y + a
i
*power ;
end;
Dathuc := y;
end;
a) Tm P(2) nu P(x) = 3x
2
+ x + 1 bng cch thc hin tng bc thut ton trn.
b) C bao nhiu php nhn v php cng dng tng bin trong vng lp?
1.9. Thut ton Horner tm gi tr P(c) ca a thc P(x) = a
n
x
n
+ a
n 1
x
n 1
+ + a
1
x +
a
0
nh sau:
function Horner(c, a
0
, a
1
, ..., a
n
);
u vo: c, a
0
, a
1
, ..., a
n
;
u ra: y = P(c);
begin
y := a
n
;
for i := 1 to n do y := y*c + a
n i
;
Horner := y;
end;
Cc cu hi nh trong bi tp 1.8.
1.10. Lp thut ton tm s hng u tin trong mt dy cc s nguyn cho trc sao cho
s hng tm thy bng mt s hng no ng trc n. Tm phc tp v thi gian ca
thut ton lp.
1.11. Lp thut ton tm trong dy s nguyn dng cho trc s hng u tin nh hn s
hng ng ngay trc n. Xc nh phc tp ca thut ton lp.
1.12. Ma trn lgic
Ma trn m cc phn t l 0 hoc 1 c gi l ma trn lgic.
1) Cho hai ma trn lgic kch thc mn: A = [a
ij
]
m, n
v B = [b
ij
]
m, n
, ta c:
A B l ma trn lgic hp gia A v B c cc phn t hng i, ct j l:
nu a
ij
= 1 hoc b
ij
= 1
nu a
ij
= b
ij
= 0
A B l ma trn lgic giao gia A v B c cc phn t hng i ct j l
nu a
ij
= b
ij
= 1
nu a
ij
= 0 hoc b
ij
= 0
2) Cho hai ma trn lgic A = [a
ij
]
m, p
kch thc mp v B = [b
ij
]
p, n
kch
thc pn. Tch boole ca A vi B, k hiu AB, l ma trn lgic kch thc
mn m phn t c
ij
(phn t hng i, ct j) c xc nh nh sau:
c
ij
= (a
i1
b
1j
) (a
i2
b
2j
) (a
ip
b
pj
)

a) Vit thut ton dng phng Pascal cho cc php ton ca cc ma trn lgic nh cc
nh ngha nu trn.
b) C bao nhiu php ton bit c dng tnh AB vi A, B l cc ma trn lgic
vung cp n.
c) Chng minh rng: A(BC) = (AB)C vi gi thit cc php ton trong biu
thc cho l thc hin c,
1.13. Tm v m t thut ton quy cho cc bi ton sau:
a) Tm tng ca n s nguyn dng l u tin.
b) Tm s cc tiu ca tp hu hn cc s nguyn.
1.14. Hy a ra thut ton quy tm n! mod m, tromg m, n, l cc s nguyn dng.
1.15. Tm thut ton quy tnh
n
2
a , trong a l mt s thc v n l mt s nguyn
dng (Gi : dng ng thc ( )
2
2 2
n 1 n
a a =
+
).
1.16. Tm thut ton qui tm c s chung ln nht ca 2 s nguyn khng m a, b (a <
b) bit rng UCLN(a, b) = UCLN(a, b a).

P S
1.2. a) 3; b) 5; c) 1; d) 0
1.4. a) O(n
3
); b) O(n
5
); c) O(n
3
n!); d) O(6
n
); e) O(x
2
2
x
).
1.5.
c) Procedure insert (x, a
1
, a
2
, ,a
n
: integer);
{dy xp theo th t tng: a
1
a
2
a
n
}
a
n
:= x + 1;
i := 1;
while x > a
i
do
i := i + 1;
for j := 0 to n-i do
a
n j + 1
:= a
n j
;
a
j
:= x;
{x c chn vo v tr ng}
1.7. Procedure ones (a: xu bit, a = a
1
a
2
... a
n
);
begin
ones := 0;
for i:= 1 to n do
if a
i
= 1 then ones := ones + 1;
end; {ones l s cc bt 1 trong xu a}

1.10. Procedure find duplicate (a
1
a
2
... a
n
: integer);
location := 0;
i := 2;
while i n and location = 0 do
begin
j := 1;
while j < i and location := 0 do
if a
i
= a
j
then location := i else j := j +1
i := i +1;
end; {location l ch s ca gi tr u tin lp li gi tr trc trong dy}
O(n
2
)
1.11. Procedure find decrease (a
1
a
2
... a
n
nguyn dng);
location := 0;
i := 2;
while i n and location = 0 do
if a
i
< a
i 1
then location := i else i : = i + 1;
end; {location l ch s ca gi tr u tin nh hn gi tr ngay trc n}
phc tp ca thut ton l O(n).
1.13.
a) Procedure sum of odds (n : nguyn dng);
if n = 1 then sum of odds := 1
else sum of odds : = sum of odds(n 1) + 2n 1;
b) Procedure smalless (a
1
, a
2
, , a
n
: nguyn dng);
if n = 1 then smalless (a
1
, a
2
, , a
n
) := a
1

else smalless (a
1
, a
2
, , a
n
) := min(smalless (a
1
, a
2
, , a
n 1
), a
n
);
1.14. Procedure modfactorial (n, m : nguyn dng);
if n = 0 then modfactorial (n, m) : = 1
else modfactorial (n, m) := (n * modfactorial (n-1, m)) mod m;


CU HI N TP CHNG 1
1. Pht biu nh ngha v cc c trng ca thut ton. Cc phng php m t thut
ton.
2. Trnh by quan h big-O ca cc hm s v khi nim phc tp v thi gian ca
thut ton. nh gi phc tp ca thut ton nhn ma trn
3. M t cc thut ton tm kim v nh gi phc tp ca chng.
4. nh ngha bng quy l g? Th no l cng thc truy hi? Trnh by thut ton
quy. Mi lin h gia quy v lp.
5. M t cc thut ton lp v quy : Tm tng ca mt dy s; Tm c s chung nh
nht ca hai s nguyn dng; Tm s Fibonacci
6. Nu thut ton chuyn i c s c s ca s t nhin. Cch cng v nhn cc s
nguyn trong h nh phn?


CHNG 2
BI TON M
1. Nguyn l cng v nguyn l nhn
1.1. Nguyn l cng
1.2. Nguyn l nhn
2.1. Chnh hp
2.2. Hon v
2.3. T hp
2.4. Chnh hp v T hp suy rng
3. Nguyn l b tr
4.1. Phng php kh tm cng thc trc tip t cng thc truy hi
4.2. Gii cc h thc truy hi tuyn tnh.
5. Bi ton lit k.
5.1. Phng php sinh
5.2. Thut ton quay lui
6. Bi ton tn ti
6.1. Nguyn l Di-ric-le (Dirichlet)
6.2. Mt vi bi ton ng dng nguyn l Di-ric-l.
6.3. Phng php phn chng
L thuyt t hp l mt phn rt quan trng ca ton ri rc, n chuyn nghin cu s
sp xp cc i tng (phn t ca tp hp) theo mt quy tc no . Mi kt qu ca mt
cch sp xp cc phn t ca mt tp hp theo mt quy tc xc nh cho c gi l
mt cu hnh t hp. m cc phn t ca mt tp hp, hoc cc cu hnh t hp l ni
dung ca bi ton m. Chng ta cng cn c mt quan nim rng ri v khi nim m,
chng hn nu ni c 100 th l mt cch m, nhng c th thay cch ni bng cch
ni c 10 t 5 v 25 t 2. Ni cch khc, lit k cc cu hnh t hp l mt cch m.
Cc tp hp ni n trong chng ny l cc tp hp c hu hn cc phn t. S
lng cc phn t ca tp hp A, k hiu l N(A), c gi l lc lng (hay bn s) ca
tp hp A.
1. Nguyn l cng v nguyn l nhn.
1.1. Nguyn l cng
Nu A v B l 2 tp hp ri nhau (AB = ) th N(AB) = N(A) + N(B).
Nguyn l ny c th m rng nh sau: Gi s A
1
, A
2
, ... , A
n
l cc tp con ca mt
tp X no tho mn:

- Cc A
i
i mt ri nhau (A
i
A
j
= , khi i j)
- X = A
1
A
2
... A
n
.
(Cc tp A
1
, A
2
, , A
n
tho mn 2 tnh cht trn c gi l mt phn hoch ca tp X)
Khi : N(X) = N(A
1
) + N(A
2
) + ... + N(A
n
)
c bit, ta c N(A) = N(X) N( A) trong A l tp b ca tp A trong X.
Th d 1: Mt kho hc c 3 danh sch la chn cc bi thc hnh: Danh sch th
nht c 10 bi; danh sch th hai c 15 bi; danh sch th ba c 25 bi. Mi sinh vin c
chn 1 bi trong 3 danh sch trn lm thc hnh. Hi mi sinh vin c bao nhiu cch
la chn bi thc hnh.
Gii: C 10 cch la chn trong danh sch th nht, 15 cch la chn trong danh sch
th hai v 25 cch la chn trong danh sch th ba. Vy c 10 + 15 + 25 = 50 cch la
chn cho mi sinh vin.
Th d 2: Mt on vn ng vin ca mt a phng c c i thi u 2 mn:
bn sng v bn cung. Trong on c 10 nam v s vn ng vin bn sng l 14 (k c
nam v n). S n vn ng vin bn cung bng s nam vn ng vin bn sng. Hi on
c bao nhiu ngi.
Gii: Gi A, B tng ng l cc tp vn ng vin nam, vn ng vin n, ta c
N(A) = 10
A
1
, A
2
tng ng l cc tp vn ng vin nam bn sng, vn ng vin nam bn
cung, ta c N(A
1
) + N(A
2
) = 10
B
1
, B
2
tng ng l cc tp vn ng vin n bn sng, vn ng vin n bn
cung, ta c N(B
2
) = N(A
1
) v N(B
1
) + N(A
1
) = 14
T N(B
1
) + N(B
2
) = 14, ngha l on c 14 vn ng vin n.
Vy ton on c 10 + 14 = 24 vn ng vin.
Th du 3: Xt on chng trnh phng Pascal sau
k := 0;
for i
1
:= 1 to n
1
do k := k + 1;
for i
2
:= 1 to n
2
do k := k + 1;
for i
3
:= 1 to n
3
do k := k + 1;
Hi sau khi thc hin xong on chng trnh trn, gi tr ca k bng bao nhiu?
Gii: Gi tr ban u gn cho k l 0. Khi lnh gm 3 vng lp tun t, sau mi bc lp
ca tng vng lp gi tr ca k c tng thm 1, vng lp th i (i = 1, 2, 3) c n
i
bc nn
sau vng lp th i gi tr ca k c tng thm n
i
. Do cc vng lp l tun t nn sau c 3
vng lp th gi tr ca k l: k = n
1
+ n
2
+ n
3
.
1.2. Nguyn l nhn
Nu mi thnh phn th i (tc l a
i
) ca b c th t gm k thnh phn (a
1
, a
2
, ... , a
k
)
c n
i
cch chn (i = 1, 2, , k) th s lng cc b k thnh phn s l n
1
n
2
n
k
(tch
ca s cc cch chn ca mi thnh phn).

C th pht biu nguyn l nhn di dng s phn t ca tch -cc ca cc tp hp:
N(A
1
A
2
A
k
) = N(A
1
). N(A
2
) N(A
k
)
Th d 1: C 4 phng tin i t H ni vo thnh ph H Ch Minh l: t, Tu
ho, Tu thu v My bay. C 2 phng tin i t thnh ph H ch Minh ra Cn o l
My bay v Tu thu. Hi c my cch i t H ni n Cn o nu bt buc phi i qua
thnh ph H Ch Minh?
Gii: Mi cch i t H ni vo thnh ph H Ch Minh c 2 cch i ra Cn o. Vy
vi 4 cch i t H ni vo thnh ph H Ch Minh c 4 . 2 = 8 cch i t H ni qua
thnh ph H Ch Minh ri n Cn o.
Th d 2: Mt xu nh phn l mt dy lin tip cc ch s 0 hoc 1 (gi l bit 0 v
bit 1). di ca xu l s cc ch s 0, 1 c mt trong xu. Hai xu cng di c gi
l khc nhau nu c t nht mt v tr ti cc bit l khc nhau. Hi c bao nhiu xu nh
phn c di 8 ?
Gii: Ti mi mt trong 8 v tr c 2 cch la chn l bit 0 hoc bit 1. Do theo quy
tc nhn cho thy c 2
8
= 256 xu nh phn khc nhau c di 8.
Th d 3: Mt bin s xe my ca mt a phng c cu to gm hai nhm.
Nhm u gm 2 k t: u tin l mt ch ci sau l mt ch s. Nhm th 2 gm mt
dy 4 ch s lin tip (k c cc s trng nhau). Hi c th pht hnh bao nhiu bin s xe
ti a phng .
Gii: C tt c 24 cch chn cho v tr ch ci u tin. Nm v tr tip theo, mi v tr
c 10 cch chn. Theo quy tc nhn, s bin s ng k xe my c th l:
24.10.10.10.10.10 = 24.10
5
= 2 400 000
Th d 4: Gi tr ca bin k bng bao nhiu sau khi on chng trnh sau c thc hin?
k := 0;
for i
1
:= 1 to n
1
do
for i
2
:= 1 to n
2
do
for i
3
:= 1 to n
3
do
k := k + 1;
Gii: u tin k c gn gi tr bng 0. C 3 vng lp lng nhau. Sau mi ln lp ca
vng for trong cng, gi tr ca k tng thm 1. Vi mi gi tr ca i
1
, vng for th hai thc
hin n
2
ln v vi mi gi tr ca i
2
vng for th 3 thc hin n
3
ln. Vy theo nguyn l
nhn, sau khi c 3 vng lp kt thc th vng lp trong cng (i
3
) thc hin n
1
.n
2
.n
3
ln,
ngha l k = n
1
.n
2
.n
3
.
Ch rng nhiu bi ton m phi gii bng cch kt hp c nguyn l cng v
nguyn l nhn.
Th d: Tn bin trong ngn ng lp trnh Pascal l mt xu gm ch ci ting Anh
(khng phn bit ch ci thng v ch ci hoa) v ch s, trong khng c bt u
bng ch s. Hi c th t c bao nhiu tn bin khc nhau c di khng qu 2 k
t, bit rng c 10 t kho c di 2 (chng hn nh to, do, go, if, or, in, )

Gii: Gi A l tp tn bin c 1 k t, th N(A) = 26 (c 26 tn bin ng vi 26 ch
ci tin Anh)
Gi B l tp tn bin c 2 k t. K t u c 26 cch la chn, cn k t th hai c
36 cch la chn (26 ch ci v 10 ch s). Vy N(B) = 26.36 = 936. Do c 10 xu b
cm nn tng s tn bin c di khng qu 2 k t l:
26 + 936 10 = 952
2.1. Chnh hp
nh ngha: Mt chnh hp chp k ca n phn t l mt b c th t gm k
phn t ly t n phn t cho (k n).
S cc chnh hp chp k ca n phn t, k hiu l
k
n
A

, c tnh theo cng thc:

k)! (n
n!
= + = ) 1 k n ( . . . ) 2 n )( 1 n ( n A
k
n

Tht vy, v c n phn t cho nn c n cch chn phn t ng u, tip theo c
n 1 cch chn phn t ng th hai, n 2 phn t ng th ba, ..., n k + 1 cch chn
phn t th k. Theo nguyn l nhn c cng thc cn chng minh.
Th d 1. C 10 vn ng vin thi chy. Hi c bao nhiu cch d on cc vn ng
vin v nht, nh, ba? Bit rng cc vn ng vin u c cng kh nng nh nhau.
Gii: S cch d on l s cch chn c th t 3 trong 10 vn ng vin, tc l:

3
10
A = 10. 9. 8 = 720 cch d on.
Th d 2. C th lp c
3
9
A 9 = 9.9.8.7 = 4536 s nguyn c 4 ch s khc nhau.
Th d 3. C bao nhiu n nh t tp hp A c k phn t vo tp hp B c n phn t
(k n)?
Gii : Gi s cc phn t ca tp hp A tng ng vi cc s 1, 2, ..., k; khi mi
n nh chnh l mt b c th t cc nh ca cc phn t ca tp hp A. Vy c
k
n
A cc
n nh t A vo B.
2.2. Hon v:
nh ngha: Mt hon v ca n phn t cho l mt cch sp xp c th t ca n
phn t .
D nhn ra rng, mt hon v ca n phn t chnh l mt chnh hp chp n ca n. Do :
S cc hon v ca n phn t , k hiu P
n
, l:
! n 1 . . . ) 1 n ( n A P
n
n n
= = =
Th d 1. Mi cch xp hng (ngang hoc dc) ca 5 ngi l mt hon v ca 5 phn
t. Vy c P
5
= 5! = 120 cch xp hng ca 5 ngi.

Th d 2. Mt ngi phi i kim tra 8 da im khc nhau theo bt k th t no.
Hi ngi c bao nhiu cch i nu bt u t mt trong 8 a im sao cho mi a
im u c kim tra ng mt ln.
Gii: Ngi c P
7
= 7! = 5040 cch i.
2.3. T hp
nh ngha: Mt t hp chp k ca n phn t l mt cch chn khng k th t k
phn t t n phn t cho (n k).
S cc t hp chp k ca n phn t , k hiu l
k
n
C

, c tnh nh sau:
Vi mi b k phn t khng sp th t tng ng vi k! cch sp xp c th t. Ni
cch khc mi t hp chp k ca n tng ng vi k! chnh hp chp k ca n. T suy ra:
k
n
k
n
C ! k A =
( )! k n k!
n!
k!
A
C
k
n k
n
= =
Th d 1. C 6 i bng thi u vng trn mt lt. Hi phi t chc bao nhiu trn u?
Gii: C 2 i gp nhau mt trn suy ra s trn u l
2
6
C = 15 trn
Th d 2. Tnh s giao im ca cc ng cho nm pha trong mt a gic li n cnh
(n 4). Bit rng khng c 3 ng cho no ng quy ti 1 im pha trong a gic .
Gii: C 4 nh ca a gic cho ta mt giao im tho mn bi ton. Vy s im cn
m l:
24
3) 2)(n 1)(n n(n
C
4
n

=
Th d 3. Cho mt li c m.n ch nht. Cc nt c nh s t 0 n n theo
chiu t tri sang phi v t 0 n m theo chiu t di ln trn (xem hnh v). Hi c bao
nhiu ng i khc nhau t nt (0,0) n nt (n,m), bit rng mi bc i l s dch
chuyn hoc sang phi hoc ln trn ca mt hnh ch nht (khng dch chuyn sang tri
hoc xung di)
(0,m) (n,m)

(0,0) (n,0)
Gii: Mt ng i nh vy c xem l gm n+m bc, mi bc ch c chn
mt trong hai gi tr l 0 nu i ln v 1 nu i sang phi. Nh vy mi ng i tng
ng vi mt dy nh phn c di m+n trong c ng m gi tr 1 (v tt nhin c ng
n gi tr 0).


Bi ton dn n vic tm xem c bao nhiu dy nh phn c di m+n trong c
ng m thnh phn 1. Ni cch khc l s cch chn m v tr trong m+n v tr xp s 1.
Vy s ng i s l
m
n m
C
+
(hoc
n
n m
C
+
)
Th d 4. Xt on chng trnh phng Pascal sau:
for i := 1 to n 1 do
for j := i + 1 to n do
if a
i
> a
j
then
begin {i ch a
i
, a
j
}
t : = a
i
;
a
i
:= a
j
;
a
j
:= t ;
end;
(y l mt trong cc thut ton xp dy s a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
n
theo th t tng dn)
Hy m s php so snh cc a
i
c thc hin trong on chng trnh trn.
Gii: Ti mi vng lp i = k th vng lp j phi thc hin n k + 1 bc. Ngha l
vi mi i = k phi thc hin n k +1 php so snh (k = 2, 3, ..., n). T theo nguyn l
cng, s cc php so snh l:
2
1) n(n
1 2) (n 1) (n

= + + + . . .
Cng c th gii nh sau: V mi cp a
i
, a
j
(i j) u phi so snh vi nhau, do
tng cc php so snh l
2
n
C .
Mt vi tnh cht
T cng thc tnh
k
n
C , d dng chng minh c:
1) 1 C C
n
n
0
n
= = ;
2)
k n
n
k
n
C C

=

;
3)
1 k
1 n
k
1 n
k
n
C C C

+ = ;
Tnh cht 3 chnh l cng thc truy hi tnh
k
n
C . Ta c:
n\ k 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 1
1 1 1
2 1 2 1
3 1 3 3 1
4 1 4 6 4 1
5 1 5 10 10 5 1


Hay:

0
0
C

1
1
0
1
C C

2
2
1
2
0
2
C C C

. . .

n
n
2
n
1
n
0
n
C . . . C C C
Mi s hng ca hng di, tr s hng u v s hng cui bng 1, bng tng 2 s
hng hng trn cng ct v ct trc ca s hng cn tnh, ngi ta thng gi chng l
cc tam gic Pascal.
Bng l lun t hp c th chng minh c:
( )
n n
n
2 2
n
1
n
0 0
n
n
x C . . . x C x C x C 1 x + + + + = + .
Tht vy, h s ca x
k
v phi ca cng thc c c bng cch nhn k s hng x
trong k nhn t (x + 1) vi n k s 1 trong n k nhn t (x + 1) cn li v tri. iu
tng ng vi s cch chn k nhn t (x + 1) trong n nhn t v tri, s cch chn
chnh l
k
n
C . Vy cng thc c chng minh.
T cng thc trn, ta c cng thc nh thc Niu-tn:
( )
k n k
n
0 k
k
n
n
0 k
k
k
n k
n
n
0 k
k
k
n
n
n
n n
y x C
y
x
y C
y
x
C y 1
y
x
y y x

= = =
= =
|
|
\
|
=
|
|
\
|
+ = +
Ch 1. Nu chn x = y = 1, ta c:
2 n
n
1
n
0
n
2 C . . . C C = + + + .
Tuy nhin,
k
n
C chnh l s cc tp con c k phn t ca tp hp c n phn t . Vy, tng s
tp con (k c tp rng v chnh tp hp ) ca mt tp hp c n phn t l 2
n
.
Ch 2. Nu chn x = 1, y = 1, ta c:
0 C ) 1 ( . . . C C C
n
n
n 2
n
1
n
0
n
= + + + .
2.4. Chnh hp v T hp suy rng
a. Chnh hp lp
nh ngha: Mt b c th t gm k phn t ly t n phn t cho, trong mi
phn t c th c ly nhiu ln c gi l mt chnh hp lp chp k t n phn t
cho.
Ch rng do mi phn t c th c ly nhiu ln nn rt c th k > n.
S cc chnh hp lp chp k ca n c k kiu l
k
n
A v c tnh theo cng thc:
k k
n
n A =


Tht vy, v c n cch chn cho mi phn t th i ( i = 1, 2, ..., k); nn theo quy tc
nhn c cng thc cn chng minh.
Th d 1. Tnh s cc dy nh phn c di n.
Mi dy nh phn c di n l mt b c th t gm n thnh phn c chn trong
tp {0, 1}. Do s dy nh phn c di n l 2
n
.
Th d 2. C th lp c 9.
3
10
A = 9. 10
3
= 9000 s nguyn dng c 4 ch s.
Th d 3. C bao nhiu nh x t tp hp A c k phn t vo tp hp B c n phn t ?
L lun tng t nh th d tnh s n nh trong mc chnh hp; do mi phn t
ca tp hp B c th l nh ca nhiu phn t thuc A nn s nh x c th c l n
k
.
Th d 4. Trong ngn ng Pascal chun quy nh tn bin khng qu 8 k t (mi k
t l mt trong 26 ch ci ting Anh hoc mt trong 10 ch s) v phi bt u bng mt
ch ci, k t l ch khng phn bit ch hoa v ch thng. Hi c th nh ngha c
bao nhiu bin khc nhau?
Gii: Tt c c 8 loi bin: 1 k t, 2 k t, ..., 8 k t. Theo quy tc nhn th s bin
c k k t l 26.36
k 1
, (k = 1, 2, ..., 8). T p dng quy tc cng c s cc bin khc
nhau trong ngn ng Pascal l:
26(1 + 36 + 36
2
+ ... + 36
7
) = 2 095 681 645 538 2. 10
12
.
y l mt con s rt ln, khng th no duyt ht c chng. Hin tng cc s t
hp tng nh vy gi l hin tng bng n t hp.
S k t 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
S bin 26 962 34 658 1 247 714 44 917 730 1 617 038 306 58 213 379 042
b. T hp lp
nh ngha: Mt t hp lp chp k ca n phn t l mt cch chn khng k th t k
phn t t n phn t cho, trong mi phn t c th c chn nhiu ln.
Ch rng do mi phn t c th c ly nhiu ln nn rt c th k > n.
C rt nhiu bi ton m phi s dng khi nim t hp lp. Chng hn, trong hp c
3 loi bi: bi , bi xanh v bi trng; mi loi c t nht 4 vin. Hi c bao nhiu cch ly ra
4 vin bi t hp , nu khng phn bit th t ly v cc vin bi ly ra c th cng 1 loi.
Gii: C th lit k cc cch ly nh sau:
4 bi 4 bi xanh 4 bi trng
3 bi , 1 bi xanh 3 bi , 1 bi xanh 3 bi xanh, 1 bi
3 bi xanh, 1 bi trng 3 bi trng, 1 bi 3 bi trng, 1 bi xanh
2 bi , 2 bi xanh 2 bi , 2 bi trng 2 bi xanh, 2 bi trng
2 bi , 1 bi xanh, 2 bi xanh, 1 bi , 2 bi trng, 1 bi ,
1 bi trng 1 bi trng 1 bi xanh
C tt c 15 cch ly 4 bi t hp cho. Mi cch ly nh vy l mt t hp lp chp
4 t 3 phn t cho.

Chng ta khng th tnh s t hp lp chp k t n phn t mt cch th cng nh vy,
bi khng phi lc no cng lit k ht cc t hp c.
Gi s mt hp c 3 ngn ng 3 loi bi khc nhau:
**** ... * * **
bi bi xanh bi trng bi bi xanh bi trng
Vic chn 4 bi tng ng vi vic t 4 bi vo trong 3 ngn cho. Loi tr 2 vch
ngn ngoi cng l c nh, cn 2 vch ngn pha trong v 4 vin bi c th i ch cho
nhau. Nh vy s cch chn 4 bi tng ng vi s cch chn 4 trong 6 v tr t 4 bi.
Ni cch khc s cch chn 4 bi l
4
6
C = 15
Khi qut c th lp lun nh sau: Mi t hp lp chp k ca n phn t c th xem
nh cch xp k du * vo mt hp c n ngn, trong cc vch ngn hp v cc du * c
th dch chuyn c tr hai vch ngn hai u hp l c nh. Nh vy mi t hp lp
chp k ca n phn t chnh l s cch chn k v tr trong n + k 1 (gm k v tr t du *
v n 1 vch ngn) t k du *. Vy, k hiu s cc t hp lp chp k ca n phn t l
k
n
C , ta c:
k
1 k n
k
n
C C
+
=
Th d 1. Mt ca hng c 4 loi bnh hp khc nhau. Hi c bao nhiu cch chn 6
hp bnh?
Gii: Theo khi nim t hp lp, ta c
6
9
6
1 6 4
6
4
C C C = =
+
= 84 cch chn.
Th d 2. C bao nhiu cch chn 5 t tin t 7 loi tin giy 1000, 2000, 5000,
10 000, 20 000, 50 000 v 100 000?
Gii: S cch chn l
5
11
C C
5
7
=

= 462.
Th d 3. Phng trnh x + y + z = 11 c bao nhiu nghim nguyn khng m?
Gii: Mi nghim ca phng trnh ng vi mt cch phn chia 11 phn t (11 s 1)
cho thnh ba loi, sao cho c x phn t loi 1, y phn t loi 2 v z phn t loi 3. V
vy s nghim ca phng trnh bng s t hp lp chp 11 t tp c 3 loi phn t , ngha
l c:
11
1 11 3
C C
11
3 +
=

= 78 nghim.
C th tm c nghim ca phng trnh cho vi cc iu kin rng buc ca
cc n s. Chng hn tm s nghim nguyn khng m ca phng trnh cho trn tho
mn iu kin: x 1; y 2; z 3. Khi mt nghim ca phng trnh ng vi mt cch
phn chia 11 phn t cho thnh 3 loi, sao cho c x phn t loi 1, y phn t loi 2 v z
phn t loi 3 trong c t nht 1 phn t loi 1 (x c sn mt s 1), c t nht 2 phn
t loi 2 v c t nht 3 phn t loi 3. V th trc ht chn 1 phn t loi 1, 2 phn t loi
2 v 3 phn t loi 3; cn li 5 phn t c chia tip cho ba loi. Do s nghim ca
phng trnh l s t hp lp chp 5 t 3 loi phn t cho:
5
7
5
3
C C = = 21 (nghim)

c. Hon v ca cc tp hp c cc phn t ging nhau
Trong cc bi ton m, mt s phn t ca tp hp cho c th ging nhau. Khi
phi cn thn ko ta m chng nhiu hn mt ln.
Th d: C th lp c bao nhiu xu khc nhau bng cch sp xp li cc ch ci
trong cm t NHANDANANHHUNG (nhn dn anh hng)?
Gii: Trong t cho c 14 ch ci gm 5 ch N, 3 ch H, 3 ch A v cc ch D,
U, G. L ra c 14! cch sp xp, nhng trong mi cch sp xp nu i ch 5 ch N (c 5!
cch i ch), i ch 3 ch H (c 3! cch i ch) v i ch 3 ch A (c 3! cch i
ch), th xu thu c l khng i. Vy nu gi s xu thu c l m th theo nguyn l
nhn, ta c:
m.5!.3!.3! = 14!
T s cc xu khc nhau c c l: 160 180 28
! 3 !. 3 !. 5
! 14
m = =
Bng l lun tng t ta c: S hon v ca n phn t trong c n
1
phn t ging
nhau thuc loi mt, n
2
phn t ging nhau thuc loi hai, , n
k
phn t ging nhau thuc
loi k (n
1
+ n
2
+ + n
k
n) l:
! n ... ! n ! n
! n
k 2 1

Ch : C nhiu cch suy ra cng thc tnh s hon v lp. Chng hn, trong n v
tr ta chn n
1
v tr xp cc phn t loi mt, nh vy c
1
n
n
C cch chn; sau chn n
2

v tr trong n n
1
v tr cn li xp cc phn t loi hai, tc l c
2
1
n
n n
C
; v.v T
dng nguyn l nhn v cng thc tnh s t hp c kt qu nh bit.
d. S phn chia cc tp hp thnh cc tp con khc nhau
Trc ht xt th d: C bao nhiu cch chia mt c bi 52 qun cho 4 ngi sao cho
mt ngi c 10 qun, nhng ngi khc ln lt c 8, 8, 7 qun?
Gii: Ngi u tin nhn 10 qun bi c
10
52
C cch nhn khc nhau, cn li 42 qun
nn ngi tip theo c
8
42
C cch nhn 8 qun bi, cn li 34 qun bi nn ngi th ba c
8
34
C cch nhn 8 qun bi, v ngi cui cng c
7
26
C cch nhn 7 qun bi. Theo nguyn
l nhn th s cch chia cc qun bi tha mn u bi l:
! 19 ! 7 ! 8 ! 8 ! 10
! 52
! 19 ! 7
! 26
! 26 ! 8
! 34
! 34 ! 8
! 42
! 42 ! 10
! 52
C C C C
7
26
8
34
8
42
10
52
= =
2,23.10
31
.
Tng qut, ta c: S cch phn chia mt tp hp gm n phn t thnh k tp sao cho
tp con th i c n
i
phn t ( n
1
+ n
2
+ + n
k
= n) l:
! n ... ! n ! n
! n
k 2 1


Ch l cng thc va lp c cho thy th t cc tp con khng nh hng n kt
qu phn chia tp hp cho.
3. Nguyn l b tr.
Nu khng c gi thit A, B l 2 tp hp ri nhau, ta c nguyn l cng tng qut:
N(A B) = N(A) + N(B) N(A B) (1)
R rng, nu A, B ri nhau th A B = nn N(A B) =0 v c nguyn l cng
n gin (mc 1.1):
N(A B) = N(A) + N(B)
Cng thc (1) cn gi l nguyn l b tr cho 2 tp hp. Tng qut hn, ta c:
nh l: Gi s A
1
, A
2
, ..., A
n
l n tp hp hu hn. Khi :
) A ... A N(A 1) ( ... ) A A N(A ) A N(A ) N(A
) A . . . A N(A
n 2 1
1 n
k j i
n
j i i
n 2 1
k j i 1 i j i
+ + + =
=

=
(2)
Chng minh: Chng ta bit rng s cc tp giao A
i
A
j
l
2
n
C , s cc tp giao
A
i
A
j
A
k
l
3
n
C , ... . Tng qut s cc tp giao ca r tp l
r
n
C , r = 1, 2, ...,n.
Cng thc (2) c chng minh bng cch ch ra rng, mi phn t ca tp hp A
1

A
2
... A
n
c m ng mt ln v phi ca (2).
Xt phn t tu x ca tp hp A
1
A
2
... A
n
. Gi s x c mt trong r tp ca
A
1
, A
2
, ..., A
n
trong r = 1, 2, ..., n. Phn t x ny c m
1
r
C ln trong tng N(A
i
),
m
2
r
C trong tng N(A
i
A
j
), ... Bi vy tng cc ln m ca x v phi ca (2) l:
] C ) 1 ( ... C C C 1 [ 1 C ) 1 ( ... C C C
r
r
r 3
r
2
r
1
r
r
r
r 3
r
2
r
1
r
+ + + = + +
= 1 (1 1)
r
= 1
Vy x c m ng mt ln trong v phi ca (2).
nh l c chng minh.
C th vit cng thc (2) di dng khc: ng nht tp A
i
vi tnh cht A
i
cho trn
mt tp hp X no v phi m xem c bao nhiu phn t ca X khng tho mn bt c
tnh cht A
i
no (i = 1, 2, ..., n)
Gi N
*
l s cn m; N = N(X) (l s phn t ca X), ta c:
N
*
= N N(A
1
A
2
... A
n
) = N N
1
+ N
2
... + (1)
n
N
n
. (3)
trong N
k
l tng cc phn t ca X tho mn k tnh cht ly t n tnh cht cho.
Th d 1: Trong mt lp hc c 50 sinh vin th c 30 ngi bit ting Anh, 20 ngi
bit ting Php, trong s sinh vin bit ngoi ng c 10 ngi bit c ting Anh v ting
Php. Hi trong lp c bao nhiu sinh vin khng bit c ting Anh v ting Php?


Gii: Theo cng thc (1), ta c s sinh vin bit t nht 1 trong 2 th ting Anh, Php
l: 30 + 20 10 = 40 s sinh vin khng bit c ting Anh v ting Php l 10 ngi.
Th d 2. C bao nhiu xu nh phn c di 8 hoc bt u bng 1 hoc kt thc
bng 00?
Gii: Do v tr u tin l c nh, ch c 1 cch chn duy nht, mi mt trong 7 v
tr tip theo c 2 cch chn (0 hoc 1), suy ra s xu nh phn c di 8 bt u bng 1 l
2
7
= 128 xu. Tng t s xu nh phn c di 8 kt thc bng 00 l 2
6
= 64 v s xu
nh phn c di 8 bt u bng 1 v kt thc 00 l 2
5
= 32.
Vy, s xu nh phn c di 8 hoc bt u bng 1 hoc kt thc bng 00 l
128 + 64 32 = 160 (xu)
Th d 3. C bao nhiu s nguyn dng khng ln hn 100 hoc chia ht cho 4
hoc chia ht cho 6 nhng khng ng thi chia ht cho c 4 v 6?
Gii: S cc s chia ht cho 4 l: 25
4
100
=
(
,
S cc s chia ht cho 6 l: 16
6
100
=
(
,
S cc s ng thi chia ht cho c 4 v 6 l: 8
12
100
=
(

Vy s cn tm l: 25 + 16 8 = 33.
Th d 4. C bao nhiu s nguyn nh hn hoc bng 1000 khng chia ht cho bt
c s no trong cc s 3, 4, 5?
Gii: Gi X l cc s nguyn dng nh hn hoc bng 1000 th N(X) = 1000.
A
i
= {x X | x chia ht cho i }, i = 3, 4, 5.
Khi A
3
A
4
A
5
l tp cc s trong X chia ht cho t nht mt trong cc s 3, 4, 5 v:
N(A
3
A
4
A
5
) = N
1
N
2
+ N
3
.
Ta c: N
1
= N(A
3
) + N(A
4
) + N(A
5
) =
=
(
+
(
+
(
5
1000
4
1000
3
1000
= 333 + 250 + 200 = 783
N
2
= N(A
3
A
4
) + N(A
3
A
5
) + N(A
4
A
5
) =
=
(
+
(
+
(
4.5
1000
3.5
1000
3.4
1000
= 83 + 66 + 50 = 199
N
3
= N(A
3
A
4
A
5
) = 16
3.4.5
1000
=
(

T c p s ca bi ton l: 1000 N
1
+ N
2
N
3
= 400.

Th d 5. Bi ton b th
C n phong b ghi sn a ch v n l th vit cho n a ch . B ngu nhin cc l
th vo cc phong b (mi l th cho vo 1 phong b). Hy tm xem c bao nhiu cch b
th sao cho khng c l th no c b ng a ch.
Gii: S cch b th vo phong b l n!. Ni cch khc, nu gi X l tt c cc cch b
th vo phong b th N(X) = n! .
Gi A
k
l tnh cht c k l th b ng a ch.
Gi N
*
l s cch b th sao cho khng c l th no ng a ch.
Theo cng thc (3), ta c: N
*
= n! N
1
+ N
2
... + (1)
n
N
n
,
trong N
k
l s tt c cc cch b th sao cho c k l th b ng a ch.
tnh s N
k
ta l lun nh sau: C
k
n
C cch ly k l th, mi cch ly k l th c
(n k)! cch b k l th ny ng a ch (v khi n k l th cn li c b ty ), do
:
k!
n!
k)! (n C N
k
n k
= =
T :
|
|
\
|

+ + =
n!
1) (
2!
1
1!
1
1 n!
n
*
N
S N
*
trong bi ton b th c gi l s mt th t, k hiu l D
n
. Di y l mt
vi gi tr ca D
n
:
n 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
D
n
1 2 9 44 265 1854 14833 133 496 1 334 961 4 890 741
S mt th t D
n
tng rt nhanh, ngi ta gi l hin tng bng n t hp.
Thng cc bi ton m ph thc vo tham s u vo l s t nhin n, chng
hn nh s t hp, s chnh hp, s mt th t, ... Vic biu din tng minh cc kt qu
ny nh mt hm ca s t nhin n gi l cng thc trc tip. Trong nhiu trng hp vic
tm cng thc trc tip nh th l kh khn. C mt phng php biu din kt qu m
c ng vi gi tr u vo thng qua cc gi tr u vo nh hn v cng thc tnh thu
c gi l cng thc truy hi. Cc gi tr u tin m k t cng thc truy hi c hiu
lc gi l gi tr ban u ca cng thc truy hi (xem li nh ngha trong 6.1. chng 1).
Th d: C th tnh s t hp
k
n
C nh sau: Chn mt phn t a c nh trong n
phn t ang xt. Khi , nu a c chn vo t hp th phi chn thm k 1 phn t
na t n 1 phn t cn li, s cch chn trong trng hp ny l
1 k
1 n
C

; cn nu a khng
c chn vo t hp th phi chn c k phn t trong n 1 phn t cn li, s cch chn
trong trng hp ny l
k
n
C . Theo quy tc cng ta c:
k
1 n
1 k
1 n
k
n
C C C

+ =

l cng thc truy hi tnh s
k
n
C . Cc gi tr ban u ca cng thc ny l 1 C C
1
1
0
1
= = .
Di y chng ta xt mt s phng php a cng thc truy hi v cng thc
trc tip.
4.1. Phng php kh tm cng thc trc tip t cng thc truy hi
Phng php ny c xt qua mt s th d sau:
Th d 1: Bi ton chia mt phng.
Trn mt phng, k n ng thng sao cho khng c 2 ng no song song v khng
c qu 2 ng thng ng quy ti mt im. Hi mt phng c chia thnh bao nhiu
phn?
Gii: Gi s phn ca mt phng c chia bi n ng thng nh vy l S
n
. Gi s
k c n 1 ng thng, k thm ng thng th n th s phn c thm s bng
s giao im c thm cng 1. S giao im c thm l s giao im m ng thng
va k ct n 1 ng thng k trc , ngha l bng n 1. T nhn c cng thc
truy hi:
S
n
= S
n 1
+ n ; n 1; S
0
= 1.
(S
0
l gi tr ban u)
T cng thc trn, d dng tnh c:
S
1
= 1 + 1 = 2, S
2
= 2 + 2 = 4, S
3
= 4 + 3 = 7
S
4
= 7 + 4 = 11, S
5
= 11+ 5 = 16, S
6
= 16 + 6 = 22, ...
tm cng thc trc tip, ta c:
S
0
= 1
S
1
= S
0
+ 1
S
2
= S
1
+ 2
S
3
= S
2
+ 3
. . . . . .
S
n
= S
n 1
+ n
Cng v vi v ca cc ng thc trn c:
S
n
= S
0
+ 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n =
2
2 n n
2
1) n(n
1
2
+ +
=
+
Th d 2: Bi ton li kp.
Mt ngi gi tit kim 10 triu ng vi li sut hng nm l 10%. Ht mt nm gi
tin, nu khng rt tin ra ngi c cng s li vo gc tnh li cho nm tip theo
(li kp). Hi sau 20 nm gi khng rt ra ln no th s tin ca ngi l bao nhiu?
Gii: Gi P
n
l s tin ca ngi sau n nm gi, khi s tin ca ngi bng
s tin ca nm th n 1 cng vi li sut ca nm th n. Nh vy:
P
n
= P
n 1
+ 0,1 P
n 1
= 1,1 P
n 1
.
l cng thc truy hi tnh s tin sau n nm gi ca ngi . Gi tr ban u ca
bi ton l P
0
= 10 (triu).

Th ln lt P
n 1
= 1,1 P
n 2
vo P
n
, P
n 2
= 1,1 P
n 3
vo P
n 2
; ... Cui cng ta c:
P
n
= 1,1
n
P
0
.
Sau 20 nm s tin ca ngi l: P
20
= 1,1
20
.10 6,7275. 10 = 67,275 triu ng.
Th d 3: Bi ton thp H ni.
Tng truyn rng, ti mt ngi cha H ni c mt tm bng ng, trn c 3
ci cc bng kim cng. Lc khai thin lp a, trn mt trong 3 ci cc c Pht
64 chic a bng vng vi ng knh nh dn (hnh 1). Ngy m cc nh s phi dch
chuyn a sang mt cc khc theo nguyn tc: mi ln ch c chuyn 1 a t cc ny
sang cc khc bt k nhng khng c t mt chic a to ln trn mt chic a khc
nh hn. Hi phi mt bao lu cc nh s mi chuyn ht s a sang mt cc khc, bit
rng mi ln chuyn 1 a ht 1 giy?

Hnh 1. Trng thi ban u Hnh 2. Trng thi sau H
n1
ln chuyn
Gii: Gi H
n
l s ln dch chuyn a nu cc ban u c n a.
Gi s lc u n a trn cc 1 (hnh 1). Sau H
n 1
ln dch chuyn cc nh s
chuyn c n 1 a sang cc 3 (hnh 2). T y phi c 1 ln chuyn chic a ln nht
t cc 1 sang cc 2 v H
n 1
ln dch chuyn n 1 chic a t cc 3 sang cc 2. Nh vy,
ta c:
H
n
= 2 H
n 1
+ 1
l cng thc truy hi tnh s ln dch chuyn n a t cc ny sang cc khc. D thy
gi tr ban u l H
1
= 1 (cc ch c 1 a).
Chng ta tm cng thc trc tip tnh H
n
. Ta c:
H
n
= 2 H
n 1
+ 1 = 2 (2 H
n 2
+ 1) + 1 = 2
2
H
n 2
+ 2 + 1 =
= 2
2
(2 H
n 3
+ 1) + 2 + 1 = 2
3
H
n 3
+ 2
2
+ 2 + 1 =
. . . . .
= 2
n 1
H
1
+ 2
n 2
+ ... + 2 + 1 =
= 2
n
1.
Vi 64 chic a cho, cc nh s phi dch chuyn:
H
64
= 2
64
1 = 18,4467.10
18
(hn 18 t t ln)
Nu mi ln dch chuyn ht 1 giy, cc nh s cn khong 580 t nm mi hon thnh
vic chuyn 64 a t cc ny sang cc khc.

Th d 4: Lp cng thc truy hi tnh s mt th t D
n
.
Gii: nh s th v phong b t 1 n n, th th i ng vi a ch phong b i . Mt
cch b th ng nht vi mt hon v (a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
n
) ca (1, 2, ..., n). Mt cch mt th t
l mt hon v (a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
n
) sao cho a
i
i, i. Thnh phn a
1
ca hon v c th nhn n
1 gi tr ngoi s 1. Vi mi gi tr k ca a
1
(k 1) c th xy ra 2 trng hp:
1) a
k
= 1, khi cc thnh phn cn li c xc nh nh s cch mt th t
ca n 2 phn t , s ny chnh l D
n 2
.
2) a
k
1, khi cc thnh phn cn li c xc nh nh s cch mt th t
ca n 1 phn t (xem gi tr 1 nh l gi tr k), s ny chnh l D
n 1
.
T c cng thc truy hi:
D
n
= (n 1)(D
n 2
+ D
n 1
) , n 3 .
Cc gi tr ban u c th tnh trc tip t nh ngha v c D
1
= 0, D
2
= 1.
Nu coi D
0
= 1 th cng thc truy hi trn ng n 2.
Ta c: D
3
= (3 1)(0 + 1) = 2 , D
4
= (4 1)(1 + 2) = 9,
D
5
= (5 1)(2 + 9) = 44 , D
6
= (6 1)(9 + 44) = 265, ...
C th a cng thc truy hi trn v cng thc trc tip nh sau:
D
n
= (n 1)(D
n 2
+ D
n 1
)

D
n
nD
n 1
= [D
n 1
(n 1)D
n 2
]

t I
n
= D
n
nD
n 1
. Ta c:
D
n
n D
n 1
= I
n
= I
n 1
= I
n 2
= ... = (1)
n 1
I
1
= (1)
n
.
Chia c 2 v cho n! , c:
2 n ,
n!
1) (
1)! (n
D
n!
D
n
1 n n

Cng v vi v ca h thc trn c :
|
|
\
|

+ + + =
+ + + =
n!
1) (
2!
1
1!
1
1 n! D
n!
1) (
2!
2
1!
1
1
n!
D
n
n
n
n
... ...
Cng thc thu c l cng thc bit trong th d 5, mc 3 (Nguyn l b tr).
4.2. Gii cc h thc truy hi tuyn tnh.
Trong phn ny xt cch tm cng thc trc tip t cng thc truy hi c dng c bit
gi l dng tuyn tnh.
a. Cc khi nim
nh ngha: Cng thc truy hi tuyn tnh thun nht bc k c h s hng s l cng
thc truy hi c dng:
a
n
= c
1
a
n 1
+ c
2
a
n 2
+ ... + c
k
a
n k
(1)
trong c
1
, c
2
, ..., c
k
l cc s thc (hng s) v c
k
0.

S d c thut ng cng thc truy hi bc k v s hng a
n
c tnh qua k s hng
trc n. Cc gi tr ban u ca cng thc truy hi trn gm k gi tr: a
0
, a
1
, ..., a
k 1
.
C th tm cng thc trc tip tnh a
n
di dng:
a
n
= r
n
. (2)
Trong r l mt s thc cn xc nh.
Dy { a
n
} xc nh theo (2) s tho mn (1) nu r l nghim ca phng trnh:
r
n
= c
1
r
n 1
+ c
2
r
n 2
+ ... + c
k
r
n k
.
hay: r
n
c
1
r
n 1
c
2
r
n 2
... c
k
r
n k
= 0. (3)
Phng trnh (3) gi l phng trnh c trng ca cng thc (1), v nghim ca (3)
gi l nghim c trng.
Trc ht xt vi k = 2, tc l cng thc truy hi tuyn tnh bc hai:
a
n
= c
1
a
n 1
+ c
2
a
n 2
.
Phng trnh c trng ca cng thc truy hi tuyn tnh bc hai l:
r
2
c
1
r c
2
= 0
b. Gii cng thc truy hi tuyn tnh bc hai khi phng trnh c trng c 2
nghim phn bit.
nh l 1: Cho c
1
, c
2
l hai s thc. Nu phng trnh c trng r
2
c
1
r c
2
= 0 c
hai nghim thc phn bit r
1
, r
2
th iu kin cn v dy s {a
n
} l nghim ca cng
thc truy hi:
a
n
= c
1
a
n 1
+ c
2
a
n 2

l: a
n
=
1
r
1
n
+
2
r
2
n
, n = 1, 2, ...
trong
1
,
2
l cc s thc c th xc nh c nh cc iu kin ban u ca cng
thc truy hi.
Chng minh:
iu kin cn: Nu r
1
, r
2
l 2 nghim ca phng trnh c trng, ta phi chng minh
a
n
=
1
r
1
n
+
2
r
2
n
.
vi
1
,
2
l cc hng s tho mn cng thc truy hi a
n
= c
1
a
n 1
+ c
2
a
n 2
.
Tht vy: Ta c: r
1
2
c
1
r
1
c
2
= 0 v r
2
2
c
1
r
2
c
2
= 0
hay: r
1
2
= c
1
r
1
+ c
2
v r
2
2
= c
1
r
2
+ c
2

T : a
n
= c
1
a
n 1
+ c
2
a
n 2
= c
1
(
1
r
1
n 1
+
2
r
2
n 1
) + c
2
(
1
r
1
n 2
+
2
r
2
n 2
) =
=
1
r
1
n 2
(c
1
r
1
+ c
2
) +
2
r
2
n 2
(c
1
r
2
+ c
2
) =
=
1
r
1
n 2
r
1
2
+
2
r
2
n 2
r
2
2
=
=
1
r
1
n
+
2
r
2
n
.
iu kin :
Gi s { a
n
} l mt dy bt k tho mn h thc truy hi a
n
= c
1
a
n 1
+ c
2
a
n 2
.

Ta
phi chng minh rng s chn c cc s
1
,
2
sao cho a
n
=
1
r
1
n
+
2
r
2
n
.

Tht vy, gi s a
0
v a
1
l 2 gi tr ban u ca h thc truy hi. Ta c:
+ =
+ =
2 2 1 1 1
2 1 0
r r a
a

y l h phng trnh tuyn tnh 2 n Cramer, n c nghim duy nht:
2 1
1 1 0
2
2 1
0 2 1
1
r r
a r a
;
r r
a r a
=
Vy a
n
=
1
r
1
n
+
2
r
2
n
c xc nh.

Th d: Dy Fibonacci, nh bit c xc nh bi cng thc truy hi:
F
n
= F
n 1
+ F
n 2
; F
0
= 0 ; F
1
= 1.
l cng thc truy hi tuyn tnh bc hai c h s khng i. Ta i tm cng thc
trc tip tnh F
n
.
Gii: Phng trnh c trng ca cng thc l:
2
5 1
r 0 1 r r
1,2
2

= =
T , theo nh l 1, ta c:
n
2
n
1 n
2
5 1
2
5 1
F
|
|
\
|

+
|
|
\
|
+
=
Thay cc iu kin ban u F
0
= 0, F
1
= 1 vo c h phng trnh:
=
+
+
+
= +
1
2
5 1
2
5 1
0
2 1
2 1

Gii h phng trnh ny c nghim:
5
1
- ;
5
1
2 1
= =
Vy: .
2
5 1
5
1
2
5 1
5
1
n n
|
|
\
|

|
|
\
|
+
=
n
F
c. Gii cng thc truy hi tuyn tnh bc hai khi phng trnh c trng c
nghim kp
nh l 2: Cho c
1
, c
2
l hai s thc. Nu phng trnh c trng r
2
c
1
r c
2
= 0 c
nghim kp r
0
th iu kin cn v dy s {a
n
} l nghim ca cng thc truy hi:
a
n
= c
1
a
n 1
+ c
2
a
n 2

l: a
n
=
1
r
0
n
+
2
n r
0
n
, n = 1, 2, ...
trong
1
,
2
l cc s thc c th xc nh c nh cc iu kin ban u ca cng
thc truy hi.


Vic chng minh nh l 2 tng t chng minh nh l 1.
Th d: Tm nghim ca cng thc truy hi:
a
n
= 6a
n 1
9a
n 2
; a
0
= 1, a
1
= 6.
Gii: Phng trnh c trng r
2
6r + 9 = 0 c nghim kp r = 3.
Vy a
n
c dng: a
n
=
1
3
n
+
2
n 3
n
.
Thay n = 0 , n = 1, ta c:
1
6 a 3 3
1 a
2 1
1 2 1
0 1
= =
= = +
= =

Vy: a
n
= 3
n
+ n3
n
= (n + 1)3
n
.
d. Ch thch
C th m rng nh l 1 cho h thc truy hi tuyn tnh bc k nh sau:
Cho c
1
, c
2
, , c
k
l cc s thc. Gi s phng trnh c trng:
r
k
c
1
r
k 1
c
k 1
r c
k
= 0
c k nghim phn bit r
1
, r
2
, , r
k
. Khi iu kin cn v dy {a
n
} l nghim ca
cng thc truy hi:
a
n
= c
1
a
n -1
+ c
2
a
n - 2
+ + c
k
a
n - k

l: a
n
=
1
r
1
n

+
2
r
2
n
+ +
k
r
k
n
trong
1
,
2
, ,
k
l cc s thc c th xc nh c nh cc iu kin ban u ca
cng thc truy hi cho.
Th d: Tm nghim ca cng thc truy hi:
a
n
= 6a
n 1
1a
n 2
+ 6a
n 3
; a
0
= 2, a
1
= 5, a
2
= 15.
Gii: Phng trnh c trng ca cng thc truy hi cho l:
r
3
6r
2
+ 11r 6 = 0
Cc nghim ca phng trnh c trng l: r = 1, r = 2, r = 3. Vy cng thc trc tip
tnh a
n
c dng:
a
n
=
1
1
n
+
2
2
n
+
3
3
n
.
Thay n = 0, n = 1, n = 2, n = 3 vo cng thc tnh a
n
, c h phng trnh tuyn tnh
theo
1
,
2
,
3
:
= + +
= + +
= + +
15 9 4
5 3 2
2
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1

Gii h phng trnh c nghim:
1
= 1,
2
= 1,
3
= 2. Vy dng hin ca cng thc
truy hi cho l:
a
n
= 1 2
n
+ 2. 3
n
.

5. Bi ton lit k.
C nhng bi ton m cc cu hnh ca t hp, ngoi vic m s lng cc cu hnh
tho mn cn phi lit k tt c cc cu hnh cn m. l cc bi ton phi tm cc cu
hnh t hp tho mn thm mt hoc mt s iu kin no . Th d nh phi tm cc tp
con ca mt tp hp c 5 s sao cho tng ca cc phn t ca tp con bng 50, khi
phi kim tra tng cc s trong mi tp ca 2
5
= 32 tp con ca tp cho tm cc tp
tho mn iu kin nu. Mun vy, phi lit k cc phn t ca mi tp trong 32 tp con
.
Vic lit k cc cu hnh phi tho mn cc nguyn tc sau:
- Khng c lp li mt cu hnh m.
- Khng c st mt cu hnh.
Sau y chng ta tm hiu mt s thut ton lit k thng gp.
5.1. Phng php sinh
thc hin phng php ny, bi ton cn tho mn 2 iu kin:
1- C th xc nh c mt th t trn tp cc cu hnh cn m. T c th
xc nh c cu hnh u tin v cu hnh cui cng theo th t xc nh.
2- Xy dng c thut ton t mt cu hnh cha phi l cui cng ang c c
th a ra mt cu hnh k tip theo th t xc nh.
t tn thut ton theo iu kin 2 l thut ton Sinh_k_tip. C th m phng thut
ton sinh nh sau:
Agorithm: Tng qut v thut ton sinh.
Procedue Phng php sinh;
Begin
< Xy dng cu hnh ban u >
stop := false;
while not stop do
begin
< a ra cu hnh ang c >
Sinh_k_tip ;
end;
End;
Bin stop l mt bin Boole dng dng chng trnh, khi n cu hnh cui cng th
stop nhn gi tr true v chng trnh dng.
Sinh_k_tip l mt th tc con nhm xy dng cu hnh k tip ca cu hnh ang c.
Ch rng th t cc cu hnh xc nh trong iu kin 1 cn la chn sao cho c
th xy dng c thut ton sinh_k_tip.
Xt 3 bi ton c th s dng phng php sinh.

a. Lit k cc xu nh phn c di n
Mi xu nh phn b = b
n 1
b
n 2
b
0
, trong b
i
{0, 1} c th xem l biu din
nh phn ca 1 s nguyn P(b) no . Vy c th ly th t tng ca s nguyn xc
nh th t cc xu nh phn.
Xu nh phn b = b
n 1
b
n 2
b
0
c gi l i trc xu a = a
n 1
a
n 2
... a
0
, (hay a
k tip b) nu P(b) < P(a), k hiu l b < a. Cch xc nh th t nh vy gi l th t t
nhin hay cn gi l th t t in.
Chng hn vi n = 3, c th t t in ca cc xu nh sau:
Th t ca xu 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Xu c th 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111
Nh vy xu u tin l gm ton s 0 v xu cui cng gm ton s 1. T suy ra
quy tc sinh xu nh phn k tip nh sau:
Xu u tin gm ton s 0: 00 ... 0
Gi s ang c xu b
n 1
b
n 2
... b
0
, khi :
- Tm t phi sang, tc l t b
0
, b
1
,... n khi gp bt 0 u tin, chng hn l b
i
,
- Thay b
i
= 1 v b
j
= 0 j < i xu mi thu c l xu k tip ca xu ang c.
Th d: Tm xu k tip ca xu 1 000 100 111 (n =10).
i t bn phi sang, bit u tin bng 0 l bit th 4, tc l b
3
= 0. Vy thay b
3
= 1, b
2
=
b
1
= b
0
= 0 c xu k tip ca xu cho l 1 000 101 000.
(R rng l: 1 000 100 111 = 2
9
+ 2
5
+ 2
2
+2
1
+2
0
= 541
v 1 000 101 000 = 2
9
+ 2
5
+ 2
3
= 542)
Thut ton va trnh by c th m t nh sau:
Algorithm: Sinh xu nh phn k tip.
Procedure Xu nh phn k tip;
Input: Xu nh phn b
n 1
b
n 2
... b
0
, b
i
= 0;
Output: Xu nh phn k tip a
n 1
a
n 2
... a
0
;
Begin
i := 0;
while b
i
= 1 do
begin
b
i
:= 0;
i := i + 1 ;
end;
b
i
:= 1;
End;
b. Lit k cc t hp chp k ca mt tp hp c n phn t
Xt bi ton lit k tt c cc t hp chp k ca tp hp X = {1, 2, ..., n}

V mi t hp chp k ca n phn t cho l mt tp con gm k phn t ly t n phn
t nn phi xp th t cc tp con . Trc ht biu din mi tp con k phn t thnh
mt b c th t:
a = (a
1
, a
2
, ...,a
k
) ; 1 a
1
< a
2
< ... < a
k
n
v nh ngha: Tp con a = (a
1
, a
2
, ...,a
k
) gi l i trc tp con a = (a
1
, a
2
, ...,a
k
) theo
th t t in, k hiu a a, nu tm c mt ch s i (1 i k) sao cho:
a
1
= a
1
, a
2
= a
2
, ... , a
i 1
= a
i 1
, a
i
< a
i
.
Th d: Cho X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Cc t hp chp 3 ca X c lit k theo th t t
in l:
{1, 2, 3} {1, 2, 4} {1, 2, 5}
{1, 3, 4} {1, 3, 5} {1, 4, 5}
{2, 3, 4} {2, 3, 5} {2, 4, 5} {3, 4, 5}
Nh vy tp con u tin l {1, 2, ..., k} v tp con cui cng l {n k+1, nk+2, ..., n}.
T suy ra quy tc sinh tp con k tip nh sau:
Tm t phi qua tri ca dy phn t u tin tho mn a
i
n k + i ,
Thay a
i
bng a
i
+ 1 ,
Thay a
j
bng a
i
+ j i , vi j = i + 1, i + 2, ..., k.
Th d: Tm t hp chp 4 t tp {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} k tip t hp {1, 2, 5, 6}
Gii: Li t phi sang tri thy a
2
= 2 l s hng u tin tho mn:
a
2
= 2 6 4 + 2= 4.
Nh vy t hp k tip l:
a
1
= 1, a
2
= 2 + 1 = 3, a
3
= 3 + 3 2 = 4, a
4
= 3 + 4 2 = 5,
tc l tp {1, 3, 4, 5}
Algorithm: Sinh t hp k tip.
Procedure T hp k tip;
Input: T hp {a
1
, a
2
, ...,a
k
} khng trng vi {n k + 1, ... , n};
Output: T hp k tip {a
1
, a
2
, ...,a
k
} ;
Begin
i := k ;
while a
i
= n k + i do
i := i 1;
a
i
:= a
i
+ 1 ;
for j := i + 1 to k do a
j
= a
i
+ j i ;
End;
c. Lit k cc hon v ca tp hp c n phn t
Bi ton t ra l: Lit k tt c cc hon v ca tp hp X = {1, 2, ..., n}

Mi hon v ca X c th biu din bi b c th t n thnh phn
a = (a
1
, a
2
, ...,a
n
) ; a
i
a
j
khi i j
nh ngha th t t in ca cc hon v nh sau: Hon v a = (a
1
, a
2
, ...,a
n
) gi l i
trc hon v b = (b
1
, b
2
, ...,b
n
), k hiu a b, nu tm c mt ch s k (1 kn) sao cho:
a
1
= b
1
, a
2
= b
2
, ... , a
k 1
= b
k 1
, a
k
< b
k
.
Th d: Cc hon v ca {1, 2, 3} c lit k theo th t t in l:
(1 2 3) (1 3 2) (2 1 3) (2 3 1) (3 1 2) (3 2 1)
Nh vy hon v u tin l (1, 2, ..., n) v hon v cui cng l (n, n 1, ...,1).
T c th ch ra quy tc sinh hon v k tip hon v a = (a
1
, a
2
, ...,a
n
) (n, n1,..., 1)
nh sau:
Tm t phi qua tri ca hon v ang xt c ch s i u tin tho mn a
i
< a
i + 1
.
Tm a
k
bn phi a
i
(tc l k > i) theo iu kin a
k
l s nh nht trong cc s c
chn sao cho a
k
> a
i
, i ch a
i
, a
k
.
Lt ngc on t a
i + 1
n a
n
(xp li cc s t a
i + 1
n a
n
theo th t tng dn)
Th d: Tm hon v k tip ca hon v (3, 6, 2, 5, 4, 1)
S u tin tnh t cui ln m nh hn s sau n l a
3
= 2 < a
4
= 5.
S nh nht trong cc s ng sau a
3
= 2 m ln hn a
3
l a
5
= 4.
i ch a
3
= 2 v a
5
= 4 ta c (3, 6, 4, 5, 2, 1).
Lt ngc (a
4
, a
5
, a
6
) = (5, 2, 1) c hon v k tip l (3, 6, 4, 1, 2, 5).
Thut ton c m phng nh sau:
Algorithm Sinh hon v k tip.
Procedure Hon v k tip;
Input: Hon v (a
1
, a
2
, ...,a
n
) (n, n 1, ..., 1);
Output: Hon v k tip (b
1
, b
2
, ...,b
n
);
Begin
(* Tm ch s j ln nht tho mn a
j
< a
j + 1
*)
j := n 1;
while a
j
> a
j + 1
do j:= j 1;
(* Tm a
k
l s nh nht cn ln hn a
j
bn phi a
j
*)
k := n;
while a
j
> a
k
do k := k 1;
i ch (a
j
,a
k
) (* i ch a
j
vi a
k
*)
(*Lt ngc on t a
j + 1
n a
n
*)
r := n;
s := j + 1;
while r > s do
begin

i ch (a
r
, a
s
);
r := r 1;
s := s + 1;
end;
End;
(* ich (x, y) l th tc con nhm i ch x vi y: z := x; x := y; y := z *)
Ni chung, phng php sinh c nhiu hn ch v khng phi cu hnh no cng sinh
c cu hnh k tip mt cch n gin. Mt khc, ngay c cu hnh u tin cng nh
cu hnh cui cng cng khng d xc nh c. gii bi ton lit k cc cu hnh t
hp, ngi ta thng dng thut ton quay lui di y.
5.2. Thut ton quay lui
Ni dung ca thut ton l tm dn cc thnh phn ca cu hnh bng cch th tt
c cc kh nng c th c. C th nh sau:
Gi s cn tm cu hnh c biu din bng mt b n thnh phn (x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
) v
tm c k 1 thnh phn ca cu hnh l x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
k 1
. Khi thnh phn x
k
ca cu
hnh c xc nh theo cch sau:
Gi T
k
l tp hp tt c cc thnh phn m x
k
c th nhn c. Tp T
k
l hu hn. Gi
s N(T
k
) = n
k
, do ln lt duyt tt c cc phn t (thnh phn) ca T
k
. vic duyt
c thun li, cn nh s cho cc phn t ca T
k
. Vi mi kh nng j, tc l chn phn
t x
j
(1 j n
k
) phi th xem x
j
c chp nhn c khng. Khi xy ra 2 tnh hung:
Nu x
j
chp nhn c th a x
j
vo

cu hnh ang xt, tc l thnh phn x
k
ca cu
hnh l x
j
. Nu k = n th cu hnh cn lit k c xc nh, nu k < n th tin hnh
xc nh thnh phn x
k + 1
.
Nu x
j
khng chp nhn c th quay li bc trc xc nh li x
k
.
Th tc quy cho thut ton quay lui nh sau:
Algorithm Thut ton quay lui.
Procedure Th (k: integer);
var j: integer;
Begin
for j := 1 to n do
if <chp nhn j > then
begin
< Xc nh x
k
theo j >;
if k = n then < ghi nhn mt cu hnh >
else Th (k + 1);
end;
End;
iu cn quan tm trong th tc trn l:


1) Lm th no xc nh c tp T
k
l tp tt c cc thnh phn m x
k
c th nhn.
2) Xc nh gi tr biu thc logic < chp nhn j >. Gi tr ny ngoi vic ph thuc
vo j cn ph thuc vo cc thnh phn chn ti k 1 bc trc. Nh vy cn
ghi nh trng thi c sau li gi Th(k+1). Cc trng thi ny c ghi nhn nh
mt bin logic (bin Boole) v gi l bin trng thi.
Thut ton quay lui c th m t bng cy tm kim nh sau:

Ngoi th tc quy Th(k), chng trnh cn c thm cc th tc Khi to v In kt
qu. Chng trnh chnh gii bi ton lit k c dng:
Begin
Khoi_tao;
Thu;
End.
Th d 1: Lit k tt c cc hon v ca n s t nhin dng u tin.
Mi hon v c th c biu din di dng x[1], x[2], ..., x[n] trong x[i] nhn
gi tr t 1 n n v x[i] x[j]. Cc gi tr t 1 n n ln lt c cho x[k], trong gi
tr j c chp nhn nu n cha c dng. Ni cch khc, ta c T
1
= N = {1, 2, ..., n} v
nu xc nh c x[1], x[2], ..., x[k 1]

th T
k
= N \ {x[1], x[2], ..., x[k1]}. V th
cn phi ghi nh xem gi tr j c dng hay cha. iu ny c thc hin nh mt
dy bin logic b[j], trong b[j]

l true nu j cha c dng. Do chng c gn gi
tr true cho mi b[j] trong th tc khi to v sau khi gn gi tr j cho x
k
th b[j] nhn gi tr
false, cui cng li phi gn true cho b[j] sau khi thc hin xong bc in kt qu hay thc
hin xong th tc thu(k+1) s dng cho bc sau.
Program Liet_ke_hoan_vi;
uses crt;
var n: integer;
Gc

Kh nng chn x
1

Kh nng chn x
2

vi x
1
chn

Kh nng chn x
3

vi x
1
, x
2
chn

Hnh 3. Cy lit k li gii theo thut ton quay lui

x: array[1..20] of integer;
b: array[1..20] of boolean;
dem: word;
Procedure khoitao;
var i: integer;
begin
write (' So phan tu n = '); readln(n);
for i:=1 to n do b[i] := true;
dem := 0;
end;
Procedure in_kq;
var i: integer;
begin
dem := dem+1;
write (' Hoan vi thu',dem:3,':');
for i:=1 to n do write(x[i]:4);
writeln;
end;
Procedure thu(k: integer);
var j: integer;
begin
for j:=1 to n do
if b[j] then
begin
x[k] := j;
b[j] := false; {chuyn trng thi mi}
if k=n then in_kq
else thu(k+1);
b[j] := true; {tr li trng thi c}
end;
end;
BEGIN {main}
clrscr;
khoitao;
thu(1);
readln;
END.

Th d 2: Lit k tt c cc chui nh phn c di n
Mi chui nh phn di n c dng x[1] x[2] ... x[n] vi x[i] B; B = {0, 1}. Gi
s xc nh c x[1] x[2] ... x[k1], khi x[k] c chn mt trong 2 phn t ca B.
Vy c chng trnh nh sau:
Program Lietke_Day_Nhiphan;
uses crt;
var n: integer;
b: array[1..20] of 0..1;
dem: word;
Procedure Khoi_tao;
begin
write (' Do dai cua chuoi la: n = '); readln(n);
dem := 0;
end;
Procedure In_kq;
var i: integer;
begin
dem := dem+1;
if dem mod 20 = 0 then readln;
write ( 'Chuoi thu',dem:5,':');
for i:=1 to n do write(b[i]:2);
writeln;
end;
Procedure Thu(k:integer);
var j: integer;
begin
for j:=0 to 1 do
begin
b[k] := j;
if k = n then In_kq else Thu(k+1);
end;
end;
BEGIN
clrscr;
Khoi_tao;
Thu(1);


write(' Tong so co', dem:4,'chuoi nhi phan');
readln;
END.
Th d 3: Bi ton xp hu.
Lit k tt c cc cch xp n con hu trn bn c nn sao cho chng khng n c
nhau. Tc l khng c 2 con hu no cng hng, cng ct, cng ng cho chnh hoc
ng cho ph.
Gii: Gi s n hng, n ct ca bn c c nh s t 1 n n. Chng ta s dng ch
s k ch hng v ch s j ch ct (1 k, j n). Quy c x[k] = j ch v tr con hu
hng k, ct j. Mi hng c xp ng mt con hu, vn cn li l xem mi con hu
c xp vo ct no.
D thy T
1
= N = {1, 2, ..., n}.
Gi s xc nh c x[1], x[2], ..., x[k1], cn phi xp tip x[k] tho mn yu cu
bi ton.
Vic kim sot theo chiu ngang l khng cn thit v mi hng c xp ng mt
con hu. Vic kim sot theo chiu dc c thc hin nh dy bin logic a[j] vi quy c
a[j] bng true nu ct j cn trng
Bn c c 2 ng cho: ng cho chnh v cc ng song song ng cho
chnh c k j v tr (1n kj n1) c kim sot nh dy bin logic c[j]. ng cho
ph c k + j v tr (2 k+j 2n) c kim sot nh dy bin logic b[j]. Cng nh bin
a[j], cc bin b[j] v c[j] s bng true nu tng ng cn trng. Cc bin trng thi a[j],
b[j], c[j] c khi gn gi tr true trong th tc khi to. Nh vy gi tr j c chp nhn
khi v ch khi c 3 bin a[j], b[k+j] v c[kj] c gi tr true, cc bin ny cn c gn li
false khi xp xong qun hu th j v tr li true sau khi gi thu(i+1) hay sau khi in kt qu.
Program Xep_hau;
uses crt;
var n: integer;
x: array[1..20] of integer;
a: array[1..20] of boolean;
b: array[2..40] of boolean;
c: array[19..19] of boolean;
dem: word;
Procedure Khoi_tao;
var i: integer;
begin
write(' Kich thuoc ban co, n = '); readln(n);
for i:=1 to n do a[i] := true;
for i:=2 to 2*n do b[i] := true;
for i:=1n to n1 do c[i] := true;

dem := 0;
end;
Procedure In_kq;
var i: integer;
begin
dem := dem+1;
if dem mod 20 = 0 then readln;
write(' Phuong an', dem:3,' :');
for i:=1 to n do write(x[i]:4);
writeln;
end;
Procedure Thu(k: integer);
var j: integer;
begin
for j:=1 to n do
if a[j] and b[k+j] and c[kj] then
begin
x[k] := j;
a[j] := false;
b[k+j] := false;
c[kj] := false;
if k=n then in_kq else thu(k+1);
a[j] := true;
b[k+j] := true;
c[kj] := true;
end;
end;
BEGIN
clrscr;
Khoi_tao;
Thu(1);
readln;
write(' Tong so co:',dem:3,' phuong an');
readln;
END.

6. Bi ton tn ti
Trong cc bi ton trn chng ta a ra cc thut ton m cc cu hnh t hp.
Trong cc bi ton , s tn ti ca cc cu hnh l c tht v chng ta ch vic m
chng. Tuy nhin, c nhng bi ton ngay c vic ch ra s tn ti ca cu hnh tho mn
iu kin cho cng l mt kh khn. Nh vy xut hin bi ton: Khng nh c hay
khng c t ra l mt cu hnh tho mn cc iu kin cho. Cc bi ton nh vy c
gi l bi ton tn ti.
6.1. Nguyn l Di-ric-le (Dirichlet)
a. nh l 1. Nguyn l lng chim b cu
Nu c nhiu hn n i tng cn xp vo n ci hp th c t nht mt hp c cha
nhiu hn 1 i tng.
Nguyn l ny xut pht t bi ton: C mt n chim b cu bay v t ca chng, nu
s ngn chung t hn s chim th t nht c mt ngn c nhiu hn 1 con chim.
nh l c chng minh bng phn chng. Gi s khng c mt hp no c nhiu
hn mt i tng, khi tng s i tng c xp trong cc hp khng vt qu s
hp, ngha l s i tng l t hn s hp. iu by tri vi gi thit s i tng nhiu
hn s hp.
Th d: 1. Trong s 367 ngi khc nhau lun lun tm c 2 ngi c cng ngy
sinh. (V 1 nm ch c nhiu nht l 366 ngy)
2. Trong k thi hc sinh gii, thang im cho l t 0 n 20, v im thi c
lm trn n 0,5 im. Hi phi c t nht bao nhiu hc sinh d thi chc chn c t nht
2 hc sinh c cng im s.
Gii: C 41 loi im s khc nhau. Vy cn phi c t nht 42 hc sinh d thi.
b. nh l 2. Nguyn l Di-ric-le tng qut
Nu xp n i tng vo k ci hp, th lun lun tm c mt hp c khng t hn
1
k
n
+
(
i tng.
Chng minh: Gi s khng c hp no trong k hp c cha nhiu hn
(
k
n
i tng.
Khi tng s i tng c cha trong k ci hp nhiu nht l:
n
k
n
k
k
n
k = <
(

iu ny tri vi gi thit.
Th d 1: Trong mt tp th 100 ngi c t nht 9 1
12
100
= +
(
ngi c cng thng

sinh.
Th d 2: Bin s xe my gm 8 k t: XX-XXXX-NX. Trong 2 k t u l m
a danh, 4 k t tip theo l s xe v 2 k t cui l m ng k. Mi k t X l mt trong

10 ch s, mi k t N l 1 trong 26 ch ci ting Anh. Hi dng k 3 triu xe cn phi
c bao nhiu m a danh?
Gii: Vi mi m a danh c th ng k c 10
4
. 26. 10 = 26.10
5
xe
Vy cn t nht 2 1
26
30
1
10 . 26
10 . 3
5
6
= +
(
= +
(
(
m a danh.
6.2. Bi bi ton ng dng nguyn l Di-ric-l.
Vic ng dng nguyn l Di-ric-l cn phi vn dng la chn i tng v hp cho
ph hp.
Bi ton 1. Trong s n ngi d hi ngh, mi ngi quen t nht mt ngi khc.
Hy chng t rng trong phng hp c t nht 2 ngi c s ngi quen nh nhau.
Gii: Chia s ngi d hp thnh cc nhm, mi ngi trong cng mt nhm c s
ngi quen l bng nhau. Nh vy c nhiu nht l n 1 nhm. Do c n ngi xp vo (n
1) nhm nn phi c t nht 1 nhm c 2 ngi, ngha l t nht c 2 ngi c s ngi
quen bng nhau.
C th pht biu bi ton ny di dng hnh hc: C n im phn bit, bit rng
mi im c ni vi t nht mt im khc bng mt on thng v khng c im no
c ni vi mi im cn li. Khi s c t nht 2 im ti c cng s cnh xut pht
ni vi cc im khc.
Bi ton 2. Trong mt thng c 30 ngy, mt i bng chuyn phi thi u t nht
mt ngy mt trn. Tng s trn m i phi chi l 45 trn. Hy chng t rng c mt s
ngy lin tip trong thng i phi chi ng 14 trn.
Gii: Gi a
i
l s trn i phi chi t ngy th nht n ngy th i. Ta thy a
1
, a
2
, ...,
a
30
l dy cc s nguyn dng tng (a
i
< a
i+1
) v 1 a
i
45. T suy ra dy s a
1
+14,
a
2
+14,..., a
30
+14 cng l dy s nguyn dng, khng gim v 15 a
i
+14 59.
Tt c c 60 s nguyn dng a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
30
, a
i
+14, ... , a
30
+14 lun lun nh hn
hoc bng 59. Theo nguyn l Di-ric-l phi c t nht 2 trong s 60 s ny bng nhau. Do
a
i
a
j
, a
i
+14 a
j
+14, nn phi tm c 2 ch s k v n sao cho a
n
= a
k
+14.
iu ny c ngha l t ngy k+1 n ngy n i phi chi ng 14 trn.
Bi ton 3. Trong mt phng cho 6 im ni vi nhau tng i bi cc cung mu
hoc mu xanh. Chng minh rng lun lun tm c 3 im sao cho cc cung ni gia
chng c cng mu (ngi ta ni rng 3 im to thnh mt tam gic xanh hay tam gic
).
Gii: Chn im P tu trong 6 im. T P c 5 cung ni vi 5 im cn li. Theo
nguyn l Di-ric-l phi c 3 trong s 5 cung cng mu, chng hn mu xanh. Gi s
l cc cung PA, PB, PC, nu mt hoc hai trong 3 cung AB, AC, BC c mu xanh th n
cng vi 2 trong 3 cung PA, PB, PC to thnh tam gic xanh. Trong trng hp ngc li
c tam gic .

6.3. Phng php phn chng.
Mt trong cc phng php khc gii bi ton tn ti l dng lp lun phn
chng. Thc ra vic chng minh nguyn l Di-rc-l l dng phn chng, sau y chng
ta xt thm mt s th d khc.
Th d 1. Cho 7 on thng c di ln hn 10 v nh hn 100. Chng minh rng
lun lun tm c 3 on c th ghp thnh mt tam gic.
Gii: Gi di cc on thng theo th t tng dn:
a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
7
; a
i
< a
i+1
, 10 < a
i
< 100, i.
chng minh c 3 on ghp thnh mt tam gic th cn v l trong 3 s lin tip ca
dy s xp trn c tng 2 on u ln hn on th ba. Gi s iu khng xy ra,
ngha l:
a
1
+ a
2
a
3
;
a
2
+ a
3
a
4
;
a
3
+ a
4
a
5
;
a
4
+ a
5
a
6
;
a
5
+ a
6
a
7
;
V a
1
> 10, a
2
> 10 a
3
> 20 a
4
> 30 a
5
> 50 a
6
> 80 a
7
> 130.
iu ny tri vi gi thit ca bi ton. Vy bi ton c chng minh.
Th d 2. Cc nh ca mt thp gic li c gn cc s nguyn 0, 1, 2, ..., 9 mt
cch ngu nhin; mi nh l mt s khc nhau. Chng minh rng lun lun tm c 3
nh lin tip sao cho tng cc s c gn ln hn 13.
Gii: Gi x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
10
l cc s c gn cho cc nh th nht, th hai, ..., th mi
ca thp gic. Gi s khng tm c 3 nh lin tip no c tng cc s gn ln hn 13,
ngha l:
k
1
= x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
13 ;
k
2
= x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
13 ;
. . . . . . . . . . . .
k
9
= x
9
+ x
10
+ x
1
13 ;
k
10
= x
10
+ x
1
+ x
2
13 ;
Suy ra: k
1
+ k
2
+ ... + k
10
130.
Mt khc: k
1
+ k
2
+ ... + k
10
= 3(x
1
+ x
2
+ ... + x
10
) = 3(0 + 1+ ... + 9) = 135
T c: 135 = k
1
+ k
2
+ ... + k
10
130. V l.
Vy phi tn ti 3 nh lin tip tng cc s c gn l ln hn 13.


BI TP CHNG 2
T hp, Chnh hp, Hon v
2.1. Mt nhm sinh vin gm n nam v n n. C bao nhiu cch xp thnh mt hng
ngang sao cho nam n ng xen k nhau?
2.2. Mt tp hp c 10 phn t c bao nhiu tp con vi s phn t l?
2.3. Mt t c 13 ngi.
a) C bao nhiu cch chn 10 ngi i lm mt cng vic nh sn? Bit rng mi
ngi u lm c cng vic .
b) C bao nhiu cch chn 10 ngi lm 10 vic khc nhau? Bit rng mi
ngi u lm c mi vic nh nhau.
c) C bao nhiu cch chn 10 ngi sao cho c t nht 1 n? Bit trong t c 3 n.
2.4. C bao nhiu xu nh phn c di 10 nu trong xu c:
a) ng 3 s 0.
b) t nht 3 s 1.
c) S cc s 0 bng s cc s 1.
d) C t nht 3 s 0 v t nht 3 s 1.
2.5. C bao nhiu bin ng k xe. Bit mi bin gm 3 ch ci ting Anh khc nhau v
tip n l 3 ch s khc nhau?
2.6. Chng minh rng (ng thc Van-dec-non)
a)
k
n
r
0 k
k r
m
r
n m
C . C C

=
+
= ; b)
r
1 r n
r
0 k
k
k n
C C
+ +
=
+
=

Gi : a) Xt 2 tp hp c tng ng m, n phn t. Ly t 2 tp hp ra r phn t
theo hai cch: Cch I l trn ln 2 tp hp vi nhau; Cch II l ly tp hp ny k phn t,
cn tp hp kia r k phn t (k = 0, 1, 2, ..., r)
b) Chng minh bng quy np theo r , xut pht t C
0
n
= C
0
n + 1
= 1.
2.7. C bao nhiu cch phn cng 3 cng vic cho 5 ngi lm, nu 1 ngi c th lm
c c 3 vic.
2.8. Mt con ln tit kim c 50 ng xu. C th c bao nhiu t hp khc nhau cc
ng xu: 200, 500, 1000, 2000, 5000 trong ?
2.9. C 100 vin bi hon ton ging nhau. C bao nhiu cch xp cc vin bi vo 3 ci
hp? bit mi ci hp u c th cha n 100 vin bi.
2.10. Phng trnh: x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
= 17 c bao nhiu nghim nguyn khng m?
2.11. Phng trnh: x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
+ x
5
= 21 c bao nhiu nghim nguyn khng m
sao cho:
a) x
1
1 ; b) x
i
2 vi i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
c) 0 x
1
10 ; d) 0 x
1
3 v 1 x
2
4 v x
3
15

2.12. C bao nhiu xu c cc ch ci trong t MISSISSIPPI ?
2.13. C bao nhiu xu khc nhau c 7 hoc nhiu hn cc k t c th lp c t cc
ch ci ca t NONGNGHIEP ?
2.14. C bao nhiu xu nh phn khc nhau gm 6 ch s 0 v 8 ch s 1?
2.15. Mt thi c 10 cu hi. C bao nhiu cch gn im cho cc cu hi nu tng s
im l 100 v mi cu c t nht 5 im?
2.16. Bt phng trnh: x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
11 c bao nhiu nghim nguyn khng m?
Gi : B sung thm bin ph x
4
sao cho: x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
= 11.
2.17. Trong khng gian Oxyz mt con b di chuyn bng cch nhy tng bc, mi bc
1 n v theo hng hoc truc Ox, hoc trc Oy, hoc trc Oz v khng c nhy git li.
Tnh s cch con b c th di chuyn t gc ta (0, 0, 0) n im (4, 3, 5).
Nguyn l b tr
2.18. Hy tm s phn t ca ABC nu mi tp A, B, C u c 100 phn t v nu cc
tp hp A, B, C tha mn:
a) i mt ri nhau.
b) C 50 phn t chung ca mi cp tp v khng c phn t no chung ca c 3 tp hp.
c) C 50 phn t chung ca mi cp tp v 25 c phn t chung ca c ba tp hp.
2.19. Kim tra 270 sinh vin mi tt nghip ca mt trng i hc. Kt qu cho thy c
64 sinh vin thnh tho ting Anh, 94 sinh vin thnh tho ting Php, 108 sinh vin thnh
tho vi tnh vn phng, 26 sinh vin va thnh tho ting Php va thnh tho vi tnh, 28
sinh vin va thnh tho ting Anh va thnh tho vi tnh, 22 sinh vin va thnh tho
ting Php va thnh tho ting Anh v 11 sinh vin thnh tho c 3 th (ting Anh, ting
Php v vi tnh). Hi trong s 270 sinh vin c bao nhiu ngi khng bit c 3 th k
trn?
2.20. C bao nhiu xu nh phn c di 8 v khng cha 6 s 0 lin tip?
2.21. C bao nhiu s nguyn dng khng vt qu 100 v hoc l s l hoc l s chnh
phng.
2.22. C bao nhiu hon v ca 10 ch s nguyn dng u tin hoc l bt u bng ba
s 987, hoc l cha cc s 45 v tr th 5 v th 6, hoc l kt thc bng 3 s 123.
Gii cc h thc truy hi.
2.23. S lng mt loi sinh vt s tng gp ba sau mi gi.
a) Lp cng thc truy hi tnh s lng vi sinh vt sau n gi.
b) Nu lc u c 100 con th sau 10 gi s c bao nhiu con?
2.24. a) Tm h thc truy hi tnh s cch i ln n bc cu thang ca mt ngi. Bit
ngi c th bc mi ln mt hoc hai bc.
b) C bao nhiu cch ngi i ln mt cu thang c 8 bc?

2.25. Chng minh rng cc s Fibonacci tho mn h thc truy hi:
f
n
= 5f
n 4
+ 3f
n 5
, n 5; f
0
= 0, f
1
= 1, f
2
= 1, f
3
= 2, f
4
= 3.
Dng h thc ny chng minh rng f
5n
chia ht cho 5 vi n = 1, 2, 3, ...
2.26. Tm h thc truy hi tnh s xu nh phn c di n v:
a) Khng c 2 s 0 lin tip.
b) C 2 s 0 lin tip.
Tnh c th s xu nh phn tho mn iu kin a hoc b nu n = 5
2.27. Mt ngi u t 100 triu ng vo mt c s sn xut. Sau 1 nm ngi c
hai khon li: Khon th nht l 20% tng s tin trong nm cui; Khon th hai l 13%
ca tng s tin c trong nm trc .
a) Tm cng thc truy hi tnh {P
n
}, trong P
n
l tng s tin c vo cui nm th n.
b) Tm cng thc trc tip tnh P
n
.
Gi thit rng ngi khng rt bt c khon tin no trong c n nm .
2.28. Vi cc tm lt kch thc 12 v 22 c th lt mt bng 2n bng bao nhiu cch?
2.29. Gii cc h thc truy hi sau:
a) a
n
= 5a
n 1
6a
n 2
, n 2; a
0
= 1, a
1
= 0.
b) a
n
= 4a
n 1
4a
n 2
, n 2; a
0
= 6, a
1
= 8.
c)
4
a
a
2 n
n
= , n 2; a
0
= 1, a
1
= 0.
d) a
n
= 7a
n 2
+ 6a
n 3
, a
0
= 9, a
1
= 10, a
2
= 32.
e) a
n
= 2a
n 1
+ 5a
n 2
6a
n 3
, a
0
= 7, a
1
= - 4, a
2
= 8.
2.30. Xt ma trn
|
|
\
|
=
1 1
1 0
A
a) Chng minh rng:
|
|
\
|
=
+
1 n n
n 1 n n
F F
F F
A , trong F
n
l s hng th n ca dy
Fibonacci.
b) Tnh det(A
n
). t suy ra cng thc: F
n + 1
F
n 1
(F
n
)
2
= (1)
n
.
Bi ton tn ti.
2.31. Cho n l mt s nguyn dng. Chng minh rng trong mi tp hp c n s nguyn
dng lin tip c ng mt s chia ht cho n.
2.32. Cho (x
i
, y
i
, z
i
), i = 1, 2, ..., 9 l mt tp hp gm 9 im khc nhau c to nguyn
trong khng gian Oxyz. Chng minh rng cc im gia ca ng ni ca 2 trong 9 im
c t nht mt im c to nguyn.
2.33. Trong mt hp kn c 10 vin bi mu v 10 bi mu xanh. Mt ngi ly ngu
nhin cc vin bi trong bng ti. Hi ngi cn ly t nht bao nhiu vin bi chc
chn ly c t nht 2 vin bi cng mu.

2.34. Chng t rng trong 5 s chn t 8 s nguyn dng u tin chc chn c mt cp
c tng bng 9.
2.35. a) Trong phng c 6 my tnh. Mi my c ni trc tip hoc khng ni vi cc
my khc. Hy chng t rng c t nht hai my c cng s kt ni vi cc my khc hoc
c t nht hai my khng c ni vi my khc.
b) Mt mng my tnh c 6 my. Mi my c ni trc tip vi t nht mt my
khc. Hy chng t rng c t nht hai my c cng s kt ni vi cc my khc.
2.36. C 12 cu th bng mc o mang s t 1 n 12 dng thnh mt vng trn gia
sn. Chng minh rng lun lun tm c 3 ngi ng lin tip nhau c tng cc s trn
o t nht bng 20.

P S
2.1. 2(n!)
2
.
2.2. 2
9
.
2.3. a) 286; b) 1 716; c) 1 037 836 800.
2.4. a) 120; b) 968; c) 252; d) 912.
2.5. 12 232 000.
2.7. 60.
2.8. 316 251.
2.9. 5 151.
2.10. 1 140.
2.11. a) 10 626; b) 1 365; c) 11 649; d) 106.
2.12. 34 650.
2.13. 838 320.
2.14. 3 003.
2.15. 12 565 671 261.
2.16. 364.
2.17. 27 720.
2.18. a) 300; b) 150; c) 175.
2.19. 69.
2.20. 248.
2.21. 55.
2.22. 50 138.

2.23. a) a
n
= 3a
n 1
, a
0
= 100; b) 5 904 900.
2.24. a) a
n
= a
n 1
+ a
n 2
, a
0
= 1, a
1
= 1; b) 34.
2.26. a) a
n
= a
n 1
+ a
n 2
, a
1
= 2, a
2
= 3; a
5
= 13;
b) a
n
= a
n 1
+ a
n 2
+ 2
n 2
, a
0
= 0, a
2
= 1; a
5
= 19.
2.27. a) P
n
= 1,2P
n 1
+ 0,13P
n 2
, P
0
= 100; P
1
= 120.
b) ( )
n n n 3
n
) 1 , 0 ( 143 , 7 ) 3 , 1 ( 857 , 92 ) 1 , 0 ( ) 3 , 1 .( 13
14
100
P + + =
2.28. a
n
= a
n 1
+ 2a
n 2
, a
1
= 1, a
2
= 3; ( )
n 1 n
n
) 1 ( 2
3
1
a + =
+
.
2.29. a) a
n
= 3.2
n
2 . 3
n
; b) a
n
= (6 2n)2
n
; c)
1 n 1 n
n
2
1
2
1
a
+ +
|
\
|

|
\
|
=
d) a
n
= 8(1)
n
3(2)
n
+ 4. 3
n
; d) a
n
= 5 + 3(2)
n
3
n
.
2.33. 11.

CU HI N TP CHNG 2
1. Pht biu cc nguyn l c bn ca php m: Nguyn l cng; Nguyn l nhn; Cho
cc th d minh ho.
2. Nu s khc nhau gia t hp v chnh hp chp k t n phn t. Mi quan h gia t
hp v chnh hp? Mi quan h gia chnh hp v hon v?
3. Hy gii thch cc tm cng thc tnh s cch chn c lp k phn t t n phn t cho?
Gii thch ti sao c th dng t lp tnh s nghim nguyn khng m ca phng trnh
x
1
+ x
2
+ + x
n
= k, trong k l s nguyn dng.
4. Hy lp cng thc tnh s hon v ca cc tp hp c cc phn t ging nhau v s cch
phn chia mt tp hp c n phn t thnh k tp con. Cho th d minh ho.
5. Pht biu nguyn l b tr. ng dng nguyn l b tr tm s nghim nguyn khng
m ca phng trnh x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
= 20 tho mn x
1
< 7, x
2
< 5 v x
3
< 4.
7. Trnh by cc phng php gii cc h thc truy hi. Cho th d minh ho
8. Pht biu nguyn l Di-ric-l. ng dng nguyn l Di-ric-l chng minh rng trong bt
k 91 s nguyn no cng c t nht 10 s c cng ch s cui cng.
9. Trnh by thut ton quay lui gii bi ton lit k. Cho th d minh ho.
10. Cho mt vi th d gii bi ton tn ti bng phn chng.


CHNG 3.
CC KHI NIM C BN V TH

1.1. Cc nh ngha v cc loi th
1.2. Bc ca nh ca th
1.3. Mt s dng th c bit
1.4. Mt vi ng dng ca cc th c bit
2. Biu din th bng i s
2.1. Danh sch k
2.2. Danh sch cnh
2.3. Ma trn k
2.4. Ma trn lin thuc
3. S ng cu ca cc th
4.1. ng i, chu trnh
4.2. th lin thng
5. S n nh trong, s n nh ngoi v nhn ca th.
5.1. S n nh trong
5.2. S n nh ngoi
5.3. Nhn ca th
6. Sc s ca th
6.1. nh ngha
6.2. Mt s nh l v sc s
6.3. Vi th d ng dng sc s

L thuyt th ra i t th k 18 bi nh ton hc Leonhard Euler (1707 1783)
gc Thy s nhng ch yu sng v lm vic Nga v c. N c ng dng gii cc
bi ton trong nhiu lnh vc khc nhau, chng hn l thuyt mng in, mng giao thng,
cu trc ho hc, , v c bit trong l thuyt thng tin v iu khin hc.
th l mt cu trc ri rc gm cc nh v cc cnh ni cc nh. Ngi ta phn
loi th theo c tnh v s cc cnh ni gia cc nh.


1.1. Cc nh ngha v cc loi th
a. nh ngha th
nh ngha: Cho X l mt tp hp khng rng cc i tng no v U X
2
. B
G = (X, U) c gi l mt th. Nu X l tp hu hn th gi l th hu hn. Nu X l
tp v hn th gi l th v hn.
Gio trnh ny ch xt th hu hn v gi tt l th.
Mi phn t xX c gi l mt nh ca th.Tp X gi l tp cc nh ca th.
Nu mi phn t u = (x, y)U l khng phn bit th t th th c gi l th
v hng. Mi phn t uU gi l mt cnh ca th. Tp U gi l tp cc cnh ca
th.
Nu mi phn t u = (x, y)U ca th c sp th t (x trc, y sau) th th
c gi l th c hng. Mi phn t uU ca th c hng c gi l mt cung
hay mt cnh c hng. Tp U c gi l tp cc cung ca th.
th va c cnh va c cung c gi l th hn hp.
Nu cnh (cung) u = (x, x) th u gi l mt khuyn v nh x gi l nh c khuyn.
Nu u = (x, y) th cnh (cung) u gi l k hay thuc nh x v nh y, ng thi cng
ni nh x k hay thuc cnh (cung) u, nh y k hay thuc cnh (cung) u.
Hai nh x, y c gi l k nhau nu chng thuc cng mt cnh (cung).
Hai cnh (cung) u, v c gi l k nhau nu chng c chung nh.
Mt cch trc quan nht l biu din th bng hnh v:
Cho th G = (X, U). Tp nh X c biu din bng cc im trong mt phng hoc
trong khng gian. Mi nh c th t mt tn gi tng ng, chng hn x, x
1
, x
2
, hay y,
y
1
, y
2
, hay a, b, c,
Tp cnh U c biu din nh sau:
Nu u = (x, y) U l cnh v hng, th 2 nh x, y c ni vi nhau bng
mt on thng hay cung cong.
Nu u = (x, y) U l cnh c hng, th 2 nh x, y c ni vi nhau bng mt
on thng hay cung cong c mi tn ch hng t nh u x n nh cui y.
Nu u = (x, x) l mt khuyn th a c biu din bng mt vng xuyn t x n
chnh n.

Th d 1: Gia ba thnh ph H Ni, Hi Phng v H Long c cc ng giao thng
nh sau: H Ni - Hi Phng c ng b v ng st; Hi Phng - H Long c ng
b v ng thu; H Ni - H Long c ng b.
x y x y

x y x y x y

Hnh 1. Biu din nh, cnh, cung v khuyn ca th


x
1

x
2
x
3

Hnh 2 Mng giao thng
Gi x
1
l H Ni, x
2
l Hi Phng, x
3
l H Long l cc nh v biu din mi ng
giao thng bng mt cnh c th v hng hnh 2.

Th d 2: M hnh th thi u vng trn. Thi u vng trn gia cc i bng l mi
i u thi u vi tt c cc i cn li. Gi s c 5 i thi u vng trn, khi c th
biu din kt qu thi u theo s nh hnh 3. Trong s A, B, C, D, E l tn cc
i bng v mi tn ch i gc mi tn thng i ngn mi tn. l mt th c
hng gm 5 nh
b. Phn loi th
Ngoi cch phn chia thnh th v hng v th c hng, ngi ta cn phn
loi th da trn s cnh (cung) k vi cc cp nh. tin vic phn bit cc loi
th, chng ta nghin cu chng qua cc th d v mng my tnh.
Gi s cc my ch ca mt cng ty cung cp dch v internet (ISP) c t cc
thnh ph ln: H Ni (x
1
), Hi Phng (x
2
), H Long (x
3
), Vinh (x
4
), Hu (x
4
), Nng
(x
6
), Nha Trang (x
7
), Bin Ho (x
8
), Thnh ph H Ch Minh (x
9
), v Cn Th (x
10
). Cc
my ny c ni vi nhau bng cc ng cp quang theo s hnh 4, trong cc
ng cp ny truyn d liu theo c hai chiu. Mng my tnh ny c th m hnh bng
mt th gi l n th c 10 nh (hnh 4)
nh ngha 1: Mt n th l mt th m mi cp nh c ni vi nhau
nhiu nht l mt cnh (cung) v khng c khuyn.
Hnh 3 l mt th d v n th c hng. Hnh 4 l mt n th v hng.

Cng trong mng my tnh ni trn, do yu cu ca vic truyn d liu, c th c mt
s my ch c ni vi nhau bng hn 1 ng cp quang. Chng hn gia H ni (x
1
)
v Hi phng (x
2
) c 3 ng truyn, H ni v nng (x
6
), H ni v thnh ph H Ch
Minh c thm ng truyn trc tip, (Hnh 5). l mt m hnh a th.
(H Long) x
3
x
2
(Hi Phng) (Nha Trang) x
7
x
8
(Bin Ha)

x
1
x
4
x
5
x
6
x
9
x
10

(H Ni) (Vinh) (Hu) ( Nng) (Tp H Ch Minh) (Cn Th)
Hnh 4. Mng my tnh n

A

B C

C D

Hnh 3. Thi u vng trn

nh ngha 2: Mt a th l mt th trong c t nht mt cp nh c ni
vi nhau nhiu hn mt cnh (cung) v khng c khuyn. Cc cp nh c nhiu cnh th
cc cnh tng ng gi l cc cnh bi hay cc cnh song song.
Hnh 2 v hnh 5 l cc th d v a th.
C th trong mng my tnh c nhng my c ng truyn vi chnh n, khi ti
nh tng ng ca m hnh th s tn ti mt khuyn. Nhng th nh vy c gi
l gi th. Gi th l dng th tng qut nht.

nh ngha 3: Gi th l th (n hoc a th) c khuyn.
c. Mt vi m hnh th khc
Th d 1: th cnh tranh trong sinh thi hc l mt m hnh th biu hin s
cnh tranh ca cc loi trong mt h sinh thi no . Mi loi vt c biu din bng
mt nh. Mi cnh v hng ni hai nh nu hai loi c biu din bng hai nh ny
c s cnh tranh vi nhau (chng hn chng cng chung ngun thc n hoc cng chung
ch ).
Hnh 7 l m hnh h sinh thi rng. Ta thy Gu v C, Sc v Qu, cnh tranh
nhau; cn Gu v Chim g kin, Sc v C, l khng cnh tranh nhau.
Th d 2: th nh hng. Khi nghin cu tnh cch ca mt nhm ngi th thy
mt s ngi ny c th nh hng ln suy ngh ca mt s ngi khc. C th dng mt
th c hng biu din iu , trong mi ngi l mt nh ca th v nu
ngi A nh hng n ngi B th c mt cung i t A n B. Hnh 8 cho thy, chng
hn Cc c nh hng n Hng, Lan v Nhi Khng c ai nh hng ti Cc. Nhi v
Mn nh hng ln nhau.
x
3
x
2
x
7
x
8

x
1
x
4
x
5
x
6

x
9
x
10

Hnh 6. Mng my tnh c cc ng truyn ni b
x
3
x
2
x
7
x
8

x
1
x
4
x
5
x
6
x
9
x
10

Hnh 5. Mng my tnh a knh

S
1

S
2
S
1
a := 0;
S
2
b := 1
S
3
c := a+1 S
3
S
4
S
4
d := b+a
S
5
e := d+1
S
6
f := c+d
S
6
S
5

Hnh 9. th u tin trc sau

Th d 3: th u tin trc sau. Cc chng trnh my tnh c th chy nhanh hn
bng cch thc hin ng thi mt s cu lnh no . Tuy nhin khng c thc hin
cu lnh A nu A i hi kt qu ca cu lnh B khi B cha c thc hin. S ph thuc
gia cc cu lnh c th c biu din bng mt th c hng. Trong th cc
nh l cc cu lnh v c cung mi t nh B n nh A nu cu lnh A cha thc hin
c khi cu lnh B cha c thc hin. th ny gi l th u tin trc sau. Hnh 9
th hin mt on chng trnh v th tng ng vi on chng trnh . Ta thy cu
lnh S
5
khng th thc hin trc khi cc cu lnh S
1
, S
2
v S
4
c thc hin. Cng vy,
S
6
cha th thc hin nu cha thc hin S
1
, S
2
, S
3
v S
4
.

1.2. Bc ca nh ca th
a. nh ngha
S cnh thuc nh x ca th v hng gi l bc ca nh x, k hiu l deg(x).
S cung i ra t nh x ca th c hng gi l bn bc ra ca nh x, k hiu l
deg
+
(x).
S cung i vo nh x ca th c hng gi l bn bc vo ca nh x, k hiu l
deg

(x).

Cc nh c bc (hoc tng bc i vi th c hng) bng 0 gi l nh bit lp
hay nh c lp; cn nu bng 1 gi l nh treo, khi cc cnh (cung) tng ng gi l
cnh (cung) treo.

Cc Hng

Mn

Lan Nhi
Hnh 8. th nh hng
Th c ti
Gu Chut tr

Ct Sc Chut

C Qu Chim g kin
Hnh 7. th ln t

Th d Xem hnh 10 v hnh 11

deg(x
1
) = 4; deg(x
2
) = 2 deg
+
(x
1
) = 0; deg
-
(x
1
) = 2
deg(x
3
) = 4; deg(x
4
) = 3 deg
+
(x
2
) = 2; deg
-
(x
2
) = 1
deg(x
5
) = 2; deg(x
6
) = 1 deg
+
(x
3
) = 1; deg
-
(x
3
) = 1
deg
+
(x
4
) = 2; deg
-
(x
4
) = 1
b. Tnh cht
Tnh cht 1: Trong th v hng G = (X, U) tng s bc ca cc nh l gp i
s cnh:
X x
deg(x) = 2N(U);
cn trong th c hng G = (X, U) th:

+
=
X x X x
(x) deg ) x ( deg
-
= N(U)
Chng minh: Hin nhin.
Th d: C bao nhiu cnh trong mt th c 10 nh, mi nh u c bc bng 6?
Gii: Tng s bc ca th l 10.6 = 60. Do 2N(U) = 60, suy ra s cnh ca
th l N(U) = 30.
Tnh cht 2: Trong th v hng, s nh bc l l mt s chn (nh bc l l nh
c bc l s l).
Chng minh: Gi L v C tng ng l tp cc nh bc l v tp cc nh bc chn,
khi
C x
deg(x) l mt s chn v n l tng cc s chn. Mt khc theo tnh cht 1, ta c:

= +
X x L x C x
deg(x) deg(x) deg(x) = 2N(U) l mt s chn
Suy ra
L x
deg(x) l s chn, do mi s hng ca

L x
deg(x) l l nn tng ny phi c
mt s chn cc s hng, ngha l N(L) l mt s chn.
Tnh cht 3: Trong mt n th v hng lun lun tn ti t nht hai nh cng bc.
Chng minh: Gi s th G = (X, U) c n nh (N(X) = n, n 2).
Nu th c nh bc 0, khi th khng c nh no k vi tt c cc nh cn li.
Do mi nh ca th c bc l mt trong n 1 s nguyn 0, 1, 2, , n 2.
x
2
x
3
x
6

x
1

x
4

x
5

Hnh 10
x
2
x
3

x
1

x
4

Hnh 11

x
1
x
1
x
2
x
1
x
1
x
2

x
2
x
3
x
3
x
4
x
2
x
3
x
3
x
4
C
3
C
4
x
4
x
5
x
5
x
6
C
5
C
6
Hnh 13. Cc th vng C
3
, C
4
, C
5
, C
6
.

Nu th c nh bc n 1 th th khng c nh no c bc 0. Do bc ca mi
nh ca th l mt trong n 1 s nguyn 1, 2, , n 1.
Vy, trong mi trng hp, vi n nh ch c n 1 loi bc nh. Bi vy, theo nguyn
l Di-ric-l phi c t nht hai nh c cng bc.
1.3. Mt s dng th c bit
a. th y : th y n nh, k hiu K
n
, l th m mi cp nh bt k
lun lun k nhau.
D thy th y K
n
c
2
) 1 n ( n
cnh v mi nh u c bc n 1.
Hnh 12 l cc th K
1
, K
2
, K
3
, K
4
, K
5
.

b. th vng: th vng n nh (n 3), k hiu C
n
, l th c cc nh x
1
, x
2
, ,
x
n
v cc cnh (x
1
, x
2
), (x
2
, x
3
), , (x
n - 1
, x
n
), (x
n
, x
1
). Xem hnh 13
th vng C
n
c n cnh, v deg(x
i
) = 2, i = 1, 2, n.

c. th bnh xe: Khi thm mt nh vo th vng C
n
v ni nh ny vi tt c
cc nh ca C
n
c mt th mi gi l th bnh xe, k hiu W
n
(hnh 14).
th bnh xe W
n
c n + 1 nh, 2n cnh, mt nh bc n v n nh bc 3.

K
1

K
2
K
3
K
4

K
5

Hnh 12. Cc th y K
1
, K
2
, K
3
, K
4
, K
5
.

W
3
W
4

W
5
W
6
Hnh 14. Cc th bnh xe W
3
, W
4
, W
5
, W
6
.


d. th lp phng: th lp phng c k hiu Q
n
, l th c 2
n
nh v
mi nh c k hiu bng mt xu nh phn c di n. Hai nh ca Q
n
l k nhau khi
v ch khi cc xu nh phn tng ng khc nhau ng mt bit (Hnh 15).

D thy cc nh th lp phng Q
n
u c bc n, v do n c n.2
n 1
cnh (v s
cnh bng mt na tng s bc ca tt c cc nh).
e. th phn i ( th hai pha): n th G = (X, U) c gi l th phn
i nu tp cc nh X c phn chia thnh hai tp khng rng, ri nhau X
1
, X
2
(X
1
X
2
= X,
X
1
, X
2
v X
1
X
2
= ) sao cho mi cnh ca th ni mt nh ca X
1
vi mt
nh ca X
2
.
th phn i G = (X
1
X
2
, U) c |X
1
| = m, |X
2
| = n c gi l th phn i y
, k hiu K
m, n
nu mi nh ca X
1
u c ni vi mi nh trong X
2
.

C th p dng thut ton sau nhn bit th G = (X,U) c l th phn i hay
khng.
t: 1/ X
1
= { x | x X, x ly ty }
2/ X
2
= { y | y X, y k vi cc nh ca X
1
}
3/ T = { z | z X, z k vi cc nh ca X
2
}
- Nu T X
2
th G khng phi l th phn i.
- Nu T X
2
= v X
1
X
2
X th lp li cc bc 1/ 3/ vi X
1
= X
1
T.
- Nu T X
2
= v X
1
X
2
= X th phn hoch c X v G l th phn i.
Sau mt s hu hn bc, hoc l chng minh c G khng phi l th phn
i, hoc l phn hoch c tp nh X nu G l th phn i.
Th d 1: Xt th trn hnh 17. Chn X
1
= {a}, ta c X
2
= {b, d, e}, t T = {a,
c}, r rng TX
2
= v c X
1
= {a}{a, c} = {a, c}. Tip theo ta c X
2
= {b,d,e,f}, t
T = {a,c,f}. R rng TX
2
. Vy th cho khng phi l th phn i.

10 11 110 111
100 101
0 1

Q
1
00 01 010 011
Q
2
000 001
Q
3

Hnh 15. Cc th lp phng Q
1
, Q
2
, Q
3
.

K
2, 3
K
3, 4
K
2, 4
.
Hnh 16. Mt s th phn i y

Th d 2: Xt th trn hnh 18a. Chn X
1
= {x
1
}, ta c X
2
= {x
2
, x
4
, x
5
}, t T =
{x
1
,x
3
}. R rng T X
2
= , v c X
1
= X
1
T
1
= {x
1
, x
3
}. D nhn thy X
1
X
2
=
v X
1
X
2
= X. Vy th cho l th phn i. V li th dng phn i c
hnh 18b.

1.4. Mt vi ng dng ca cc th c bit:
a. Cc mng cc b (LAN): Mt s mng cc b dng cu trc hnh sao, trong
tt c cc thit b c ni vi thit b iu khin trung tm. Mng cc b kiu ny c th
biu din bng mt th phn i y K
1,n
. Cc thng bo gi t thit b ny ti thit
b khc u phi qua thit b iu khin trung tm (hnh 19a).
Mng cc b cng c th c cu trc vng trn, trong mi thit b ni vi ng
hai thit b khc. Mng cc b kiu ny c th biu din bng mt th vng C
n
. Thng
bo gi t thit b ny ti thit b khc c truyn i theo vng trn cho ti khi n ni
nhn (hnh 19b).
Cui cng, mt s mng cc b dng cu trc hn hp ca hai cu trc trn. Cc
thng bo c truyn vng quanh theo vng trn hoc c th qua thit b trung tm. S
d tha ny c th lm cho mng ng tin cy hn. Mng cc b kiu ny c th biu din
bng mt th bnh xe W
n
(hnh 19c).

b. X l song song: Cc thut ton gii cc bi ton c th c thit k thc
hin cc php ton mt cch tun t, l thut ton ni tip. Tuy nhin c nhiu bi ton
vi s lng tnh ton rt ln nh bi ton m phng thi tit, hay phn tch mt m, v.v
khng th gii c trong mt khong thi gian hp l nu dng thut ton ni tip ngay c
khi dng cc siu my tnh. Ngoi ra, do nhng gii hn v mt vt l i vi tc thc hin
b c x
2
x
3
x
1
x
3

a d x
1
x
4

f e x
5
x
2
x
4
x
5

Hnh 17 Hnh 18a Hnh 18b

a. Mng hnh sao b. Mng vng trn c. Mng hn hp
Hnh 19. Cc cu trc mng cc b

P
1
P
2
P
3
P
4
P
5
P
6

Hnh 20. Mng mt chiu kt ni 6 b x l
cc php ton c s, nn thng gp cc bi ton khng th gii trong khong thi gian hp l
bng cc thao tc ni tip. V vy, ngi ta phi ngh n kiu x l song song.
Khi x l song song, ngi ta dng cc my tnh c nhiu b x l ring bit, mi b
x l c b nh ring, nh c th khc phc c nhng hn ch ca cc my ni tip.
Cc thut ton song song phn chia bi ton chnh thnh mt s bi ton con sao cho c th
gii ng thi c. Do vy, bng cc thut ton song song v nh vic s dng cc my
tnh c b a x l, ngi ta hy vng c th gii nhanh cc bi ton phc tp. Trong thut
ton song song c mt dy cc ch th theo di vic thc hin thut ton, gi cc bi ton con
ti cc b x l khc nhau, truyn cc thng tin vo, thng tin ra ti cc b x l thch hp.
Khi dng cch x l song song, mi b x l c th cn cc thng tin ra ca cc b x
l khc. Do chng cn phi c kt ni vi nhau. C th dng loi th thch hp
biu din mng kt ni cc b x l trong mt my tnh c nhiu b x l. Kiu mng kt
ni dng thc hin mt thut ton song song c th ph thuc vo nhng yu cu vi
vic trao i d liu gia cc b x l, ph thuc vo tc mong mun v tt nhin vo
phn cng hin c.
Mng kt ni cc b x l song song n gin nht v cng t nht l c cc lin kt
hai chiu gia mi cp b x l. Cc mng ny c th m hnh bng th y K
n
,
trong n l s b x l. Tuy nhin, cc mng lin kt kiu ny c s kt ni qu nhiu m
trong thc t s kt ni cn phi c gii hn.
Cc b x l c th kt ni n gin l sp xp chng theo mt mng mt chiu. u
im ca mng mt chiu l mi b x l c nhiu nht 2 ng ni trc tip vi cc b
x l khc. Nhc im l nhiu khi cn c rt nhiu cc kt ni trung gian cc b x l
trao i thng tin vi nhau. Hnh 20 l mng mt chiu vi 6 b s l.

P(0,0) P(0,1) P(0,2) P(0,3)

P(1,0) P(1,1) P(1,2) P(1,3)

P(2,0) P(2,1) P(2,2) P(2,3)

P(3,0) P(3,1) P(3,2) P(3,3)
Hnh 21. Mng kiu li c 16 b x l

Mng kiu li (hoc mng hai chiu) rt hay c dng cho cc mng lin kt.
Trong mt mng nh th, s cc b x l l mt s chnh phng, n = m
2
. Cc b x l
c gn nhn P(i, j), 0 i, j m1. Cc kt ni hai chiu s ni b x l P(i,j) vi bn b
x l bn cnh, tc l vi P(i, j 1) v P(i 1, j) chng no cc b x l cn trong li
(Hnh 21).
Mng kt ni quan trng nht l mng kiu siu khi. Vi cc mng loi ny s cc
b x l l lu tha ca 2, n = 2
m
. Cc b x l c gn nhn l P
0
, P
1
, ..., P
n 1
. Mi b
x l c lin kt hai chiu vi m b x l khc. B x l P
i
ni vi b x l c ch s biu
din bng dy nh phn khc vi dy nh phn biu din P
i
ng mt bit. Mng kiu siu
khi cn bng s cc kt ni trc tip ca mi b x l v s cc kt ni gin tip sao cho
cc b x l c th truyn thng c. Nhiu my tnh ch to theo mng kiu siu khi
v nhiu thut ton c thit k s dng mng kiu siu khi. th lp phng Q
m

biu din mng kiu siu khi c 2
m
b x l. Mng siu khi c 8 b vi s l c m t
trong hnh 22 n cng l cch v khc ca Q
3
so vi hnh 15.

2. Biu din th bng i s.
Trong phn trn th c biu din bng hnh v, l cch biu din rt trc quan
nhng cng c nhiu bt tin, c bit khi s l th trn my tnh. Phn ny trnh by
cc cch biu din th khng cn hnh v, iu c bit thun li khi s l th trn
my tnh.
2.1. Danh sch k.
Vi mi x X ca th G = (X, U) khng c cnh bi, t:
G(x) = { y | yX, (x,y)U }
Ngha l G(x) l tp nh k vi x nu G l th v hng, hoc G(x) l tp nh c cung
i t x n cc nh .
Tp hp {G(x
i
) | x
i
X } gi l danh sch k ca th.
Danh sch k chnh l s lit k cc cnh (cung) ca th.
Th d 1: Xt th hnh 23, ta c:
G(x
1
) = {x
2
, x
3
, x
4
} ; G(x
2
) = {x
1
, x
4
};
G(x
3
) = {x
1
, x
4
}; G(x
4
) = {x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
}
Th d 2: Vi th c hng trong hnh 24, ta c:
G(a) = { b, d, e} G(b) = { b, d}
G(c) = { c, a, e} G(d) = G(e) = {b, c}

P
0
P
1
P
2
P
3
P
4
P
5
P
6
P
7

Hnh 22. Mng kiu siu khi

2.2. Danh sch cnh
L danh sch lit k cc cnh ca th bng mt bng ch r cc nh k ca tng
cnh c trong th cho. Chng hn danh sch cnh ca cc th trong hnh 23, 24 l:
Danh sch cnh ca
th hnh 23
Danh sch cnh ca
th hnh 24
nh u nh cui nh u nh cui
x
1
x
2
a b
x
1
x
3
a d
x
1
x
4
a e
x
2
x
4
b b
x
3
x
4
b d
x
4
x
4
c c
c a
c e
e b
e c
Vic biu din th bng danh sch k hoc danh sch cnh, trong nhiu trng hp
dn n vic thc hin mt s thut ton kh cng knh nhng s l n gin hn nu dng
dng biu din th bng ma trn. C hai kiu biu din th bng ma trn, l ma
trn k v ma trn lin thuc.
2.3. Ma trn k
nh ngha 1: Cho G = (X, U) l th v hng vi X = {x
1
, x
2
, , x
n
}. Khi c
th biu din th G bng mt ma trn vung A = (a
ij
) cp n, trong :
nu x
i
ni vi x
j
bng d cnh
nu khng c cnh ni gia x
i
v x
j
Ma trn A gi l ma trn k ca th G.
Ch rng ma trn k ca mt th ty thuc vo th t lit k cc nh. iu
c ngha l vi mt th n nh c th vit c n! ma trn k tng ng.

, 0
, d
a
ij
=
b
a c

e d

Hnh 24

x
1
x
2

x
3
x
4

Hnh 23

=
, 0
, d
a
ij
Th d 1: Vi th trong hnh 25, ta c:

4
3
2
1
4 3 2 1
x
x
x
x

0 0 1 1
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0
A
x x x x
|
|
|
|
|
\
|
=

Th d 2: Ma trn k ca th hnh 26 vit theo th t cc nh x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
l:

|
|
|
|
|
\
|
=
1 0 1 1
0 0 0 2
1 0 0 2
1 2 2 0
A

Mt vi tnh cht ca ma trn k ca th v hng:
L ma trn i xng, phn t trn ng cho chnh l khc 0 khi v ch khi ti
nh tng ng c khuyn.
L ma trn ma trn khng mt (ma trn c cc phn t l 0 hoc 1) khi v ch khi
G l n th.
Tng cc phn t ca mt hng (ct) bng bc ca nh tng ng vi hng (ct)
.
nh ngha 2: Nu G = (X, U) l th c hng vi X = {x
1
, x
2
, , x
n
} th ma trn
k cng l ma trn vung A = (a
ij
) cp n , trong :
nu c d cung i t x
i
n x
j
nu khng c cung no i t x
i
n x
j

Th d: Ma trn k ca th hnh 27 theo
th t cc nh x
1,
x
2
, x
3
l:

|
|
|
\
|
=
0 2 0
0 1 0
2 1 0
A
Ma trn k ca th c hng c tnh cht sau:
L ma trn khng i xng, phn t trn ng cho chnh l khc 0 khi v ch khi
ti nh tng ng c khuyn. L ma trn khng mt nu G l n th.
Tng cc phn t ca mt hng (ct) bng bn bc ra (bn bc vo) ca nh tng
ng vi hng (ct) .
x
1
x
2

x
3
x
4

Hnh 25
x
1
x
2

x
3
x
4

Hnh 26
x
1
x
2

x
3

Hnh 27

2.4. Ma trn lin thuc
Cho G = (X, U) l th v hng vi X = {x
1
, x
2
, , x
n
} v U = {a
1
, a
2
, , a
m
}.
Khi c th biu din G bng ma trn M = (m
ij
)
n m
trong :

=
, 0
, 1
m
ij

Ma trn M gi l ma trn lin thuc ca th G.
Th d 1: Ma trn lin thuc ng vi th trong hnh 28 l:

5
4
3
2
1
6 5 4 3 2 1
x
x
x
x
x
1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 1
M
a a a a a a
|
|
|
|
|
|
\
|
=

Th d 2: Ma trn lin thuc ca th hnh 29 l:

4
3
2
1
5 4 3 2 1
x
x
x
x
1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 1
M
a a a a a
|
|
|
|
|
\
|
=

Nh vy ma trn lin thuc l ma trn khng mt. Nu mt cnh l khuyn th ct tng
ng c ng mt s 1. Nu c cnh bi th cc ct tng ng ca cc cnh ny ging ht
nhau.
3. S ng cu ca cc th
Vi mi cch biu din mt th cho lun lun tn ti nhiu dng khc nhau, k
c cch biu din bng hnh v. Nhng dng biu din khc nhau ca mt th d lm
cho ta lm tng l cc th khc nhau. Trong phn ny cp n cch nhn bit
mt th vi cc dng biu din khc nhau.
Trong nhiu trng hp cn phi xem xt hai th v c phi l mt hay khng?
Chng hn, cc hp cht trong ha hc c th cng mt cng thc phn t nhng cu trc
ha hc c th khc nhau; v th khi tm ra mt cht cn phi v cu trc ha hc (tc l
th) ca n xem cht c trng vi cc cht tm ra trc n hay khng. Vn
c gii quyt nh khi nim ng cu ca th.
nh ngha: Hai th G
1
= (X
1
, E
1
) v G
2
= (X
2
, E
2
) c gi l ng cu vi
nhau nu tn ti mt song nh f : X
1
X
2
sao cho cc nh x v y l k nhau trong G
1
khi
v ch khi f(x) v f(y) l k nhau trong G
2
.

nu nh x
i
thuc cnh a
j

nu nh x
i
khng thuc cnh a
j

x
2
a
2
x
5
a
1

x
1
a
2
a
4
a
6

x
3
a
3
x
4

Hnh 28
a
1

x
1
a
2
x
2

a
3
a
5

x
3
a
4
x
4

Hnh 29


Th d 1: Hai th trong hnh 30 l ng cu qua song nh:
f(A) = 1; f(B) = 2; f(C) = 3 ; f(D) = 4; f(E) = 5

Vic xc nh xem hai th c phi l ng cu hay khng l mt vic lm rt kh
khn. V vi hai th n nh chng c ti n! php tng ng 11 khc nhau gia hai tp
nh, do s mt rt nhiu thi gian tm c mt php tng ng bo ton tnh lin
k ca cc nh.
Vic xc nh hai n th l khng ng cu n gin hn vic xc nh chng l
ng cu, v khi ch cn ch ra hai th khng c chung mt tnh cht no m hai
th ng cu phi c nh: Cng s nh; cng s nh bc k (vi mi k nguyn khng
m); cng s cnh; v.v
Th d 2: Hai th G
1
, G
2
trong hnh 31 l khng ng cu v G
1
c mt nh bc 4
cn G
2
th khng c nh bc 4 no.

Th d 3: Hai th H
1
v H
2
trong hnh 32 cng khng ng cu v H
1
c 3 nh
bc ba (cc nh 2, 6, 8), mi nh bc 3 ny u k vi mt nh bc 4; nhng trong 3
nh bc ba ca H
2
(cc nh C, E, H) c nh E khng k vi nh bc 4 no c.

A B 1 2
C 3

E F 4 5
G
1
G
2
Hnh 31

1 2 A B C

3 4 5 6 D E

7 8 F G H
H
1
H
2
Hnh 32
A 1

B C 2 3

4

D E 5
Hnh 30. Hai th ng cu

D thy l hai th ng cu th hai ma trn k (theo mt th t no ca cc nh)
tng ng l bng nhau.
4.1. ng i, chu trnh
nh ngha 1: ng i t nh x
0
n nh x
k
ca th G = (X, U) (G c th l
th v hng, c hng hoc th hn hp) l dy cc nh x
0
x
1
x
k
, trong (x
i
, x
i+1
),
i = 0, 1,, k1, l cc cnh hay cung ca th, ngha l (x
i
, x
i+1
)U.
nh x
0
gi l nh u, nh x
k
gi l nh cui ca ng i.
S cc cnh c trong mt ng i gi l di ca ng i .
nh ngha 2: ng i c nh u trng vi nh cui gi l chu trnh.
ng i hay chu trnh gi l n nu n khng i qua cnh no qu mt ln.
ng i hay chu trnh gi l s cp nu n khng i qua nh no qu mt ln.
Cng c th biu din ng i t nh x
0
n nh x
k
bng dy cc cnh: (x
0
, x
1
), (x
1
,
x
2
), , (x
k 1
, x
k
).
Th d 1: Xt th trong hnh 33, ta c:
x
1
x
2
x
4
x
5
l mt ng i n t x
1
n x
5
c
di bng 3.
x
1
x
4
x
5
l mt ng i n t x
1
n x
5
c
di bng 2.
x
4
x
1
x
2
x
4
x
1
x
5
l mt ng i t x
4
n x
5
c
di 5 nhng khng phi l ng i n v cung
(x
4
,x
1
) i qua 2 ln.
x
1
x
4
x
3
x
2
x
4
x
5
x
1
l chu trnh c di 6 (khng phi l chu trnh s cp).
Th d 2:
x
1
x
2
x
4
x
5
l mt ng i n t x
1
n x
5
c
di bng 3.
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
1
l mt chu trnh n c di 3.
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
1
x
5
l mt ng i n t x
1
n x
2
nhng
khng s cp.
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
khng phi l mt ng i v (x
3
,x
4
)
khng phi l mt cung.
nh ngha 3: Hai nh x v y ca th G = (X,U) c gi l lin thng vi nhau
nu tn ti t nht mt ng i t x n y hoc t y n x.
nh l 1: Trong mt th v hng G = (X, U) c n nh (n 3), nu mi nh
u c bc khng nh hn 2 (deg(x) 2, x X) th trong G lun lun tn ti mt chu
trnh n.
Chng minh: Xt tt c cc ng i n c trong G. V s nh ca G l hu hn nn
s ng i n c trong G cng l hu hn. Xt ng i p c di ln nht, chng hn
p = x
0
x
1
x
p
.
x
1

x
2
x
4
x
5

x
3
Hnh 33
x
1

x
2
x
5

x
4
x
3

Hnh 34

V deg(x
0
) 2 nn ngoi cnh (x
0
, x
1
) cn c t nht l mt cnh na thuc x
0
, gi cnh
l (x
0
, y). Nu y khng trng vi bt k nh no trong p th ng i p
1
= y x
0
x
1
x
p
c
di ln hn p v c thm cnh (y, x
0
), iu ny tri vi gi thit p c di ln nht.
Vy y phi trng vi mt nh no ca p, chng hn y x
k
. Khi x
0
x
1
x
k
x
0
l mt
chu trnh n.
nh l c chng minh.
Bi ton ng dng: Trong mt hi ngh c n ngi (n 3), mi ngi u quen vi t
nht 2 ngi khc. Chng t rng c th chn ra mt s ngi khi xp ngi quanh mt
bn trn th mi ngi u ngi gia 2 ngi quen.
Gii: Coi mi ngi l mt nh ca th, 2 ngi quen nhau c ni vi nhau
bng mt cnh c mt th v hng tho mn nh l trn.
nh l 2: Trong th v hng c n nh (n 4), nu mi nh u c bc khng
nh hn 3 th trong th lun lun c chu trnh n c di chn.
nh l c chng minh tng t nh l 1.
nh l 3: Cho G l mt th lin thng c ma trn k l A theo th t cc nh x
1
,
x
2
, , x
n
(vi cc cnh v hng, c hng hay cnh bi, c th c khuyn). S cc ng
i c di k t x
i
n x
j
(k l s nguyn dng) bng gi tr ca phn t (i,j) trong ma
trn A
k
.
Chng ta tha nhn, khng chng minh nh l ny v minh ho bng th d sau:

Ta c:
|
|
|
|
|
\
|
=
1 1 0 0
1 0 2 1
0 2 0 1
0 1 1 0
A
|
|
|
|
|
\
|
=
2 1 2 1
1 6 1 2
2 1 5 2
1 2 2 2
A
2

|
|
|
|
|
\
|
=
3 7 3 3
7 5 14 7
3 14 4 6
3 7 6 4
A
3

Nh vy c 3 ng i c di 3 t x
1
n x
4
, l:
x
1
x
2
m x
3
x
4
; x
1
x
2
n x
3
x
4
; x
1
x
3
x
4
x
4
.
C 6 ng i c di 3 t x
1
n x
2
,
4.2. th lin thng
a-) th con, th b phn
nh ngha: Cho th G = (X, U).
Nu b i mt s nh cng vi cc cnh (cung) xut pht t cc nh b i th
c th mi gi l th con ca th G.
x
1
x
2

m n

x
3
x
4

Hnh 35

Nu gi nguyn cc nh v b i mt s cnh th c th mi gi l th b
phn ca th G.
Ni cch khc:
th con ca th G = (X, U) l th H = (A, E), trong A X v E U.
th b phn ca th G = (X, U) l th K = (X, F), trong F U.
Th d: Nu G l mng giao thng trong ton quc vi ba phng tin: My bay,
Tu ho, t. Khi y nu ch xt mng giao thng min Bc vi c 3 phng tin th c
mt th con. Cn nu xt mng giao thng trn ton quc vi 2 trong 3 phng tin
nu th c mt th b phn.
b-) th v hng lin thng
nh ngha: th v hng G = (X, U) c gi l lin thng, nu lun lun tm
c mt ng i gia 2 nh bt k ca th.
Nu th v hng G = (X, U) khng lin thng, nhng c th con lin thng th
th con gi l thnh phn lin thng ca th G.
D thy th G l lin thng khi v ch khi n ch c mt thnh phn lin thng duy
nht.
Th d:

nh l 1: Nu bc ca mi nh ca th v hng G = (X, U) khng nh hn mt
na s nh th th lin thng. (Nu
2
N(X)
deg(x) , xX th G = (X,U) lin
thng).
Chng minh: Dng phn chng chng minh nh l.
Gi s th G tho mn iu kin ca nh l nhng khng lin thng. Khi G
phi c t nht hai thnh phn lin thng. Gi G
1
= (X
1
, U
1
) v G
2
= (X
2
, U
2
) l hai thnh
phn lin thng ca th. Khi :
X
1
X
2
= ; X
1
X
2
X N(X
1
) + N(X
2
) N(X)
T : hoc
2
) X ( N
) X ( N
1
, hoc
2
) X ( N
) X ( N
2

Khng gim tng qut, gi s rng
2
) X ( N
) X ( N
1

x
1

x
2
x
6

x
3
x
4
x
5

x
7

Hnh 36. th v hng
lin thng
x
1

x
2
x
6

x
3
x
4
x
5

x
7
x
8

Hnh 37. th v hng c 2 thnh phn
lin thng


s t x y

z u v w
Hnh 38
Suy ra yX
1
1
2
) X ( N
) y deg( (V mi nh ca G
1
ch c th ni nhiu nht
vi 1 -
2
) X ( N
nh cn li).
iu ny tri vi gi thit
2
) X ( N
) x deg( , xX. Vy G phi lin thng.
nh l 2: th v hng c tng bc ca hai nh ty khng nh hn s nh l
th lin thng.
Chng minh: Chng minh nh l bng phn chng.
Gi s th G c n nh v x, y l hai nh ty ca G c deg(x) + deg(y) n nhng
x, y khng lin thng. Khi G c t nht hai thnh phn lin thng. Gi G
1
l thnh phn
lin thng cha x v G
2
l thnh phn lin thng cha y. Gi s G
1
c n
1
nh v G
2
c n
2

nh, ta c:
n
1
+ n
2
n v deg(x) + deg(y) (n
1
1) + (n
2
1) = n
1
+ n
2
2 < n
iu mu thun vi gi thit. Vy x, y phi lin thng, ngha l G lin thng,
c-) nh ct v cu
nh ngha: Mt nh ca th c gi l nh ct hay im khp nu khi xa
nh v tt c cc cnh lin thuc vi n th nhn c th con c s thnh phn lin
thng nhiu hn so vi th cho.
Mt cnh ca th c gi l cnh ct hay cu nu khi loi cnh ra khi th
cho th nhn c th b phn c s thnh phn lin thng nhiu hn th xut
pht.
R rng vic xa nh ct hay cu khi mt th lin thng th th nhn c l
khng lin thng
Th d: Xt th trn hnh 38, cc nh x, u, v l cc nh ct. Cc cnh (u,x), (v,w)
l cc cu (cnh ct).

d-) th c hng lin thng
nh ngha 1: th c hng G = (X, U) gi l lin thng mnh nu lun lun tm
c ng i gia 2 nh bt k ca n.
nh ngha 2: th c hng G = (X, U) gi l lin thng yu nu th v hng
tng ng (tc th cho c thay cung bng cnh) vi n l th lin thng.

Th d:

T mt th v hng, nu nh hng cho cc cnh c th c hng. Mt
th v hng lin thng, c th nh hng c thnh th lin thng mnh gi l th
nh hng c.
nh l: th v hng lin thng l nh hng c khi v ch khi mi cnh
ca n nm trn t nht mt chu trnh.
Chng minh:
iu kin cn: Gi s (x, y) l mt cnh ca th. T s tn ti mt ng i c
hng t x n y v ngc li suy ra (x, y) phi nm trn mt chu trnh.
iu kin : Tin hnh gn hng cho cc cnh theo nguyn tc sau:
Gi s C l mt chu trnh no trong th v hng G c mi cnh nm trn t
nht mt chu trnh, tin hnh nh hng cc cnh ca C theo hng i ca chu trnh ny.
Nu mi cnh ca G c nh hng, bi ton c gii quyt xong. Nu cn mt cnh
no cha c nh hng th cnh ny phi nm trn mt chu trnh C no , tip tc
nh hng cho cc cnh ca C (tr cc cnh c nh hng trong C, nu c). Lp
li qu trnh trn nu cn cnh cha c nh hng. V s chu trnh ca G l hu hn
nn vic nh hng cc cnh s kt thc sau mt s hu hn bc v c mt th c
hng lin thng mnh.
5. S n nh trong, s n nh ngoi v nhn ca th.
Trong phn ny chng ta xt th v hng hoc c hng G = (X,U).
5.1. S n nh trong
nh ngha 1:
Tp con A ca X (A X) c gi l tp n nh trong ca G nu 2 nh tu ca
A l khng k nhau.
D thy, nu A l tp n nh trong ca mt th th khi bt i mt s nh ca A
c tp mi vn l tp n nh trong ca th .
Th d: Bi ton v 8 qun hu: Cn xp 8 qun hu trn bn c vua sao cho chng
khng n c nhau.
Biu din 64 ca bn c bng 64 nh ca mt th, hai nh x v y s c cnh ni
vi nhau nu l 2 v tr m 2 qun hu c th n ln nhau. Cc v tr cn tm chnh l tp
nh n nh trong c 8 nh ca th.
x
1
x
2

x
3

x
5
x
4
Hnh 40. th c hng
lin thng yu

x
1
x
2

x
3

x
5
x
4

Hnh 39. th c hng
lin thng mnh

nh ngha 2: Tp A X gi l tp n nh trong cc i ca G nu n tho mn:
A l tp n nh trong.
Nu thm vo A mt nh tu c tp mi mt tnh n nh trong.
nh ngha 3: Gi L l h tt c cc tp n nh trong ca G. Khi y s:
(G) = max { N(A) | A L }
gi l s n nh trong ca th G.
5.2. S n nh ngoi
a. Cc nh ngha.
nh ngha 1: Tp con B ca X (B X) c gi l tp n nh ngoi ca G nu vi
mi nh y X \ B u c mt nh x B sao cho (y,x) U, ngha l c cnh ni gia x
v y hoc (y,x) l mt cung ca th.
Tng t tp n nh trong, nu thm vo tp n nh ngoi mt s nh bt k th
tp mi vn l tp n nh ngoi.
Th d: Cn xp 5 qun hu trn bn c vua sao cho chng kim sot c ton b
bn c.
Biu din bn c nh th d trong 5.1. V tr cn tm chnh l mt tp n nh ngoi
gm 5 nh.
nh ngha 2: Tp B X gi l tp n nh ngoi cc tiu ca G nu n tho mn:
B l tp n nh ngoi.
Nu bt i mt nh bt k ca B c tp mi mt tnh n nh ngoi.
nh ngha 3: Gi M l h tt c cc tp n nh ngoi ca G. Khi y s:
(G) = min { N(B) | B M }
gi l s n nh ngoi ca th G.
b. Thut ton tm s n nh ngoi
Thut ton sau y cho php tm cc tp n nh ngoi c s phn t t nht ca th
G = (X, U). Thut ton c tn l thut ton tm v tr t vng gc.
Bc 1. Xy dng nh x : X X theo cch sau:
Vi mi x
i
X th (x
i
) X, trong y(x
i
) nu:
y = x
i
hoc y k vi x
i
, nu G l th v hng.
y = x
i
hoc y c cung i n x
i
, nu G l th c hng.
Bc 2. Xt cc tp (x
1
), (x
2
), , (x
n
) c xc nh trong bc 1. T tm s
t nht cc tp (x
i
) sao cho:
X ) x ( ... ) x ( ) x (
k
i
2
i
1
i
=
khi y } x ..., , x , {x B
k
i
2
i
1
i
= l tp n nh ngoi cc tiu ca th v s n nh ngoi l
(G) = N(B).

Th d: Tm s n nh ngoi ca th trong hnh 41.
Ta c X = {x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
, x
5
, x
6
, x
7
}
Bc 1. Xc nh nh x :
(x
1
) = {x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
};
(x
2
) = {x
1
, x
2
, x
3
};
(x
3
) = {x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
};
(x
4
) = {x
1
, x
3
, x
4
};
(x
5
) = {x
5
, x
6
};
(x
6
) = {x
5
, x
6
};
(x
7
) = {x
7
}.
Bc 2. T cc tp (x
i
) trn, ta c:
(x
1
) (x
5
) (x
7
) = X; (x
1
) (x
6
) (x
7
) = X;
(x
3
) (x
5
) (x
7
) = X; (x
3
) (x
6
) (x
7
) = X
Vy c 4 tp hp:
B
1
= {x
1
, x
5
, x
7
}; B
2
= {x
1
, x
6
, x
7
}; B
3
= {x
3
, x
5
, x
7
}; B
4
= {x
3
, x
6
, x
7
}
l cc tp n nh ngoi c s phn t t nht. T c s n nh ngoi l (G) = 3.
5.3. Nhn ca th
nh ngha: Tp con C cc nh ca th G = (X, U) c gi l nhn ca G nu C
va l tp n nh trong va l tp n nh ngoi ca th G.
Trong th ngi ta quan tm n cc nhn c s phn t t nht.
Th d 1: Tr li th d trong 5.2.b. D thy cc tp hp:
B
1
= {x
1
, x
5
, x
7
}; B
2
= {x
1
, x
6
, x
7
}; B
3
= {x
3
, x
5
, x
7
}; B
4
= {x
3
, x
6
, x
7
}
cng l cc tp n nh trong.
Vy th c 4 nhn c s phn t t nht l cc tp B
1
, B
2
, B
3
, B
4
.
th c cc tp n nh trong c 4 phn t l:
A
10
= {x
2
, x
4
, x
5
, x
7
}; A
11
= {x
2
, x
4
, x
6
, x
7
}
v khng c tp n nh trong c trn 4 phn t.
Vy s n nh trong l (G) = 4.
Th d 2: th trong hnh 42 c tp nh l:
X = {x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
, x
5
, x
6
}
Ta c: (x
1
) ={x
1
};
(x
2
) ={x
1
, x
2
, x
3
};
(x
3
) ={x
3
};
(x
4
) ={x
4
};

(x
5
) ={x
2
, x
3
, x
4
, x
5
, x
6
};
(x
6
) ={x
1
, x
6
};
T c: (x
1
) (x
5
) = X, (x
2
) (x
5
) = X, (x
5
) (x
6
) = X
x
1
x
4

x
2
x
3

x
5
x
6

x
7

Hnh 41

x
6
x
1

x
5
x
2

x
4
x
3

Hnh 42


Vy cc tp n nh ngoi c s phn t t nht l B
1
= {x
1
, x
5
}, B
2
= {x
2
, x
5
} v B
3
=
{x
5
, x
6
} v s n nh ngoi ca th l (G) = 2.
Tp B
1
cng l tp n nh trong, do n cng l nhn c t phn t nht ca th.
Cc tp n nh trong cc i c: A
1
= {x
1
, x
3
, x
4
}; A
1
= {x
2
, x
4
, x
6
} do s n nh
trong ca th l (G) = 3.
Ch rng khng phi th no cng c nhn,
chng hn th trong hnh 43 c ba tp n nh trong
u c 1 nh v ba tp n nh ngoi u c 2 nh nn
th khng c nhn.
6. Sc s ca th
6.1. nh ngha
Sc s ca th l s mu ti thiu cn dng t mu cc nh ca th sao cho 2
nh k nhau c mu khc nhau.
Sc s ca th G c k hiu l (G).
Hin nay cha c mt thut ton hu hiu no tm sc s ca mt th. Ngi ta
mi ch chng minh c mt s nh l sau.
6.2. Mt s nh l v sc s
nh l 1: i vi th y , sc s lun lun bng s nh ca th.
Chng minh: nh l c chng minh bng qui np theo s nh ca th.
Vi K
1
th y c 1 nh, nh l hin nhin ng.
Gi s nh l ng vi th y n nh K
n
, ngha l (K
n
) = n.
Xt th y K
n + 1
, bt i 1 nh bt k cng cc cnh lin thuc vi n c
K
n
c (K
n
) = n. Thm nh b loi v cc cnh b loi th nh mi khng th t bng n
mu c nn phi thm mt mu. Vy (K
n + 1
) = n + 1.
nh l c chng minh .
nh l 2: th v hng G = (X, U) c (G) = 2 khi v ch khi trong G khng c
chu trnh c di l.
Chng ta tha nhn, khng chng minh nh l ny.
Th d: Xt 2 th G
1
v G
2

hnh 44.
Trong G
1
khng c chu trnh c
di l, c th t x
1
bng mt mu ( chng
hn), khi x
2
, x
3
c t bng cng mt
mu khc (xanh chng hn) v x
4
, x
5
c th
t tr li mu . Ngha l (G
1
) = 2.
Trong G
2
c mt chu trnh c di l (x
1
x
3
x
4
). Nu t x
3
bng mu th x
1
, x
4

khng th t bng cng mt mu (khc mu ), ngha l (G
2
) > 2 (D thy (G
2
) = 3).
nh l 3: Trong th v hng G vi n nh lun lun c (G)(G) n. Trong
(G) l s n nh trong v (G) l sc s ca th.
x
1
x
1
x
3
x
2
x
2
x
3

x
5
x
4
x
4

G
1
G
2

Hnh 44

Hnh 43

Chng minh: Gi s (G) = k (k n), nh vy cc nh ca th c t bng k
mu. Gi X
i
l tp nh c t bng mu i, ta c X
i
X
j
=

khi i j. Mt khc X
1
X
2
X
k
= X . Theo nguyn l cng ta c:
N(X) = N(X
1
) + N(X
2
) + + N(X
k
) = n (1)
Do 2 nh tu trong X
i
(i = 1, 2, , k) l khng k nhau (suy t nh ngha sc s)
do (G) N(X
i
), i = 1, 2, , k. T v do (1) c:
n k(G) = (G)(G)
nh l c chng minh.
nh l 4: (nh l bn mu) Sc s ca th phng l khng ln hn 4. (Nu G l
th phng th (G) 4).
nh l ny c hai nh ton hc M l Keneth Appel v Wollgang Haken chng
minh nm 1976 trn my tnh.
th phng l th th c t nht mt cch biu din hnh hc trn mt phng sao
cho cc cnh ca n ch ct nhau ti cc nh ca th.
Vic tm sc s ca th thng phi kt hp cc nh l trn vi cch t mu c
th.
Th d: Xt th hnh 45
th l phng (G) 4
th c chu trnh l (G) > 2
Tin hnh t mu c th c (G) = 4
(mi loi hnh trong th th hin mt
mu)
Ch : C th dng thut ton sau t
mu mt th n (tc l tm sc s ca
th n):
- Lit k cc nh x
1
, x
2
, , x
n
theo th t bc gim dn (deg(x
1
) deg(x
2
)
- Gn mu 1 cho nh x
1
v cc nh khng k vi x
1
.
- Tip tc gn mu 2 cho nh cha c gn mu c bc cao nht v cc nh khng
k vi nh gn mu 2.
- Th tc gn cc mu tip theo c tin hnh tng t.
6.3. Vi th d ng dng sc s
Bi ton 1: Bi ton lp lch thi.
Hy lp lch thi n mn hc cho sinh vin sao cho khng c sinh vin no phi thi 2
mn cng mt thi im.
Gii: Lp mt th c cc nh l cc mn thi. Nu c sinh vin phi thi 2 mn th 2
nh tng ng c ni vi nhau bng mt cnh. S t thi l sc s ca th lp.
Th d: C 7 mn thi nh s t 1 n 7 v cc cp mn thi sau l mn thi chung ca
t nht hai sinh vin:
(1,2); (1.3); (1,4); (1,7)

x
1
x
2
x
3

x
4
x
5
x
6
x
7

x
8

Hnh 45

(2,3); (2,4); (2,5); (2,7)
(3,4); (3,6);
(4,5); (4,7);
(5,6); (6,7)
Ta c: deg(2) = deg(4) >
> deg(1) = deg(3) = deg(7) >
> deg(5) = deg(6)
Sau khi t mu cc nh (hnh 46), sc s ca
th bng 4. Vy phi b tr 4 t thi:
t 1 thi cc mn 2 v 6; t 2 thi mn 4;
t 3 thi cc mn 3 v 7; t 4 thi cc mn 1 v 5
Bi ton 2: Bi ton phn chia knh truyn hnh.
Gi s mi knh truyn hnh ph sng trong phm vi bn knh 50 km. ng bng Bc
b c tt c 25 i pht truyn hnh. Phi phn chia cc knh cho cc i pht nh th no
sao cho khng c 2 i pht no b trng knh trong vng ph sng ca chng.
Gii: Xt th gm 25 nh, mi nh ng vi mt i pht. Hai i c khong cch
t 100 km tr xung c ni vi nhau bng 1 cnh. T mu cho th, cc nh cng
mu c php pht cng mt knh.

BI TP CHNG 3

3.1. Cho cc th:

a) Lp danh sch cnh ca cc th.
b) Tm ma trn k ca cc th.
c) Tm ma trn lin thuc ca cc th.
3.2. Biu din bng hnh hc cc th c ma trn k sau:
|
|
|
\
|
=
0 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 0
A ;
|
|
|
\
|
=
0 2 2
0 0 1
3 2 1
B ;
|
|
|
|
|
\
|
=
0 1 0 1
1 1 3 0
0 3 0 2
1 0 2 1
C ;
|
|
|
|
|
\
|
=
2 3 1 0
3 1 1 1
0 2 2 1
1 2 1 0
D
x
1
x
2
x
5
x
1
x
2
x
2
x
2

x
3
x
4
x
3
x
4
x
3
x
4

G
1
G
2
G
3

nu
1 7 vng

xanh 2
6 xanh

vng 3 5 nu

4

Hnh 46

3.3. Tnh s bc cc nh ca cc th cho trong bi tp 3.2.
3.4. C bao nhiu cnh trong mt th 10 nh,mi nh u c bc bng 6?
3.5. Hy tm trong th hnh bn cc ng i
n t x
1
n x
6
c di:
a) 2; b) 3;
c) 4; d) 5;
e) 6; f) 7;
3.6. Hp ca 2 th n G
1
= (X
1
, U
1
) v G
2
= (X
2
, U
2
) l mt th, k hiu G
1
G
2
=
(X, U) vi X = X
1
X
2
; U = U
1
U
2
.
Tm hp ca cc cp th sau:
a)

b)

3.7. th phn b G ca n th G c cng s nh s nh nh thi G. Hai nh
kin k trong G nu chng khng lin k trong G.
a) Tm n K (K
n
l th y n nh).
b) Nu G c n nh v m cnh th G c bao nhiu cnh.
c) Chng t rng nu G l th n c n nh th
n
K G G = .
3.8. Cc th trong hnh di y, th no l th phn i? Nu l th phn i
hy phn hoch tp nh thnh 2 tp thuc 2 pha v v li th .

x
1
x
2
x
3

x
4
x
5
x
6

x
1
x
2
x
3
x
1
x
2
x
3

x
4
x
5
x
4
x
5

G
1
G
2

y
1
y
2
y
1
y
6
y
2

y
5
y
5

y
3
y
4
y
3
y
7
y
4

G
1
G
2

x
1
x
2
x
1

x
1
x
2
x
3
x
2

x
3
x
4
x
4
x
3

x
4
x
5
x
6
x
7
x
8
x
9

x
10
x
5
x
6
x
11
x
12

G
1
G
2
G
3


3.9. a) Chng minh rng nu G l n th v hng c n nh, m cnh v k thnh phn
lin thng th:
) 1 k n )( k n (
2
1
m +
b) Chng minh rng n th c n nh vi s cnh ln hn ) 2 n )( 1 n (
2
1
l lin
thng.
3.10. Hy xt xem cc cp th sau c ng cu khng?
a)

b)

c)

d)

e)


3.11. Cc cp th cho bng ma trn k sau c ng cu khng?
a) ;
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0
,
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
|
|
|
|
|
\
|
|
|
|
|
|
\
|
b)
|
|
|
|
|
\
|
|
|
|
|
|
\
|
1 1 0 1
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0
;
1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1

3.12. Cho X = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} v
U = {(x,y) | xX, yX, x < y v x, y nguyn t cng nhau}
Hy v th G = (X,U) v tm cc ng i n phn bit c di 3 t nh 2 ti
nh 8. (Xt hai trng hp: th v hng v th c hng).
3.13. a) Mt cuc hp c t nht ba i biu n d. Mi i biu quen vi t nht hai i
biu khc. Chng minh rng c th xp mt s cc i biu ngi quanh mt bn trn sao
cho mi i biu u ngi gia hai ngi quen.
b) Mt lp hc c t nht 4 sinh vin. Mi sinh vin thn vi t nht 3 sinh vin khc.
Chng minh rng c th chn xp mt s chn sinh vin ngi quanh mt ci bn trn sao
cho mi sinh vin u ngi gia hai bn thn ca mnh.
3.14. Tm s n nh trong, s n nh ngoi, nhn c s phn t t nht v sc s ca cc
th sau:

3.15. Tm s n nh trong, s n nh ngoi, nhn c s phn t t nht cc th sau:

a) b)
x
1
x
2
a b

x
3
x
4
x
5
c d f

x
6
x
7
g h
c) x
1
d)
x
9
x
2
a b

x
8
x
3
c d

x
7
x
4
g h
x
6
x
5

a) x
1
x
2
b) x
1

x
7
x
8
x
3
x
2
x
3
x
4

x
6
x
4
x
5
x
6

x
5
x
7
x
8
x
9

3.16. Tm s mu cn thit t 2 bn sau sao cho s cc vng c chung ng bin
c t bi cc mu khc nhau.

3.17. Bng di y cho khong cch tnh theo km ca 6 i truyn hnh (nh s t 1
n 6). Hi phi cn bao nhiu knh khc nhau pht sng, bit rng mi i ph sng
trong phm vi bn knh 50km. Hy lp k hoch c th phn chia cc knh.
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 85 75 100 50 100
2 85 125 65 100 120
3 75 125 100 90 150
4 100 65 100 45 65
5 50 100 90 45 55
6 100 120 150 65 55
3.18. Lp lch thi cho tnh hung sau: C 7 mn thi A, B, C, D, E, F, H v cc mn c
sinh vin ng k cng thi l: (A, B, C); (B, C, F); (E, F); (A, D, E); (A, E, F); (B, E);
(C, H); (A, C, E, F).

P S
3.8. G
1
phn i, G
2
, G
3
khng phn i.
3.9. a) Gi : Gi n
i
, m
i
tng ng l s nh v s cnh ca thnh phn lin thng th i.
Ta c:

= =
=
k
1 i
2
n
k
1 i
i
i
C m m , t suy ra cng thc cn chng minh.
b) Gi : Dng phn chng, bng cch xt th n nh khng lin thng nhng c
thnh phn lin thng vi n
1
nh (n
1
n)
3.10. a, b, e: ng cu ; c, d: khng ng cu.
3.11. a, b: Khng ng cu.
3.14. a) = 3, = 2, = 3, c 5 nhn c 2 phn t mi nhn.
b) = 2, = 2, = 4, c 7 nhn c 2 phn t mi nhn.
c) = 4, = 2, = 3, c 3 nhn c 2 phn t mi nhn.
d) = 2 = 2, = 3, c 3 nhn c 2 phn t mi nhn.
3.16. a) 3 mu, b) 3 mu
3.17. 4 knh.
a) b)
A B A B

E C C D E
D F


CU HI N TP CHNG 3
1. nh ngha n th, a th, gi th, th v hng, th c hng, th hn
hp. Cho th d v cch dng th m hnh ho cc bi ton thc t.
2. nh ngha v cc tnh cht ca bc ca nh ca th.
3. Pht biu nh ngha v tnh cht (s cnh, bc ca cc nh, ) ca cc th: K
n
,
K
m,n
, C
n
, W
n
, Q
n
.
4. nh ngha v thut ton nhn bit th phn i? Cho th d.
5. Trnh by cc cch biu din th bng i s (danh sch k, danh sch cnh, ma trn
k, ma trn lin thuc).
6. Th no l hai th ng cu? Bt bin vi php ng cu gia hai n th l gi?
Hy cho th d v hai n th c cng s nh, cng s cnh v bc ca cc nh l nh
nhau nhng khng ng cu.
7. nh ngha v phn loi ng i v chu trnh trong th. nh ngha th con,
th b phn. Khi nim v cc nh l nhn bit th lin thng, cho th d thy cc
nh l ch l iu kin m khng phi l iu kin cn.
8. nh ngha tp n nh trong, tp n nh ngoi v nhn ca th. Nu thut ton tm
tp n nh ngoi cc tiu ca th. nh ngha s n nh trong, s n nh ngoi ca
th.
9. nh ngha sc s ca th. Trnh by cc nh l v sc s v thut ton tm sc s
ca th. Nu mt vi bi ton thc t p dng sc s.


CHNG 4
TH EULER. TH HAMILTON.
TH PHNG

1. th Euler
1.1. nh ngha
1.2. Nhn bit th Euler
1.3. Nhn bit th na Euler
1.4. Bi ton ngi a th Trung hoa
1.5. Ch thch
2. th Hamilton
2.1. nh ngha
2.2. Nhn bit th Hamilton
2.3. Quy tc tm chu trnh Hamilton
2.4. Cy lit k chu trnh Hamilton
2.5. Bi ton sp xp ch ngi
3. thi phng
3.1. nh ngha
3.2. Cng thc Euler
3.3. Nhn bit th khng phng

1. th Euler
1.1. nh ngha: Xt th v hng hoc c hng G = (X, U).
Chu trnh n (chu trnh ch i qua mi cnh ng mt ln) i qua tt c cc cnh ca
th gi l chu trnh Euler. ng i Euler l ng i n i qua tt c cc cnh ca
th.
th c chu trnh Euler gi l th Euler. th c ng i Euler, nhng khng
c chu trnh Euler gi l th na Euler.
Th d: Cc th G
1
v H
1
l cc th Euler. Cc th G
2
v H
2
l cc th
na Euler (Hnh 1).


1.2. Nhn bit th Euler
nh l 1: iu kin cn v th v hng lin thng G l th Euler l mi
nh ca G u c bc chn.
Chng minh:
iu kin cn
Gi s G l th Euler, tc l G c chu trnh Euler. V c mi ln chu trnh Euler i
qua mt nh th s bc ca nh tng thm 2. Hn na chu trnh Euler l i qua tt c
cc cnh ng mt ln. Vy mi nh ca G u c bc chn.
iu kin
Theo nh l 1 trong 4.1 chng 3, nu th G c deg(x) 2 vi mi nh x th trong
G c chu trnh n. Gi chu trnh n l C, nu C i qua mi cnh ca th th C l
chu trnh Euler, nh l c chng minh. Nu C khng i qua tt c cc cnh, khi loi
khi G tt c cc cnh ca chu trnh C v cc nh bit lp nu n xut hin s c th
con G
1
ca th G (G
1
c

th c nhiu thnh phn lin thng). th G
1
c cc tnh cht
sau:
G
1
c nh chung vi chu trnh C va b loi.
iu ny l hin nhin v th G lin thng.
Gi s nh chung l y.
Mi nh ca G
1
u c bc chn. V, nu
nh ca G
1
khng phi l nh chung vi chu
trnh C th bc ca n l chn theo gi thit ca
nh l, nu nh ca G
1
l nh chung vi C
th v loi khi nh 2 cnh lin thuc
nn bc ca nh gim i 2 do n vn l
nh bc chn.
Do trong G
1
li tn ti mt chu trnh n C
1
, chu trnh ny c ni vi chu trnh
C qua nh chung y thnh mt chu trnh n ln hn.

G
1
G
2

H
1
H
2

Hnh 1. Cc th Euler (G
1
, H
1
) v na Euler (G
2
, H
2
)

y
1

y

Hnh 2

Nu chu trnh ln ny i qua tt cc cnh ca G th n l chu trnh Euler, nh l c
chng minh. Nu chu trnh ln ny cha phi l chu trnh Euler th lp li qu trnh loi b
nh trn.V G l th hu hn nn sau mt s hu hn bc s tm c chu trnh Euler
ca th G.
Hnh 2 minh ho qu trnh chng minh trn.
T cch chng minh nh l suy ra thut ton (thut ton Fleury) tm chu trnh Euler
ca th G = (X, U) nh sau:
Bc 1. Kim tra tnh lin thng ca th. Nu th khng lin thng th kt lun
th khng c chu trnh Euler.
Bc 2. Tnh deg(x), xX. Nu c deg(x) l th th khng c chu trnh Euler.
Bc 3. Xut pht t mt nh bt k ca th v i theo cc cnh tm mt chu
trnh n, khi i qua mt cnh no th xo cnh v cc nh c lp (nu c) khi
th, ch l khng i qua mt cu tr khi khng cn cch no khc. Nu cha ht cc cnh
th tin hnh tm tip trn phn th cn li sau ghp cc chu trnh li vi nhau.
C th gi thut ton trn l thut ton va i va xo.
Th d 1: Xt th hnh 3.
Kim tra tnh lin thng v bc cc nh l
tho mn.
Chng hn ln u tm c chu trnh n
x
1
x
2
x
7
x
6
x
5
x
1
(cc cnh gch - chm).
Tip tc tm ln hai c chu trnh n

x
1

x
7
x
8
x
3
x
2
x
4
x
7
x
1
.
Ni hai chu trnh tm c chu trnh Euler:
x
1
x
2
x
7
x
6
x
5
x
1
x
7
x
8
x
3
x
2
x
4
x
7
x
1
.
Th d 2: Tm chu trnh Euler (nu c) ca th cho bng ma trn k:
0 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 0 1
0 0 0 1 1 0
x
x
x
x
x
x
x x x x x x
6
5
4
3
2
1
6 5 4 3 2 1

Ta c: deg(x
1
) = deg(x
4
) = deg(x
5
) = deg(x
6
) = 2; deg(x
2
) = deg(x
3
) = 4. Do th
cho l th Euler.
p dng thut ton Fleury, va i va xa c chu trnh Euler: x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
x
2
x
5
x
6
x
3
x
1
.
1.3. Nhn bit th na Euler
nh l 2: iu kin cn v mt th v hng lin thng l th na Euler
l th c ng 2 nh bc l.
x
1
x
2
x
3

x
4

x
5

x
6
x
7
x
8

Hnh 3

Chng minh: Gi s x, y l 2 nh bc l ca th cho. Thm vo th cnh (x,
y) c th mi c bc ca tt c cc nh u chn. Theo nh l 1 th mi ny c
chu trnh Euler, b cnh (x, y) mi thm c ng i Euler. nh l c chng minh.
Ch : 1- Theo cch chng minh nh l 2, ng i Euler bao gi cng bt u t
mt trong hai nh bc l v kt thc nh bc l cn li.
2- T cc nh l 1 v 2 suy ra cch nhn bit mt hnh v c th v c
bng mt nt bt. l cc hnh khi m hnh ho thnh th th c khng qu 2 nh c
bc l.
Th d: Bi ton by cy cu Koenigsberg.
Con sng Pregel thnh ph Koenigsberg (thuc nc c, th k 18) chia thnh ph
thnh 4 vng nh hnh 4a. Ngi ta xy dng 7 cy cu ni cc vng t ca thnh ph
vi nhau. Hi c th i mt lt qua ht c 7 cy cu ri tr v im xut pht sao cho
mi cy cu ch i qua ng mt ln?
Bi ton ny c gii ln u tin vo nm 1766 bi Euler. ng chng minh l
khng c cch i no tho mn yu cu ca bi ton.
C th m hnh ho cc vng t l cc nh v cc cy cu l cc cnh ni cc nh v
c th nh hnh 4b. th ny c c 4 nh u c bc l, v th khng c cch i no
tho mn i hi ca bi ton.

1.4. Bi ton ngi a th Trung hoa
Mt bu t nhn th bu in v phi i qua mt s ph pht th ri quay v bu
in. Bu t phi i theo mt hnh trnh nh th no ng i l ngn nht? (Gi
thit rng mi con ph ngi phi i qua u di nh nhau)
Bi ton ny c nh Ton hc Trung quc Guan nu ln ln u tin vo nm 1960.
Bi vy n c tn l "Bi ton ngi a th Trung hoa". C th pht biu bi ton di
dng th:
Cho mt n th v hng lin thng G. Mt chu trnh i qua mi cnh ca G c
gi l mt hnh trnh. Hy tm mt hnh trnh ngn nht, tc l hnh trnh i qua t cnh
nht.
R rng rng nu G l th Euler (mi nh u c bc chn) th chu trnh Euler
trong G (qua mi cnh ca G ng mt ln) l hnh trnh ngn nht cn tm.
Ch cn phi xt trng hp G c mt s nh bc l (s nh bc l l mt s chn).
Khi , mi hnh trnh trong G phi i qua t nht hai ln mt s cnh no .
A A

B B D
D

C C
Hnh 4a Hnh 4b

D thy rng mt hnh trnh qua mt cnh (x,y) no qu hai ln th khng phi l
hnh trnh ngn nht trong G. V vy, ch cn xt nhng hnh trnh T i qua hai ln mt s
cnh no ca G.
Quy c rng mi hnh trnh T trong G l mt chu trnh Euler trong th Euler G
T
,
trong G
T
c c t G bng cch v thm mt s cnh song song i vi nhng cnh
m T i qua hai ln. Bi ton t ra c a v bi ton sau:
Trong cc th Euler G
T
ca mt n th G, tm th c s cnh t nht (khi
chu trnh Euler trong th ny l hnh trnh ngn nht).
Chng ta tha nhn nh l sau:
nh l: (Goodman v Hedetniemi, 1973) Nu G l mt th lin thng c m cnh
th hnh trnh ngn nht trong G c chiu di l:
m + m(G)
trong m(G) l s t nht cc cnh m hnh trnh i qua hai ln v c xc nh nh
sau:
Gi X
0
(G) l tp hp cc nh bc l ca G, khi tp X
0
(G) c 2k phn t. Tin hnh
phn hoch tp X
0
(G) thnh k cp, mi phn hoch nh vy gi l mt phn hoch cp ca
X
0
(G). Gi P l tp hp mi phn hoch cp c th ca X
0
(G).
K hiu di ng i ngn nht gia nh x v nh y l d(x,y), ngha l t nh x
n nh y c d cnh. Vi mi phn hoch cp P
i
P, t:
=
i
P ) y , x (
i
) y , x ( d ) P ( d
Khi : m(G) = min {d(P
i
) | P
i
P}
Th d: Gii bi ton ngi a th Trung Hoa cho trong th G hnh 5.

th c 8 nh 11 cnh (n = 8; m = 11). Tp hp cc nh bc l X
0
(G) = {x, y, s, w}
v tp hp cc phn hoch cp l P = {P
1
, P
2
, P
3
}, trong :
P
1
= {(x, y), (s, w)} d(P
1
) = d(x, y) + d(s, w) = 1 + 2 = 3,
P
2
= {(x, s), (y, w)} d(P
2
) = d(x, s) + d(y, w) = 3 + 1 = 4,
P
3
= {(x, w), (y, s)} d(P
3
) = d(x, w) + d(y, t) = 2 + 2 = 4.
m(G) = min{d(P
1
), d(P
2
), d(P
3
)} = d(p
1
) = 3.
Do G
T
c c t G bng cch thm vo 3 cnh (x, y), (s, v), (v, w) v G
T
l th
Euler. Mt trong cc hnh trnh ngn nht cn tm l:
w v u w v u

x x

y z s t y z s t
G G
T

Hnh 5

x, y, z, s, v, u, t, s, v, w, z, v, w, y, x.
Tng cc cnh ngi a th phi i (chiu di hnh trnh) l 11 + 3 = 14.
Ch : Cng c th thm vo G cc cnh (x,y), (w,z), (z,s) c th Euler G
T
.
1.5. Ch thch
i vi th Euler c hng, c cc kt lun hon ton tng t:
th c hng lin thng G l th Euler khi v ch khi mi nh ca G u c
bc vo bng bc ra.
th c hng lin thng G l na Euler (m khng l Euler) khi v ch khi tn
ti mt nh c bc vo ln hn bc ra mt n v v mt nh c bc ra ln hn
bc vo mt n v. Ngha l tn ti hai nh x v y sao cho :
deg
+
(x) = deg

(x)+1, deg

(y) = deg
+
(y)+1, deg
+
(v) = deg

(v), vV, v x, v y.
2. th Hamilton
2.1. nh ngha: Xt th v hng hoc c hng G = (X, U).
ng i n i qua tt c cc nh ca th, mi nh ng mt ln gi l ng i
Hamilton.
Chu trnh n i qua tt c cc nh ca th, mi nh ng mt ln gi l chu trnh
Hamilton.
th c chu trnh Hamilton gi l th Hamilton. th khng c chu trnh
Hamilton nhng c ng i Hamilton gi l th na Hamilton.
Th d: G
1
l th Hamilton, G
2
l th na Hamilton, G
3
khng phi l th
Hamilton cng khng phi l th na Hamilton (hnh 6).

D nhn thy, mi th c nh treo (nh c bc bng 1) u khng phi l th
Hamilton.
2.2. Nhn bit th Hamilton
Hin ti cha c tiu chun cht ch no nhn bit th Hamilton. Ngi ta mi ch
chng minh c mt vi nh l vi cc iu kin qu rng nhn bit th Hamilton.
Sau y l mt s nh l nh vy.
nh l 1: n th v hng lin thng m mi nh u c bc khng nh hn
na s nh l th Hamilton.

G
1
G
2
G
3

Hnh 6

H qu: n th v hng lin thng G c n nh, nu mi nh ca th u c
bc khng nh hn
2
1 n
th G l th na Hamilton.
Tht vy, thm vo G mt nh x v ni x vi mi nh ca G nhn c th G' c
n+1 nh v bc ca mi nh khng nh hn
2
1 n
1
2
1 n +
= +
. Theo nh l 1, G' l thi

Hamilton, loi nh x ra khi chu trnh Hamilton trong G' c ng Hamilton trong G.
C th thy cc iu kin nu trong nh l trn l qu rng. th G
1
trong hnh 6
l mt minh chng.
Xt thm mt th d na gi l bi ton du lch vng quanh th gii do chnh Hamilton
t ra (Hamilton l nh ton hc Ailen): C mt khch mun i du lch qua 20 thnh ph
trn th gii. Cc thnh ph ny c biu din bng cc nh ca mt khi 12 mt u,
mi mt l mt ng gic u, cc cnh ca khi a din biu

hin ng i gia cc thnh
ph (hnh 7a). Liu c cch no ngi khch xut pht t mt thnh ph bt k v i
mt lt ht c 20 thnh ph, mi thnh ph i qua ng mt ln ri tr v thnh ph xut
pht?

Hnh 7a Hnh 7b

C th m hnh ho bi ton bng mt th phng 20 nh (Hnh 7b), mt trong cc
hnh trnh ca ngi khch l chu trnh Hamilton nh ch trong hnh 7b bng nt m.
Trong th d ny, mi nh ca th u c bc bng 3, trong khi na s nh ca
th l 10.
nh l 2: Nu G l mt n th v hng c tng s bc ca hai nh ty khng
k nhau khng nh hn s nh ca th th G l th Hamilton.
Th d: th hnh 8 c 5 nh bc 4 v 2 nh bc 3 k nhau nn tng s bc ca
hai nh bt k khng k nhau l bng 7 hoc 8, do n l th Hamilton.

Hnh 8 Hnh 9

nh l 3: th phn i vi hai tp nh X
1
v X
2
, mi tp nh u c s nh l n
(n 2) v bc ca mi nh u ln hn
2
n
l th Hamilton.
th hnh 9 l mt th d minh ha cho nh l ny.
nh l 4: Nu c th xa i k nh cng cc cnh lin thuc ca mt n th G
lin thng m c th con c nhiu hn k thnh phn lin thng th th G khng
phi l th Hamilton.
Chng minh: iu ny l hin nhin, v khi xa i k nh cng cc cnh lin thuc
trong mt chu trnh th chu trnh b chia thnh nhiu nht l k thnh phn lin thng.
Th d: Xt th trong hnh 10a. Xa cc nh x
3
, x
4
, x
9
cng cc cnh lin thuc
c th con c 4 thnh phn lin thng (hnh 10b). Vy th cho khng phi l
th Hamilton.

nh l 5: n th c hng lin thng m mi nh c bn bc ra v bn bc vo
u khng nh hn na s nh l th Hamilton.
Mt th c hng c gi l th c hng y nu vi hai nh phn bit
bt k x v y phi c mt v ch mt trong 2 cung (x,y) hoc (y,x).
nh l 6: th c hng y l th na Hamilton.
Th d: Chng t rng khi tng kt cuc thi u bng bn ca n u th (n 2) theo
th thc vng trn mt lt, lun lun c th xp n u th thnh mt hng dc sao cho
ngi ng trc thng ngi ng ngay sau.
Theo m hnh th thi u vng trn (th d 2, mc 1.1, chng 3) chng ta c mt
th c hng y n nh ng vi n u th, theo nh l 6 c th xp n u th ny
thnh mt ng Hamilton, ngha l bi ton c gii.
2.3. Quy tc tm chu trnh Hamilton.
Nhiu khi vic vn dng cc nh l nu trong mc 2.2 khng cho php kt lun
mt th cho c phi l th Hamilton hay na Hamilton hay khng. Khi nn trc
tip tm chu trnh (ng) Hamilton theo cc quy tc nu sau y.
V mi nh ca chu trnh Hamilton u lin k vi ng 2 cnh nn suy ra:
1. Nu th G = (X,U) c d ch mt nh c bc khng ln hn 1 (x X, deg(x)
1) th G khng phi l th Hamilton.
2. Nu nh x c bc l 2 th c hai cnh k vi x u thuc chu trnh Hamilton.
x
1
x
1

x
2
x
2

x
3
x
4

x
5
x
5

x
6
x
7
x
6
x
7

x
8
x
9
x
10
x
8
x
10

Hnh 10a. Hnh 10b.

3. Trong khi xy dng chu trnh Hamilton, sau khi ly 2 cnh k vi mt nh x
no t vo chu trnh Hamilton th khng th ly thm bt k cnh no k vi
x na, v th c th xa mi cnh cn li k vi x.
4. Chu trnh Hamilton khng cha bt k chu trnh con no.
Th d: th trong hnh 11a c phi l th Hamilton hay khng?
Gi s th l th Hamilton, gi C chu trnh Hamilton ca th.
V deg(a) = deg(g) = 2 nn cc cnh (a,b), (a,c), (g,e), (g,i) phi thuc C (quy tc 2).
Xt nh i, do (i,g) c chn nn ch c th chn mt trong hai cnh (i,j) hoc (i,k)
vo chu trnh C. Do tnh i xng ca th nn chn cnh no cng c, chng hn
chn cnh (i,k), vy phi xa cnh (i,j) (quy tc 3) cn li th hnh 11b.
By gi nh j c bc bng 2, vy (k,j)C v (f,j)C (quy tc 2).
Xa tip cc cnh (k,h) (theo quy tc 3) v (e,f) (quy tc 4). Hnh 11c l th cn li.
D thy (f,b)C (quy tc 2). Cn cc cnh (b,d), (c,d), (c,h), (e,d), (e,h) khng c cch no
chn vo C m khng to thnh chu trnh con.
Vy th cho khng c chu trnh Hamilton.
Ch rng th c ng Hamilton, l ng i qua cc nh dcabfjkigeh.

2.4. Cy lit k chu trnh Hamilton
C th lit k cc chu trnh Hamilton ca mt th cho nh thut ton quay lui.
Hnh 12 l cy lit k cc chu trnh Hamilton ca th cho.

2 1

1 5 3 2 4

4 3 5 3 5

4 5 3 4 2 5 2 3

1 5 4 4 1 3 1 5 2 1 3 2

1 1 1 1
Hmh 12
a a a
b c b c b c
d d d
e e e
f h f h f h
g g g
i i i
j k j k j k
Hnh 11a Hnh 11b Hnh 11c

5
3 7

2 1 9

4 8
6
Hnh 13
th cho c 4 chu trnh Hamilton, l: 1, 2, 3, 5, 4, 1; 1, 2, 5, 3, 4, 1; 1, 4, 3,
5, 2, 1 v 1, 4, 5, 3, 2, 1.
Khi dng cy lit k chu trnh Hamilton nn chn nh c bc thp nht lm gc ca
cy.
Vi cc th khng c qu nhiu cnh, dng cy lit k c th nhn bit c th
cho c phi l th Hamilton hay khng.
2.5. Bi ton sp xp ch ngi:
C n i biu t n nc n d mt hi ngh quc t. Mi ngy hp mt ln ngi
quanh mt bn trn. Hi phi b tr bao nhiu ngy v b tr nh th no sao cho trong mi
ngy, mi ngi c hai ngi k bn l bn mi. Lu rng n ngi u mun lm quen
vi nhau.
Xt th gm n nh, mi nh ng vi mi ngi d hi ngh, hai nh k nhau khi
hai i biu tng ng mun lm quen vi nhau. th y ny l Hamilton v r rng
mi chu trnh Hamilton l mt cch sp xp tho mn yu cu t ra. Bi ton lc ny tr
thnh bi ton tm cc chu trnh Hamilton phn bit ca th y K
n
(hai chu trnh
Hamilton gi l phn bit nu chng khng c cnh chung).
nh l: th y K
n
vi n l v n 3 c ng
2
1 n
chu trnh Hamilton phn bit.
Chng minh: K
n
c
2
) 1 n ( n
cnh v mi chu trnh Hamilton c n cnh, nn s chu
trnh Hamilton phn bit nhiu nht l
2
1 n
.
Gi s cc nh ca K
n
l 1, 2, ..., n. t nh
1 ti tm ca mt ng trn v cc nh 2, ..., n
t cch u nhau trn ng trn (mi cung l
1 n
360
0
sao cho nh l nm mt na ng trn

v nh chn nm na ng trn cn li. Khi
chu trnh Hamilton u tin l 1, 2, ..., n, 1. Cc
nh c gi c nh, xoay khung theo chiu kim
ng h vi cc gc quay:
1 n
360
2
3 n
, ... ,
1 n
360
3 ,
1 n
360
2 ,
1 n
360
0 0 0 0

.
ta nhn c
2
3 n
khung phn bit vi khung u tin. Do c ng
2
1 n
chu trnh
Hamilton phn bit.
Th d: Gii bi ton sp xp ch ngi vi n = 9.
C 4
2
1 9
=
cch sp xp ch ngi phn bit nh sau (hnh 13 v hnh 14):

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1
1 3 5 2 7 4 9 6 8 1

Nh 1 Nh 2 Nh 3

Ging 1 Ging 2 Ging 3

Hnh 15. Bi ton "3 nh, 3 ging"
1 5 7 3 9 2 8 4 6 1
1 7 9 5 8 3 6 2 4 1

Hnh 14

3. th phng:
Trong phn ny ch xt cc th v hng. Trc ht xt bi ton c "ba nh, ba
ging" nh sau: C 3 ngi nh v 3 ci ging. Mi nh u c quyn dng nc c 3
ging v c quyn lm ng ring i n tng ging (hnh 15). C cch lm no sao
cho cc ng i khng ct nhau?

Bi ton c m hnh ha bng mt th y K
3,3
. V cu hi c t ra l:
liu c cch no v th y K
3,3
trn mt phng sao cho mi cp cnh bt k ca
th khng ct nhau ngoi tr ti nh ca th.
gii quyt cc bi ton nh vy, ngi ta a ra khi nim " th phng".
3.1. nh ngha
th G = (X, U) c gi l th phng nu tn ti t nht mt dng biu din hnh
hc ca n trn mt phng sao cho cc cnh ch ct nhau nh. Cch biu din nh vy
c gi l biu din phng ca th.

5

3 7

2 1 9

4 8
6
5

3 7

2 1 9

4 8

6
5
3 7

2 1 9

4 8

6

Th d:

th phng c vai tr rt ln trong thit k cc mch in.
3.2 Cng thc Euler
Biu din phng ca mt th phng
s chia mt phng thnh cc min khc
nhau, trong c mt min khng b chn.
Th d th hnh 17 chia mt phng
thnh 5 min M
1
, M
2
, M
3
, M
4
, M
5
, M
6
,
trong M
6
l min v hn.
nh l 1 (nh l Euler):
Nu mt th phng lin thng c n nh, m cnh v f min th:
f = m n + 2
Cng thc nu trong kt lun ca nh l c gi l cng thc Euler.
Chng minh: nh l c chng minh bng quy np.
Trc ht xy dng mt dy cc th con G
1
, G
2
, , G
m
ca mt th phng, lin
thng G bng cch ly G
1
l mt cnh ty ca G. G
k
nhn c t G
k 1
bng cch thm
mt cnh ty lin thuc vi mt nh ca G
k 1
, nh cn li ca cnh mi thm c th l
mt nh ca G
k 1
hoc l mt nh mi nu n cha c trong G
k 1
. iu ny lun lun
thc hin c v G l lin thng v cui cng nhn c G khi ghp m cnh, ngha
l G
m
G. Gi n
k
, m
k
v f
k
tng ng l s nh, s cnh v s min ca G
k
.
Vi k = 1, khi G
1
c: n
1
= 2, m
1
= 1, f
1
= 1. R rng: m
1
n
1
+ 2 = 1 2 + 2 = f
1
.
Cng thc Euler ng vi k = 1.
Gi s cng thc ng vi k, xt vi k+1, c hai trng hp xy ra:
a) C hai nh x
k+1
v y
k+1
thuc G
k
(hnh 18a). Khi c hai nh ny phi nm
trn bin chung ca mt min M no , v nu khng th khng th gp cnh (x
k+1
, y
k+1
)
vo G
k
m khng c cc cnh ct nhau (G
k+1
l th phng).
Cnh mi s chia min M thnh 2 min con. Do f
k+1
= f
k
+1, n
k+1
= n
k
, m
k+1
= m
k
+1
v:
m
k+1
n
k+1
+ 2 = (m
k
+1) n
k
+ 2 = (m
k
n
k
+ 2) + 1 = f
k
+ 1 = f
k+1
.
Vy cng thc ng vi k+1.

M
1

M
2
M
6

M
3
M
5

M
4

Hnh 17

th phng (ba cch v ca th K
4
) th khng phng
Hnh 16.

b) Mt trong hai nh ca cnh mi cha thuc G
k
. Khi nh khng thuc G
k
phi
nm trong min no ca G
k
v nh thuc G
k
phi nm trn bin ca G
k
(hnh 18b). Nh
vy s min khng tng, ngha l f
k+1
= f
k
cn m
k+1
= m
k
+1, n
k+1
= n
k
+1 do :
m
k+1
n
k+1
+ 2 = (m
k
+1) (n
k
+1) + 2 = m
k
n
k
+2 = f
k
= f
k+1
.
Vy cng thc ng vi k+1.
nh l c chng minh.
Th d: Mt th phng c 20 nh v bc ca mi nh u bng 3. Hi biu din
phng ca th s chia mt phng thnh bao nhiu min?
Trc ht tnh s cnh ca th, theo tnh cht bc ca cc nh th (mc 1.2,
chng 3), ta c:
2m = 20.3 = 60 m = 30
Vy, theo cng thc Euler, s min ca mt phng c to thnh bi th l:
f = 30 20 + 2 = 12.
H qu 1: Nu G l mt n th phng lin thng vi m cnh, n nh trong n
3 th:
m 3n 6
Chng minh:
Trc ht tm hiu khi nim Bc
ca min. Ngi ta nh ngha nh sau:
bc ca min l s cnh trn bin (bin ca
min l chu trnh bao quanh min ) ca
min y. Nu mt cnh c v hai ln khi
v bin ngha l cnh xut hin 2 ln
nn n c tnh 2 n v vo bc ca min
. K hiu bc ca min M l deg(M).
Hnh 19 cho bit bc ca cc min tng
ng(s ghi cnh tn min trong du
ngoc n).
By gi chng minh h qu. Gi s n th phng cho chia mt phng thnh f
min.Bc ca mi min t nht bng 3 (v n th khng c cnh bi nn khng c min
bc 2 v khng c khuyn nn khng c min bc 1). Bc ca min v hn cng khng
nh hn 3 v ang xt cc th c t nht 3 nh. T nh ngha bc ca min suy ra tng
x
1

x
2
x
3
M
1
(3)
x
4

x
5
M
2
(6)
M
3
(7)
x
6
x
7

Hnh 19
x
k+1
x
k+1

M y
k+1

y
k+1

a) b)
Hnh 18. Thm mt cnh vo G
k
c G
k+1

s bc ca cc min trong n th bng hai ln s cnh ca th (mi cnh c tnh 2
ln cho 2 min lin k nhau). V mi min c bc nh nht l 3 nn:
f 3 ) M deg( m 2
i
i
=
f
3
m 2

Theo cng thc Euler: f = m n + 2, thay vo cng thc trn c:
3
m 2
2 n m + m 3n 6
H qu c chng minh.
T h qu ny d thy th y K
5
l th khng phng. Tht vy K
5
c: n =
5, m = 10 do 3n 6 = 9 < m. Vy K
5
l khng phng.
H qu 2: Nu mt n th phng lin thng c m cnh, n nh trong n 3 v
khng c chu trnh c di 3 th:
m 2n 4
H qu 2 c chng minh tng t h qu 1, nhng ch rng do khng c chu
trnh c di 3 nn bc ca cc min t nht l bng 4.
T h qu 2 suy ra th phn i y K
3,3
l khng phng v K
3,3
khng c chu
trnh c di 3, c 6 nh (n = 6) v 9 cnh (m = 9) do 2n 4 = 8 < m khng tha mn
h qu 2. Nh vy khng c cch no lm cc ng khng ct nhau trong bi ton "ba
nh, ba ging".
H qu 3: Trong mt n th phng lin thng lun lun tn ti t nht mt nh c
bc khng vt qu 5.
Tht vy, theo chng minh h qu 1, ta c:
3f 2m (1)
Gi s n th phng lin thng c tt c bc ca cc nh u ln hn hoc bng 6
th theo tnh cht v bc ca cc nh th (tnh cht 1, mc 1.2, chng 3) ta c:
6n 2m 3n m (2)
T (1) v (2) suy ra:
3n + 3f m + 2m n + f m f m n
iu ny tri vi nh l Euler (f = m n + 2 m n).
3.3. Nhn bit th khng phng
Chng ta thy th K
3,3
v th K
5
l khng phng, do mi th cha K
3,3

koc K
5
nh mt th con l th khng phng. Hn th, c mt php bin i sao cho
mt th khng phng thnh mt th c cha th con l K
3,3
hoc K
5
. Trc ht chng
ta nghin cu php bin i .

Cho th G, nu b i cnh (x,y) ca G v thm vo nh z cng hai cnh (x,z) v
(z,y) c mt th mi G'. Php bin i G thnh G' nh trn gi l php chia cnh
(cn gi l php phn chia s cp) th.
Cc th G
1
= (X
1
,U
1
) v G
2
= (X
2
, U
2
) c gi l ng phi nu c th nhn c
chng t cng mt th bng mt dy cc php chia cnh. Chng hn ba th trn hnh
20 l cc th ng phi.

nh l 2 (nh l Kuratowski): th l khng phng khi v ch khi n cha mt
th con ng phi vi th K
3,3
hoc K
5
.
R rng th cha th con ng phi vi K
3,3
hoc K
5
l th khng phng.
Chng ta tha nhn iu ngc li v vic chng minh n kh phc tp.
Th d: th Petersen (hnh 21a) c phi l th phng khng?
Gii: B nh x
2
v 3 cnh lin thuc vi x
2
v v li th con nhn c nh hnh
21b c th ng phi vi th K
3,3
. Vy th Petersen l khng phng.

x
1
x
2
x
1
x
2
x
1
x
2

y
1
z
1

y
2
z
2
z
3

x
3
x
4
x
3
y
3
x
4
x
3
z
4
x
4
x
5
x
5
x
5

G G
1
G
2

Hnh 20. Cc th ng phi
x
1

x
7
x
7
x
4
x
6

x
5
x
6
x
8
x
2
x
8

x
1
x
3

x
10
x
9

x
5
x
10
x
9

x
4
x
3

a) b)
Hnh 21

BI TP CHNG 4
4.1. Hy xt xem cc th sau, th no l th Euler hoc na Euler v tm chu trnh
Euler hoc ng Euler, nu c.
a) b)

c) d)

e)

4.2. Hy xt xem cc th sau, th no l th Euler, th no l na Euler v ch
ra chu trnh Euler hoc ng Euler, nu c.

4.3. Vi gi tr no ca n th cc th sau l th Euler?
a) K
n
; b) W
n
; c) Q
n
.
4.4. Vi gi tr no ca m v n th th phn i y K
m, n
l th Euler, na Euler ?
4.5. Hy xt xem cc th cho bng ma trn k sau, th no l th Euler hoc na
Euler v tm chu trnh Euler hoc ng Euler, nu c.
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4

x
5
x
6
x
7
x
8
x
9
x
1
x
1
x
2

x
2
x
3

x
4
x
5

x
6
x
7
x
6
x
7

x
1
x
2
x
1
x
2

x
3
x
4

x
4
x
6

x
7
x
5
x
6


a) th v hng b) th v hng

0 1 1 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 1 1 0
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x x x x x x x
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
7 6 5 4 3 2 1

0 0 0 1 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 2 0 0 1
1 0 2 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 1 0
G
F
E
D
C
B
A
G F E D C B A

c) th c hng

1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

4.6. Gii bi ton ngi a th Trung hoa vi th cho trong cc hnh sau:
a) b)

4.7. Hy xt xem cc th sau, th no l th Hamilton hoc na Hamilton v tm
chu trnh Hamilton hoc ng Hamilton, nu c.
a) b)

A B A B

C D C D
E F G H
E F

G H
I K M N
x
1
x
2

x
3
x
4

x
5
x
6
x
1
x
2
x
3

x
4
x
5
x
6
x
7

c) d)

4.8. a) Vi gi tr no ca m v n th th phn i y K
m, n
l th Hamilton.
b) V cy lit k cc chu trnh Hamilton ca th lp phng Q
3
.
4.9. Hy ch ra rng th Petesen (xem hnh v) khng c chu trnh Hamilton, nhng nu
xo i mt nh bt k cng cc cnh lin thuc s c mt th Hamilton.

4.10. Xy dng mt th tha mn:
a) Va c chu trnh Euler, va c chu trnh Hamilton.
b) C 6 nh, l th Euler, nhng khng phi l th Hamilton.
c) C 6 nh, l th Hamilton nhng khng phi l th Euler.
4.11. Chng minh rng cc th sau khng c chu trnh Hamilton nhng c ng
Hamilton.

4.12. Trong cc th sau, th no l th phng, th no l th khng phng?
Nu l th phng hy tm dng biu din phng ca n.
x
1

x
7

x
5
x
6
x
8
x
2

x
10
x
9

x
4
x
3

th Petesen

x
1
x
2
x
3
x
1

x
2
x
3
x
4

x
4
x
5
x
6
x
5
x
6
x
7
x
8
x
9

x
10
x
11
x
12

x
7
x
8
x
9

x
13

th G
1
th G
2
x
1

x
2
x
3

x
4
x
5

x
1
x
2
x
3

x
10
x
11
x
12

x
8
x
9
x
17
x
13
x
4

x
16
x
15
x
14

x
7
x
6
x
5


A B
C D
E
F G
H I

A B

E F

G H

C D
a) b)

c) d)

4.13. Dng nh l Kuratowski chng t cc th sau l khng phng:
a) b)

4.14. a) Mt n th phng lin thng c 10 mt, tt c cc nh u c bc bng 4.
Tm s nh ca th.
b) Mt n th phng lin thng c 9 nh, bc ca cc nh l 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4,
5. Tm s cnh v s mt ca th.

P S

4.1. a) khng; b), c), e/ na Euler; d) Euler.
4.2. b), c) khng; a) na Euler.
4.3. a) n l; b) khng; c) n chn.
4.5. a) na Euler; b), c) Euler
4.7. a) na Hamilton; b), d) khng; c) Hamilton.
4.12. c 4 th u l th phng.
4.14. a) 8 nh; b) 14 cnh, 7 mt.
x
1
x
2
x
3

x
4
x
5
x
6

a b

c d

e f
1 2 3 4

5 6 7 8
x
1

x
2
x
7

x
3
x
6

x
4
x
5

CU HI N TP CHNG 4
1. Pht biu nh ngha th Euler, th na Euler. Pht biu v chng minh nh l
nhn bit. Pht biu bi ton ngi a th Trung hoa, cch gii.
2. Pht biu nh ngha th Hamilton, th na Hamilton. Pht biu cc nh l nhn
bit th Hamilton, cho th d chng t rng cc iu kin ca nh l l qu rng ri.
Pht biu cc quy tc tm chu trnh Hamilton.
3. nh ngha th phng. Pht biu v chng minh nh l v cc h qu ca cng thc
Euler. Khi nim th ng phi v pht biu nh l Kuratowski nhn bit th
khng phng.


CHNG 5.
CY V MT S NG DNG CA CY

1.1. nh ngha
1.2. Cc tnh cht c bn ca cy
1.3. Cy c gc
2.1. Cc khi nim
2.2. Cc thut ton duyt cy nh phn
2.3. K php nghch o Ba lan (RPN)
3.1. Cy v bi ton lit k
3.2. Cc m tin t
3.3. M tin t ti u
4. Cy khung (cy bao trm) ca th
4.1. nh ngha
4.2. iu kin th c cy khung
4.3. Cc thut ton tm cy khung ca th
5. H chu trnh c lp
6. Cy khung nh nht
6.1. nh ngha
6.2. Thut ton Kruskal
6.3. Tnh ng n ca thut ton Kruskal
6.4. Thut ton Prim
6.5. Tnh ng n ca thut ton Prim
Cy l mt khi nim gn lin vi l thuyt th, n ra i nm 1857 bi nh ton
hc Cayley ngi Anh khi ng dng cy xc nh cc cu trc phn t khc nhau ca
hp cht hu c.
Cy c nhiu ng dng trong tin hc. Chng hn, cy c dng xy dng cc
thut ton, c bit l trong cc bi ton sp xp, lit k. Cch t chc cc th mc trong
mt h iu hnh my tnh l mt ng dng c th ca cy. Cy cn c dng xy
dng cc mng my tnh v nhiu ng dng khc trong tin hc.

1.1. nh ngha
Cy l mt th v hng lin thng, c t nht 2 nh v khng c chu trnh.
Rng l mt th v hng, khng lin thng v khng c chu trnh. Ni cch khc,
rng l mt tp hp m mi phn t l mt cy ring bit. Chng hn hnh 1 l mt rng
gm 3 cy

1.2. Cc tnh cht c bn ca cy
a. B : Mi cy u c t nht 2 nh treo.
Tht vy, gi = x
1
x
2
x
k
l ng i n di nht c trong cy T. Khi x
1
v x
k

l cc nh treo v nh x
1
ch c cnh ni vi x
2
v khng c cnh ni vi bt c nh x
i
(i
= 3, 4, , k) no khc, v nu khng th T c chu trnh. ng thi x
1
cng khng c cnh
ni vi bt c nh no khc ngoi tp {x
2
, x
3
, x
4
, , x
k
}, v nu khng th khng phi l
ng i di nht. Vy x
1
l nh treo. Tng t x
k
cng l nh treo.
b. inh l: Cho T = (X, U) l mt th v hng c n nh (n 2). Cc tnh cht
sau y l tng ng:
1-/ T lin thng v khng c chu trnh (T l cy).
2-/ T khng c chu trnh v c n 1 cnh.
3-/ T lin thng v c n 1 cnh.
4-/ T lin thng v nu b i mt cnh bt k th th nhn c l khng lin
thng, ngha l mi cnh ca T u l cu.
5-/ Mi cp nh trong T c ni vi nhau bng mt ng i n duy nht.
6-/ T khng c chu trnh v nu thm vo 1 cnh ni 2 nh bt k khng k nhau th
trong T xut hin chu trnh v ch mt chu trnh m thi.
Chng minh
nh l c chng minh theo s sau:
1 2 3 4 5 6 1
1 2: Dng quy np theo s nh ca cy.
R rng khi n = 2, 1 2 l ng.
Gi s 1 2 ng vi T
k
c k nh khi T
k
c k 1 cnh. Xt cy T
k+1
c k+1 nh,
loi b nh treo v cnh treo khi T
k+1
c cy T
k
c k nh, k 1 cnh. Vy T
k+1
c k
cnh.

Hnh 1. Rng c 3 cy

Khng nh c chng minh.
2 3: Dng phn chng.
Gi s T khng lin thng, khi T phi c k thnh phn lin thng: T
1
, T
2
, , T
k

(k 2). Do T khng c chu trnh nn cc T
i
khng c chu trnh, ngha l T
i
l cc cy.
Gi T
i
= (X
i
, U
i
), ta c: X
i
X
j
= ; X
1
. . . X
k
= X
U
i
U
j
= ; U
1
. . . U
k
= U
Theo 2-/ ta c: N(U
i
) = N(X
i
) 1 k n ] 1 ) X ( N [ ) U ( N
k
1 i
i
k
1 i
i
= =

= =

Mt khc theo 2-/ th T c n 1 cnh, ngha l:
=
=
k
1 i
i
1 n ) U ( N
iu l mu thun. Vy T lin thng.
3 4: Nu b i mt cnh c th c n nh vi n 2 cnh, hin nhin th
khng lin thng.
4 5: Dng phn chng.
Gi s tn ti cp nh x, y khng c ng i n ni gia chng, nh vy x v y
khng lin thng, iu ny tri vi gi thit nu trong 4-/.
Gi s tn ti cp nh x, y c 2 ng i ni gia chng, khi loi b 1 cnh ca
mt trong hai ng i th th T vn lin thng. iu ny tri vi 4-/ l nu loi b
mt cnh th T mt tnh lin thng.
5 6: T khng c chu trnh, v nu c chu trnh th mi cp nh trn chu trnh
c ni vi nhau bi 2 ng i n.
Nu thm vo T mt cnh ni 2 nh x, y khng k nhau no th cnh ny cng
ng i n t x sang y to thnh mt chu trnh. Chu trnh ny l duy nht bi nu khng
th hoc gia x v y phi c 2 ng i n hoc trc trong T phi c sn mt chu
trnh.
6 1: Dng phn chng
Gi s T khng lin thng, khi T c t nht 2 thnh phn lin thng v c 2 thnh
phn lin thng u khng c chu trnh. Khi thm vo T mt cnh ni gia 2 nh ca 2
thnh phn lin thng th trong T khng xut hin mt chu trnh no c, iu ny tri
vi gi thit 6-/
1.3. Cy c gc
a. nh ngha:
Cy c hng l th c hng m th v hng tng ng ca n l mt cy.
Cy c gc l cy c hng, trong c mt nh c bit, gi l gc, t gc c
ng i n mi nh khc ca cy.
Trong cy c gc th gc x
0
c bc vo bng 0, cn tt c cc nh khc u c bc
vo bng 1 (hnh 2).

Th d:

Mt cy c gc thng c v vi gc x
0
trn cng v cy pht trin t trn xung
(hnh 3). Gc ca cy (nh x
0
) gi l nh mc 0. Cc nh k vi gc c xp pha
di v gi l nh mc 1. nh ngay di nh mc k l nh mc k +1.
Tng qut, trong mt cy c gc x
0
th nh x ca cy l nh c mc k khi v ch khi
ng i t x
0
n x c di bng k.
Mc ln nht ca mt nh c trong cy gi l chiu cao ca cy.
Cy c gc hnh 2 thng c v nh trong hnh 3 lm r mc ca cc nh.

Trong cy c gc, mi cung u c hng t trn xung, v vy v mi tn ch
hng i l khng cn thit.
Xt mt ng i xut pht t gc ca cy c gc. Ta c cc khi nim sau:
nh c mc k c gi l cha ca cc nh mc k+1, nh mc k+1 gi l con
ca nh mc k.
Cc nh c cng cha c gi l anh em.
Cc nh c mc nh hn k gi l t tin ca nh mc k.
nh mc ln nht ca ng i gi l l. L l nh treo v khng c con.
Mi nh khng phi l l c gi l nh trong.
Cy c gc m mc ca mi l sai khc nhau khng qu 1 n v gi l cy cn i
(hay cy cn bng). Ni cch khc cy cn i l cy m mi l u c mc h hoc h 1
trong h l chiu cao ca cy.
Ch rng vi mt cy ty , nu chn mt nh no lm gc c cy c gc
tng ng. Do chn gc bt k nn vi cy c n nh s c n cy c gc tng ng khc
x
5
x
1
x
11
x
8
x
15

x
2
x
0
x
4
x
12

x
9
x
16

x
6
x
13

x
3
x
10

x
7
x
14
x
17

Hnh 2. Cy vi gc x
0

x
0

x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4

x
5
x
6
x
7
x
8
x
9
x
10

x
11
x
12
x
13
x
14

x
15
x
16
x
17

Hnh 3. Cch v thng thng ca cy c gc

nhau. C th chng minh c rng, nu chn tm ca cy l gc th c cy c gc c
cao nh nht (xem khi nim tm ca th chng 6).
b. Cy m- phn
nh ngha: Mt cy c gc T c gi l cy m-phn nu mi nh trong ca T c
nhiu nht l m con.
Cy c gc T c gi l mt cy m-phn y nu mi nh trong ca T u c m
con.
nh l 1: Mt cy m-phn y c k nh trong th c m.k + 1 nh v c (m1)k +
1 l.
Chng minh: Mi nh trong ca cy m-phn y u c bc ra l m, cn l c bc
ra l 0. Vy tng s bc ra ca cy l m.k, t s cung ca cy l m.k (theo tnh cht 1
bc ca nh, mc 1.2 chng 3). V do s nh ca cy l m.k + 1. Gi s l s l th ta
c s + k = m.k + 1, nn s = (m1)k + 1.
nh l 2:
1) Mt cy m-phn c chiu cao h th c nhiu nht l m
h
l.
2) Mt cy m-phn c s l th c chiu cao h [log
m
s].
3) Mt cy m-phn y v cn i c s l th c chiu cao h = [log
m
s]
Chng minh:
1) Mnh c chng minh bng quy np theo h.
Mnh hin nhin ng khi h = 1.
Gi s mi cy m-phn c chiu cao h = k u c nhiu nht m
k
l (vi h 2). Xt
cy m-phn (cy T) c chiu cao h = k + 1. B gc khi cy c mt rng gm khng
qu m cy con, mi cy con ny c chiu cao khng qu k. Do gi thit quy np, mi cy
con ny c nhiu nht l m
k
l. Do l ca nhng cy con ny cng l l ca T, nn T c
nhiu nht l m.m
k
= m
k + 1
l.
Theo nguyn l quy np, mnh ng i vi mi cy c chiu cao tu .
2) s m
h
h [log
m
s].
3) Do cy l cn i nn cc l c mc h hoc h 1, v c t nht mt l mc h
nn s l phi nhiu hn m
h 1
. Vy m
h 1
< s m
h
h 1 < log
m
s h h = [log
m
s].
Th d: Xt tr chi gi th dy truyn. Ban u c mt ngi nhn c mt l th
v gi s rng mi ngi khi nhn c mt th hoc s sao gi th cho 4 ngi khc
hoc l khng chuyn cho ai c. Hi c bao nhiu ngi nhn c th k c ngi u
tin nu khng c ai nhn c nhiu hn mt bc th v tr chi kt thc khi c 100
ngi nhn c th m khng vit cho ai c.
Gii: Biu din tr chi bng mt cy t phn y , cc nh trong l nhng ngi
nhn c th v sao gi cho ngi khc cn l l nhng ngi nhn c th m khng
gi cho ai c. V c 100 ngi khng vit th cho ai nn s l ca cy l s = 100, theo nh
l 1 ta c 100 = (4 1)k + 1 s nh trong ca cy l: k = 33 s nh ca ca cy l:
n = 100 + 33 = 133. Vy c 133 ngi nhn c th.

2.1. Cc khi nim
Cy nh phn l cy c gc v mi nh c nhiu nht l 2 con.
Trong mt cy nh phn, mi con c ch r l con bn tri (c v v pha di
bn tri) hay con bn phi (c v pha di bn phi) ca cha.
Cy nh phn c gc x c k hiu l T(x). Gi s x c con bn tri l y v con bn
phi l z. Nu loi x v cc cnh lin thuc ra khi T(x) th c hai cy nh phn T(y) v
T(z) "nh hn" T(x), khi y T(y) c gi l cy con bn tri cn T(z) l cy con bn phi
ca T(x).
Duyt cy (hay c cy) l a ra danh sch lit k tt c cc nh ca cy, mi nh
mt ln.
2.2. Cc thut ton duyt cy nh phn
trnh b st cc nh khng c lit k v trnh lp li cc nh lit k khi
duyt cy cn phi c cc thut ton duyt cy. Cc thut ton di y c trnh by
qui v khi thut ng duyt x
i
c dng c ngha l nh x
i
c a vo danh sch lit k.
a) Thut ton tin th t:
1. Duyt gc x.
2. Duyt cy con bn tri ca T(x) theo tin th t.
3. Duyt cy con bn phi ca T(x) theo tin th t.
Th d: Duyt cy nh phn T(x
0
) trong hnh 4 theo tin th t:

1. Duyt x
0
2. Duyt T(x
1
)
2.1. Duyt x
1
2.2. Duyt T(x
3
)
2.2.1. Duyt x
3
2.2.2. Duyt T(x
7
)
2.2.2.1. Duyt x
7
x
0

x
1
x
2

x
3
x
4
x
5
x
6

x
7
x
8
x
9
x
10
x
11

x
12
x
13
x
14

Hnh 4


2.2.2.3. Duyt T(x
12
): Duyt x
12
2.2.3. Duyt T(x
8
): Duyt x
8
2.3. Duyt T(x
4
)
2.3.1. Duyt x
4
2.3.2. Duyt T(x
9
)
2.3.2.1. Duyt x
9
2.3.2.2. Duyt T(x
13
): Duyt x
13
2.3.2.3. Duyt T(x
14
): Duyt x
14
3. Duyt T(x
2
)
3.1. Duyt x
2
3.2. Duyt T(x
5
): Duyt x
5
3.3. Duyt T(x
6
)
3.3.1. Duyt x
6
3.3.2. Duyt T(x
10
): Duyt x
10
3.3.3. Duyt T(x
11
): Duyt x
11
Kt qu duyt cy T(x
0
) theo tin th t l:
x
0
x
1
x
3
x
7
x
12
x
8
x
4
x
9
x
13
x
14
x
2
x
5
x
6
x
10
x
11
b) Thut ton trung th t:
1. Duyt cy con bn tri ca T(x) theo trung th t.
2. Duyt gc x.
3. Duyt cy con bn phi ca T(x) theo trung th t.
0
) trong hnh 4 theo trung th t:
1. Duyt T(x
1
)
1.1. Duyt T(x
3
)
1.1.1. Duyt T(x
7
)
1.1.1.2. Duyt x
7
1.1.1.3. Duyt T(x
12
): Duyt x
12
1.1.2. Duyt x
3
1.1.3. Duyt T(x
8
): Duyt x
8
1.2. Duyt x
1
1.3. Duyt T(x
4
)
1.3.1. Duyt T(x
9
)
1.3.1.1. Duyt T(x
13
): Duyt x
13
1.3.1.2. Duyt x
9
1.3.1.3. Duyt T(x
14
): Duyt x
14
1.3.2. Duyt x
4
2. Duyt x
0


3. Duyt T(x
2
)
3.1. Duyt T(x
5
): Duyt x
5

3.2. Duyt x
2

3.3. Duyt T(x
6
)
3.3.1. Duyt T(x
10
): Duyt x
10
3.3.2. Duyt x
6
3.3.3. Duyt T(x
11
): Duyt x
11
3.3. Duyt x
2

Kt qu duyt cy T(x
0
) theo trung th t l:
x
7
x
12
x
3
x
8
x
1
x
13
x
9
x
14
x
4
x
0
x
5
x
2
x
10
x
6
x
11
.

c) Thut ton hu th t:
1. Duyt cy con bn tri ca T(x) theo hu th t.
2. Duyt cy con bn phi ca T(x) theo hu th t.
3. Duyt gc x.
0
) trong hnh 4 theo hu th t:
1. Duyt T(x
1
)
1.1. Duyt T(x
3
)
1.1.1. Duyt T(x
7
)
1.1.1.2. Duyt T(x
12
): Duyt x
12
1.1.1.3. Duyt x
7
1.1.2. Duyt T(x
8
): Duyt x
8
1.1.3. Duyt x
3
1.2. Duyt T(x
4
)
1.2.1. Duyt T(x
9
)
1.2.1.1. Duyt T(x
13
): Duyt x
13
1.2.1.2. Duyt T(x
14
): Duyt x
14
1.2.1.3. Duyt x
9
1.2.3. Duyt x
4
1.3. Duyt x
1
2. Duyt T(x
2
)
2.1. Duyt T(x
5
): Duyt x
5
2.2. Duyt T(x
6
)
2.2.1. Duyt T(x
10
): Duyt x
10
2.2.2. Duyt T(x
11
): Duyt x
11
2.2.3. Duyt x
6
2.3. Duyt x
2
3. Duyt x
0

Kt qu duyt cy T(x
0
) trong hnh 4 theo hu th t l:
x
12
x
7
x
8
x
3
x
13
x
14
x
9
x
4
x
1
x
5
x
10
x
11
x
6
x
2
x
0
Ch thch: Cc thut ton duyt cy nh phn c th m rng duyt cy m-phn
bng cch thay th t cy con bn tri, cy con bn phi bng th t cc cy con t tri
sang phi.
2.3. K php nghch o Ba lan (RPN)
Xt biu thc i s sau:
x 3
y 2
) y x ( A
3

+ + =
K hiu ^ l php ly tha, * l php nhn, / l php chia. Cc php ton trong biu
thc trn u l cc php ton hai ngi nn c th biu din cch tnh A bng mt cy nh
phn c cc nh trong l k hiu ca cc php ton s hc, cn cc l l cc s hoc ch
i din cho cc s (hnh 5).

Duyt cy hnh 5 theo hu th t c:
x y + 3 ^ 2 y 3 x * / + (1)
R rng c th tnh A theo trnh t ca biu thc (1) m khng cn cc du ngoc v khng
s nhm ln.
Biu thc dng (1) c gi l k php nghch o Balan, vit tt l RPN (Reverse
Polish Notation) do nh ton hc v logic hc Ba lan Lukasiewicz (1878 1956) t ra.
Ngc li, nu cho mt biu thc RPN c th tnh c gi tr ca biu thc .
Chng hn, gi tr ca biu thc RPN 8 2 3 * 4 ^ 9 3 / + c tnh nh sau:
{
+
=
/ 3 9 ^ 4 * 3 2 8
6 3 . 2
= +
=
/ 3 9 ^ 4 6 8
2 6 8
3 2 1
=
+
=
/ 3 9 ^ 4 2
16 2
4
3 2 1
= +
=
3 2 1
3 3 : 9
/ 3 9 16 =
43 4 2 1
19 3 16
3 16
= +
+ = 19
Ch thch: Nu duyt cy hnh 5 theo tin th t c:
+ ^ + x y 3 / 2 y * 3 x (2)
Biu thc (2) c gi l k php Ba lan t dng hn RPN.
+

^ /

+ 3 *

x y 2 y 3 x
Hnh 5

3.1. Cy v bi ton lit k
Bi ton lit k c trnh by trong chng 2. C th ng dng cy c gc gii
bi ton lit k bng thut ton quay lui.
Gi s cn lit k cc cu hnh no gm k phn t ly t tp hp c n phn t N =
{x
1
, x
2
, , x
n
} cho. Chn mt im bt k lm gc v cc nh mc 1 tng ng vi
cc phn t ca tp N tha mn cu hnh cn tm. l cc phn t th nht trong cc cu
hnh phi lit k. Nh vy gc ca cy c khng qu n con. Tu theo yu cu ca cu hnh,
phn t th hai ca cu hnh c chn t cc phn t thch hp trong tp N hoc trong tp
N
1
= N \ {phn t chn lm phn t th nht ca cu hnh}. Qu trnh tip tc cho n
khi chn c cc cu hnh tha mn bi ton cho. Cy c xy dng nh trnh by
gi l cy lit k. Cc cu hnh cn lit k chnh l cc nh nm trn ng i t nh
mc 1 n cc l ca cy lit k..
Sau y l mt vi th d.
Th d 1: Xy dng cy lit k cc hon v ca tp N = {1, 2, 3}.

Chn im ty lm gc, c 3 phn t ca N u c chn lm phn t th nht ca
cc hon v nn gc c ba con: 1, 2 v 3.
Xt nh 1, v 1 c chn do cc con ca nh 1 ch cn chn trong {2, 3}. C
2 v 3 u c chn vy nh 1 c hai con l 2 v 3. Tng t i vi cc nh 2 v 3
mc 1.
Xt nh 2 l con ca nh 1, v 2 v 1 c chn do con ca 2 ch cn duy nht
phn t 3. Hon ton tng t i vi cc nh mc 2 khc.
Tt c cc phn t ca N c chn. Vy cy tm kim c kt thc, ta c 6 hon
v nh trong hnh 6.
Th d 2: Dng cy lit k cc xu nh phn c di 4 sao cho khng c hai s 0
lin tip.
Hnh 7 l li gii ca bi ton. Ch l ngi ta qui c trong cy nh phn biu din
xu nhi phn th con bn tri l bt 0 v con bn phi l bt 1. Cc con trong mi bc du
c chn t tp B ={0,1}. C 8 xu tha mn, l cc xu lit k trong hnh 7.

1 2 3

2 3 1 3 1 2

3 2 3 1 2 1
(1,2,3) (1,3,2) (2,1,3) (2,3,1) (3,1,2) (3,2,1)
Hnh 6. Cy lit k hon v ca {1, 2, 3}

Th d 3: Lit k cc tp con ca tp hp A = {0, 1, 3, 4, 7, 11,12} sao cho tng cc
phn t ca tp con tm c khng ln hn 10.
Li gii ca bi ton c trnh by trong hnh 8. Cc tp hp con c k phn t l cc
nh trn cc ng i t gc n nh bc k, tr nh gc ca cy. C th l:
- Cc tp con c 1 phn t: {0}, {1}, {3}, {4}, {7}.
- Cc tp con c 2 phn t: {0,1}, {0,3}, {0,4}, {0,7}, {1,3}, {1,4}, {1,7}, {3,4},
{3,7}.
- Cc tp con c 3 phn t: {0,1,3}, {0,1,4}, {0,1,7}, {0,3,4}, {1,3,4}.
- Cc tp con c 4 phn t: {0,1,3,4}

3.2. Cc m tin t
Trong tin hc, mi ch ci c m ho bng mt xu nh phn. Nu khng phn bit
ch hoa vi ch thng th vi cc ch ci ting Vit hoc ting Anh, mi ch ci ch cn
dng cc xu c di 5 l (v c 2
5
= 32 xu nh phn c di 5). Tuy nhin c th
dng t hn cc bit m ho cc ch ci nu dng cc xu c di khc nhau m
ho. Khi cc ch ci xut hin thng xuyn hn c m ho bng cc xu c di
ngn hn.
Vn t ra l phi m ho nh th no c th phn bit c mt ch ci c
bt u v kt thc ti u. Chng hn nu ta m ho theo bng m sau:
K t e a t
M 0 1 01

0 1 3 4 7

1 3 4 7 3 4 7 4 7

3 4 7 4 4

4
Hnh 8. Cy lit k cc tp hp con

0 1

1 0 1

0 1 1 0 1

1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1
0101 0110 0111 1010 1011 1101 1110 1111
Hnh 7

Khi xu 0101 c th ng vi cc t eat, eaea hoc tt.
m bo khng c xu nh phn no ng vi hn mt dy cc ch ci th cn phi
m ho sao cho xu nh phn ng vi mt ch ci no khng bao gi xut hin nh l
phn u ca xu nh phn ng vi mt ch ci khc. Cc m c tnh cht nh vy gi l
m tin t. Th d, bng m:
K t e a t
M 0 10 11
l mt m tin t ca ba ch ci: e, a, t.
Vi cc m tin t th mt xu nh phn ch ng vi duy nht mt dy ch ci, chng
hn vi th d nu th xu 01011 l m ca ch eat.
Cc m tin t c xy dng bng cy nh phn v c gi l cy m, trong cc
ch ci l nhn cc l. Xu nh phn gm cc bt trn ng i t gc n l l m ca ch
ci l nhn ca l .
Th d: Xt cy nh phn trong hnh 9.
Khi ta c bng m:
K t e a i m s
M 0 10 110 1110 1111
T xu 11111011100 l m ca t same
Ngc li kim tra xem mt cch m c
phi l m tin t hay khng, cn phi biu din
cc m thnh cy nh phn. Nu cc l c nhn
l cc ch ci c trong bng m th l m tin
t, cn nu tn ti nh trong c nhn l ch ci th
khng phi l m tin t.
Th d: Hy xt xem cc cch m ha sau c phi l m tin t khng?
a)
K t a b c d
M 0 01 00 110
b)
K t a b c d
M 00 01 11 101
Biu din cc m thnh cy nh phn (hnh 10a v hnh 10b) ta c kt lun.

0 1
e
0 1
a
0 1
i
0 1
m s
Hnh 9


3.3. M tin t ti u
trit tit kim s bt dng cho mt bn tin th vic chn m tin t cho cc ch
ci c di ngn khc nhau cn ph thuc vo tn sut cc ch ci c dng trong bn
tin . Chng hn mt bn tin gm 10
5
k t ly trong tp cc ch ci X = {a,b,c,d,e,f} vi
tn sut sau:
K t a b c d e f
Tn sut (%) 45 10 12 3 20 10
Khi y, nu dng bng m tin t:
K t a b c d e f
M 00 01 111 101 100 110
m ha bn tin th s bit cn dng l:
10
5
(2.45% + 2.10% + 3.12% + 3.3% + 3.20% + 3.10%) = 245000
Nu dng bng m tin t:
K t a b c d e f
M 0 100 101 110 1110 1111
m ha bn tin th s bt cn dng l:
10
5
(1.45% + 3.10% + 3.12% + 3.3% + 4.20% + 5.10%) = 250000
R rng, vi cc cch m ha khc nhau dn n di ngn khc nhau ca cng mt
bn tin. Thut ton Huffman sau y cho m tin t ti u i vi mt bn tin s dng
cc k t trong tp k t X.
Trc ht, vi cy m T th vi mi l c gn nhn xX, trong X l tp k t
cn m ha. Mc (x) ca x trong cy m T chnh l chiu di ca xu nh phn l m ca
x. Gi f(x) l tn sut xut hin ca k t x trong bn tin th s cc bt dng m ha ton
b cc k t c trong bn tin l
X x
) x ( f ). x ( n , trong n l s k t c trong bn tin.
Cy m T l ti u khi
=
X x
) x ( f ) x ( ) T ( E t gi tr nh nht theo ngha chui bt
m ha bn tin c di ngn nht.

0 1 0 1
a
0 1 1 0 1 0 1
c b a b c
0 1
d d
Hnh 10a Hnh 10b
Cch a) khng phi l m tin t Cch b) l m tin

Thut ton Huffman gm cc bc:
1. Xy dng tp nh, mi nh tng ng vi mt k t c trong tp X v s l l
trong cy m sau ny. Gn cho mi nh 2 nhn, mt nhn l k t xX v mt nhn l tn
sut f(x) tng ng. Gi tp nh gn nhn l X.
2. Chn nh x c nhn f(x) nh nht v y c nhn f(y) nh tip theo, ni x v y vi
mt nh mi z c cy nh phn gc z, nhn ca z l f(z) = f(x) + f(y).
3. Nu tt c cc nh ca bc 1 l l ca cy th dng v cy thu c l cy m
ti u. Nu khng, lp li t bc 2 vi tp nh X = X \ {x,y}{z}.
Ngi ta gi cy m xy dng c theo thut ton Huffman l cy m Huffman v
bng m thu c l m Huffman.
Tr li th d u mc ny, p dng thut ton Huffman c cy m Huffman nh
hnh 11.
T c bng m tin t ti u cho bn tin l:
K t a b c d e f
M 0 1111 101 1110 110 100
S bt cn dng m ha bn tin theo m Huffman l:
10
5
(1.45% + 4.10% + 3.12% + 4.3% + 3.20% + 3.10%) = 223000

nh l: Cy m Huffman l cy m ti u.
chng minh nh l, trc ht xt b sau:
B : Gi X l tp hp cc k hiu cn m ha v x, y l hai k hiu c tn sut nh
nht. Khi c mt cy m ti u T cho X sao cho x, y l hai anh em trong T.
Chng minh b : Gi T
0
l cy m ti u cho X. Nu x, y khng l anh em, gi u l
l c mc ln nht trong T
0
th phi c mt l v l anh em vi u. Tht vy, nu u khng c
anh em, gi w l cha ca u, xa nh u v coi w l l tng ng vi k hiu u s nhn c
cy m mi T
0
' vi E(T
0
') < E(T
0
), iu ny l v l v T
0
l cy m ti u.
By gi, nu x khng cng mc u, v th (x) < (u) v bng cch hon i gia x v u
nhn c cy m T
1
vi:
100

45 a 55

22 33

10 f c 12 e 20 13

3 d b 10
Hnh 11. Cy m Huffman

E(T
1
) = E(T
0
) (x)f(x) (u)f(u) + (x)f(u) + (u)f(x) =
= E(T
0
) [(u) (x)][f(u) f(x)] < E(T
0
)
iu ny tri vi tnh ti u ca T
0
. Vy x c cng mc vi u v y c cng mc vi v.
Bng cch hon i x vi u v y vi v s nhn c cy m ti u T v E(T) = E(T
0
).
Chng minh nh l: Dng quy np theo n = |X|.
Khi n = 2, nh l hin nhin ng.
Gi s nh l ng vi k (k 2). Xt vi k +1. Coi X = {x
1
, x
2
, , x
k
, x
k +1
}. Khng
mt tnh tng qut, c th gi thit x
k
, x
k +1
l hai k t c tn sut nh nht. Gi T l cy
m ti u cho X sao cho x
k
v x
k +1
l anh em trong T (T tn ti do b ). Gi H l cy m
Huffman (cy m c c t vic p dng thut ton Hufman) v x
k
, x
k +1
cng l anh em
trong H. Gi H' l cy m nhn c t H bng cch xa x
k
, x
k +1
v gn cho nh cha ca
x
k
, x
k +1
k t y vi tn sut f(y) = f(x
k
) + f(x
k +1
). D thy H' l cy m Huffman cho tp
Y= {x
1
, , x
k 1
, y}. Tng t, gi T' l cy m nhn c t T bng cch xa x
k
, x
k +1
v
gn cho nh cha ca x
k
, x
k +1
k t z vi tn sut f(z) = f(x
k
) + f(x
k+1
) th T' l mt cy m
ca tp Y. Do gi thit quy np, ta c: E(H') E(T'). Vy:
E(H) = E(H') + (x
k
)f(x
k
) + (x
k+1
)f(x
k+1
)
E(T') + (x
k
)f(x
k
) + (x
k+1
)f(x
k+1
) = E(T).
V cy m T ti u nn E(H) = E(T). Vy cy m H l ti u.
4. Cy khung (Cy bao trm) ca th
4.1. nh ngha:
Cho th v hng G = (X, U) vi N(X) > 1. th b phn T (l th gi nguyn
nh v b bt mt s cnh) ca th G c gi l mt cy khung ca G nu T l mt
cy. Hnh 12 l 3 cy khung ca mt th ( th G).
4.2. iu kin th c cy khung
nh l: iu kin cn v mt th v hng G vi 2 nh tr ln c cy
khung l th lin thng.
Chng minh:
iu kin : Dng phn chng
Gi s G c cy khung T nhng G khng lin thng, khi tn ti cp nh x,yG
khng c ng i gia chng. Do x,y cng thuc T nn T cng khng lin thng, vy T
khng phi l cy. iu ny tri vi gi thit nu.
iu kin cn:
Gi s G lin thng. Khi :
a-/ Nu G khng c chu trnh th G l mt cy v l cy khung ca chnh n.
b-/ Nu G c k chu trnh th mi chu trnh b i mt cnh c cy khung ca th.

Th d:

4.3. Cc thut ton tm cy khung ca th
Mt th lin thng c rt nhiu cy khung, i khi s cy khung ca mt th rt
ln, chng hn th y K
n
c n! cy khung.
Cc thut ton sau cho php tm mt trong cc cy khung ca th lin thng
G = (X,U).
a- Tm kim u tin chiu su
Trc kt tm mt nh tu ca G lm gc ca cy khung. T nh ny xy dng
mt ng i bng cch ghp ln lt cc cnh vo sao cho cnh mi ghp ni tip vi
cnh ghp trc . Tin hnh ghp n khi no khng ghp c na th thi. Ch
khi ghp khng to thnh chu trnh.
Nu ng i va lp i qua tt c cc nh ca th G th c cy khung
ca G.
Nu ng i va lp cha i qua tt c cc nh ca th G th t nh cui
cng ca ng i ny quay li nh trc n v, t nh ny xy dng mt ng i mi
xut pht t nh v i qua cc nh cha c ghp vo ng i trc. Nu ti nh
khng tm c ng i no hoc tm ht mt ng i di nht c th th li lui
thm mt nh na v tip tc xy dng mt ng i n di nht c th t nh ny. Qu
trnh tip tc cho n khi lui v n nh gc. V th l hu hn nn thut ton s kt
thc sau mt s hu hn bc.
Thut ton trn cn gi l thut ton quay lui.
b- Tm kim u tin chiu rng
Chn mt nh tu ca th G lm gc ca cy khung.
Ghp tt c cc cnh lin thuc ca nh chn c cc nh thuc mc 1.
x
3
x
4

x
2

x
5

x
1

th G
x
3
x
4
x
3
x
4
x
3
x
4

x
2
x
2
x
2

x
5
x
5
x
5

x
1
x
1
x
1

Ba cy khung ca G
Hnh 12

Vi mi nh mc 1 ta li lm nh nh gc, tc l ghp tt c cc cnh lin thuc
vi nh mc 1 sao cho khng to thnh chu trnh (nn ghp theo mt th t no
khi ln) c cc nh mc 2.
Tip tc ghp i vi nh thuc mc 2, Th tc kt thc khi tt c cc nh c
ghp vo cy
Th d: Tm cy khung ca th hnh 13:

Chn nh f lm gc, cc bc quay lui c trnh by trong hnh 14.

a e i m

c d f h k

b g
Hnh 13
f f f

Bc 1 h h

k k i

m m
Bc 2 Bc 3
f f f

h e h e h e

g k i d g k i d g k i d

m c m c m c

a a b a
Bc 4 Bc 5 Bc 6
Hnh 14. Cc bc tm cy khung theo thut ton u tin chiu su

Cng chn nh f lm gc, cc bc p dng thut ton tm kim u tin chiu rng
c trnh by trong hnh 15.

5. H chu trnh c lp
Theo tnh cht 6 ca cy, nu T = (X,V) l cy khung ca th lin thng G = (X,U)
th khi thm mt cnh u U \ V vo T c mt chu trnh n duy nht C.
nh ngha: Tp cc chu trnh:
= {C | C = C(X, V{u}, u U \ V}
gi l h chu trnh c lp hay h chu trnh c bn ca th lin thng G = (X,U), trong
T = (X,V) l cy khung ca th G.
Nu G = (X, U) l th v hng lin thng c N(X) = n v N(U) = m, khi cy
khung T = (X, V) c N(V) = n 1, ngha l khi xy dng cy khung T loi m n + 1
cnh ra khi th G. C thm mi cnh b loi vo T s c thm 1 chu trnh. Vy, nu k
hiu s cc chu trnh c lp ca th G l (G), ta c:
(G) = m n + 1
T ta suy ra rng, nu G = (X, U) l th v hng c k thnh phn lin thng th:
(G) = m n + k
(v mi thnh phn lin thng ca G c mt cy khung).
S (G) gi l chu s ca th.
T cc din gii trn suy ra thut ton tm h chu trnh c lp ca mt th v
hng lin thng nh sau:
Bc 1: - Tm cy khung T ca th.
- Xc nh tp cc cnh ca th khng nm trong cy khung T:
W = {u
1
, u
2
, , u
m n + 1
}
f f

Bc 1
d e h g
Bc 2
f f

d e h g d e h g

c i k c i k

Bc 3 a b m
Bc 4
Hnh 15. Cc bc tm cy khung theo thut ton u tin chiu
rng

Bc 2: - Thm cnh u
1
vo T c chu trnh th nht.
- Loi cnh u
1
va thm vo T, thm cnh u
2
vo c chu trnh th hai.
- Qu trnh tip tc n khi c m n +1 chu trnh.
Procedure He_chu_trinh_doc_lap;
Input: th lin thng G = (X,U) c n nh, m cnh;
Ouput: Tp cc chu trnh c lp;
Begin
T := (X,V) l cy khung ca G;
W := U \ V;
:= ;
for i := 1 to m n +1 do
begin
e := cnh c trong W;
C := T {e};
:= C;
C := C \ {e};
end;
End;
Th d: Tm h chu trnh c lp ca th hnh 16a

Ta c: S cnh: m = 19;
S nh: n = 12;
S chu trnh c lp l:

= 19 12 + 1 = 8;
Bc 1. Tm cy khung T (hnh 16b):
Cc cnh b loi l: (x
1
,x
8
); (x
2
,x
3
); (x
2
,x
7
); (x
7
,x
9
); (x
9
,x
10
); (x
10
,x
11
); (x
5
,x
11
);
(x
3
,x
5
).
Bc 2. Tm cc chu trnh c bn:
Thm cnh (x
1
,x
8
) c chu trnh C
1
= x
6
x
2
x
1
x
8
x
7
x
6
.
x
9
x
10
x
11

x
8
x
12

x
6

x
7
x
5

x
2
x
3

x
1
x
4

Hnh 16a
x
6

x
10

x
7
x
2
x
3
x
5

x
8
x
1
x
4
x
12

x
9
x
11
Hnh 16b

Thm cnh (x
2
,x
3
) c chu trnh C
2
= x
6
x
2
x
3
x
6
.
Thm cnh (x
2
,x
7
) c chu trnh C
3
= x
6
x
2
x
7
x
6
.
Thm cnh (x
7
,x
9
) c chu trnh C
4
= x
7
x
8
x
9
x
7
.
Thm cnh (x
9
,x
10
) c chu trnh C
5
= x
6
x
7
x
8
x
9
x
10
x
6
.
Thm cnh (x
10
,x
11
) c chu trnh C
6
= x
6
x
5
x
12
x
11
x
10
x
6
.
Thm cnh (x
5
,x
11
) c chu trnh C
7
= x
5
x
11
x
12
x
5
.
Thm cnh (x
3
,x
5
) c chu trnh C
8
= x
6
x
3
x
5
x
6
.
6. Cy khung nh nht
Mt trong cc ng dng ca l thuyt th l gii cc bi ton ti u. Chng hn
mun xy dng mt mng ng st ni n thnh ph vi nhau sao cho t mt thnh ph
no c th i n mi thnh ph khc bng mng ng st , th vn t ra l phi
xy dng sao cho khi khai thc mng s t li nhun cao nht. Hoc xy dng mt
mng my tnh gm n my cc a im khc nhau th cn phi tri cp nh th no
tng chi ph l r nht.
Cc bi ton nh vy thng c gii nh khi nim cy khung nh nht.
6.1. nh ngha:
Cho G = (X,U) l th v hng lin thng trong mi cnh uU c gn mt
s thc khng m l(u) gi l trng s ca cnh u. Cy khung T = (X,V) ca th G c
tng trng s cc cnh nh nht gi l cy khung nh nht.
Tng trng s cc cnh ca cy khung T gi l trng s ca cy khung v k
hiu l l(T), ngha l:
=
V u
) u ( l ) T ( l
Cy khung T
0
l cy khung nh nht ca th G nu:
l(T
0
) = min{ l(T) | T T(G) }
trong T(G) l tp cc cy khung ca G.
Sau y l hai thut ton cho php tm mt cy khung nh nht: Thut ton Kruskal
v thut ton Prim.
6.2. Thut ton Kruskal:
Thut ton s xy dng tp cnh V ca cy khung nh nht T = (X,V) theo tng bc.
Trc ht sp xp cc cnh ca th G theo th t khng gim ca trng s. Bt u t V
= , sau mi bc ln lt duyt trong danh sch cnh sp xp, t cnh c di
nh n cnh c di ln hn, tm ra cnh m vic b sung n vo tp V khng to
thnh chu trnh trong tp ny. Thut ton s kt thc khi tp V c n1 cnh. C th c
th m t thut ton nh sau:
Bc 1. t T = (X, ).
Bc 2. Sp xp cc cnh ca G theo th t khng gim ca trng s.

Bc 3. Bt u t cnh u tin ca dy ny, thm dn cc cnh ca dy c xp
vo T sao cho cnh thm vo khng to thnh chu trnh trong T.
Bc 4. Lp li bc 3 cho n khi no s cnh trong T bng n 1 l c cy khung
nh nht cn tm.
Procedure Kruskal;
Input: th G lin thng c n nh v c trng s;
Output: Cy khung nh nht T;
Begin
T := th rng c n nh l cc nh ca G;
for i := 1 to n 1 do
begin
u := cnh c trng s nh nht trong G v khng to thnh chu trnh trong T
khi ghp vo T;
T := T {u};
end;
end.
Th d 1: Tm cy khung nh nht ca th cho trong hnh 17. th c 11 nh,
17 cnh nh vy cy khung c 10 cnh.
Hnh 18 minh ho cc bc thc hin thut ton.

Bt u t th rng T c 11 nh.
Bc sp th t cc cnh Bc chn cc cnh cho cy khung nh nht
Th t Cnh Trng s Bc chn Cnh Trng s
1 x
2
x
4
10 1 x
2
x
4
10
2 x
7
x
9
10 2 x
7
x
9
10
x
2

80 10 60

x
4
55 x
3

x
1
40
25 35
21 x
5
20 x
6

23
x
7
20
25 x
8
70
10 12
x
9
30 x
10
45 x
11

Hnh 17

3 x
8
x
10
12 3 x
8
x
10
12
4 x
5
x
6
20 4 x
5
x
6
20
5 x
6
x
8
20 5 x
6
x
8
20
6 x
1
x
7
21 6 x
1
x
7
21
7 x
5
x
7
23 7 x
5
x
7
23
8 x
1
x
5
25 8 x
4
x
6
35
9 x
7
x
8
25 9 x
10
x
11
45
10 x
9
x
10
30 10 x
3
x
4
55
11 x
4
x
6
35 Tng trng s cc cnh 251
12 x
4
x
5
40
13 x
10
x
11
45
14 x
3
x
4
55
15 x
2
x
3
60
16 x
6
x
11
70
17 x
1
x
2
80
Ghi ch
Sau bc chn 7 ta khng th chn cc
cnh (x
1
,x
5
), (x
7
,x
8
) v (x
9
, x
10
) v cc cnh
ny to thnh chu trnh vi cc cnh chn.
Tnh hung tng t nu chn cnh (x
4
,x
5
)
bc chn 9.
Hnh 18a l bc u tin ca thut ton. Kt thc thut ton c cy khung nh
nht l cy trong hnh 18b. Trng s ca cy khung nh nht thu c l l(T) = 251.

6.3. Tnh ng n ca thut ton Kruskal.
R rng th thu c theo thut ton c n nh, n 1 cnh v khng c chu trnh. V
vy theo nh l trong 1.2 n l cy v l cy khung ca th G. Nh vy ch cn phi ch
ra rng T c trng s nh nht. Gi s tn ti cy khung S ca th m l(S) < l(T). K
hiu u
k
l cnh u tin trong dy cc cnh ca T xy dng theo thut ton va m t
khng thuc S. Khi th b phn ca G sinh bi cy S c b sung cnh u
k
s cha
mt chu trnh duy nht C i qua u
k
. Do chu trnh C phi cha cnh u thuc S v thuc T
nn th b phn S' thu c t S bng cch thay cnh u ca n bng u
k
l cy khung.
x
2
x
2

x
4
x
3
x
4
x
3

x
1
x
1

x
5
x
5

x
6
x
6

x
7
x
7

x
8
x
8

x
9
x
10
x
11
x
9
x
10
x
11

a) Bc 1: T = (X, ) b) Cy khung nh nht
Hnh 18

Theo cch xy dng, l(u
k
) l(u), do l(S) l(S), ng thi s cnh chung ca S v T
tng thm mt so vi s cnh chung ca S v T. Lp li qu trnh trn tng bc mt c
th bin i S thnh T v trong mi bc tng di khng tng, tc l l(T) l(S). Mu
thun ny chng t T l cy khung nh nht ca G.
phc tp ca thut ton Kruskal c nh gi nh sau. Trc tin, vic sp xp
cc cnh ca G theo th t trng s tng dn c phc tp O(m
2
), vi m l s cnh ca
G. Ngi ta chng minh c rng vic chn cnh u
k +1
khng to nn chu trnh vi k cnh
chn trc c phc tp l O(n
2
). Do
2
) 1 n ( n
m

, thut ton Kruskal c phc
tp l O(n
2
).
6.4. Thut ton Prim tm cy khung nh nht
Thut ton Kruskal lm vic km hiu qu i vi nhng th dy ( th c s cnh
2
) 1 n ( n
m

). Trong trng hp , thut ton Prim t ra hiu qu hn. Thut ton Prim
cn c gi l phng php ln cn gn nht.
Chn trong th cho cnh c trng s nh nht v t n vo cy khung. Ln lt
ghp vo cy cc cnh c trng s nh nht trong cc cnh lin thuc vi mt trong cc
nh ca cy v khng to ra chu trnh trong cy. Thut ton dng khi c n 1 cnh c
chn.
Procedure Prim;
Input: th lin thng n nh c trng s;
Ouput: Cy khung nh nht T ca th;
Begin
T := Cnh c trng s nh nht cng 2 nh lin thuc;
for i :=1 to n 2 do
Begin
e := Cnh c trng s nh nht lin thuc vi mt trong cc nh ca T
v khng to ra chu trnh trong T;
T := T e;
end; {Cy khung nh nht}
End.
Th d 1: Tr li th d trong thut ton Kruskal ( th hnh 17). p dng thut
ton Prim c cc bc nh sau:


Cy khung nh nht thu c th hin bng nt m trn hnh 19 v trng s ca n l
l(T) = 251.
Th d 3: Tm cy khung nh nht ca n th gm cc nh A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H
c cho bi ma trn trng s sau (ma trn trng s ging nh ma trn k, nhng thay s
cnh bng trng s ca cnh; cc trng l khng c cnh ni):
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\
|
. 14 18 21 11 19 12 18
14 . 17 23 21 20 20 32
18 17 . 34 30 21 19 20
21 23 34 . 22 29 34 23
11 21 30 22 . 13 13 19
19 20 21 29 13 . 33 16
12 20 19 34 13 33 . 15
18 32 20 23 19 16 15 .
H
G
F
E
D
C
B
A
H G F E D C B A

y l mt th y c 8 nh vi 28 cnh, bi vy nn s dng thut ton Prim.
Do ma trn l i xng nn ch cn xt na trn hoc na di ca ng cho l .

Bc Cnh Trng s
1 (x
7
,x
9
) 10
2 (x
7
,x
1
) 21
3 (x
7
,x
5
) 23
4 (x
5
,x
6
) 20
5 (x
6
,x
8
) 20
6 (x
8
,x
10
) 12
7 (x
6
,x
4
) 35
8 (x
4
,x
2
) 10
9 (x
10
,x
11
) 45
10 (x
4
,x
3
) 55
l(T) 251
x
2

80 10 60

x
4
55 x
3

x
1
40
25 35
21 x
5
20 x
6

23
x
7
20
25 x
8
70
10 12
x
9
30 x
10
45 x
11
Hnh 19

6.5. Tnh ng n ca thut ton Prim
Xt th G = (X,U) v T = (X,V) l cy khung nh nht thu c theo thut ton
Prim.
Trc ht theo tnh cht 2 ca cy th T l mt cy v n l cy khung ca G v n i
qua mi nh ca G. Vy ch cn phi chng minh T l cy khung nh nht ca G.
Tht vy, dng phn chng, gi s T khng phi l cy khung nh nht, khi phi
tn ti cy khung T
1
= (X,V
1
) l cy khung nh nht, ngha l:
l(T
1
) = min{ l(T) | T T(G) }, trong T(G) l tp cc cy khung ca G.
Chng ta s ch ra s tn ti cy khung T
2
c l(T
2
) < l(T
1
).
V l(T
1
) < l(T) nn V
1
V.
Gi s cnh u
k
V, nhng u
k
V
1
, khi trong th (X, V
1
{u
k
}) c mt chu trnh
duy nht (theo tnh cht 6 ca cy). Gi l chu trnh c trong th (X, V
1
{u
k
}), v
trong T = (X,V) khng c chu trnh m u
k
V nn tn ti cnh u
0
V v u
0
.
Xt th T
2
= (X, V
2
), trong V
2
= V
1
{u
k
} \ {u
0
}.
R rng T
2
khng c chu trnh v l chu trnh duy nht c trong (X, V
1
{u
k
}) v
u
0
. Do T
1
l cy khung ca G nn N(V
1
) = n 1 (theo tnh cht 2 ca cy), t suy ra
N(V
2
) = n 1. Vy T
2
l cy khung ca G. Mt khc do u
0
V v u
k
V nn l(u
0
) > l(u
k
). Ta
c:
) T ( l ) u ( l ) u ( l ) u ( l ) u ( l ) u ( l ) T ( l
1
V x V u
0 k
V u
2
1 1 2
= < + = =

iu ny tri vi gi thit T
1
l cy khung nh nht.
Bc Cnh Trng s
1 (H, D) 11
2 (H, B) 12
3 (D, C) 13
4 (H, G) 14
5 (B, A) 15
6 (G, F) 17
7 (H, E) 21
l(T) = 103
A H

B G

C F

D E
Hnh 20. Cy khung nh nht ca th
trong th d 3.

BI TP CHNG 5
5.1. Tm s nh ti a ca mt cy m-phn c chiu cao h.
5.2. th G l mt rng c k cy, n nh. Tm s cnh ca G.
5.3. Duyt cc cy sau theo cc thut ton tin th t, trung th t v hu th t:

5.4. Mt cy nh phn c danh sch cc nh khi duyt theo thut ton tin th t l A, B,
D, E, C, F, G v khi duyt theo thut ton trung th t l D, B, E, A, F, G, C. Hy v cy
nh phn v duyt cy ny theo thut ton hu th t.
5.5. Vit cc biu thc sau di dng RPN:
a) ((A B).C) + (D.E); b) (a + (b.(c d))) + e;
c) ) u
t
z
y ( x
2
+ ; d)
2 . 3 4
2 . 3 2
1 4 ) 2 3 (
) 1 4 )( 3 2 (
3
2
+
+
+
+ +
.
5.6. Tnh gi tr cc biu thc RPN sau:
a) 5 3 + 12 4 + * 6 2 * +; b) 4 2 ^ 4 + 10 / 16 +;
c) 3 6 * 5 2 ^ + 2 3 + ; d) 3 2 * 2 ^ 5 3 8 4 / * .
5.7. ng dng cy gii cc bi ton m sau bng cch lit k tt c cc cu hnh c th.
a) Hai i bng chuyn A v B thi u trong 5 vn. i no thng 3 trong 5 vn l
thng ton trn. Hi cuc thi c th din ra theo bao nhiu cch?
b) C bao nhiu xu nh phn c di 4 khng c 3 s 0 lin tip ?
c) C bao nhiu hon v 3 ch ci a, b, c sao cho ch b khng i lin sau ch a?
d) C bao nhiu tp con ca tp {3, 7, 9, 11, 24} sao cho tng cc phn t trong tp
con nh hn 28?
5.8. Xc nh xem trong cc bng m sau, m no l m tin t:
a)
K t a e t s
M 11 00 10 01
b)
K t a e t s
M 0 1 01 001

a) a b) x
0
b c x
1
x
2

d e f x
3
x
4
x
5
x
6

g h x
7
x
8
x
9
x
10

i k x
11
x
12


c)
K t a e t s n
M 101 11 001 011 010
d)
K t a e t s n i
M 010 11 011 1011 1001 10101
5.9. Cho cy nh phn biu din m tin t nh hnh v.
a) Xc nh m ca cc ch ci l nhn cc l.
b) Xc nh m ca cc t: hoc; toan; tin; dothi.
c) Xc nh t ng vi m: 01 1010 000 110 1110 1010 100 1110 000 001.

5.10. Xy dng cy m Huffman cho tp k t sau:
a) K t A B C D E F G H
Tn sut (%) 6 25 20 8 10 19 3 9

b) K t a c d i h o n r t
Tn sut (%) 12 9 4 11 10 18 15 7 14
5.11. Tm cy khung ca cc th sau theo:
a) Thut ton u tin chiu su.
b) Thut ton u tin chiu rng.

0 1

0 1 0 1

t
0 1 0 1 0 1
a c i n
0 1 0 1
o h r d

Hnh v cho bi tp 5.9

5.12. Cu hi nh bi 5.11 i vi cc th cho bng ma trn k (cc trng l 0) sau:
a) b)
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
. . . 1 . 1 .
. . . . 1 . .
. . . 1 . . 1
1 . 1 . 1 . .
. 1 . 1 . 1 .
1 . . . 1 . 1
. . 1 . . 1 .
G
F
E
D
C
B
A
G F E D C B A

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
. . 1 1 . 1 . . . .
. . . 1 1 . 1 . . .
1 . . . 1 . . . 1 .
1 1 . . . . . . 1 .
. 1 1 . . . . . . 1
1 . . . 1 . 1 . . 1
. 1 . . . 1 . 1 . .
. . 1 . . . 1 . 1 .
. . . 1 . . . 1 . 1
. . . . 1 1 . . 1 .
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

a e h i x
2
x
3
x
4
x
5
x
6

x
1
c d x
7
x
8
x
9
x
10
x
11

b f g h x
12
x
13
x
14

th G
1
th G
2

x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
x
5

x
6
x
7
x
8
x
9
x
10
x
11

x
12
x
13
x
14
x
15
x
16

x
17
x
18
x
19
x
20

th G
3


5.13. th c ma trn k sau c lin thng khng?
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
. 1 1 1 . . .
1 . . 1 . 1 .
1 . . . 1 . 1
1 1 . . . 1 .
. . 1 . . . 1
. 1 . 1 . . .
. . 1 . 1 . .
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
7 6 5 4 3 2 1

5.14. Cho th G = (X,U) vi X = {x
2
, x
3
, , x
25
}, cc nh x
i
, x
j
(2 i, j 25) c cnh
ni nu i, j khng nguyn t cng nhau.
a) thi G c bao nhiu thnh phn lin thng?
b) Tm cy bao trm ca mi thnh phn lin thng ca G.
5.15. Tm cy khung nh nht ca cc th sau bng thut ton Kruskal v sau bng
thut ton Prim:

5.16. Tm h chu trnh c lp ca cc th cho trong bi tp 5.15
5.17. Tm cy khung nh nht ca th c ma trn trng s sau.
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
. 18 14 21 12 19 11 20
18 . 17 23 21 20 19 32
14 17 . 34 30 21 20 18
21 23 34 . 22 29 24 19
12 21 30 22 . 13 33 23
19 20 21 29 13 . 13 15
11 19 20 24 33 13 . 16
20 32 18 19 23 15 16 .
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x x x x x x x x
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

a) a 1 b b) x
1
5 x
2
4 x
3

8 2
c 3 d 2 3 2 6 3

x
4
7 x
5
1 x
6

7 4 5 3
e 3 f 6 8 4 4 5

6 4
g 5 h x
7
4 x
8
2 x
9

th G
1
th G
2


5.18. Cho th y G c n nh l 0, 1, 2, , n 1. Tm cy khung nh nht ca G
nu trng s ca cc cnh l:
a) l(i,j) = |i j|; b) l(i,j) = i + j
Hy v c th cc cy khung tm c.

P S

5.1. S nh ti a mc i l m
i
(0 i h) s nh ti a ca cy m-phn c chiu cao
h l:
1 m
1 m
m
1 h h
0 i
i
=
+
=
.
5.2. n k .
5.3. a) a b d g e c f h i k; d g b e a c i h k f; g d e b i k h f c a.
5.4. duyt theo hu th t: D E B G F C A.
5.5. a) A B C * D E * + ; b) a b c d * + e + ; c) x y z t 2 ^ / + u - * ;
d) 2 3 + 4 1 + * 3 2 4 * 1 + * / 2 2 ^ 3 2 * + 4 3 ^ 3 2 * / + .
5.6. a) 140; b) 18; c) 38; d) 32
5.8. a), c), d): L m tin t; b) Khng phi m tin t
5.10. a) Mt trong cc m l: a: 0010; b: 10; c: 01; d: 1100;
e: 000; f: 111; g: 0011; h: 1101.
5.13. L th lin thng.
5.14. C 5 thnh phn lin thng, trong c 4 thnh phn, mi thnh phn ch gm mt
nh duy nht, l : 13: 17: 19; 23.
5.18. a) Cy khung l ng ni ln lt cc nh 0, 1, 2, , n 1.
b) Cy khung l ng ni nh 0 vi cc nh 1, 2, , n 1.

CU HI N TP CHNG 5
1. nh ngha cy v rng. Pht biu v chng minh cc tnh cht ca cy.
2. nh ngha cy c gc. Th no l nh trong? l l? mc ca nh? chiu cao ca cy?.
Nu mi quan h gia cc nh ca cy c gc.
3. nh ngha cy m-phn, cy m-phn y . Trnh by cc thut ton duyt cy nh
phn v ng dng xy dng k php nghch o Ba lan.
4. M tin t l gi? Cch xy dng v kim tra m tin t? Trnh by thut ton Huffman
xy dng m tin t ti u.
5. Th no l cy khung ca mt n th? iu kin cn v mt n th c cy
khung? Cc thut ton tm cy khung ca mt n th.
6. Th no l cy khung nh nht ca mt n th? Trnh by thut ton Prim v thut
ton Kruskal tm cy khung ca mt n th.


CHNG 6
MT S BI TON TI U TRN TH

1. Bi ton ng i ngn nht trong th
1.1. ng i ngn nht trn th khng trng s
1.2. Thut ton Dijkstra tm ng i ngn nht trong th c trng s
3. Mng v Lung
3.1. Cc khi nim
3.2. Bi ton lung cc i
3.3. Thut ton Ford-Fulkerson tm lung cc i
4. Bi ton du lch
4.1. Pht biu bi ton
4.2. Thut ton nhnh cn gii bi ton du lch

Mt trong cc ng dng ca th l gii cc bi ton ti u. Trong cc chng trc
chng ta cp n mt s bi ton nh vy, chng hn bi ton m Huffman hay bi
ton cy khung nh nht. Chng ny cp n mt s bi ton ti u khc c gii
nh l thuyt th.
1. ng i ngn nht trong th
C nhiu bi ton c m hnh ho bng th c trng s. l cc th m
mi cnh ca n c gn mt s thc. Chng hn mt mng giao thng ng b, trn
mi cung ng (cnh ca th) c gn s ch khong cch gia 2 a im (2 nh
ca th). Hoc mt mng my tnh, gia cc my c th ghi thi gian truyn thng tin
chng hn. Nhng th c trng s nh vy cn quan tm n cc ng i t nh x n
nh y sao cho tng cc trng s ca ng ny l nh nht, ngi ta gi l ng i
ngn nht t x n y.
Nu cc cnh ca th u c trng s bng 1 th khng cn ghi trng s ny ln cc
cnh, v cho tin, cc th nh vy c gi l th khng trng s. Khi ng i
ngn nht chnh l tng s cnh trn ng i .
Cc thut ton tm ng i ngn nht trong th u da trn c s gn nhn cho
cc nh ca th
1.1. ng i ngn nht trn th khng trng s
Gi s cn tm ng i ngn nht t nh x cho trc n mi nh cn li ca th
G = (X, U) v hng, c hng hoc hn hp, khng trng s. Khi cn thc hin cc
bc sau:

Bc1. Bc c s Gn nhn (nh s) cho cc nh ca th.
- nh s 0 cho nh x.
- Nu nh x c gn nhn l k th gn nhn k+1 cho mi nh y cha c gn
nhn m (x,y) l mt cnh hoc mt cung tu theo th l v hng hay c hng.
Nh vy, gi A(k) l tp hp cc nh c gn nhn k (k = 0,1,2,) th:
A(k+1) = { y X | yA(i), i = 0,1,...,k v xA(k) sao cho (x, y)U }
Do th l hu hn nn sau mt s hu hn bc mi nh ca th c gn nhn.
Vic gn nhn cho cc nh ca th c hon thnh.
Bc 2. Xc nh ng i ngn nht.
Gi s nh y no ca th c gn nhn m, khi c ng i gm m cung t x
n y, (v do m l di ng i ngn nht t x n y). Tt c cc ng i ngn nht
ny l dy cc nh x,y
m 1
, y
m 2
, , y
1
, y; trong y
m i
A(m i), i = 1, 2, , m 1.
Th d: Tm ng i ngn
nht t x
1
n x
8
ca th hnh 1.
Bc 1. Ta c:
A(0) = {x
1
}
A(1) = {x
2
, x
6
}
A(2) = {x
3
, x
10
}
A(3) = {x
4
, x
9
, x
11
}
A(4) = {x
5
, x
8
, x
12
}
Bc 2. i ngc t A(4) v A(0), ta c cc ng i cn tm l:
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
x
8
; x
1
x
6
x
3
x
4
x
8
; x
1
x
6
x
10
x
7
x
8
; x
1
x
2
x
3
x
7
x
8
;
Tt c cc ng i ny u c di bng 4.
1.2. Thut ton Dijkstra tm ng i ngn nht trong th c trng s
Xt th n v hng, c hng hoc hn hp lin thng G = (X, U). Mi cnh
(cung) uU c gn tng ng mt s khng m d(u) gi l trng s ca u.
Gi s x, y l 2 nh ca th G. t D(x,y) l tp hp tt c cc ng i t x n y
v D(x,y), i lng

=
u
) u ( d ) ( l gi l trng s hay di ca ng .
ng i
0
tha mn:
l(
0
) = min {l() | D(x,y) }
c gi l ng i ngn nht t x n y.
Thut ton Dijkstra sau y cho php tm cc ng i ngn nht t mt nh x cho
trc n mi nh ca th c trng s G = (X,U).
Bc 1. Bc khi gn trng s cho cc nh. (K hiu m(x) l trng s ca nh x).
nh x c gn trng s bng 0, m(x) := 0. Cc nh khc ca th c gn trng
s l mt s dng ln sao cho n ln hn tt c cc trng s ca mi ng i t x n
nh , c th c th gn m(x
i
) := , x
i
X, x
i
x .
x
2
(1) x
3
(2) x
4
(3) x
5
(4)

x
1
x
6
(1) x
7
(3) x
8
(4)

x
9
(3) x
10
(2) x
11
(3) x
12
(4)
Hnh 1

Bc 2. Cc bc lp gim trng s cc nh.
Gi s nh v c gn trng s m(v).
Nu tm c nh z k vi v c trng s m(z) tho mn m(v) + d(z,v) < m(z) th
thay trng s m(z) bi m(z) = m(v) + d(z,v).
Nu khng tm c nh z k vi v tho mn m(v) + d(v,z) < m(z) th trng s
m(z) c gi nguyn.
Qu trnh c tip tc cho ti khi trng s ca tt c cc nh trong th G t cc
tiu, tc l vX, X z , z k vi v sao cho m(v) + d(z,v) < m(z).
Theo thut ton ny, trng s ca ng i t x n y chnh l trng s ca nh y v
n l di ng i ngn nht t x n y.
Tht vy, xut pht t nh y, tm tt c cc nh k vi y, chng hn l nh y
k

tho mn:
d(y
k
, y) = m(y) m(y
k
)
T nh y
k
, tm cc nh y
k 1
k vi y
k
tho mn:
d(y
k 1
, y
k
) = m(y
k
) m(y
k 1
)
Qa trnh tip tc cho n khi v ti nh y
1
k vi nh x v ta c:
d(x, y
1
) = m(y
1
) m(x), trong m(x) = 0;
ng i theo thut ton l:
= (x, y
1
, y
2
,, y
k 1
, y
k
, y)
v: l() = d(x,y
1
) + d(y
1
,y
2
) + + d(y
k 1
,y
k
) + d(y
k
,y) =
= [m(y
1
) m(x)]+[m(y
2
) m(y
1
)] + + [m(y
k
) m(y
k 1
)]+[m(y) m(y
k
)] =
= m(y) m(x) = m(y).
Gi s c ng i khc t x n y: = (x, z
1
, z
2
, , z
r 1
, z
r
, y).
Khi theo bc 2 ca thut ton ta c cc bt ng thc:
d(x,z
1
) m(z
1
) m(x) = m(z
1
)
d(z
1
,z
2
) m(z
2
) m(z
1
)
. . .
d(z
r 1
,z
r
) m(z
r
) m(z
r 1
)
d(z
r
,y) m(b) m(z
r
)
Cng v vi v ca cc bt ng thc trn c:
l() = d(x,z
1
) + d(z
1
,z
2
) + + d(z
r
,y) m(y) = l()
Vy l ng i ngn nht t x n y.
C th tm tt thut ton Dijkstra nh sau:


Procedure Dijkstra;
Input: G = (X,U) th lin thng, G c cc nh x, x
1
, , x
n
v trng s d(x
i
,x
j
)0, x
l nh xut pht;
Output: Cc ng i ngn nht t x n cc nh x
1
, x
2
, , x
n
v di cc ng i
;
Begin
{Bc khi to trng s cc nh}
for i:=1 to n do
begin
m(x
i
) :=; m(x) := 0;
Truoc(x
i
) := x;
{Truoc(x
i
) l nh ng ngay trc nh x
i
trong ng i tm c}
end;
S := X \ {x}; {S l tp nh c nhn tm thi}
Truoc(x) := x;
{Bc lp, gim trng s cc nh}
while S do
begin
y := nh thuc S c trng s nh nht;
S := S \{y}; {C nh nhn ca nh y}
for tt c cc nh z thuc S {Gn nhn li cho cc nh trong S}
if m(v) + d(v,z) < m(z) then
begin
m(z) := m(v) + d(v,z);
trc(z) := v;
end;
end;
End;
Th d 1: Tm ng i ngn nht t nh A n cc nh cn li ca th cho trong
hnh 2a.

B 2 C B C

2 2 4 3 2

A D 4 E H A D E H

1 3 7 6
5
F G F G
Hnh 2a Hnh 2b

Kt qu tnh ton c trnh by thnh bng. Trong bng, quy c vit nhn ca nh
y c hai thnh phn l m(y), trc(y) trong trc(y) l nh ng ngay trc nh y
trong ng i ang tm kim. Trong mi bc lp nh nh du * l nh c c nh
nhn trong bc .
Bc lp nh A nh B nh C nh D nh E nh F nh G nh H
Khi to 0,A
*
,A ,A ,A ,A ,A ,A ,A
1 - 2,A ,A ,A ,A 1,A* ,A ,A
2 - 2,A* 4,B 4,BF 6,B - 6,F ,A
3 - - 4,B 4,BF* 6,B - 6,F 6,C
4 - - 4,B* - 6.B - 6,F 6,C
5 - - - - 6,B* - 6,F 6,C
6 - - - - - - 6,F* 6,C
7 - - - - - - - 6,C*
T cc ng i ngn nht t nh A n cc nh l:
AB ( di 2); ABC ( di 4); ABD hoc AFD ( di 4);
ABE ( di 6); AF ( di 1) ; AFG ( di 6);
ABCH ( di 6).
C th minh ha cc ng i ny bng hnh v (Hnh 2b),
Th d 2: Tm ng i ngn nht t nh a n cc nh cn li ca th cho trong
hnh 3a.

Cng nh th d 1 cc kt qu tnh ton c trnh by trong bng sau:
Bc lp nh a nh b nh c nh d nh f nh g
Khi to 0,a ,a ,a ,a ,a ,a
1 - 1,a* ,a ,a ,a ,a
2 - - 6,b 3,b* ,a 5,b
3 - - 4,d* - 6,g 5,b
4 - - - - 6,g 5,bc*
5 - - - - 6,g* -
4
b 5 c 1 g b c g

1 2 1 1

2 4
a d 3 f a d f
Hnh 3a Hnh 3b

Cc ng i cn tm l:
ab ( di 1); abdc ( di 4); abd ( di 3);
abdcgf hoc abgf ( di 6); abg hoc abdcg ( di 5); (Hnh 3b).
phc tp ca thut ton Dijkstra qua cc php cng v php so snh l O(n
2
).
Tht vy. Trc ht thut ton dng khng qu n 1 bc lp thay i trng s cc
nh tc l bt cc nh trong tp nh S. S php ton trong mi bc lp khng qu n
1 php so snh v khng qu n 1 php cng thay i trng s cc nh thuc tp S.
Vy mi bc lp dng khng qu 2(n 1) php cng v php so snh. Vi n 1 bc lp
th s php cng v php so snh l khng qu (n 1)2(n 1) = O(n
2
). phc tp ca
thut ton l phc tp a thc bc hai.
Xt th v hng c trng s dng G = (X, U). Vi mi x, yX, gi D(x,y) l tp
hp tt c cc ng i n ni gia x v y. t:
d(x,y) = min { l() | D(x,y)}
ng thi quy c:
d(x,x) = 0 ;
d(x,y) = , nu gia x v y khng lin thng (khng c ng i gia x v y).
i lng d(x,y) gi l khong cch hay lch gia nh x v nh y.
D thy cc tnh cht ca khong cch d(x,y):
d(x,y) 0, x,yX; d(x,y) = 0 x y.
d(x,y) = d(y,x), x,yX.
Tho mn bt ng thc tam gic: d(x,y) + d(y,z) d(x,z), x,y,z X .
lch ti nh x
0
X, k hiu (x
0
) c nh ngha l:
{ } ) y , x ( d max ) x (
0
X y
0
=
D thy: { }
)
`
=

) ( l min max ) x (
) y , x ( D X y
0
0

nh ngha:
lch nh nht ca cc nh ca th gi l bn knh ca th. K hiu bn knh
ca th G l r(G), ta c:
r(G) = min {(x) | xX}
Cc nh ti lch t ti thiu gi l tm ca th.
di ca ng i n di nht c trong th gi l ng knh ca th.
Ni cch khc: nh y
0
gi l tm ca th nu { } ) x ( min ) y (
X x
0
=
. Khi s
(y
0
) gi l bn knh ca th v s { } ) y , x ( D ) ( l max d
X y , x
=
gi l ng knh ca
th.

Ch :
Nu th c nh bit lp th n khng c tm.
Nhng nh c lch i vi tm t ti a c gi l cc nh ra ca th.
Th d: Xt th trong hnh 4.
S dng thut ton Dijkstra tm c ng
i ngn nht t nh x
1
n cc nh cn li l:
l(x
1
,x
2
) = 5; l(x
1
,x
3
) = 5; l(x
1
,x
4
) = 4
Vy lch ca nh x
1
l: (x
1
) = 5;
Tng t, lch cc nh cn li l:
(x
2
) = 7; (x
3
) = 8; (x
4
) = 8.
T thy rng x
1
l tm ca th v bn
knh ca th bng 5 .
ng knh ca th: d
0
= 25 ( l di ca ng i x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
).
3. Mng v Lung
3.1. Cc khi nim
a Mng
Mng (cn gi l mng vn ti) l mt th G = (X,U) c hng, khng c khuyn,
trong c duy nht mt nh khng c cung i vo gi l nh vo (cn gi l im pht)
v c duy nht mt nh khng c cung i ra gi l nh ra (cn gi l im thu), ng thi
trn mi cung u = (x,y)U c gn mt s khng m c(u) = c(x,y) gi l kh nng thng
qua ca cung u.
Sau y k hiu nh vo ca mng l x
0
v nh ra l z.
V quy c: Nu khng c cung t x n y th c(x,y) = 0.
Vi mi xX, k hiu:
Tp cung i vo x l ) x ( U
, tc l tp cung c im cui l x.
Tp cung i ra khi x l ) x ( U
+
, tc l tp cung c im u l x.

b. Lung
Xt mng G = (X,U), ngi ta nh ngha:
Hm : U R gn cho mi cung u U mt s thc khng m (u) c gi l
lung (cn gi l lung vn ti) ca mng G nu n tho mn cc tnh cht sau:
1) Lng vt cht trn mi cung khng vt qu kh nng thng qua ca cung :
0 (u) c(u) , uU
2) Lng vt cht a vo mi nh bng lng vt cht a ra khi nh :

+
=
) x ( U v ) x ( U u
) v ( ) u ( , xX, x x
0
, x z.
Tnh cht ny c gi l iu kin cn bng lung.
x
2
1 x
4

7 4
x
1

7 5 11

x
3

Hnh 4

3) T tnh cht 2 ta suy ra:

=
) z ( U v ) x ( U u
) v ( ) u (
0
= val()
i lng val() gi l gi tr lung (cn gi l lung qua mng hay cng
lung ).
Gi s A X v k hiu:
U

(A) l tp cung c im cui thuc A nhng im u khng thuc A v gi l
tp cung i vo A
U
+
(A) l tp cung c im u thuc A nhng im cui khng thuc A, gi l
tp cung i ra khi A.
i vi tp cung M U, i lng
=
M u
) u ( ) M ( c gi l lung ca tp cung M.
T iu kin 2 ca nh ngha lung, suy ra:
Nu l lung ca mng G = (X,U), th i vi mi A (X \ {x
0
, z}) u c:
(U

(A)) = (U
+
(A))
3.2. Bi ton lung cc i
Pht biu bi ton: Cho mng G = (X,U). Hy tm lung sao cho gi tr lung
val() t cc i.
gii bi ton ny, trc ht cn tm hiu mt s khi nim.
a. Lt ct
Lt ct (A, A) l mt phn hoch tp nh X ca mng thnh hai tp A v A = X \ A,
trong nh vo x
0
A v nh ra zA. i lng:
( )

+
= = =
) A ( U v
' A y
A x
) ' A ( U u
) v ( c ) y , x ( c ) u ( c ' A , A c
c gi l kh nng thng qua lt ct.
Thit din l tn gi khc ca lt ct.
Lt ct c kh nng thng qua nh nht gi l lt ct hp nht.
T nh ngha lt ct v kh nng thng qua ca n nhn thy rng: Mi n v hng
ho c chuyn t nh vo x
0
n nh ra z t nht cng phi mt ln thng qua mt cung
no ca lt ct

(A,A). V vy d lung v thit din (A,A) nh th no i na th
vn tho mn quan h:
val() c(A,A)
T thy rng: Gi tr lung cc i trong mng khng vt qu kh nng thng
qua ca lt ct hp nht.
Ngi ta chng minh c rng: Gi tr lung cc i bng kh nng thng qua
ca lt ct hp nht:
val(
max
) = c(B, B') vi (B, B') l lt ct hp nht.

b. Lung y
Cung u trong mng vn ti G vi lung c gi l cung bo ho nu (u)=c(u).
Lung ca mng G c gi l lung y nu mi ng i t nh vo x
0
n nh
ra z u cha t nht mt cung bo ho. Ngc li nu tn ti t nht mt ng i t nh
vo x
0
n nh ra z m mi cung ca ng i u cha bo ha th lung tng ng
gi l lung cha y.
Nu lung trong mng G cha y th nht nh tm c ng i t nh vo x
0

n nh ra z khng cha cung bo ho. Khi c th tng lung thnh lung
1
(u) vi:

1
(u) = (u) + , nu u
1
(u) = (u) , nu u
trong { } ) u ( ) u ( c min
u
=

.
D thy
1
cng l mt lung v gi tr ca n l: val(
1
) = val() + > val().
Nh vy, i vi lung khng y c th nng gi tr ca n ln v nng cho ti khi
nhn c lung y.
Tuy nhin, thc t cho thy c th c lung y nhng cha t n gi tr cc i.
Bi vy cn phi p dng thut ton Ford Fulkerson sau y tm ca lung cc i.
3.3. Thut ton Ford-Fulkerson tm lung cc i
Trc ht xt khi nim xch: Xch trong mt th c hng l mt ng i trong
th v hng tng ng vi th cho. ( th v hng c c t th c hng
bng cch b i chiu ca cc cung c gi l th v hng tng ng vi th c
hng cho).
Thut ton gm cc bc:
Bc 1. Gn nhn cho cc nh ca mng.
nh vo x
0
c gn nhn l 0.
1) Nu nh x
i
c gn nhn th dng ch s +x
i
gn nhn cho mi nh y
cha c gn nhn nu c cung t x
i
n y v cung ny cha bo ho, ngha l nh du
cho mi nh y tho mn:
(x
i
,y) U v (x
i
,y) < c(x
i
,y)
2) Nu nh x
i
c gn nhn th dng ch s x
i
gn nhn cho mi nh y
cha c gn nhn nu c cung t y n x
i
v lung ca cung ny dng, ngha l gn
nhn cho mi nh y tho mn:
(y, x
i
) U v (y, x
i
) > 0
Nu vi cch gn nhn ny m gn nhn c nh ra z th trong mng G tn ti mt
xch t x
0
n z c mi nh c gn nhn theo ch s ca nh trc (ch khc nhau
v du). Khi chc chn nng c gi tr ca lung. Gi xch tm c theo thut ton
l xch tng lung (hnh 5).

thun tin cho vic s dng thut ton. Chng ta gi cc cung ca xch cng
chiu vi ng i t nh vo x
0
n nh ra z l cung thun, cn cc cung ngc chiu l
cung nghch. Chng hn trn hnh 5, cung (x
i
,y
1
) l cung thun, cung (y
2
,x
j
) l cung nghch.
Ch rng ng tng lung c nh ngha trong mc lung y cng l mt xch
tng lung gm ton cc cung thun.
Bc 2. Nu tm c xch tng lung th c th nng gi tr ca lung thnh
lung
1
nh sau:
- Vi mi u, t:

=
), u (
), u ( ) u ( c
) u ( m
v: = min { m(u) | u }.
Khi :
- Nu u th t:
1
(u) = (u);
- Nu u v u l cung thun th t:
1
(u) = (u) + ;
- Nu u v u l cung nghch th t:
1
(u) = (u) .
i vi
1
c 3 iu kin ca lung u tho mn nn
1
cng l mt lung v ta c:
val(
1
) = val() +
Nh vy ta nng gi tr ca lung thm n v.
Bc 3. Lp li cc bc 1 v 2 n khi c lung
n
khng th gn nhn c nh
ra z th qu trnh nng gi tr lung kt thc v
n
l lung cc i ng thi val(
n
) l gi
tr ca lung cc i. V kh nng thng qua ca cc cung l hu hn nn qu trnh phi
dng sau mt s hu hn bc.
Gi A l tp nh c gn nhn (trong trng hp khng th gn nhn c nh
ra z, tc l qu trnh nng lung kt thc) v A' = X \ A th (A,A') l mt trong cc lt ct
hp nht ca mng.
Th d: Cho mng vn ti nh hnh 6 vi kh nng thng qua ca cung c ghi trn
cc cung v lung ban u c ghi trong du ngoc n .

+x
i
x
j

x
0
x
i
y
1
x
j
y
2
z

Hnh 5. Xch tng lung
nu u l cung thun
nu u l cung nghch

Lung ban u l:
= {(x
0
,x
1
), (x
0
,x
2
), (x
0
,x
3
), (x
0
,x
4
), (x
1
,x
5
), (x
1
,x
6
), (x
2
,x
5
), (x
2
,x
6
), (x
3
,x
6
),
(x
3
,x
7
), (x
4
,x
6
), (x
4
,x
7
), (x
5
,z), (x
6
,z), (x
7
,z)} =
= {5, 5, 3, 4, 1, 4, 3, 2, 1, 2, 2, 2, 4, 9, 4}.
= =
+
) x ( U u
0
) u ( ) ( val (x
0
,x
1
) + (x
0
,x
2
) + (x
0
,x
3
) + (x
0
,x
4
) = 5+5+3+4 = 17
Bc lp 1: nh x
0
c gn nhn 0, cc nh x
1
c gn nhn +x
0
v cc cung
(x
0
,x
1
) cha y. Tip theo cung (x
1
,x
5
) cha y nn nh x
5
c gn nhn +x
1
. nh z
k vi x
5
v cung (x
5
,z) cha y nn z c gn nhn +x
5
(hnh 6). Do nh ra c
gn nhn nn c th kt thc vic gn nhn cho cc nh v c xch tng lung
1
:
x
0
x
1
x
5
z gm ton cc cung thun nn n cng l ng tng lung (hnh 7).

x
1
(+x
0
) 3(1) x
5
(+x
1
)

7(5) 4(3) 6(4)
x
2
4(4)
x
0
(0) 5(5) 3(2) x
6
10(9) z(+x
5
)
5(3)

x
3
3(1)
8(4) 4(2) 12(4)
5(2)

x
4
2(2) x
7

Hnh 6
7(5) 3(1) 6(4)
x
0
x
1
x
5
z
Hnh 7
x
1
3(3) x
5

7(7) 4(3) 6(6)
x
2
4(4)
x
0
(0) 5(5) 3(2) x
6
(+x
3
) 10(9) z(+x
7
)
5(3)

x
3
(+x
0
) 3(1)
8(4) 4(2) 12(4)
5(2)

x
4
(+x
0
) 2(2) x
7

Hnh 8

Ta c
1
= min{7 5, 3 1, 6 4} = 2, v th c th nng lung ca cc cung ca
ng ny thm 2 n v v c lung
1
(hnh 8):
1
= {7, 5, 3, 4, 3, 3, 4, 2, 1, 2, 2, 2, 6, 9, 4}; val(
1
) = val() + 2 = 19
Bc lp 2: Xa cc nhn gn, gn nhn mi cho cc nh (hnh 8) c xch tng
lung
2
: x
0
x
3
x
7
. Xch
2
cng ton cung cc cung thun (hnh 9).

T
2
= min{5 3, 3 1, 10 9} = 1. Lung
1
c nng thm 1 n v thnh
lung
2
(hnh 10).

2
= {7, 5, 4, 4, 3, 3, 4, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 6, 10, 4}; val(
2
) = val(
1
) + 1 = 20

Bc lp 3: Xa cc nhn gn v gn li nhn cho cc nh (hnh 10) c xch
tng lung
3
: x
0
x
3
x
7
z gm ton cung thun (hnh 11).

Xch
3
cho php nng lung
2
thm 1 n v (
3
= 1) v c lung
3
(hnh 12):
3
= {7, 5, 5, 4, 3, 3, 4, 2, 2, 2, 3, 2, 6, 10, 5}; val(
3
) = val(
2
) + 1 = 21

x
1
3(3) x
5

7(7) 4(3) 6(6)
x
2
4(4)
x
0
(0) 5(5) 3(2) x
6
10(10) z(+x
3
)
5(4)

x
3
(0) 3(2)
8(4) 4(2) 12(4)
5(2)

x
4
2(2) x
7
(+x
3
)
Hnh 10
5(4) 5(2) 12(4)
x
0
x
3
x
7
z
Hnh 11
5(3) 3(1) 10(9)
x
0
x
3
x
6
z
Hnh 9

Bc lp 4: Xa cc nhn gn v gn li nhn cho cc nh (hnh 12) c xch
tng lung
4
: x
0
x
4
x
6
x
3
x
7
z, trong cung (hnh 13).

Ta c:
4
= min{8 4, 4 2, 2, 5 2, 12 5} = 2.
Xch
4
cho php nng lung
3
thm 2 n v v c lung
4
(hnh 12):
4
= {7, 5, 5, 6, 3, 3, 4, 2, 0, 4, 5, 2, 6, 10, 7}; val(
4
) = val(
3
) + 2 = 23

Tip theo ch c th gn nhn c nh x
0
v nh x
4
v cc cung khc i ra khi x
0

v mi cung i ra khi x
4
bo ho. Vy qu trnh nng lung kt thc, v c lung
cc i:
max
=
4
; val(
max
) = val(
4
) = 23.
V bc cui cng ch gn nhn c cho cc nh x
0
v x
4
nn lt ct hp nht l
(A,A') vi A={x
0
,x
4
} v A' = {x
1
,x
2
,x
3
,x
5
,x
6
,x
7
,z}. R rng c(A,A') = c(x
0
,x
1
)+c(x
0
,x
2
) +
c(x
0
,x
3
) + c(x
4
,x
6
) + c(x
4
,x
7
) = 7+5+5+4+2 = 23, ngha l val(
max
) = c(A,A).
x
1
3(3) x
5

7(7) 4(3) 6(6)
x
2
4(4)
x
0
(0) 5(5) 3(2) x
6
(+x
4
) 10(10) z(+x
7
)
5(5)

x
3
(x
6
) 3(2)
8(4) 4(2) 12(5)
5(3)

x
4
(+x
0
) 2(2) x
7
(+x
3
)
Hnh 12
8(4) 4(2) 3(2) 5(3) 12(5)
x
0
x
4
x
6
x
3
x
7
z
Hnh 13
x
1
3(3) x
5

7(7) 4(3) 6(6)
x
2
4(4)
x
0
(0) 5(5) 3(2) x
6
10(10) z
5(5)

x
3
3(0)
8(6) 4(4) 12(7)
5(5)

x
4
(+x
0
) 2(2) x
7

Hnh 14

Ch thch: Bi ton mng v lung c th c nhiu lt ct hp nht, chng hn lt ct
(B,B) vi B = {x
0
,x
1
,x
2
,x
3
,x
4
,x
5
,x
6
} cng l lt ct hp nht trong th d trn.
4. Bi ton du lch
4.1. Pht biu bi ton
Mt ngi xut pht t mt thnh no trong n thnh ph c nh s 1, 2, , n
i thm n 1 thnh ph cn li, mi thnh ph ng mt ln ri tr v thnh ph xut
pht. Hi phi chn hnh trnh theo th t no tng chi ph l t nht, bit chi ph i t
thnh ph i n thnh ph j l c
ij
(i, j = 1, 2, , n; c
ij
v c
ji
khng nht thit bng nhau).
R rng mi hnh trnh nh vy l mt hon v ((1), (2), , (n)) ca n s t nhin
dng u tin. Nh vy phi chn la trong n! hnh trnh khc nhau ra mt hnh trnh
ti u theo ngha tng chi ph l nh nht. (Ch rng c (n 1)! hnh trnh thc s khc
nhau trong n! hnh trnh, v c th c nh mt thnh ph xut pht).
M hnh ha bi ton bng th G = (X,U) y c hng hai chiu n nh v c
trng s. Trong X = {1, 2, , n} v c
ij
l trng s ca cung (i, j) vi c
ij
v c
ji
khng nht
thit bng nhau. Nh vy ma trn trng s ca th l ma trn vung M= (c
ij
) cp n
khng i xng. Ma trn M c gi l ma trn chi ph. Mi hnh trnh ca bi ton du
lch tng ng vi mt chu trnh Hamilton trong th G, v phi tm hnh trnh Hamilton
ngn nht.
Gi H l tp hp mi chu trnh Hamilton (hnh trnh) c trong th. Vi mi hH ta
c
=
h ) j , i (
ij
c ) h ( f l di ca chu trnh h v cng chnh l tng chi ph ca hnh trnh
tng ng. Hm f(h) gi l hm mc tiu v phi tm chu trnh h
0
sao cho:
f(h
0
) = min {f(h) | h H} (1)
Hnh trnh h
0
tha mn (1) c gi l phng n ti u ca bi ton.
D thy f(h) l tng ca n s hng, trong mi hng v mi ct ca ma trn chi ph
M c ng mt phn t l s hng tnh f(h).
Bi ton ny c gii theo thut ton nhnh cn di y.
4.2. Thut ton nhnh cn gii bi ton du lch
tng c bn ca thut ton l tm kim li gii ca bi ton (phng n ti u h
0
)
bng cch phn chia tp tt c cc hnh trnh thnh hai tp con: mt tp gm cc hnh trnh
cha mt cung (i, j) no cn tp kia l cc hnh trnh khng cha cung ny. Vic lm
ny gi l phn nhnh tp hnh trnh H, mi tp con l mt nhnh hay mt nt ca cy
tm kim. cho tin, tp hnh trnh cha cung (i, j) c k hiu l (i,j) cn tp hnh
trnh khng cha cung (i,j) c k hiu l ) j , i ( . Hnh 15 l minh ha nt u tin ca cy
tm kim.

H
(Tp tt c cc
hnh trnh)
(i,j)
Hnh 15
) j , i (

Sau khi phn nhnh th tm cn di ca hm mc tiu cho mi tp. Vic tm kim
c tip tc bng cch phn nhnh tp con c gi tr hm mc tiu nh hn. Th tc ny
c lp li cho n khi tm c hnh trnh ti u h
0
v n chc chn s kt thc v s
hnh trnh l hu hn (tp H l tp hu hn).
T y cho n ht thut ton, chng ta k hiu cn di hm mc tiu ca tp (i,j) l
f
min
(i,j) v ca tp ) j , i ( f l ) j , i (
min
.
Nh vy, k thut c bn ca thut ton l phn nhnh v tm cn di ca hm mc
tiu ca cc hnh trnh.
Thut ton c tin hnh bng th tc rt gn ma trn trng s M = (c
ij
) ca th
c trnh by sau y.
a. Rt gn ma trn trng s
Cho ma trn vung A, nu tr cc phn t mi hng (hoc ct) ca A cho phn t nh
nht ca hng (ct) th trong hng (ct) c t nht mt phn t bng khng. Phn t
nh nht c chn ca hng (ct) gi l phn t rt gn ca hng (ct) . Sau khi thc
hin cc php rt gn i vi tt c cc hng (ct) ca ma trn A, nu cn ct (hng) no
c tt c cc phn t u khc khng th tip tc rt gn ct (hng) . Cui cng c
mt ma trn A' m mi hng, mi ct c t nht mt phn t bng khng. Ma trn A' gi l
ma trn rt gn ca ma trn A v tng tt c cc hng s rt gn ca cc hng v ca cc
ct c gi chung l hng s rt gn ma trn A. Sau y ta k hiu S
A
ch hng s rt
gn ma trn A.
Th d:
0 0 3
0 1 0
0 3 4
1 0 0
' A
0 1 3
0 3 7
1 0 3
3
1
2
3 4 6
1 4 8
3 2 5
A
|
|
|
\
|
=
|
|
|
\
|
|
|
|
\
|
=

Hng s rt gn ma trn l S
A
= 2+1+3+3 = 9.
Do mi hng v mi ct ca ma trn chi ph M ch c mt phn t nm trong mt
hnh trnh du lch nn nu rt gn ma trn M th hm mc tiu ca mi hnh trnh u
cng gim i mt i lng ng bng hng s rt gn S
M
ca M v:
f(h) S
M
, h H
Vy f
min
S
M
(S
M
l cn di ca mi hnh trnh).
Ch t c
ii
= trong ma trn chi ph ban u.
b. Th tc phn nhnh
Nh trnh by trn, phn nhnh l phn tp cc hnh trnh thnh hai tp con (i,j)
l tp cc hnh trnh cha cung (i, j) v ) j , i ( l tp cc hnh trnh khng cha cung (i, j).
iu ny c ngha l s phn nhnh din ra ti mt trong hai nh i hoc j. Bi vy phi
chn cp thnh ph no c chi ph nh nht phn nhnh. Trn ma trn chi ph rt gn

M' =(c'
ij
) cc cp thnh ph tng ng vi c'
ij
= 0, v cc hnh trnh cha cung (i, j) u
c trin vng tt. Ni cch khc cc tp hnh trnh thuc tp con (i,j) s cha cung (i, j) v
cc hnh trnh khng cha cung (i, j) s thuc tp ) j , i ( .
Cc hnh trnh thuc tp ) j , i ( khng c cha cung (i, j) nn c th cm vic i qua
cung ny bng cch t c'
ij
= v c ma trn chi ph
ij
M nu chn cung tip theo ca
hnh trnh trong tp ny. Cn di ca cc hnh trnh theo hng ny l
ij
M M
min
S S f + .
Cc hnh trnh thuc tp (i,j) lun lun cha cung (i, j) bi vy c th xa hng i ct j
ca ma trn rt gn M' c ma trn vung gim mt cp so vi ma trn M (v ch c
php chn mi hng mi ct ca M mt phn t). Hn na khi i theo cung (i, j) th
khng c php i theo cung (j, i) na nn phi t c'
ji
= cm i theo cung (j, i).
Cui cng c ma trn vung M
ij
cp n 1 l ma trn chi ph cho cc cung c chn
tip theo. Th tc phn nhnh c tip tc khi rt gn ma trn chi ph M
ij
, v cn di
ca cc hnh trnh cha cung (i, j) l
ij
M M min
S S f + .
Th tc phn nhnh kt thc khi cp ca ma trn M
ij
bng 2. Hai cung cui cng c
chn trc tip t ma trn M
ij
cui cng.
Vn t ra l thng c nhiu phn t c'
ij
= 0 nn cn phi chn phn t no tc l
chn cung (i, j) no vic r nhnh tng ng nhanh dn n phng n ti u. L ng
nhin l nn chn cung no c cn di tng nhanh nht. Do cn di l tng cc hng
s rt gn ca ma trn rt gn nn phi chn phn t c'
ij
= 0 c tng phn t nh nht ca
hng i vi phn t nh nht ca ct j, tr phn t c
ij
, l ln nht.
c. Th tc ngn chn hnh trnh con
Nh bit, chu trnh Hamilton l khng cha chu trnh con, v nu khng s c nh
i qua hai ln. Bi vy phi loi b hnh trnh con trong qu trnh tm kim hnh trnh ti
u. Phng php tt nht l trong tng bc ca thut ton nhnh cn cn tm cch ngn
chn khng cho cc hnh trnh con c kh nng xut hin.
V chu trnh con ch xut hin khi hnh trnh c t ba cnh tr ln, nn khi chn
c hai cung (i, j), (j, k) th khng c chn cung (k, i) vo hnh trnh, nu khng s c
hnh trnh con (i, j, k, i). iu ny c thc hin bng cch t c'
ki
= .
Mt cch tng qut nu chn c cc nh i
1
, i
2
, , i
k
vo hnh trnh v cc nh
ny theo th t to thnh mt ng i th khng c chn tip cung (i
k
, i
s
) vi s = 1, 2,
, k 1 bng cch t c'
ks
= tr khi (i
k
, i
s
) l cung cui cng c chn vo hnh trnh.
d. Tm tt cc bc ca thut ton
1. Rt gn ma trn chi ph M =(c
ij
) c ma trn rt gn M' = (c'
ij
). Tnh cn di ca
mi hnh trnh.
f
min
S
M
= Hng s rt gn ma trn M
Ch : Trong bc lp u tin th
min
min
f f = v t c
ii
= .


2. Vi mi phn t c'
ij
= 0 t:

ij
= Tng phn t nh nht ca hng i v phn t nh nht ca ct j (tr c'
ij
).
Chn cung (i, j) c
ij
ln nht r nhnh.
a) t c'
ij
= c ma trn chi ph
ij
M cho cc hnh trnh khng cha cung (i,
j), tnh
min min
f f + Hng s rt gn ma trn
ij
M .
b) Xa hng i ct j ca ma trn M', t c'
ji
= v t c'
ks
= (nu chn cung (k,
s) s to thnh chu trnh con) c ma trn chi ph M
ij
cho cc chng tip
theo ca cc hnh trnh cha cung (i, j).
f
min
f
min
+ Hng s rt gn ma trn M
ij

3. Lp li t bc 1 i vi ma trn chi ph M
ij
cho n khi cp ca ma trn M
ij
bng
2. Hai cung cui ca hnh trnh c chn trc tip t ma trn M
ij
cui cng. Khi
kt thc, ta c f
min
= f
min
+ Hng s rt gn ca ma trn cp 2 cui.
Th d: Gii bi ton du lch vi ma trn chi ph sau (phn t trng l khng c
cung tng ng, c th xem phn t bng 0):
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\
|
=
. 10 12 14 16 20
18 . 16 14 12 10
9 12 . 25 18 8
3 7 9 . 12 15
17 13 10 8 . 8
15 12 9 7 5 .
6
5
4
3
2
1
M
6 5 4 3 2 1

Gii: Thay c
ii
= , i = 1, 2, , 6 v rt gn ma trn chi ph c:
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\
|
=
0 0 4 6 10
8 4 4 2 0
1 4 17 10 0
0 4 4 9 12
9 5 0 0 0
10 7 2 2 0
6
5
4
3
2
1
' M
6 5 4 3 2 1

Hng s rt gn ma trn M l: S
M
= 5 + 8 + 3 + 8 + 10 + 10 +2 = 46.
Vy, cn di ca hm mc tiu ca mi hnh trnh l 46 ( 46 f f
min
min
= ).
C 9 phn t bng 0, l c'
12
, c'
21
, c'
23
, c'
24
, c'
36
, c'
41
, c'
51
, c'
64
v c'
65
. Ta c:
12
= 2+2 = 4,
21
= 0+0 = 0,
23
= 2,
24
= 0,
36
= 5,
41
= 1,
51
= 2,
64
= 2,
65
= 4

Vy cung (3, 6) c chn phn nhnh. t c
36
= c ma trn
36
M . t c
63
= ,
xa hng 3 v ct 6 c ma trn M
36
:
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\
|
=
0 0 4 6 10
8 4 4 2 0
1 4 17 10 0
4 4 9 12
9 5 0 0 0
10 7 2 2 0
6
5
4
3
2
1
M
6 5 4 3 2 1
36
;
|
|
|
|
|
|
\
|
=
0 0 6 10
4 4 2 0
4 17 10 0
5 0 0 0
7 2 2 0
6
5
4
2
1
M
5 4 3 2 1
36

Hng s rt gn ma trn
36
M l: 4 + 1 = 5. Vy ) 6 , 3 ( f
min
46 + 5 = 51.
Ma trn M
36
khng phi rt gn v n l ma trn rt gn. Vy f
min
khng tng, ngha
l f
min
(3,6) 46.
|
|
|
|
|
|
\
|
= =
0 0 6 10
4 4 2 0
4 17 10 0
5 0 0 0
7 2 2 0
6
5
4
2
1
M ' M
5 4 3 2 1
36 36

C 8 phn t bng 0 trong ma trn M'
36
l c
12
, c
21
, c
23
, c
24
, c
41
, c
51
, c
64
v c
65
. Ta c:
12
= 4,
21
= 0,
23
= 2,
24
= 0,
41
= 4,
51
= 2,
64
= 2,
65
= 4.
C hai gi tr
41
v
65
cng ln nht trong cc va tnh nn c th chn mt trong
2 cung (4, 1) hoc (6,5) r nhnh. Chn cung (6, 5). Thay c
65
trong M'
36
bng c
ma trn
65
M . Cng trong M'
36
t c
56
= , xa hng 6 v ct 5 c ma trn M
65
:
|
|
|
|
|
|
\
|

=
0 6 10
4 4 2 0
4 17 10 0
5 0 0 0
7 2 2 0
6
5
4
2
1
M
5 4 3 2 1
65
;
|
|
|
|
|
\
|
=
4 4 2 0
17 10 0
0 0 0
2 2 0
5
4
2
1
M
4 3 2 1
65

Hng s rt gn ca
65
M l 4 (s nh nht ct 5). Vy ) 5 , 6 ( f
min
51 + 4 = 55
Ma trn M
65
khng phi rt gn do vy M'
65
= M
65
v f
min
l khng i, ngha l
f
min
(6,5) 46.
C 6 phn t bng 0 trong ma trn M'
65
l c
12
, c
21
, c
23
, c
24
, c
41
v c'
51
. Ta c:

12
= 4,
21
= 0,
23
= 2,
24
= 2,
41
= 10 v
51
= 2
Vy cung (4, 1) c chn r nhnh. Thay c
41
trong M
65
bng c ma trn
41
M .
Cng trong ma trn M
65
t c'
14
= , xa hng 4 v ct 1, do cc cung (3, 6) v (6,5)
c chn nn khng th chn cung (5, 3) (nu chn cung (5, 3) s to thnh chu trnh
con), vy phi t c
53
= c ma trn M
41
:
|
|
|
|
|
\
|

=
4 4 2 0
17 10
0 0 0
2 2 0
5
4
2
1
M
4 3 2 1
41
;
|
|
|
\
|
=
4 2
0 0
2 0
5
2
1
M
4 3 2
41

Hng s rt gn ca M
41
l 2. Vy f
min
(4,1) 46 + 2 = 48.
Hng s rt gn ca
41
M l 10. Vy 65 10 55 ) 1 , 4 ( f
min
= +
Rt gn ma trn M
41
c:
|
|
|
\
|
=
2 0
0 0
2 0
5
2
1
' M
4 3 2
41

C 4 phn t bng 0 trong M'
41
l c
12
, c
23
, c
24
v c
52
. Ta c:
12
= 2,
23
=2,
24
= 2 v
52
= 2
Vy c 4 cung (1,2), (2,3), (2,4), (5,2) u c th c chn r nhnh. Chn (1,2).
Trong M'
41
, t c
12
= c
12
M . Loi hng 1 v ct 2 ra khi M'
41
c M
12
:
|
|
|
\
|

=
2 0
0 0
2
5
2
1
M
4 3 2
12
;
|
|
\
|
=
2
0 0
5
2
M
4 3
12

Hng s rt gn ca
12
M l 2. Vy 67 2 65 ) 2 , 1 ( f
min
= +
M
12
l ma trn vung cp 2 nn chn trc tip hai cung cui cng ca hnh trnh ng
vi 2 phn t c gi tr nh nht ca M
12
, l 2 cung (2,3) v (5,4). Chi ph cc tiu l
f
min
= 48 + 0 + 2 = 50.
Vy cc cung c chn vo hnh trnh l: (3.6), (6,5), (4,1), (1,2), (2,3) v (5,4). Sp
xp li ta c hnh trnh i qua cc thnh ph 3,6,5,4,1,2,3 vi chi ph cc tiu l 50. Hnh
trnh ti u v cy tm kim hnh trnh ti u c v trong hnh 16.


BI TP CHNG 6
6.1. Tm ng i ngn nht t nh A n cc nh cn li trong cc th sau:

6.2. Dng thut ton Dijkstra tm ng i ngn nht t nh x
1
ti cc nh cn li trong
cc th sau:
a)

a) B C D E b) a b c

A F G I A B
d f

H K M g h k

x
3
2 x
4

4 3 5
x
2
3 x
8
12 7 3
1 x
5
4
4 x
7
3
2 7
x
1
11 x
6

) 5 , 6 (
55
) 1 , 4 (
65
H
46
(3,6)
46
) 6 , 3 (

51
(6,5)
46
(4,1)
48
(1,2)
50
(2,3)
50
(5,4)
50
) 2 , 1 (
67
Hnh 16. Hnh trnh ti u v cy phn
nhnh
1 5 2
8 8
6 3 3
10
5 16 4

b)

6.3. Tm ng i ngn nht t nh A ti cc nh cn li trong th sau:
a)

b)

6.4. Cho th

x
1
9 x
2
5 x
3

9 6 2 5 6 7 3

7 7 5 4
x
4
x
5
x
6
x
7
x
8

4 8 4 4 6 4 8

x
9
1 x
10
7 x
11

A 7 B 3 C 8 D

4 3 2 2 6 2

1 E 4 F 2 G 2

2 3 4 5 3 4

H 2 I 9 K 5 M
A 4 B 18 C

85 6 12 74 12
32 76 25
D E F G
28 33 31 11 78
12

H 10 I 23 K

x
2
10 x
4
8 x
7
4 x
10
5 x
13

7 2 5 7 8 7 6 3 4 2
6 2 8 4 10
x
1
x
3
x
5
x
8
x
11
x
14

7 7 1 2 6 7 3

x
6
3 x
9
16 x
12
3 x
15

a) Tm ng i ngn nht t x
1
n x
14
.
1
n x
14
c cha cnh x
8
x
9
.
1
n x
14
c cha nh x
7
.
6.5. Tm ng i ngn nht t x
2
n cc nh cn li trong cc th sau:
a) ( th v hng) b) ( th c hng)

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\
|
. 4 1 4 . . .
4 . 2 . 2 . .
1 2 . 2 4 . .
4 . 2 . 1 4 .
. 2 4 1 . 2 6
. . . 4 2 . 3
. . . . 6 3 .
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x x x x x x x
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
7 6 5 4 3 2 1

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\
|
. . . . . . . 2
6 . . . . . . .
. 5 . . 8 . . 2
. . 3 . . . . .
. 8 . . . 3 . .
1 4 . . . . . .
. . . 4 . . . 31
13 12 . . . . . .
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x x x x x x x x
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

6.6. Tm tm, bn knh, ng knh ca cc th:
a) b)

6.7. Bng thut ton Ford-Fulkerson hy tm lung cc i v lt ct hp nht ca cc
mng sau, bit lung ban u bng 0 v kh nng thng qua c ghi trn cc cung:
a)

a b c x
1
3 x
2

7 5 4 2 2

d f g h k x
3
4 x
4
5 x
5

3 2 4

m n p x
6
6 x
7

x
1
6 x
4

8 2 4 4

x
0
2 x
2
4 x
5
2 z

4 4 3 8

x
3
6 x
6

x
1
8(8) x
5

4 (0) 7(7)
12(8) 8 (0) 20(12)
x
2
5(3)
20(12) 18 (10)
x
0
20(0) 9(9) x
6
20(9) z

10(10) 8 (5) x
3
6(0) 30(9)
4(3) 7(7)

x
4
12(2) x
7
b)

6.8. Bng thut ton Ford-Fulkerson hy tm lung cc i v lt ct hp nht ca mng
sau, bit kh nng thng qua c ghi trn cung v lung ban u c ghi trong du
ngoc n:

6.9. Mng vi nhiu im thu, pht.
Xt mng G sau:

Mng G c ba nh b, c, d vi kh nng cung cp ln lt l 60, 40, 40 v c ba nh
thu h, i, k vi kh nng tip nhn tng ng l 50, 40,40.
tm lung vn ti cc i trong mng, ta b sung vo G mt nh pht a v mt
nh thu z c mng G' quen thuc nh hnh sau:

[60]b 30 e 20 h[50]

50 20 30 30 30

[40]c 40 f 40 i [40]

50 30 20 20 30

[40]d 30 g 40 k[40]
Mng G
b 12 d

15 3 7

a f
4 5 10
10
c e

Bng thut ton Ford-Fulkerson hy tm lung cc i trn mng G' (cng l lung
cc i trn G) vi lung ban u bng 0.
6.10. Gii cc bi ton du lch vi cc ma trn chi ph sau:
a) b)

|
|
|
|
|
\
|
. 4 7 9
6 . 6 5
5 6 . 3
7 9 3 .
4
3
2
1
4 3 2 1

|
|
|
|
|
\
|
. 11 8 5
10 . 15 6
8 8 . 4
6 12 9 .
D
C
B
A
D C B A

c) d)

|
|
|
|
|
|
\
|
. 13 14 15 16
8 . 15 9 20
. 9 . 12 7
15 10 . . 14
8 8 9 12 .
E
D
C
B
A
E D C B A

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\
|
. 7 6 5 4 7
4 . 5 3 3 3
5 4 . 6 2 4
4 3 5 . 1 4
5 4 4 3 . 5
3 6 2 4 3 .
6
5
4
3
2
1
6 5 4 3 2 1

P S
6.2. a) l(x
1
x
2
) = 4; l(x
1
x
7
x
8
x
3
) = 6; l(x
1
x
7
x
4
) = 7; l(x
1
x
7
x
6
x
5
) = 12;
l(x
1
x
7
x
8
x
3
x
6
) = 9 hoc (x
1
x
7
x
6
) = 9; l(x
1
x
7
) = 2; l(x
1
x
7
x
8
) = 3.
b) l(x
1
x
5
x
2
) = 8; l(x
1
x
5
x
2
x
3
) = 13; l(x
1
x
4
) = 9; l(x
1
x
5
) = 6;
l(x
1
x
5
x
6
) = 13; l(x
1
x
5
x
2
x
7
) = 14; l(x
1
x
5
x
2
x
3
x
8
) = 16;
l(x
1
x
5
x
10
x
9
) = 11; l(x
1
x
5
x
10
) = 10; l(x
1
x
5
x
10
x
11
) = 17.
b 30 e 20 h

60 50 20 30 30 30 50

x
0
40 c 40 f 40 i 40 z

40 50 30 20 20 30 40

d 30 g 40 k
Mng G'

6.3. a) l(AHEB) = 6; l(AHIFC) = 9; l(AHIFCKGD) = 16; l(AHE) = 3;
l(AHIF) = 7; l(AHIFCKG) = 14; l(AH) = 1; l(AHI) = 3;
l(AHIFCK) = 11; l(AHIFCKM) = 16.
b) l(AB) = 4; l(ABC) = 22; L(AD) = 85; l(AE) = 6; l(AEF) =82;
l(ABCG) = 34; l(ADH) = 113; l(AEI) = 39; l(AEIK) = 51.
6.4. a) x
1
x
6
x
5
x
8
x
10
x
11
x
14
, hoc x
1
x
6
x
5
x
8
x
10
x
13
x
14
: l = 25;
b) x
1
x
6
x
5
x
9
x
8
x
10
x
11
x
14
, hoc x
1
x
6
x
5
x
9
x
8
x
10
x
13
x
14
,
hoc x
1
x
6
x
9
x
8
x
10
x
11
x
14
, hoc x
1
x
6
x
9
x
8
x
10
x
13
x
14
: l = 31;
c) x
1
x
6
x
5
x
8
x
7
x
10
x
11
x
14
: l = 27.
6.5. a) l(x
2
x
1
) = 3; l(x
2
x
3
) = 2; l(x
2
x
3
x
4
) = 3; l(x
2
x
3
x
4
x
5
) = 5;
l(x
2
x
3
x
6
) = 4; l(x
2
x
3
x
4
x
5
x
7
) = 6.
b) l(x
2
x
5
x
6
x
1
) = 9; l(x
2
x
5
x
6
x
4
x
3
) = 18; l(x
2
x
5
x
6
x
4
) = 15; l(x
2
x
5
) = 4;
l(x
2
x
5
x
6
) = 7; l(x
2
x
5
x
6
x
7
) = 12; l(x
2
x
5
x
6
x
7
x
8
) = 18.
6.6. a) r = 2; b, g, n l cc tm
b) r = 6; x
7
l tm; d = 22.
6.7. a) val(
max
) = 14; Lt ct hp nht vi A = {x
0
}.
b) val(
max
) = 14; Lt ct hp nht vi A = {a, b, d}.
6.8. val(
max
0
, x
1
, x
2
, x
3
}.
6.9. val(
max
0
, d}.
6.10. a) 1, 2, 4, 3, 1. Chi ph cc tiu l 17.
b) A, D, B, C, A. Chi ph cc tiu l 28.
c) A, B, D, E, C, A. Chi ph cc tiu l 51.
d) C 5 hnh trnh: 1,4,6,2,3,5,1; 1,4,6,3,2,5,1; 1,4,2,6,3,5,1;
1,6,3,2,4,5,1; 1,6,4,2,3,5,1.
Chi ph cc tiu l 20. (Ch cn tm mt trong nm hnh trnh).

CU HI N TP CHNG 6
1. nh ngha ng i ngn nht trong n th khng trng s v trong n th c
trong s dng. Trnh by thut ton tm ng i ngn nht trong th khng trng s
v thut ton Dijstra tm wng i ngn nht trong th c trng s dng?
2. Pht biu cc nh ngha v: Khong cch gia cc nh, Tm, Bn knh, ng knh
ca mt n th v hng.
3. Pht biu nh ngha v cc tnh cht ca Mng v Lung. Trnh by thut ton Ford-
Fulkerson tm lung cc i.
4. Pht biu bi ton du lch. Trnh by thut ton nhnh, cn gii bi ton du lch.


CHNG 7
I S BOOLE

1. Hm Boole
1.1. M u
1.2. Hm Boole
2. Biu thc Boole
2.1. nh ngha
2.2. Cc hng ng thc ca i s Boole
2.3. Tnh i ngu
2.4. Quy tc thay th
4.1. Biu din cc hm Boole bng biu thc Boole
4.2. Dng tuyn chun tc ca hm Boole
4.3. Tnh y ca i s Boole
5. Cc cng logic
5.1. Khi nim v cc cng logic
5.2. T hp cc cng
6 Ti thiu ho hm Boole
6.1. Phng php bin i i s
6.2. Phng php lp bng Karnaugh
6.3. Phng php xu bit (Phng php Quine Mc Cluskey)

1. Hm Boole
1.1. M u
Mi mch in t hoc mch quang hc c th lm vic theo cc quy tc nht nh
v chng ch c 2 trng thi: ng v m hoc sng v ti. C th gn cc trng thi vi
cc s 1 v 0. i s Boole ra i nhm m hnh ho hot ng ca cc mch in t v
mch quang hc.
i s Boole a ra cc php ton v cc hm trn tp {0, 1}. Biu thc Boole l
s t hp cc php ton ca i s Boole. Cc mch in t v quang hc c th c
nghin cu bng cc php bin i hm Boole.
Ba php ton c bn ca i s Boole l:
Phn b (cn gi l ph nh) ca mt phn t, k hiu bng gch ngang trn u
phn t v c nh ngha: 1 0 ; 0 1 = = .

Tng Boole (cn gi l tuyn) ca 2 phn t, k hiu + (hoc OR, hoc ), c
nh ngha nh sau: 1 + 1 = 1; 1 + 0 = 1; 0 + 1 = 1; 0 + 0 = 0.
Tch Boole (cn gi l hi) ca 2 phn t, k hiu bng du chm (.) (hoc AND,
hoc ), c nh ngha nh sau: 1 . 1 = 1; 1. 0 = 0; 0 . 1 = 0; 0 . 0 = 0
Thng dng cc du ngoc ch th t thc hin cc php tnh. Trong trng hp
khng c du ngoc th th t thc hin cc php tnh l: Phn b, tch, sau cng l tng.
Th d: 1.0 + ) 0 1 ( + = 0 +1 = 0 + 0 = 0.
Php ly phn b, ly tng v ly tch Boole tng ng vi cc ton t logic: ph nh
( ), tuyn () v hi () trong 0 ng vi F v 1 ng vi T. Cc kt qu ca i s
Boole c th p dng trc tip cho i s cc mnh . Ngc li cc kt qu v i s
mnh c th p dng trc tip cho i s Boole. V, do vy i s Boole cn c gi
l i s Logic.
1.2. Hm Boole
Cho tp hp B = {0;1}. Bin x c gi l bin Boole nu n nhn gi tr 0, 1 trong B.
nh ngha: Hm Boole n bin l mt nh x f: B
n
B, trong B
n
l tch cc n
ln ca B (B
n
= {(x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
) | x
i
B, i = 1, 2, ..., n}).
Hm Boole n bin c vit l f = f(x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
)
Cc gi tr ca hm Boole c th cho di dng bng.
Th d: Hm Boole 2 bin f(x,y) nhn gi tr 1 khi x =1 v y = 0; nhn gi tr 0 trong
cc trng hp cn li c cho trong bng sau:
x y f(x,y)
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1
0
0
1
0
Hai hm Boole f = f(x
1
,x
2
, ...,x
n
) v g = g(x
1
,x
2
, ...,x
n
) c gi l bng nhau, k hiu
f = g, nu chng nhn gi tr ging nhau ng vi mi b gi tr ca b bin x
1
,x
2
, ...,x
n
.
Cho 2 hm Boole f = f(x
1
,x
2
, ...,x
n
) v g = g(x
1
,x
2
, ...,x
n
), ngi ta nh ngha:
Phn b (hay ph nh) ca hm Boole f, k hiu f , c nh ngha:
( ) ) x ,..., x , x ( f ) x ,..., x , x ( f
n 2 1 n 2 1
=
Tng (hay tuyn) ca 2 hm f v g, k hiu f + g (hay fg), c nh ngha:
(f+g)(x
1
,x
2
, ...,x
n
) = f (x
1
,x
2
, ...,x
n
) + g (x
1
,x
2
, ...,x
n
) .
Tch (hay hi) ca 2 hm f v g, k hiu f.g (hay fg), c nh ngha:
(f.g)(x
1
,x
2
, ...,x
n
) = f (x
1
,x
2
, ...,x
n
) . g (x
1
,x
2
, ...,x
n
)

C 4 hm Boole 1 bin :
x f
1
f
2
f
3
f
4
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
f
1
l hm hng 0; f
4
l hm hng 1; f
3
l hm lp li gi tr ca x; f
4
l hm ph nh
ca x; d thy f
1
=
4
f ; f
2
=
3
f .
C 16 hm Boole 2 bin:
x y f
1
f
2
f
3
f
4
f
5
f
6
f
7
f
8
f
9
f
10
f
11
f
12
f
13 f
14
f
15
f
16
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
f
1
c gi l hm hng 0, k hiu l f(x,y) = 0
f
2
c gi l hm hng 1, k hiu l f(x,y) = 1
f
3
c gi l hm tuyn ca x v y, k hiu l f(x,y) = x + y hay f(x,y) = xy
f
4
c gi l hm hi ca x v y, k hiu l f(x,y) = xy hay f(x,y) = xy
f
5
c gi l hm tuyn loi ca x v y, k hiu l f(x,y) = x y
f
6
c gi l hm ko theo, k hiu l f(x,y) = x y
f
7
c gi l hm tng ng, k hiu l f(x,y) = x y
f
8
c gi l hm Vebb ca x v y, k hiu l f(x,y) = x y
f
9
c gi l hm Sheffer ca x v y, k hiu l f(x,y) = xy
Tng qut c
n
2
2 hm Boole n bin. Tht vy: Vi n bin Boole x
1
, x
2
, , x
n
v mi
bin nhn 2 gi tr 0 v 1 nn c 2
n
b gi tr ca n bin . Vi mi b gi tr ca n bin
hm Boole n bin nhn 2 gi tr do phi c
n
2
2 hm Boole n bin.
Ch rng hm Boole cn c gi l hm i s Logic.
2. Biu thc Boole
2.1. nh ngha
Biu thc Boole i vi cc bin x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
c nh ngha quy nh sau:
0, 1, x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
l cc biu thc Boole.
Nu A
1
v A
2
l cc biu thc Boole th 1 A , A
1
.A
2
v A
1
+A
2
cng l cc biu thc
Boole.
2.2. Cc hng ng thc ca i s Boole (cc tnh cht ca cc php ton Boole)
Vi mi x, y, z l cc bin Boole lun lun c:
Lut phn b kp: x x =
Lut lu ng: x + x = x
x.x = x

Lut ng nht: x + 0 = x
x.1 = x
Lut nut: x + 1 = 1
x . 0 = 0
Lut giao hon: x + y = y + x
x . y = y . x
Lut kt hp: x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z
x. (yz) = (xy)z
Lut phn phi: x + yz = (x + y)(x + z)
x(y + z) = xy + xz
Lut -Moocgan: y . x ) y x ( = +
y x ) y . x ( + =
C th chng minh cc tnh cht trn bng cch lp bng gi tr. Chng hn, chng
minh lut phn phi x + yz = (x + y)(x + z):
x y z yz x + yz x + y x + z (x+y)(x+z)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Nhn vo ct x + yz v (x+y)(y+z) ta thy chng cng gi tr vi cng b gi tr ca
x, y, z. Vy x + yz = (x+y)(x+z).
Cc hng ng thc trn c th dng chng minh cc hng ng thc khc.
Th d: Chng minh lut ht thu: x(x + y) = x
Tht vy: x(x + y) = (x + 0)(x + y) (Lut ng nht)
= x + 0.y (Lut phn phi)
= x + y. 0 (Lut giao hon)
= x + 0 (Lut nut)
= x (Lut ng nht)
2.3. Tnh i ngu
Cc tnh cht nu trong 2.2 u xut hin tng cp, tr tnh cht phn b kp. Hn
na, trong mi cp , nu bit c mt ng thc th c th suy ra ng thc cn li
bng cch thay tch Boole bng tng Boole v ngc li, thay 0 bng 1 v thay 1 bng 0.

Vic thay i cc php ton Boole v cc hng Boole nh vy gi l ly i ngu mt ng
thc Boole.
nh ngha: i ngu ca mt biu thc Boole l mt biu thc Boole c c t
biu thc Boole cho bng cch thay tch Boole bng tng Boole, thay tng Boole bng
tch Boole, thay 1 bng 0 v thay 0 bng 1.
Th d 1: 1-/ i ngu ca x. y + z l (x + y ). z
2-/ i ngu ca x.1 + (y + z ) l (x + 0).( z . y )
Nguyn l i ngu: Mt hng ng thc Boole vn ng nu ly i ngu c hai v
ca n.
Th d 2: Ly i ngu 2 v ca lut ht thu x(x + y) = x c x + xy = x, hng ng
thc mi ny cng c gi l lut ht thu.
2.4. Quy tc thay th
Chng ta tha nhn quy tc thay th sau: Mt hng ng thc Boole vn ng nu
thay mt bin ca ng thc bng mt biu thc Boole no .
Th d: Ta bit y . x ) y x ( = + (lut -Moocgan). Nu thay y bng y+z c:
z . y . x z y . x z y x ) z y ( x ( = + = + + = + +
Mt cch tng qut c th nh ngha i s Boole theo tin hay cn gi l nh
ngha tru tng i s Boole nh sau.
nh ngha: Cho mt tp hp E khng rng. Xc nh trn E hai php ton hai
ngi gi l php cng (k hiu +) v php nhn (k hiu .), cng php ton mt ngi gi l
php b (k hiu ). Tp E cng ba php ton trn c gi l mt i s Boole nu cc
tin sau c tha mn vi mi x, y, z E:
Lut giao hon: x + y = y + x
x . y = y . x
Lut kt hp: (x + y) + z = x + (y + z)
(x . y) . z = x . (y . z)
Lut phn phi: (x + y) . z = (x . z) + (y . z)
x + (y . z) = (x + y) . (x + z)
Tn ti phn t trung ha: Phn t trung ha ca php cng c k hiu l 0 v
phn t trung ha ca php nhn c k hiu l 1 sao cho:
x + 0 = 0 + x = x
x . 1 = 1 . x = x
Tn ti phn t b: Vi mi xE tn ti duy nht mt phn t x E sao cho:

nu = 1
nu = 0
1 x x x x = + = +
0 x . x x . x = =
x c gi l phn t b ca phn t x.
Qua cc phn trnh by, thy tp B = {0, 1} cng 3 php ton cng (+), nhn(.) v
phn b ( ) c nh ngha trong 1.1 tho mn cc tin nu trong nh ngha theo
tin trn.
Ngc li, t cc tnh cht nu trong nh ngha trn c th chng minh c cc
tnh cht cn li nu trong mc 2.2.
Trong phn trc hm Boole c cho di dng bng, iu gy nhiu bt tin.
Phn ny trnh by tm cch biu din cc hm Boole di dng biu thc c to bi cc
bin, cc hng v cc php ton Boole.
4.1. Biu din hm Boole bng biu thc Boole
Mi hm Boole c biu din bng mt biu thc Boole. Cc gi tr ca hm
Boole nhn c bng cch gn 0 hoc 1 cho cc bin c trong biu thc .
Th d: Cc gi tr ca hm Boole f(x,y,z) = xy + z c cho trong bng di y:
x y z xy z f(xyz) = xy+z
0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 0 1
Hai biu thc Boole cng biu din mt hm Boole c gi l 2 biu thc tng
ng nhau.
4.2. Dng tuyn chun tc ca hm Boole
a. Hi s cp v tuyn s cp
C hai loi biu thc Boole thng gp biu din cc hm Boole, l cc tuyn s
cp v hi s cp, chng c nh ngha nh sau:
Cho x l mt bin Boole v {0, 1}, k hiu:

, x
, x
x

tin li, ta gi x
l tc bin ca bin x. D thy:

x
= 1 x =
nh ngha: Gi s x
1
, x
2
, , x
n
l cc bin Boole.
Biu thc
k
k
i
2
2
i
1
1
i
x ... x x

, trong 1 i
1
< i
2
< < i
k
n v
1
,
2
, ,
k
{0, 1}
c gi l mt hi s cp hng k ca n bin x
1
,x
2
,,x
n
.
Biu thc
k
k
i
2
2
i
1
1
i
x ... x x

+ + + , trong 1 i
1
< i
2
< < i
k
n v
1
,
2
, ,
k
{0,
1} c gi l mt tuyn s cp hng k ca n bin x
1
,x
2
,,x
n
.
Ni cch khc, mt tch gm k tc bin ca n bin Boole cho c gi l mt hi
s cp hng k ca n bin . V, mt tng gm k tc bin ca n bin Boole cho c
gi l mt tuyn s cp hng k ca n bin .
Ch thch: Hi s cp cn gi l minterm. Tuyn s cp cn gi l maxterm
D thy mt hi s cp c gi tr bng 1 khi v ch khi mi 1 x
j
j
i
= , ngha l khi v ch
khi mi
j
j
i
x = . V, mt tuyn s cp c gi tr bng 0 khi v ch khi mi 0 x
j
j
i
= .
Th d: Hi s cp
5
4
3 2
1 x x x x x c gi tr bng 1 nu x
1
= x
4
= 0; x
2
= x
3
= x
5
= 1 v
c gi tr bng 0 trong mi trng hp cn li.
b. nh ngha dng tuyn chun tc ca hm Boole.
nh ngha:
Dng tuyn chun tc ca hm Boole l biu din hm Boole di dng tng cc
hi s cp.
Nu mi hi s cp trong dng tuyn chun tc ca hm Boole n bin u c hng
bng n th dng tuyn chun tc gi l dng tuyn chun tc hon ton ca
hm cho.
Ni chung, c hai dng nu trong nh ngha trn c th gi chung l dng tuyn
chun tc hay l khai trin tng cc tch ca hm Boole.
C th tm dng tuyn chun tc hon ton ca hm Boole t bng gi tr ca hm
.
Do hi s cp c gi tr bng 1 khi v ch khi mi tc bin u bng 1 v do n bng
0 trong mi trng hp cn li. V vy bng cch ly tng Boole ca cc hi s cp phn
bit c gi tr bng 1 th c biu thc Boole dng tuyn chun tc hon ton t tp gi tr
cho trc.
T y n ht chng, nu khng c ch thch th thut ng dng tuyn chun
tc c hiu l dng tuyn chun tc hon ton.
Th d 1: Tm dng tuyn chun tc ca cc hm Boole f = f(x,y,z) v g = g(x,y,z)
c cho trong bng sau:
x y z f g
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0

0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 0
Trc ht ta xt hm f(x,y,z)
Ta thy f(x,y,z) = 1 khi x = 1, y = 0, z = 1 hoc x = y = 0, z = 1
Hi s cp ng vi b gi tr x = y = 0, z = 1 l z y x
Hi s cp ng vi b gi tr x = z = 1, y = 0 l z y x
Vy dng tuyn chun tc ca hm f l:
f(x,y,z) = z y x z y x +
Tng t, c dng tuyn chun tc ca hm g l:
g(x,y,z) = z y x z y x z y x + +
Ch thch: T bng gi tr chn l trn c dng tuyn chun tc ca hm phn b ca
hm f v hm g l:
z y x z y x z y x z y x z y x z y x ) z , y , x ( f + + + + + =
z y x z y x z y x z y x z y x ) z , y , x ( g + + + + =
V tng Boole ca cc hi s cp c gi tr bng 1 ch khi mt trong cc hi s cp
bng 1. Do vi hm Boole cho bng biu thc cha phi l dng tuyn chun tc th c
th tm dng tuyn chun tc t bng gi tr chn l ca n.
Th d 2: Tm dng tuyn chun tc ca hm f(x,y,z) = z ) y x ( + :
Trc ht ta lp bng gi tr ca hm f:
x y z x + y z f(x,y,z) = z ) y x ( +
0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 0 0


Phn tch tng t th d 1 c dng tuyn chun tc ca hm f l:
f = z y x z y x z y x + +
Th d 3: T nh ngha cc hm Boole hai bin trong mc 1.2, ta c:
y x y x + l dng tuyn chun tc ca hm tuyn loi f(x,y) = xy
y x y x y x + + l dng tuyn chun tc ca hm Sheffer f(x,y) = xy
(Dng tuyn chun tc ca cc hm 2 bin cn li c dnh cho bn c nh l mt bi
tp)
c. nh l trin khai
nh l: Mi hm Boole u c th biu din c di dng:
f(x
1
,x
2
, , x
n
) =

+

i
i
,...,
2
,
1
i
1
1
B ) (
n 1 i i 1
i
) x ,..., x , ,..., ( f x x , (1)
Trong i l s t nhin bt k tho mn 1 i n.
Chng minh:
t: T
f
= {(x
1
,x
2
,,x
n
)B
n
| f(x
1
,x
2
,,x
n
) = 1}
T
f
c gi l tp c trng ca hm f. Ta c:
g f g . f g f g f f
f
T T T , T T T , T T = = =
+

Gi g l hm Boole v phi ca (1).
Cho (x
1
,x
2
,,x
n
)T
f
, khi s hng ng vi b gi tr
1
= x
1
,
2
= x
2
, ,
i
= x
i

trong tng v phi ca (1) bng 1, do (x
1
,x
2
,,x
n
) T
g
.
o li, nu (x
1
,x
2
,,x
n
) T
g
tc l v phi ca (1) bng 1. iu ny c ngha l tn
ti mt s hng no v phi ca (1) bng 1, chng hn l s hng ng vi b gi tr
(
1
, ,
i
), khi x
1
=
1
, ,
i
= x
i
v f(
1
,,
i
, x
i+1
,,x
n
) = 1 hay (x
1
,x
2
,,x
n
) T
f
.
Vy T
f
= T
g
hay f = g. nh l c chng minh.
Cho i = 1 v nhn xt rng vai tr ca mi bin x
i
l nh nhau, t nh l c h qu
sau:

H qu 1. Mi hm Boole f(x
1
,,x
n
) u c th khai trin theo mt bin x
i
:
f(x
1
,,x
n
) =
i
x f(x
1
,,x
i 1
,0,x
i+1
,,x
n
) + x
i
f(x
1
,,x
i 1
,1,x
i+1
,,x
n
)
Cho i = n v b i cc nhn t bng 1, t nh l c h qu sau:
H qu 2. Mi hm Boole f(x
1
,,x
n
) u c th khai trin di dng:

=
n
n
1
1
x ... x ) x ,..., x ( f
n 1

Ni cch khc, mi hm Boole u c th biu din c di dng tuyn chun tc
hon ton.

Ch thch: Bng cch ly i ngu dng tuyn chun tc ca mt hm Boole th c
biu din hm Boole di dng tch cc tuyn s cp ca cc bin. Dng biu din hm
Boole di dng tch cc tuyn s cp c gi l dng hi chun tc ca hm Boole .
d. Biu din hm Boole bng s nguyn
Mi bin Boole ch nhn hai gi tr 0 v 1 nn nu thay mi bin Boole bng s 1 v
phn b ca mi bin Boole bng s 0 th mi hi s cp cc bin Boole c th xem nh
mt s nguyn c biu din di dng khai trin nh phn ca s . Bng sau cho
tng ng hi s cp ca khng qu 3 bin Boole vi cc s nguyn:
S bin Hi s cp
Xu nh phn
tng ng
S nguyn
tng ng
y x 00 0
y x 01 1
y x 10 2
2
y x
11 3
z y x 000 0
z y x 001 1
z y x 010 2
z y x 011 3
z y x 100 4
z y x 101 5
z y x 110 6
3
z y x
111 7
Vi cch cho tng ng cc hi s cp vi s nguyn nh vy c th biu din dng
tuyn chun tc hon ton ca hm Boole di dng du tng bng cch thay hi s cp
bng s nguyn tng ng. Cc th d sau cho thy cch biu din nh vy.
Th d 1: Xt hm Boole 2 bin f(x,y) = y x y x + l tuyn ca hai hi s cp ng
vi cc s nguyn 1 v 2 do vy c th vit:
f(x,y) = (1,2).
Th d 2: Hm Boole 3 bin f(x,y,z) = z y x z y x z y x + + l tuyn ca ba hi s
cp ng vi cc s nguyn 6, 4 v 2 do vy c th vit:
f(x,y,z) = (2,4,6).
Th d 3: Hm Boole 4 bin:
f(x,y,z,u) = u z y x u z y x u z y x u z y x u z y x + + + +


l tuyn ca 5 hi s cp:
u z y x tng ng vi xu 0001 biu din s 1;
Vy c th vit: f(x,y,z,u) = (1,2,3,8,10,11).
Th d 4: Chuyn hm Boole f(x,y,z,u) = (1,3,5.10,12) thnh dng tuyn chun
tc.
Ta c: S 1 tng ng vi xu 0001, l hi s cp u z y x ;
S 3 tng ng vi xu 0011, l hi s cp u z y x ;
Vy: f(x,y,z,u) = u z y x u z y x u z y x u z y x u z y x u z y x + + + + + .
Vi cc hm nhiu bin hn, vic chuyn i gia dng tuyn chun tc v dng s
nguyn ca cc hm Boole c tin hnh tng t.
4.3. Tnh y ca i s Boole
Mi hm Boole u c th biu din c di dng tuyn chun tc. Ni cch
khc, mi hm Boole u c th biu din c di dng tng Boole ca cc hi s cp.
Mi hi s cp l tch Boole ca cc bin v phn b ca cc bin. Vy c th ni, mi
hm Boole u c th biu din bng mt biu thc Boole thng qua cc php ton Boole
. , + v . Ngi ta gi tp hp {. , +, } l y i vi i s Boole.
nh ngha: Tp y ca i s Boole l tp hp cc php ton Boole m qua
cc php ton ta c th biu din c mi hm Boole.
Ngoi tp hp {. , +, } l tp y , i s Boole cn c cc tp y khc c
t php ton hn.
1) Tp hp {. , } v tp hp { +, } l cc tp y .
Chng ta chng minh cho tp hp {. , }. Tht vy, theo lut -Moocgan, c th
loi tt c cc tng Boole bng cch dng hng ng thc:
) y x y x y x do ( y x y x + = + = = +
i vi tp hp { +, } c chng minh tng t.
2) Trong i s Boole, ngi ta cn a thm hai php ton hai ngi: Php NAND, k
hiu , v php NOR, k hiu , v c nh ngha nh sau:

x
1

x
2
x
1
x
2
... x
n

x
n

Cng AND n u vo
x
1

x
2
x
1
+x
2
+... x
n

x
n

Cng OR n u vo
- Php NAND: 1 1 = 0, 1 0 = 1, 0 1 = 1, 0 0 = 1
- Php NOR: 1 1 = 0, 1 0 = 0, 0 1 = 0, 0 0 = 1
C hai tp hp { } v { } l cc tp y .
Tht vy, D dng chng minh c:
x = x x ( t nh ngha 2 php ton v )
x.y = (x y) | (x y) ( dng bng gi tr )
Ni cch khc, c th thay th hai php ton . v bng mt php ton . Tp hp { .
, } l tp y nn tp hp { } l tp y .
Vic chng minh tp hp { } l tp y hon ton tng t.
5. Cc cng logic
5.1. Khi nim v cc cng logic
i s Boole c dng m hnh ho s cc mch trong cc dng c in,
in t. Mi mt u vo v mi mt u ra ca mt dng c in t c xem l mt
phn t ca tp {0, 1}. Mt my tnh cng nh mt dng c in t c to bi nhiu
mch. Mi mt mch c th c thit k bng cch dng cc quy tc ca i s Boole.
Cc phn t c bn ca mch gi l cc cng. Mi loi cng thc hin mt php
ton Boole.
Nh cc quy tc ca i s Boole c th thit k c cc mch t cc cng. y
ch cp n cc mch m u ra ch ph thuc vo u vo ch khng ph thuc vo
trng thi hin thi ca mch. Nhng mch nh vy gi l mch logic t hp.
C 3 loi cng logic: B o, Cng OR, Cng AND

Hnh 1. Cc cng lgic
5.2. T hp cc cng
Cc mch t hp c th c thit k bng cch dng t hp cc cng OR, cng
AND, b o. Khi t hp cc mch, mt s cng c th dng chung u vo, chng hn
hai cch v trong hnh 2 u ch cng mt u ra l x y + y x .

x x y
y
Cng AND 2 u vo
x x+y
y
Cng OR 2 u vo
x x

B o

Th d 1: Dng cc mch to cc u ra sau:
a) (x + y) x b) (x + y + z) z y x
Gii:
a)

b)

Th d 2: Nhiu khi h thng n c nh c iu khin bi nhiu cng tc sao cho
khi bt hoc tt mt cng tc bt k n ang sng s tt hoc ang tt s sng. Hy thit
k mt mch nh vy khi c hai cng tc.
Gii: Gi 2 cng tc l x v y. Khi x = 1 l cng tc th nht ng v x = 0 l cng tc
th nht m. Tng t i vi cng tc th hai.
Gi s f(x,y) = 1 l n sng v f(x,y) = 0 l n tt. Chng ta c th hon ton t
chn n sng khi c 2 cng tc u ng, tc l f(1, 1) = 1, iu ny s dn ti vic xc
nh cc gi tr khc ca hm f theo gi tr cc bin. Khi mt trong hai cng tc m n s
tt, tc l f(1, 0) = f(0, 1) = 0, v khi c 2 cng tc u m th n li sng, tc l f(0, 0) =
1. Lp bng cc gi tr ca hm f:
x y f
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
x x + y
y
x (x + y) x

x xy
y xy + y x
x x y x
y

x
y xy + y x

Hnh 2
x
y x + y + z
z
x (x+y+z) z y x
y z y x
z

T biu din c hm l:
f(x,y) = y x y x +
V, do thit k c mch theo yu cu (hnh 3)

6. Ti thiu ho hm Boole
Nh bit, vic thit k cc mch da trn biu thc Boole biu din hm Boole cho
u ra ca mch, cc mch cng n gin nu biu thc Boole biu din hm Boole cho
cng n gin. Bi vy cn phi tm biu thc n gin nht biu din hm Boole
sao cho u ra l khng i so vi trc khi n gin ho biu thc . Cng vic ny gi
l ti thiu ho hm Boole.
C ba phng php ti thiu ho hm Boole.
6.1. Phng php bin i i s
Phng php ny da vo cc hng ng thc ca i s Boole (cc lut c trnh
by trong 2.2). Sau y l mt s th du:
Th d 1: Ti thiu ho hm Boole sau: f(x,y) = y x y x y x + + .
Gii: Ta c: f(x,y) = y x y x y x + + = ) y y ( x y x + + (Lut phn phi)
= 1 . x y x + (Lut nut)
= ) x x ( + (y + x) (Lut phn phi)
= 1. (y + x) = y + x (Lut nut)
Hnh 4a v hnh 4b l biu din mch t hp c u ra l f(x,y) tng ng vi trc v
sau khi ti thiu ho.

x x y
y x y + y x

x

y
Hnh 3. Mch iu khin bng 2 cng tc
x y x
y
x xy y x y x y x + +
y
x y x
y
Hnh 4a

x x + y
y

Hnh 4b
x x z
z
Hnh 5b

Th d 2: Ti thiu ho hm Boole f(x,y,z) = x y z + z y x
Gii: p dng cc lut giao hon, nut, kt hp. Ta c:
f(x,y,z) = x y z + z y x = y x z + z x y = z x ) y y ( + = 1.(xz) = xz
Cc hnh 5a v 5b l tng ng vi cc mch t hp ca trc v sau ti thiu ho hm
Boole cho.

6.2. Phng php lp bng Karnaugh
Bng Karnaugh (cn gi l bn Karnaugh) cho chng ta mt phng php trc
quan rt gn dng tuyn chun tc hon ton ca cc hm Boole. Phng php ch c
p dng vi cc hm Boole c khng qu 6 bin, tuy nhin vi trn 4 bin n rt kh s
dng.
a. Bng Karnaugh ca hm 2 bin.
i vi hm Boole 2 bin, ta c 2
2
= 4 hi s cp c th l: y x v y x , y x , y x . V
vy bng Karnaugh i vi hm Boole 2 bin c 4 biu din 4 hi s cp c th .
y y
x y x y x
x
y x y x
Hai ca bng Karnaugh c gi l k nhau nu cc hi s cp ca chng ch khc
nhau mt tc bin.
Nu hi s cp no c mt trong biu thc biu din hm Boole th tng ng trong
bng Karnaugh c ghi s 1, cn nu khng c mt th b trng. Bt c 2 k nhau no
x xyz
y
z xyz+ z y x
x
y z y x
z
Hnh 5a

c ghi s 1 th 2 hi s cp tng ng 2 c rt gn ch cn li 1 tc bin. Chng
hn y x v y x c rt gn thnh y y ) x x ( y x y x v y = + = + .
Th d 1: Cc tiu ho cc hm sau bng bng Karnaugh:
a) f(x,y) = y x y x + ; b) g(x,y) = y x y x y x + +
Gii:
a)
y y b) y y

x 1 x 1 1

x

1 x 1

T : f(x,y) = y g(x,y) = y x +
b. Bng Karnaugh ca hm 3 bin
Bng Karnaugh cho hm 3 bin cn 2
3
= 8 biu din 8 hi s cp c th ca 3
bin x, y, z. Hai c gi l k nhau nu hi s cp tng ng vi chng ch khc nhau
mt tc bin. Bn Karnaugh 3 bin c xem nh nm trn mt tr (hnh 6).

Dn phng mt tr hnh 6 ta c bng Karnaugh ba bin:
z y z y y z z y
x
z y x z y x z y x z y x
x z y x z y x x y z z y x
Nu hi s cp no c mt trong biu thc biu din hm Boole th tng ng
trong bng Karnaugh c ghi s 1, cn nu khng c mt th b trng. Bt c hai k
nhau no c ghi s 1 th hai hi s cp tng ng hai c rt gn thnh mt hi
s cp c 2 tc bin. Cc khi gm bn kiu 2 x 2 hoc 4 x 1 c th rt gn thnh hi s
cp ch cn 1 tc bin. Khi c tm c th rt gn v hng l 1.
Nguyn tc rt gn l bt u t khi ln nht k nhau c cha s 1.
Th d 2: Cc tiu ho cc hm Boole sau bng bng Karnaugh:
a) f(x,y,z) = z y x z y x z y x z y x + + +
z y x z y x
z y x z y x

z y x z y x
z y x z y x
Hnh 6


z y z y y z z y
x 1
1
x
1

1
Ta c: z y z y x z y x = + ; z x z y x z y x = +
Vy: z y x z x z y f + + =
b) g(x,y,z) = z y x z y x z y x z y x z y x z y x z y x + + + + + +
z y z y y z z y
x 1 1
1
x 1 1 1 1
Ta c: y y x y x z y x z y x z y x z y x = + = + + +
z z x z x z y x z y x z y x z y x = + = + + +
x y x y x z y x z y x z y x z y x = + = + + +
Vy: z y x g + + =
c. Bng Karnaugh ca hm 4 bin
Vi bng Karnaugh ca hm Boole 4 bin gm 16 chia l 4 hng v 4 ct. C 2 k
nhau c ghi s 1 c rt gn thnh hi s cp 3 tc bin; 4 k nhau c ghi s 1 c rt
gn thnh hi s cp c 2 tc bin; 8 k nhau rt gn thnh hi s cp 2 tc bin v cc
16 k nhau rt gn thnh hng 1.
Th d 3: Dng bng Karnaugh rt gn hm Boole sau:
u z y x u z y x u z y x u z y x u z y x u z y x u z y x ) u , z , y , x ( f + + + + + + =

u z
u z z u u z
y x

1

y x
1

x y
1
1

y x 1 1 1

Ta c: u z u z x u z x u z y x u z y x u z y x u z y x = + = + + +
z x z y x z y x u z y x u z y x u z y x u z y x = + = + + +
u y x u z y x u z y x = +
Vy: u y x u z z x f + + =

Th d 4: Mt hi ng c 3 thnh vin nhm hp nhm thng qua mt vn no
theo nguyn tc a s. Mi thnh vin b phiu tn thnh hoc khng tn thnh cho vn
c t ra. Vn c thng qua nu c t nht hai thnh vin hi ng b phiu tn
thnh. Hy thit k mt mch logic cho php xc nh vn c thng qua hay khng?
Gii: Gi x, y, z l ba thnh vin ca hi ng. Mi bin x, y, z nhn gi tr 1 khi thnh
vin tng ng tn thnh v nhn gi tr 0 khi khng tn thnh, ta c bng gi tr chn l
ca bi ton:
x y z f
1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
Vy f(x,y,z) = z y x z y x z y x z y x + + +
Ti thiu ha hm thu c bng bng Karnaugh:
z y z y y z z y
x

1

x 1 1
1
c: f(x,y,z) = xy + xz + yz. Vy ta c mch logic sau:

Th d 5: Cc tiu ha cc hm Boole sau bng bng Karnaugh:
a) f(x,y,z) = (0, 1, 2, 6, 7).
thit lp bng Karnaugh cho hm Boole cho theo dng s nguyn nn thay k hiu
bin bng s 1 v ph nh ca bin bng s 0 v c dng bng sau:
x x y
y
x xz xy + xz + yz
z
y yz
z
Hnh 7. Mch b phiu theo a s ca 3 thnh vin

yz
x
00 01 11 10
0
1 1
1
1 1 1
Ta c:
z x z y x z y x = + ; y x z y x z y x = + ; z y z y x z y x = + ; y x z y x z y x = +
Ch rng c th vit 4 t hp trn tng ng nh sau:
(0,2) = z x ; (0,1) = y x ; (2,6) = z y ; (6,7) = y x
Vy: y x z y z x y x f + + + =
b) g(x,y,z,u) = (2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15).
zu
xy
00 01 11 10
00

1
01
1
1 1 1
11 1 1 1 1
10 1
Ta c: u z y x u z y x u z y x u z y x u z y x u z y x u z y x u z y x + + + + + + + = y;
u z x u z y x u z y x = + ; u z x u z y x u z y x = + .
Hay: (4,5,6,7,12,13,14,15) = y; (2,6) = u z x (11,15) = xyz.
Vy: z y x u z x y f + + = .
Bng Karnaugh ca hm Boole n bin c 2
n
gm
2
n
2 ct v
2
n
2 hng nu n chn;
cn nu n l c
2
1 n
2
+
ct v
2
1 n
2
hng; v c 2
k
(1 k n) k nhau c rt gn thnh
hi s cp c n k tc bin. Nh vy bng Karnaugh ca hm Boole 7 bin gm 16 ct, 8
hng do khng c kh nng quan st ht cc . Trong thc t bng Karnaugh 5 bin
rt kh s dng. Phng php Quine Mc Cluskey sau y s khc phc c tnh trng
.
6.3. Phng php xu bit (Phng php Quine Mc Cluskey)
Phng php Quine Mc Cluskey ra i nm 1950 c th p dng rt gn hm
Boole vi s bin tu . C th chia phng php ny thnh 3 bc:
Bc 1: Gn xu bit cho cc hi s cp ca hm cho bng cch thay bin bng bit
1 v phn b ca bin bng bit 0.
Bc 2: T hp cc cp xu bit thnh xu bt ngn hn. Bc ny c lp cho cc
cp xu bit ngn hn thu c bc lp trc cho n khi khng t hp c na th

dng. Cui cng c cc xu bt l cc ng vin a vo dng tuyn chun tc ti
thiu.
Bc 3:Xc nh xem trong cc ng vin chn th ng vin no thc s dng c.
Phng php c m t c th qua cc th d sau:
Th d 1: Ti thiu ho hm Boole sau:
f(x,y,z) = z y x z y x z y x z y x z y x + + + +
Bc 1. Trc ht biu din cc hi s cp c mt trong hm f bng cc xu bit
theo nguyn tc sau: Cc bin Boole khng c du ph nh c gn s 1, v c du ph
nh th gn s 0. C th trnh by bc ny trong bng sau:
T.T Hi s cp Xu bit S cc s 1
1 x y z 1 1 1 3
2 z y x 1 0 1 2
3 z y x 0 1 1 2
4 z y x 0 0 1 1
5 z y x 0 0 0 0
Ch rng trong bng va lp, cn phi lit k cc hi s cp theo th t gim dn
ca s cc bit 1 ca xu bit tng ng.
Bc 2. Tip theo, 2 hi s cp c th t hp c vi nhau nu chng ch khc
nhau mt tc bin, ngha l 2 xu bit tng ng ch khc nhau mt bit cng mt v tr.
Khi t hp 2 xu bit nh vy, hai bit khc nhau cng v tr ca 2 xu c loi b
trong xu bt t hp v c thay bng mt du gch ngang cn cc bt khc c gi
nguyn. Trong th d ang xt, cc cp xu bt (1, 2) ; (1, 3) ; (2, 4) ; (3, 4) v (4, 5) c th
t hp c vi nhau. Cp (1, 2) l z x z y x z y x = + v nh vy cp xu bt (1, 2) l 2 xu
111 v 101 c t hp thnh xu 1-1. Tng t vi cc cp cn li v tip tc nh vy
trong cc bc lp tip theo. C th trnh by bc ny trong bng:
Khi u T hp ln I T hp ln II
TT Hi s cp Xu bit Hi s cp Xu bit Hi s cp Xu bit
1 x y z 1 1 1 (1,2) x z 1 - 1 (1,2,3,4) z - - 1
2 z y x 1 0 1 (1,3) y z - 1 1
3 z y x 0 1 1 (2,4) z y - 0 1
4 z y x 0 0 1 (3,4) z x 0 - 1
5 z y x 0 0 0 (4,5) y x 0 0 -
Cc ng vin a vo dng tuyn chun tc ti thiu l cc hi s cp cha c dng
n t hp thnh cc hi s cp c s tc bin t hn (trong th d trn l z v y x ). Cc

ng vin ny khng nht thit phi c mt trong dng tuyn chun tc ti thiu ca hm
Boole.
Bc 3. Cui cng l kim tra xem cc ng vin c ph ht cc hi s cp ban u
ca hm Boole cho khng. Khi nim ph c ngha l ng vin c mt trong hi s
cp ban u th n thay th c cho hi s cp . Nu ng vin c mt trong hi s cp
ban u no th ta nh du cho hi s cp . Bng sau y lm cng vic ny:
ng vin x y z z y x z y x z y x z y x
z
y x
T bng trn thy z c mt trong 4 hi s cp ca hm f cn y x c mt trong hai
hi s cp cui ca hm f. Nh vy hai ng vin z v y x l ph ht cc hi s cp ban u
ca hm f.
Vy dng ti thiu ca hm f(x,y,z) l: f(x,y,z) = z + y x
Th d 2: Ti thiu ho hm Boole sau:
f(x,y,z,u) = u z y x u z y x u z y x u z y x u z y x u z y x u z y x + + + + + +
Bc 1: Gn xu bit cho cc hi s cp:
T.T Hi s cp Xu bit S cc s 1
1 u z y x 1 1 0 1 3
2 u z y x 0 1 1 1 3
3 u z y x 1 1 1 0 3
4 u z y x 0 1 0 1 2
5 u z y x 1 0 1 0 2
6 u z y x 0 1 1 0 2
7 u z y x 0 0 1 0 1
Bc 2: T hp cc hi s cp:
Khi u T hp ln I TT hp ln II
TT Hi s cp Xu bit Hi s cp Xu bit Hi s cp Xu bt
1 u z y x 1 1 0 1 (1,4) u z y - 1 0 1 (3,5,6,7) u z - - 1 0
2 u z y x 0 1 1 1 (2,4) u y x 0 1 - 1
3 u z y x 1 1 1 0 (2,6) z y x 0 1 1 -

4 u z y x 0 1 0 1 (3,5) u z x 1 - 1 0
5 u z y x 1 0 1 0 (3,6) u z y - 1 1 0
6 u z y x 0 1 1 0 (5,7) u z y - 0 1 0
7 u z y x 0 0 1 0 (6,7) u z x 0 - 1 0
Cc ng vin (cc hi s cp khng t hp c tip) c th c s dng trong biu
thc ti thiu ca hm Boole l: u z y ; u y x ; z y x ; u z .
Bc 3: Xt s c mt ca cc ng vin trong cc hi s cp ban u
ng vin u z y x u z y x u z y x u z y x u z y x u z y x u z y x
u z y
u y x
z y x
u z
Cc hi s cp: u z y ; u y x ; u z ph ht cc hi s cp ban u. V vy dng ti
thiu ca hm f l:
f(x,y,z,u) = u z y + u y x + u z
Cc hi s cp: u z y ; z y x ; u z ; cng ph ht cc hi s cp ban u, do c dng
ti thiu ho th hai ca hm f: f(x,y,z,u) = u z y + z y x + u z
Bi ton c hai p s.

BI TP CHNG 7
Hm Boole v Biu din cc hm Boole
7.1 Bng cch lp bng gi tr, hy chng minh rng:
a) z x z y y x z x z y y x + + = + +
b) Cc lut giao hon, kt hp v -Moocgan.
7.2. Php ton XOR, k hiu , c nh ngha nh sau:
1 1 = 0, 1 0 = 1, 0 1 = 1, 0 0 = 0
a) Rt gn cc biu thc sau: x 0; x 1; x x; x x
b) Chng minh rng: x y = (x + y) ) y x (
x y = y x y x +

7.3. Tm i ngu ca cc biu thc sau:
a) x y z + z y x ; b) 1 . x 0 . x z x + +
7.4. Tm dng tuyn chun tc ca cc hm Boole sau:
a) f(x,y) = y x ; b) f(x,y) = 1 ; c) f(x,y,z) = x + y + z
d) f(x,y,z) = (x + z) y ; e) f(x,y,z) = x ; f) f(x,y,z) = y x
7.5. Tm dng tuyn chun tc ca cc hm Boole 3 bin, bit f(x,y,z) bng 1 nu v ch
nu:
a) x = 0 ; b) xy = 0 ; c) x + y = 0 ; d) xyz = 0
Cc cng logic
7.6. Tm u ra cho cc mch sau:
a)

b)

7.7. Dng cc mch gm b o, cc cng OR, AND to cc u ra sau:
a) y x ; b) (x+y) x c) x y z + z y x
7.8. Thit k mt mch thc hin vic iu khin mt bng n bng 3 cng tc, sao cho
khi thay i trng thi ca bt k mt cng tc no th n ang sng s tt v ngc la.
7.9. Xy dng mt mch so snh hai s nguyn hai bit x = (x
1
x
0
)
2
v y = (y
1
y
0
)
2
v cho
u ra bng 1 nu x > y v bng 0 trong cc trng hp cn li.
Ti thiu ho hm Boole
7.10. Dng bng Karnaugh ti thiu ho cc hm Boole sau:
a) f(x,y) = x y + y x ; b) f(x,y) = x y + y x y x y x + + ;
c) f(x,y,z) = z y x z y x + ; d) f(x,y,z) = x y z + z y x z y x z y x + + ;
7.11. Dng bng Karnaugh tm mch n gin hn c cng u ra nh mch trong hnh
di y.
x
y

x
x
y

y
z

7.12. Thit k mt mch logic thc hin vic b phiu theo a s cho mt hi ng gm
nm thnh vin.
7.13. Cc tiu ho cc hm trong bi 7.10 bng phng php xu bit.
7.14. Cc tiu ho cc hm sau bng hai phng php: xu bit v Karnaugh:
a) f(x,y,z) = z y x z y x z y x z y x z y x + + + +
b) f(x,y,z) = z y x z y x z y x z y x z y x z y x + + + + +
c) f(x,y,z,u) = u z y x u z y x u z y x u z y x u z y x + + + +
d) f(x,y,z,u) = u z y x u z y x u z y x u z y x u z y x u z y x + + + + +
e) f(x,y,z,u) = + + + + + + u z y x u z y x u z y x u z y x u z y x u z y x
u z y x u z y x u z y x + + +
7.15. Cc tiu ho cc hm sau bng hai phng php: xu bit v bng Karnaugh:
a) f(x,y,z) = (0,2,4,6,7); b) f(x,y,z) = (0,1,2,3,4,5,6);
c) f(x,y,z,u) = (0,4,6,8,10,12,14); d) f(x,y,z,u) = (1,3,8,9,10,11,14,15)

P S

7.2. a) x 0 = x; x 1 = x ; x x = 0; x x = 1
7.4. a) y x ; b) y x y x y x y x + + + ;
c) z y x z y x z y x z y x z y x z y x z y x + + + + + + ; d) z y x z y x z y x + +
e) z y x z y x z y x z y x + + + ; f) z y x z y x +
7.5. a) z y x z y x z y x z y x + + + ; c) z y x z y x + ;
d) z y x z y x z y x z y x z y x z y x z y x + + + + + +
7.8. V mch logic c u ra l z y x z y x z y x z y x + + +
7.9. V mch logic c u ra l ( )
2 1 1 1 0 0 1 1
x x y x y x y x + +
7.10. a) x; b) 1; c) y x ; d) y
7.12. V mch l tng cc tch ca 3 trong 5 bin x, y, z, u, t
x
y
z
x
y
z

7.14. a) z x z y y x z x + + + ; b) y x y x z + + ;
c) u z y x u z y x u y x z y x + + + ; d) u z y x u z y x u z y x u z x z y x + + + +
e) u z x u z x z y u y y x + + + +
7.15. a) z x z y z x + + ; b) y + z; c) u z x u y x z y u z + + + ; d) z y x z x y x + +

CU HI N TP CHNG 7
1. Pht biu nh ngha i s Boole, hm Boole v cc tnh cht ca biu thc Boole. Th
no l i ngu ca biu thc Boole? Nguyn l i ngu l g? Th no l quy tc thay
th?
2. Cc phng php cho hm Boole? Th no l dng tuyn chun tc ca hm Boole?
Trnh by cch a mt hm Boole v dng tuyn chun tc.
3. Th no l tp y cc php ton ca i s Boole? Hy ch ra cc tp y gm ba
php ton, tp y gm hai php ton v tp y ch mt php ton ca i s Boole.
4. nh ngha cc cng Lgic v cch t hp cc cng Lgic. Xy dng mch Lgc biu
quyt ca mt hi ng c 5 thnh vin, bit mi vn em biu quyt c quyt nh
theo a s. Rt gn hm Boole thu c.
5. Trnh by phng php bng Karnaugh rt gn cc mt hm Boole 2, 3 hoc 4 bin
c cho di dng tuyn chun tc.
6. Trnh by phng php Quine McCluskey (phng php xu bit) rt gn mt hm
Boole c cho di dng tuyn chun tc.


PH CHNG .
I CNG V TON LOGIC

1. Lgic mnh
1.1. Khi nim mnh
1.2. Cc php ton mnh
1.3. Dch cc cu thng thng
1.4. Mi lin h gia cc php ton logic v cc php ton bit
2. Cng thc ng nht ng v cng thc ng nht bng nhau trong lgic mnh
2.1. Cc khi nim v cng thc trong lgic mnh
2.2. Lut i ngu
2.3. Lut thay th
2.4. Lut kt lun
3.1. Tuyn s cp v hi s cp
3.2. Dng tuyn chun tc v dng hi chun tc
3.3. Thut ton nhn bit mt cng thc l ng nht ng hay ng nht sai
4. Lgic v t.
4.1. V t
4.2. Lng t
4.3 Khi nim cng thc trong lgic v t

Cc quy tc ca logic cho ngha chnh xc ca mt mnh . Cc quy tc ny c
s dng phn bit gia cc lp lun ng v khng ng.
1. Lgic mnh
1.1. Khi nim mnh
Mnh l c s ca ton logic. y ch cp n cc mnh hoc ng, hoc
si. Chng hn "Trng i hc Nng nghip I c khoa Cng ngh thng tin" l mnh
ng; cn "5 l nghim ca phng trnh x
2
+ 1 = 0" l mnh sai.
Lgic mnh khng quan tm ti cc mnh khng ngha khng nh n l
ng hay sai, chng hn "By gi l my gi"; "Ti ni di" hay "x + 1 = 2".
nh ngha 1: Cc mnh hoc ng, hoc sai c gi l cc mnh s cp hay
cn gi l bin mnh , v c k hiu bng cc ch ci thng: p, q, r, s,
Mnh ch nhn mt trong hai gi tr l ng, k hiu T (vit tt ca t True trong
ting Anh) v sai, k hiu F (vit tt ca t False). T v F gi l cc gi tr chn l ca
mnh .

nh ngha 2: Hai mnh s cp c gi l tng ng nu n cng ng hoc
cng sai.
Hai mnh p v q tng ng vi nhau c k hiu l p q.
Th d 1: "S 3 l s nguyn t" v "Trng i hc Nng nghip c khoa Nng
hc" l hai mnh tng ng.
Th d 2: "1 + 1 = 3" v "6 chia ht cho 3" l hai mnh khng tng ng.
1.2. Cc php ton mnh
T cc mnh s cp c th t hp thnh cc mnh phc hp nh cc ton t
logic. l cc php ton: tuyn, hi, ph nh, c nh ngha trn tp hp cc mnh
s cp.
Php tuyn: Cho p, q l hai mnh logic. Mnh "p hoc q", k hiu pq, l mt
mnh mi, n sai khi c p v q sai v ng trong cc trng hp cn li.
Mnh pq gi l tuyn ca hai mnh p v q.
Php hi: Gi s p v q l hai mnh logic. Mnh "p v q" l mt mnh mi,
k hiu pq, n ng khi c p v q ng v sai trong cc trng hp cn li.
Mnh pq gi l hi ca hai mnh p v q.
Th d: Cho cc mnh p: "Hm nay l th by",
q: "Hm nay tri ma".
Ta c:
pq l mnh "Hm nay l th by hoc hm nay tri ma". Mnh ny ng vo
bt k ngy no l th by hoc bt k ngy no c ma k c ngy th by c ma. N
ch sai vo ngy khng phi l th by v ngy tri khng ma.
pq l mnh "Hm nay l th by v tri ma". Mnh ny ch ng khi ngy
th by no c ma.
Ch rng lin t "hoc" trong cch ni thng thng i khi c s dng nh mt
s la chn loi tr. Chng hn cu ni: " Khi trng thng c th chn gii thng l tin
hoc hin vt" phi hiu l ch c ly tin hoc ly hin vt ch khng th ly c hai.
iu ny khng c dng trong logic mnh .
Php tuyn loi: Cho p v q l hai mnh logic. Mnh tuyn loi ca p v q
c k hiu l pq l mt mnh ng khi ch mt trong p hoc q ng v sai trong cc
trng hp cn li.
Php ph nh: Gi s p l mt mnh logic, khi "Khng phi p" l mt mnh
khc c gi l mnh ph nh ca mnh p, k hiu l p .
Th d: Mnh p l: "Hm nay l th su", khi p l: "Hm nay khng phi l
th su".
Php ko theo: Cho p v q l hai mnh logic. Khi "p ko theo q" l mt mnh
, k hiu p q, n ch sai khi p ng v q sai, v ng trong mi trng hp cn li.

Trong php ko theo ni trn th p c gi l gi thit, cn q l kt lun.
C nhiu cch ni tng ng vi "p ko theo q", cc cch ni tng ng thng
gp l:
"p suy ra q"
"Nu p th q"
"p l iu kin ca q"
"q l iu kin cn ca p"
Ngoi ra cn c mt s khi nim lin quan n php ko theo. Gi s c mnh
p q (gi l mnh thun), khi q p gi l mnh o, v p q l mnh
phn o.
Th d 1:
"Nu tam gic ABC l tam gic u th ba gc A, B, C bng nhau" l mnh thun.
Ta c:
"Nu ba gc A, B, C bng nhau th tam gic ABC l tam gic u" l mnh o.
"Nu ba gc A, B, C khng bng nhau th tam gic ABC khng l tam gic u" l
mnh phn o.
Ch rng khi nim ko theo p q ch sai khi p ng v q sai, nh vy n ng
trong cc trng hp: c p v q u ng v khi p sai (bt k q ng hay sai). iu ny
hon ton khc vi mi quan h nhn qu gia gi thit v kt lun.
Chng hn mnh : "Nu hm nay tri nng, chng ti s i chi" l mt php ko
theo. Nu dng theo ngn ng thng thng th v n c mi quan h nhn qu gia gi
thit "hm nay tri nng" v kt lun "chng ti i chi" nn mnh l ng tr trng
hp hm nay tri nng nhng chng ti khng i chi v trng hp hm nay tri khng
nng nhng chng ti c i chi. Cn nu hiu theo ko theo trong logic th mnh
ng c khi hm nay tri khng nng nhng chng ti c i chi hoc khng i chi.
Th d 2: Php ko theo: "Nu hm nay tri nng th 2 + 3 = 5" l lun lun ng v
mnh "2 + 3 = 5" lun lun ng (gi tr chn l ca "Hm nay tri nng" l khng
quan trng).
Th d 3: Php ko theo: "Nu hm nay l th su th 2 + 3 = 6" l ng trong mi
ngy, tr ngy th su.
Gi tr chn l ca cc php ton mnh c tng kt trong bng 1
Bng 1. Bng gi tr chn l ca cc php ton mnh
p q pq pq pq
p
pq p q
T
T
F
F
T
F
T
F
T
T
T
F
T
F
F
F
F
T
T
F
F
F
T
T
T
F
T
T
T
F
F
T
1.3. Dch cc cu thng thng
C th to ra cc mnh phc hp bng cch s dng cc ton t nh ngha
trn. Cc du ngoc s c dng ch th t thc hin cc ton t. Tuy nhin n

gin ngi ta quy nh ton t ph nh khng cn trong du ngoc, chng hn
) r ( ) q p ( l hi ca pq vi r c th vit l r ) q p ( .
Ni chung, cc cu thng thng u khng r rng. Dch cc cu thng thng ra
cc biu thc logic l lm mt i tnh khng r rng . Mun vy, phi tch cu ni thng
thng thnh cc mnh s cp (mnh hoc ng, hoc sai) da trn ngha hm nh
ca cu , sau dng cc ton t logic lin kt chng li.
Th d: Xt cu: "Bn khng c li xe my nu bn cha cao ti 1,5m tr khi bn
18 tui". dch cu ny ta c th t:
p: "Bn c li xe my"
q: "Bn cao di 1,5m"
r: "Bn 18 tui"
Khi cu cho c th vit thnh biu thc logic: p r q
1.4. Mi lin h gia cc php ton logic v cc php ton bit
My tnh dng cc bit biu din thng tin (bit l vit tt ca t ting Anh binary
digit: s nh phn). Mt bit c hai trng thi l 0 v 1 (c th xem hai trng thi ny l cc
gi tr c th c ca bit).
Bit cng c dng biu din cc gi tr chn l: 1 biu din gi tr True, cn 0
biu din gi tr False.
Trong tin hc cn c bin Boole (Boolean variable) cng ch nhn c hai gi tr l
True v False. Do bit cng dng biu din mt bin Boole.
Cc php ton c bn v bit dng trong my tnh tng ng vi cc php ton logic.
Cc php ton bit gm c: OR, AND, XOR tng ng vi cc php ton , , . Nu thay
False bng 0 v True bng 1 c bng cc kt qu ca cc php ton bit nh trong bng 3.
Bng 2. Cc kt qu ca cc php ton bit
OR 0 1 AND 0 1 XOR 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
Thng tin trong my tnh c biu din bng cc xu bit. Xu bit l dy cc s 0 v
1. di ca mt xu bit l s cc s 0 v s 1 c trong xu. Vi hai xu bit cng di
c th thc hin cc php ton OR, AND, XOR cho hai xu bit bng cch thc hin cc
php ton ny i vi tng bit tng ng.
Th d:
01101 00101 01101 00101 01101 00101
OR
11000 10110
AND
11000 10110
XOR
11000 10110
11101 10111 01000 00100 10101 10011

2. Cng thc ng nht ng v cng thc ng nht bng nhau trong lgic
mnh
Trong cc lp lun ton hc thng phi thay mt mnh phc hp ny bng mt
mnh phc hp khc c cng gi tr chn l. V th cc phng php to ra cc mnh
c cng gi tr chn l l rt quan trng trong cc lp lun ton hc.
2.1. Cc khi nim v cng thc trong lgic mnh
Cng thc trong lgic mnh c nh ngha bng quy nh sau:
nh ngha 1: nh ngha cng thc.
Mi mnh s cp p, q, r, , v T, F l mt cng thc.
Nu A, B l hai cng thc th cc k hiu ) B A ( ), A ( B), A ( B), (A cng l
cc cng thc.
Ch : Mi cng thc ch cha cc k hiu p, q, r, T, F; cc php ton , , , v
cc k hiu m ngoc "(" , k hiu ng ngoc ")". Bn thn AB, AB, A, AB khng
phi l cc cng thc, tuy nhin cho gn thng vit AB thay cho (AB). v.v Khi
khng dng du ngoc th th t thc hin cc php tnh trong mt cng thc l , ,
v cui cng l .
nh ngha 2: nh ngha cng thc ng nht ng v cng thc ng nht sai
Cng thc A c gi l ng nht ng (cn gi l hng ng), k hiuA, khi v
ch khi A lun lun nhn gi tr ng (True) vi mi gi tr c th ca cc mnh
s cp thnh phn c trong A.
Cng thc A c gi l ng nht sai (cn gi l mu thun), khi v ch khi A
lun lun nhn gi tr sai (False) vi mi gi tr c th ca cc mnh s cp
thnh phn c trong A..
Cng thc A khng phi l hng ng, cng khng phi l mu thun c gi
cng thc thc hin c. Ngha l tn ti t ra l mt b gi tr ca cc mnh s
cp c trong cng thc cng thc nhn gi tr ng.
D thy ph nh ca cng thc ng nht ng l cng thc ng nht sai v
ngc li.
Sau y l mt s cng thc ng nht ng thng gp:
1. A (B A)
2. (A (B C)) ((A B) (A C)
3. (A B) A
4. (A B) B
5. (A B) ((A C) (A (B C)))
6. A (A B)
7. B (A B)
8. (A C) ((B C) ((A B) C))
9. (A B) ) A B (

10. A A
11. A A
nh ngha 3: nh ngha cng thc ng nht bng nhau
Hai cng thc A v B c gi l ng nht bng nhau, k hiu A B hoc A B,
khi v ch khi A, B nhn cng gi tr chn l i vi mi b gi tr c th ca cc mnh
s cp c trong chng.
Ni cch khc, A B khi v ch khi A B l hng ng
Hai cng thc ng nht bng nhau cn c gi l hai cng thc tng ng lgic.
Cc cng thc ng nht bng nhau thng gp c cho trong bng 3.
Bng 3. Cc cng thc tng ng lgic thng gp
S TT Tn gi Cng thc
1. Quy tc ph nh kp
A A
2. Tnh cht giao hon A B B A
A B B A
3. Tnh cht kt hp (A B) C A (B C)
(A B) C A (B C)
4. Tnh cht phn b A (B C) (AB) (AC)
A (BC) (AB) (AC)
5. Quy tc -Moocgan
B A B A
B A B A
6. Tnh ly ng AA A
A A A
7. Tnh ng nht A T A
A F A
8. Tnh nut A T T
A F F
9. Mt s tin ch
A B B A
A A T
A A F
chng minh cc cng thc trn, c th dng phng php lp bng gi tr chn l
ca chng.
Th d 1: Chng minh rng: A (B A) (Cng thc 1 sau nh ngha 2).
Ta lp bng gi tr chn l:

A B B A A (B A)
T T
T F
F T
F F
T
T
F
T
T
T
T
T
Vy A (B A) l cng thc ng nht ng, bi ct cui ni ln iu .
Th d 2: Chng minh rng B A B A (Cng thc 5, quy tc -Moocgan sau
nh ngha 3).
Lp bng gi tr chn l ca c hai v:
A B A B
B A A B B A
T T
T F
F T
F F
T
F
F
F
F
T
T
T
F F
F T
T F
T T
F
T
T
T
Quan st cc gi tr chn l hai ct B A v B A thy chng ging nhau. Vy
B A B A
Ch rng, nu trong cng thc c 3 thnh phn th bng cc gi tr chn l s c 2
3
=
8 hng (Tng qut l bng 2
n
hng i vi cng thc c n thnh phn). Chng hn chng
minh tnh cht kt hp ca php hp:
(A B) C A (B C)
Bng gi tr chn l ca cng thc l:
A B C A B (A B) C B C A (B C)
T T T T T T T
T T F T T T T
T F T T T T T
T F F T T F T
F T T T T T T
F T F T T T T
F F T F T T T
F F F F F F F
Mt phng php chng minh khc l dng cc cng thc thng gp c trnh by
sau cc nh ngha 2 v nh ngha 3 bin i cng thc cho.

Th d 4: Chng minh rng: B A B) A ( A .
Ta c: ) B A ( A B) A ( A Theo quy tc -Moocgan
( ) B A A Theo quy tc -Moocgan
) B A ( A Theo quy tc ph nh kp
) B A ( ) A A ( Theo tnh phn phi
) B A ( F V A A F
F ) B A ( Theo tnh giao hon
) B A ( Theo tnh ng nht
Th d 5: Chng minh rng: (A B) (A B).
Trc ht dng bng gi tr chn l chng minh (A B) ( A B).
A B
A B A
A B
T T
T F
F T
F F
F
F
T
T
T
F
T
T
T
F
T
T
T :
(A B) (A B ) B) A ( ) B A (
) B A ( (A B) Theo quy tc -Moocgan
) B B ( ) A A ( Theo tnh giao hon ca php tuyn
T T T
2.2. Lut i ngu.
Gi s A l mt cng thc ch cha cc php ton tuyn, hi v ph nh m khng
cha cc php ton , . Nu trong A chng ta i mi thnh , mi i thnh ,
mi T thnh F v mi F thnh T th c mt cng thc mi, k hiu l A*. Cng thc A*
gi l cng thc i ngu ca cng thc A.
Th d: i ngu ca A (pq) r l A* = (pq) r .
i ngu ca B (pT) (r q ) F l B* = (pF)(r q ) T.
nh l 1: Gi s A A(p
1
, p
2
, , p
n
) l mt cng thc, trong p
i
(i = 1, 2, ,n) l
cc mnh s cp c trong A. Khi lun lun c:
) p , ... , p , p ( A A*
n 2 1

Chng minh: S dng nh ngha quy v cng thc trong logic mnh .
cho gn, chng ta vit A(X) thay cho A(p
1
, p
2
, , p
n
)
v ) X ( A thay cho ) p , ... , p , p ( A
n 2 1


1- Nu A = p, y p l mnh s cp nn hin nhin ta c:
X X ) X ( A hay A* ) X ( A
2- Gi s chng minh c cho cc cng thc A v B, ngha l:
A* ) X ( A v B* ) X ( B
Chng ta phi chng minh nh l cng ng cho (AB), (AB) v ( A)
Xt cng thc (AB), ta c:
(AB)* A* B* ) X ( B ) X ( A ) X ( ) B A (
Xt cng thc (AB), ta c:
(AB)* A*B* ) X ( B ) X ( A ) X ( ) B A (
Xt cng thc ( ) A , ta c:
( ) ) X ( A * A A
*

nh l c chng minh.
Th d: Cho A (pq) r
Theo nh ngha ta c: A* = (pq) r
Theo nh l th:
* A r ) q p ( r ) q p ( r ) q p ( r ) q p ( ) X ( A
Nguyn l i ngu: Nu A B th A* B*, trong A*, B* l cng thc i ngu
tng ng ca cc cng thc A, B. (Tt c cc cp cng thc 28 trong bng 3 u tha
mn nguyn l ny).
2.3. Lut thay th
nh l 2: Gi s A l cng thc cha mnh s cp p th khi thay p bi mt cng
thc E no c cng thc mi k hiu l B. Khi : NuA thB.
nh l c suy ra t nh ngha cng thc ng nht ng.
2.4. Lut kt lun
nh l 3: Nu A v (A B) l cc cng thc ng nht ng th B cng l cng
thc ng nht ng. (NuA v(AB) thB)
Chng minh: nh l c chng minh bng phn chng.
Gi sA v(AB) nhng B khng ng nht ng, khi c mt mnh s cp
p B(p) l sai, nhng do AB l ng nht ng nn A(p) l sai vy A khng th l
ng nht ng, iu ny tri vi gi thitA. nh l c chng minh.
Phng php dng bng gi tr chn l nhn bit mt cng thc trong lgic mnh
l ng nht ng (ng nht sai) s gp kh khn khi trong cng thc c nhiu mnh
thnh phn. Phn ny xt thut ton khc phc tnh trng .

3.1. Tuyn s cp v hi s cp
nh ngha:
Biu thc lgic l tuyn ca cc mnh s cp hoc ph nh ca n c gi l
mt tuyn s cp (TSC).
Biu thc lgic l hi ca cc mnh s cp hoc ph nh ca n c gi l
mt hi s cp (HSC).
Th d: p q r l mt tuyn s cp; p r q l mt hi s cp.
nh l: nh l c hai phn:
iu kin cn v mt tuyn s cp l ng nht ng l trong tuyn s cp
c cha ng thi mt mnh s cp cng vi ph nh ca n.
iu kin cn v mt hi s cp l ng nht sai l trong hi s cp c
cha ng thi mt mnh s cp cng vi ph nh ca n.
Chng minh: Chng minh phn th nht ca nh l.
iu kin cn: Gi s TSC l ng nht ng, phi ch ra rng tuyn s cp cha
mt mnh s cp cng vi ph nh ca n.
Gi s ngc li trong TSC ng nht ng khng c mnh s cp cng vi ph
nh ca n. Khi nu cho cc mnh s cp khng c du ph nh c trong TSC nhn
gi tr F, cn cc mnh s cp c du ph nh nhn gi tr T th TSC nhn gi tr F.
iu ny tri vi gi thit ng nht ng ca TSC. Vy TSC ng nht ng phi cha
mt mnh s cp cng vi ph nh ca n.
iu kin : Gi s mt TSC c cha mt mnh s cp cng vi ph nh ca
n, chng hn:
TSC = p p r
Khi v p p l ng nht ng nn TSC l ng nht ng.
Phn hai ca nh l c chng minh tng t.
3.2. Dng tuyn chun tc v dng hi chun tc
nh ngha: Gi s A l mt cng thc trong lgic mnh .
Nu A A', trong A' l tuyn ca cc hi s cp th A' gi l dng tuyn chun
tc (TCT) ca A. Ngha l:
A A' (HSC)
1
(HSC)
2
(HSC)
n
.
Nu A A', trong A' l hi ca cc tuyn s cp th A' gi l dng hi chun tc
(HCT) ca A. Ngha l:
A A' (TSC)
1
(TSC)
2
(TSC)
n
.
Th d: Cho: A p (q q), ta c:
A' p ( q p ) l dng HCT ca A.
A' ( p p ) (p q) l dng TCT ca A.

nh l 1: Mi cng thc trong lgic mnh u c dng tuyn chun tc v dng
hi chun tc.
Chng minh: Gi s A l mt cng thc bt k trong lgic mnh .
Nu A c cha php ton th c th kh php ton bng cng thc ng nht
bng nhau p q p q. V vy c th gi thit A ch cha cc php ton , v .
Nu php ph nh cn cha trc tip i vi cc mnh s cp trong A th s dng
cc cng thc ng nht bng nhau q p q p hoc q p q p (Quy tc -
Moocgan).
Tip theo a A v dng HCT v dng TCT nh cc cng thc ng nht bng nhau
p (q r) (pq) (p r) hoc p (q r) (pq) (pr) (Tnh phn b).
nh l c chng minh.
Th d: Tm dng TCT v dng HCT ca cng thc A p (q r)
Ta c: p (q r) p (q r) r q p
Cng thc A' r q p l dng HCT ng thi cng l TCT ca cc HSCp , q v r.
thun tin trong vic chuyn mt cng thc v dng tuyn chun tc hoc hi
chun tc c th s dng nh l sau gi l nh l khai trin:
nh l 2: nh l c hai phn:
iu kin cn v cng thc A ng nht ng l mi tuyn s cp trong dng
HCT ca A u cha mt mnh s cp cng vi ph nh ca n,
iu kin cn v cng thc A ng nht sai l mi hi s cp trong dng
TCT ca A u cha mt mnh s cp cng vi ph nh ca n.
Chng minh: Chng minh phn th nht ca nh l.
iu kin cn: Gi s A l cng thc ng nht ng. Theo nh l 1 th A c
dng hi chun tc:
A' (TSC)
1
(TSC)
2
(TSC)
n
.
V A ng nht ng nn (TSC)
i
, i = 1, 2, , n l ng nht ng. Theo nh l trong
3.1 th trong mi tuyn s cp (TSC)
i
, i = 1, 2, , n c cha mt mnh s cp cng vi
ph nh ca n.
iu kin : Gi s A' (TSC)
1
(TSC)
2
(TSC)
n
l dng HCT ca A,
trong mi (TSC)
i
, i = 1, 2, , n c cha mt mnh s cp cng ph nh ca n.
Theo nh l trong 3.1 th mi tuyn s cp (TSC)
i
, i = 1, 2, , n l ng nht ng do
A l cng thc ng nht ng.
Phn hai ca nh l c chng minh tng t.
3.3. Thut ton nhn bit mt cng thc l ng nht ng hay ng nht sai
T cc nh l trn suy ra thut ton nhn bit cng thc A l ng nht ng hay
ng nht sai nh sau:
Bc 1: Tm dng hi chun tc A' v dng tuyn chun tc A" ca A.
Bc 2: Kt lun:

- Nu mi tuyn s cp trong A' u cha mt mnh s cp cng ph nh ca n
th A l ng nht ng.
- Nu mi hi s cp trong A" u cha mt mnh s cp cng ph nh ca n th
A l ng nht sai.
- Nu c mt tuyn s cp trong A' (hoc mt hi s cp trong A") khng c mt
mnh s cp no cng ph nh ca n th A khng phi l cng thc ng nht ng
cng khng phi l cng thc ng nht sai.
Th d: Chng minh rng:(A B) A
Ta c: A B A B A A A ) B A ( A ) B A (
Vy (A B) A l cng thc ng nht ng v tuyn s cp trong dng hi chun
tc ca n cha A v A
4. logic v t
4.1. V t
Trong ton hc cng nh trong cc chng trnh my tnh, chng ta thng gp cc
cu nh: "x > 3", "x + y = 3", "x y = z", Cc cu ny khng ng cng khng sai
chng no cc bin x, y, z cn cha c cho cc gi tr c th.
Phn ny trnh by cch to ra cc mnh t cc cu nh nu.
Cu "x > 3" c hai b phn: b phn th nht l bin x ng vai tr ch ng trong
cu; b phn th hai "ln hn 3" ng vai tr v ng ca cu, n cho bit tnh cht m ch
ng c th c. C th k hiu cu "x ln hn 3" l P(x) vi P l k hiu v ng "ln hn 3"
v x l bin. Ngi ta cng gi P(x) l gi tr ca hm mnh P ti x. Xt trong tp hp
cc s thc, mt khi bin x c gn mt gi tr c th th cu P(x) s c gi tr chn l.
Chng hn P(4) l ng cn P(2,5) l sai. Ch rng hm mnh P(x) cng c th xt
trong tp hp cc s nguyn hoc tp hp cc s t nhin, Bi vy c nh ngha:
nh ngha 1: Gi s M l mt tp hp cc phn t no . Thnh lp trn M cc
mnh P(x), trong x nhn cc gi tr trong M v P(x) nhn gi tr trong tp hp {True,
False} th P(x) c gi l mt hm mnh xc nh trn M v M gi l khng gian ca
hm mmh P.
Hm mnh P(x) cn c gi l v t mt ngi xc nh trn khng gian M .
Xt cu lnh if x < 0 then x := x + 1 thng gp trong cc chng trnh my tnh.
Khi thc hin cu lnh ny, gi tr ca bin x ti thi im no c t vo cu P(x) =
"x < 0". Nu P(x) l True i vi gi tr ny th lnh gn x := x + 1 c thc hin v x
tng thm 1. Nu P(x) l False i vi gi tr ny th lnh gn x := x + 1 khng c thc
hin v gi tr ca x khng i.
Vn t ra hon ton tng t vi cc cu nhiu bin hn, chng hn Q(x,y) l k
hiu cu "x + y = 3", v R(x,y,z) l cu "x y = z", y x, y, z l cc bin.
nh ngha 2: Cho M
n
l tch -cc ca n tp hp M
i
vi i = 1, 2, , n. Thnh lp
trn M
n
cc mnh P(x
1
, x
2
, , x
n
), trong x
i
M
i
v P(x
1
, x
2,
,x
n
) {True, False}
th P(x
1
, x
2
, , x
n
) c gi l mt hm mnh xc nh trn M
n
v M
n
gi l khng
gian ca hm mnh P.

Hm mnh P(x
1
, x
2
, , x
n
) cn c gi l v t n ngi xc nh trn khng gian M
n
.
Vic nghin cu cc v t c gi l logic v t. Ch rng, cng nh trong lgic
mnh , trong logic v t cng ch quan tm n cc gi tr ca v t hoc ng, hoc sai
m khng xt n cc gi tr khng ng cng khng sai.
4.2. Lng t
Trong mt v t c th xy ra cc iu sau: v t cho ng vi mi phn t trong
khng gian xc nh ca n; cng c th v t ch ng vi mt s phn t no trong
khng gian xc nh ca n. Ngi ta gi l s lng ha hay lng t cc hm mnh
.
nh ngha: Gi s P(x) l mt v t xc nh trong khng gian M .
1/ Biu thc xP(x) c gi l lng t vi mi x ca P(x); xP(x) l mnh
"P(x) ng vi mi phn t x trong khng gian M ".
2/ Biu thc xP(x) c gi l lng t tn ti x ca P(x); xP(x) l mnh "C
phn t x trong khng gian M P(x) ng".
K hiu c l "vi mi" v k hiu c l "tn ti" hay "c".
Gi tr chn l ca cc lng t "vi mi" v "tn ti" c cho trong bng 4.
Bng 4. ngha ca lng t "vi mi" v lng t "tn tai"
Mnh
Khi no ng
(Nhn gi tr True)
Khi no sai
(Nhn gi tr False)
xP(x) P(x) l ng vi mi phn t x C t nht 1 phn t x P(x) l sai
xP(x) C t nht 1 phn t x P(x) ng P(x) l sai vi mi phn t x
Th d 1: Xt trong khng gian cc s thc, ta c:
1/ Cho P(x):= "x+1 > x", khi c th vit: xP(x).
2/ Cho P(x):= "2x = x+1", khi c th vit: xP(x).
Th d 2: Cho v t P(x):= "x t hc nh hn 4 gi mi ngy", y khng gian l
tp hp cc sinh vin. Khi din t mnh "C t nht mt sinh vin t hc hn
4 gi mi ngy" ch cn vit xP(x).
T bng 4 c th thy rng chng minh xP(x) l sai ch cn ch ra mt phn t
ca khng gian ang xt khi thay vo th P(x) l sai. Chng hn trong khng gian cc s
thc, mnh x"2x > x" l mnh sai bi v ch cn ly x = 1 thay vo mnh l
thy sai.
Cn vic chng minh xP(x) l sai s kh khn hn rt nhiu v phi ch ra P(x) l
ng mi phn t ca khng gian.
Ch rng nu tt cc phn t ca khng gian M c th lit k ra c, chng hn M
= {x
1
, x
2
, , x
n
) th ta c:
xP(x) P(x
1
)P(x
2
) P(x
n
)
xP(x) P(x
1
)P(x
2
) P(x
n
)

i vi cc v t nhiu ngi cng cc khi nim tng t. Chng hn bng 5 cho
ngha cc lng t i vi v t hai ngi P(x,y) xc nh trn M
2
= M
1
M
2
.
Bng 5. ngha ca cc lng t i vi v t hai ngi
Mnh
Khi no ng
(Nhn gi tr True)
Khi no sai
(Nhn gi tr False)
xyP(x,y)
yxP(x,y)
P(x,y) ng vi mi phn t
(x,y)M
2

C t nht 1 cp phn t (x,y)M
2

sao cho P(x,y) l sai
xyP(x,y)
Vi mi phn t xM
1
c mt
yM
2
sao cho P(x,y) l ng

C t nht 1 phn t xM
1
sao
cho P(x,y) l sai vi mi yM
2
xyP(x,y)
C t nht 1 phn t xM
1
sao
cho P(x,y) l ng vi mi y M
2
Vi mi phn t x M
1
c mt
y M
2
sao cho P(x,y) l sai
x yP(x,y)
x yP(x,y)
C 1 phn t (x,y)M
2
sao cho
P(x,y) l ng
P(x,y) l sai vi mi (x,y) M
2

Th d: Cho P(x,y) := "x + 2y = 2x y" trong khng gian l cc s nguyn, khi
ta c:
Mnh P(3,1) c gi tr chn l l True, cn P(1,0) c gi tr chn l l False.
Mnh xP(x,1) c gi tr chn l l False.
Mnh xyP(x,y) l False v, chng hn x = 1 th khng c gi tr y nguyn no
tha mn (d thy
3
x
y = ).
Mnh yxP(x,y) l True v ch cn ly x = 3y th P(x,y) lun tha mn.
Ch rng th t cc lng t trong v t nhiu ngi l quan trng. Nhiu khi i th
t cc lng t dn n vic mt mnh ang ng tr thnh sai hoc ngc li. Chng
hn, xt v t hai ngi:
P(x,y) := "x + y = 0; x,y l cc s thc"
Ta c: Mnh xy P(x,y) l mnh ng (c th y = x), nhng:
Mnh yxP(x,y) l mnh sai v khng c mt gi tr no ca y x+y=0 vi
mi gi tr ca x c.
i vi v t nhiu ngi hn na, chng hn v t ba ngi P(x,y,z), vn cng phc
tp hn.
Th d: Trong ton gii tch, nh ngha gii hn ca hm s:
b ) x ( f lim
a x
=

l: "Vi mi s thc > 0 u tn ti mt s thc >0 sao cho |f(x) b|< khi 0< |xa|< ".
Trong logic v t nh ngha c din t nh sau:
x (0 < |x a| < |f(x) b| < )

y khng gian ca v l cc s thc dng, cn khng gian ca x l tp cc s thc.
Cui cng ta xem xt vn ph nh cc lng t v v t. iu ny c tm tt
trong bng 6.
Bng 6. Ph nh ca v t v lng t
Ph nh Cch vit tng ng Khi no ng Khi no sai
) x ( xP ) x ( P x
P(x) sai vi mi x C mt x P(x) l ng
) x ( P ) x ( P x
C mt x P(x) l sai P(x) ng vi mi x
Th d: Gi s P(x):= "x thi t mn gii tch" vi khng gian l sinh vin ca lp
th din t mnh "khng phi mi sinh vin ca lp u thi t mn gii tch" c
th vit ) x ( xP hoc ) x ( P x .
4.3. Khi nim cng thc trong lgic v t
nh ngha 1: Cng thc trong logic v t c nh ngha quy nh sau:
Mi mnh l mt cng thc. Mi v t l mt cng thc.
Nu A, B l cng thc th (AB), (AB), (A B), ) A ( l cc cng thc.
Nu A l cng thc th biu thc xA, xA l cc cng thc.
Ch thch 1: Trong cc cng thc xA v xA th cng thc A gi l min tc dng
ca lng t v .
Ch thch 2: Nu trong cc cng thc A ca cng thc xA hoc xA cha bin x v
c th c mt s bin khc khng nm di du , th bin x gi l bin rng buc cn
cc bin khc gi l bin t do hay bin c lp.
Ch thch 3: Khc vi cng thc trong lgic mnh ch c mt loi bin l bin
mnh . Trong cng thc trong lgic v t c th c 2 loi bin khc nhau l:
- Mi mnh l mt bin v c gi l bin mnh .
- Mi v t l mt bin v c gi l bin v t.
Ngoi ra trong bin v t cn phi phn bit bin rng buc v bin t do.
Th d 1: xA(x) F(x) l mt cng thc v n cng l nt v t m min tc dng
l ton th A(x), x c mt trong A l bin rng buc. Cn x trong F l bin t do, v n
khng b rng buc bi .
Th d 2: A(x,y) xB(x) l mt cng thc, B(x) l min tc dng ca , bin x
trong B l bin rng buc, cn bin x trong A l bin t do, bin y trong A cng l bin t
do.
Qua cc th d trn thy rng mt bin trong mt cng thc lgic c th va l bin t
do va l bin rng buc.
nh ngha 2: nh ngha cng thc ng nht bng nhau.
Hai cng thc A v B c gi l ng nht bng nhau trn khng gian M, k hiu
A B, hay A B nu chng nhn gi tr ng sai nh nhau khi cc bin v t
c thay bi cc mnh c th trong khng gian M.

Hai cng thc A v B c gi l ng nht bng nhau nu n ng nht bng
nhau trn mi khng gian.
nh ngha 3: nh ngha cng thc ng nht ng.
Cng thc A gi l ng nht ng trn khng gian M nu n lun lun nhn gi tr
ng khi cc bin v t c thay bi cc mnh c th trong khng gian M.
Cng thc A gi l ng nht ng nu n ng nht ng trn mi khng gian.
Ch rng cc cng thc ng nht bng nhau trong lgic mnh cng l cng thc
ng nht bng nhau trong lgic v t. Chng hn:
A B B A (1)
B A B A (2)
B A B A (3)
Ngoi ra trong lgic v t cn cc cng thc ng nht bng nhau sau:
A x A x (4)
A x A x (5)
nh ngha 4: nh ngha cng thc s cp v cng thc rt gn.
Mt cng thc m trong ch cha cc php ton hi, tuyn v ph nh c
gi l cng thc s cp.
Mt cng thc s cp m php ton ph nh khng thc hin vi cc lng t
v gi l cng thc rt gn.
C th s dng cc cng thc ng nht bng nhau (1) (5) a mt cng thc
cho v cng thc rt gn.
Th d:
Ta c: ( ) ( ) ) y ( yB ) x ( A x ) y ( yB ) x ( A x
( ) ) y ( B y ) x ( A x
( ) ) y ( B y ) x ( A x
Vy: Cng thc ( ) ) y ( B y ) x ( A x l cng thc rt gn ca cng thc
( ) ) y ( yB ) x ( A x
Khc vi lgc mnh , trong lgic v t cha c thut ton chung nhn bit mt
cng thc l ng nht ng hoc ng nht sai. Bi ton ch c gii quyt trong mt s
lp cng thc ca lgic v t. y chng ta khng cp n vn ny.

BI TP
8.1. Cho p v q l hai mnh :
p: Ti di xe my vi tc trn 60 km/h.
q: Ti b pht v vt qu tc cho php.
Hy vit cc mnh sau bng cch dng p v q v cc php ton logic:
a) Ti khng i xe my vi tc trn 60 km/h.
b) Ti s b pht v vt qu tc cho php nu ti di xe my vi tc trn 60 km/h.
c) Nu ti khng i xe my vi tc trn 60 km/h th ti s khng b pht v vt qu
tc cho php.
d) Ti i xe my vi tc trn 60 km/h l b pht v vt qu tc cho php.
e) Mi ln ti b pht v vt qu tc cho php l ti i xe my vi tc trn 60
km/h.
8.2. Cho p, q, r l cc mnh :
p: Ti c im gii trong k thi ht mn.
q: Ti lm ht cc bi tp ca mn hc.
r: Ti c cng nhn l hc sinh gii ca lp.
Hy dng p, q, r v cc php ton logic vit cc mnh :
a) Ti c cng nhn l hc sinh gii ca lp nhng ti khng lm ht cc bi tp ca
mn hc.
b) c cng nhn l hc sinh gii ca lp ti cn phi c im gii k thi ht
mn.
c) Nhn c im gii trong k thi ht mn v lm ht cc bi tp ca mn hc l
c cng nhn l hc sinh gii ca lp.
d) Ti c cng nhn l hc sinh gii ca lp, nu v ch nu ti lm ht cc bi tp
ca mn hc hoc nhn im gii k thi ht mn.
8.3. Lp bng gi tr chn l cho cc mnh sau:
a) p p b) (p p ) q c) p p
d) (p q) (p p ) e) (p q) r f) p ( q r)
8.4. Tm cc OR bit, AND bit v XOR bit ca cc xu bt sau:
a) 10 11110 v 01 00001 b) 111 10000 v 101 01010
8.5. Xc nh cc biu thc sau:
a) 11000 (11011 11011) b) (01010 11011) 01000
8.6. chng minh cc ng thc tp hp ngoi cch chng minh theo nh ngha:
A = B x A x B v x B x A
c th dng bng tnh thuc ca mt tp hp, trong bng tnh thuc ch mt phn t
thuc mt tp hp ta dng s 1 v khng thuc tp hp ta dng s 0 v sau dng cc
php ton bit chng minh.

Th d: chng minh quy tc -Moocgan B A B A = vi A, B l hai tp hp
cho, c th lp bng tnh thuc nh sau:
A B AB
B A

A B B A
1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 1
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
T : B A B A =
Dng bng tnh thuc chng minh rng:
a) C B A C B A = ; b) B A B \ A =
c) (A \ C) (C \ B) = ; d) (B \ A) (C \ A) = (B C) \ A
8.7. Chng minh cc cng thc sau l ng nht ng bng cch lp bng gi tr chn l:
a) (p (q r)) ((p q) (p r));
b) (p q) (( p r) (p ((q r))).
8.8. Dng bng chn l chng minh cc tng ng lgic (ng nht bng nhau) c
gi l lut hp thu sau:
a) p (p q) p ; b) p (p q) p
8.9. Chng minh rng: a) (p q) (p q) (p q )
b) ) q p ( ) q p (
c) p q q p ) q p (
8.10. Tm i ngu ca cc cng thc sau:
a) (p q r) s ; b) (p T ) (q T)
8.11. Tm dng hi chun tc ca cc cng thc trong bi 7. T suy ra cc cng thc
cho l ng nht ng m khng cn lp bng gi tr chn l.
8.12. Tm dng tuyn chun tc ca cc cng thc trong bi 7.
8.13. Bng phng php quy np chng minh rng:
a) p (q
1
q
2
q
n
) (p q
1
) (p q
2
) (p q
n
)
b) ( )
n 2 1 n 2 1
p ... p p p ... p p
8.14. Mt tp hp cc php ton lgic c gi l y nu mi cng thc u tng
ng lgic vi cng thc ch cha cc php ton .
a) Chng minh rng cc php ton , v lp thnh mt tp hp y ca cc
php ton lgic.
b) Chng minh rng cc php ton v lp thnh mt tp hp y ca cc php
ton lgic.

c) Chng minh rng cc php ton v lp thnh mt tp hp y ca cc php
ton lgic.
8.15. Ngoi cc php ton nh ngha trong mc 1.2. ngi ta cn nh ngha thm hai
php ton lgic NAND (not and) v NOR (not or) v c nh ngha nh sau:
p p p NAND q p NOR q
T T F F
T F T F
F T T F
F F T T
Php ton p NAND q c k hiu l p q, cn p NOR q c k hiu p q
Hy chng minh rng:
a) q p q p ; b) q p q p
c) p p p; d) (p q) (p q) p q
8.16. Chng minh rng p (q r) v (p q) r l khng tng ng lgic (do php
ton NAND l khng c tnh kt hp).
8.17. Cho v t hai ngi P(x,y) l cu "x l th ph ca y" v v t mt ngi Q(x) l cu
"T x cha ch ci a". Hy xc nh gi tr chn l ca cc mnh sau:
a) P(H ni, Vit nam); b) P(Bng cc, Lo);
c) Q(Qut); d) Q(Cam).
8.18. Hy xc nh gi tr chn l cc lng t sau:
a) Cho v t P(x): "x + 2 > x +1", hy xc nh gi tr chn l ca xP(x) trong khng
gian cc s thc.
b) Cho v t Q(x,y): " x + y = 0", hy xc nh gi tr chn l ca yxQ(x,y) v
xyQ(x,y) trong khng gian cc s thc.
c) Cho v t R(x,y,z): "x + y = z", hy xc nh gi tr chn l ca xyz R(x,y,z) v
zxy R(x,y,z) trong khng gian cc s thc.
8.19. Chng t rng cc mnh : xy P(x,y) v ) y , x ( P y x c cng gi tr chn l
8.20. !x P(x) l k hiu ca mnh tn ti duy nht mt x sao cho P(x) l ng.
a) Trong khng gian l tp cc s thc, hy xc nh gi tr chn l ca cc lng t
sau:
) !x ( x > 1) ; ) !x ( x
2
= 1) ; ) !x ( x + 3 = 2x)
b) Xc nh gi tr chn l ca cc mnh sau:
) !x P(x) x P(x); ) x P(x) !x P(x).

MT S BI TP LM TRN MY TNH

Bng ngn ng lp trnh Pascal hoc ngn ng lp trnh t chn, hy lp trnh gii cc
bi ton sau.
Yu cu phn tich r cc bc thc hin trong qu trnh lp trnh.
Cc bi ton lp trnh v thut ton v bi ton m:
Bng thut ton quay lui, lp trnh gii cc bi ton (kt qu in ra mn hnh hoc ghi
thnh tp dng vn bn):
1. Lit k tt c dy nh phn (x
1
, x
2
, ,x
n
), x
i
{0,1} tho mn phng trnh:
a
1
x
1
+ a
2
x
2
+ + a
n
x
n
= b
Trong a
1
, a
2
, , a
n
, b l cc s nguyn dng cho trc c vo t bn phm.
2. Lit k tt c cc nghim nguyn khng m (ngha l cc b gi tr (x
1
, x
2
, ,x
n
), trong
x
i
nguyn, khng m) ca phng trnh:
a
1
x
1
+ a
2
x
2
+ + a
n
x
n
= b
Trong a
1
, a
2
, , a
n
, b l cc s nguyn dng cho trc c vo t bn phm.
3. Cho s nguyn dng N. Hy lit k tt c cc cch biu din N di dng tng ca
mt s cc s nguyn dng. N vo t bn phm.
4. Hnh vung thn b bc n (Ma phng bc n) l ma trn vung cp n vi cc phn t
l cc s t nhin t 1 n n
2
tho mn tnh cht: Tng cc phn t trn mi dng,
mi ct v mi ng cho u bng nhau. Chng hn sau y l mt ma phng bc
3:
8 1 6
3 5 7
4 9 2

D thy tng mi hng, mi ct v mi ng cho ca ma trn u bng 15.
Hy lp trnh lit k tt c cc ma phng bc 3, bc 4 khng sai khc nhau bi cc
php bin i n gin nh php quay, php i xng.
Ch : Hin ti bi ton mi ch gii c vi cc bc 3, 4, 5.
Cc bi ton lp trnh v th
Cc bi ton sau c lp trnh vi:
Input: th n nh, m cnh c cho di dng hoc danh sch k, hoc danh sch
cnh, hoc ma trn k t bn phm hoc t tp vn bn. Cn ni r input di dng
no.
Output: Kt qu c th in ra mn hnh hoc ghi vo tp dng vn bn.
Bng cc thut ton hc, hy lp trnh gii cc bi ton sau:

5. Chuyn i mt th cho t mt trong ba dng: danh sch k, danh sch cnh, ma
trn k sang cc dng cn li. Sau tm bc ca cc nh.
6. Kim tra tnh lin thng ca mt th. Nu th khng lin thng, hy lit k cc
thnh phn lin thng ca n.
7. Cho hai n th, mi th c khng qu 6 nh. Hy xc nh xem hai th c
ng cu vi nhau khng.
8. T mu mt th v hng, t suy ra sc s ca th.
9. Tm nhn ca mt th v hng.
10. Nhn bit mt th l th Euler hoc l na Euler. Lit k cc chu trnh (ng i)
Euler, nu n l th Euler (na Euler).
11. Nhn bit mt th l th Hamilton hoc l na Hamilton. Lit k cc chu trnh
(ng i) Hamilton, nu n l th Hamilton (na Hamilton).
12. Duyt cy nh phn.
13. Tm cy khung nh nht ca mt n th lin thng theo thut ton Kruskal.
14. Tm cy khung nh nht ca mt n th lin thng theo thut ton Prim.
15. Tm ng i ngn nht t nh x
i
n nh x
j
theo thut ton Dijkstra.
16. Tm lung cc i t mng cho theo thut ton Ford-Fulkerson.
17. Gii bi ton du lch theo thut ton nhnh cn.
18. Gii bi ton du lch bng cc so snh tt c cc hnh trnh c th bng cch xut pht
t nh x
i
tu .

MT S THUT NG DNG TRONG GIO TRNH
Thut ng ting Vit Ting Anh tng ng Trang
Bc (ca nh ca th) Degree 61
Bn bc ra Out-degree 61
Bn bc vo In-degree 61
Bn knh (ca th) Radius 129
Cnh (ca th) Edge 58
Cnh bi Paralleges 60
Cnh treo Pendant edge 62
Cy Tree 100
Cy c gc Rooted tree 101
Cy khung nh nht Minimal Spanning Tree (MST) 115
Cy khung/ Cy bao trm Spanning tree 112
Cy m phn y Complete m-ary tree 103
Cy m-phn m-ary tree 103
Cy nh phn Binary tree 104
Chiu cao (ca cy c gc) Height 102
Chnh hp Arrangement 29
Chnh hp lp Arrangement with repetition 32
Chu trnh Cycle/ Circuit 70
Chu trnh Euler Eulerian cycle 83
Chu trnh Hamilton Hamiltonian cycle 87
a th Multi graph 60
ng cu ( th) Isomorphie 69
Danh sch cnh Incidence list 66
Danh sch k Adjacency list 66
quy Recursion 17
nh (ca th) Vertex 58
nh ct Cut vertex/ Cut point 73
nh c lp Isolated vertex 62
nh cui Initial vertex 59
nh u Terminal vertex 59
nh pht Source vertex 130
nh thu Sink vertex 130
nh treo Pendant vertex 62
nh trong (ca cy c gc) Internal vertex 103

phc tp ca thut ton Computational complexity theory 12
phc tp a thc Polynominal complexity 14
phc tp giai tha Factorial complexity 14
phc tp hng s Constant complexity 14
phc tp logarit Logarithmic complexity 14
phc tp nlogarit Linearithmic complexity 14
phc tp m exponential complexity 14
phc tp tuyn tnh Linear complexity 14
th bnh xe Wheel graph 63
th c hng Directed graph 58
th c trng s Weighted graph 125
th con Subgraph 72
th y Complete graph 63
th hu hn Finite graph 58
th lp phng Cube graph 63
th phn i Bipartite graph 64
th phn i y Complete bipartite graph 64
th phng Planar graph 91
th v hn Infinite graph 58
th v hng Undirected graph 58
th vng Circular graph 63
n th Simple graph 60
ng phi Heneomorphie 94
ng i (trong th) Path 70
ng i n Simple path 70
ng i Euler Eulerian path 83
ng i Hamilton Hamiltonian path 87
Duyt cy Tree searching 104
Hon v Permutation 30
Khuyn Loop 59
K php nghch o Ba lan (RPN) Reverse Polish Notation 106
L (ca cy c gc) Leaved 103
Lin thng ( th) Connected 72
Lin thng mnh Strongly connected 74
Lin thng yu Weakly connected 74
Lung Flow function 130

Lung cc i Max Flow funtion 131
L thuyt th Graph theory 58
Ma trn k Adjacency matrix 67
Ma trn lin thuc Incidence matrix 68
Mng Network 130
Min (trong th phng) Face/Region 92
Mc (trong cy c gc) Level 102
Sc s (ca th) Chromatic number 76
Tm (ca th) Center 129
Thnh phn lin thng Connected component 72
Thut ton Algorithm 6
Thut ton nhnh cn Branch and Bound algorithm 136
Thut ton quay lui Backtracking algorithm 46
Thut ton tm kim Searaching algorithm 15
Tm kim nh phn Binary search 16
Tm kim tuyn tnh Linear search 15
Tm kim u tin chiu rng Breadth-First Search (BFS) 113
Tm kim u tin chiu su Depth-First Search (DFS) 112
T hp Combination 30
T hp lp Combination with repetition 33


TI LIU THAM KHO

1. Chu c Khnh. L thuyt th. Nh xut bn i hc Quc gia Thnh ph H
Ch Minh - 2002.
2. i hc Hu. Gio trnh Ton Ri rc. Ti liu trn mng Internet.
3. ng Huy Run. L thuyt th v ng dng. Nh xut bn Khoa hc v K thut.
H Ni - 2000.
4. c Gio. Ton Ri rc. Nh xut bn i hc Quc gia H Ni - 2000
5. Kenneth H.Rosen. Ton hc Ri rc ng dng trong tin hc. Bn dch t ting
Anh. Nh xut bn Khoa hc v K thut. H Ni - 2000.
6. P.X. Novikop. i cng v Lgic ton. Bn dch t ting Nga ca Nguyn Hu
Ng ng Huy Run. Nh xut bn Khoa hc v K thut. H Ni - 1971.
7. Nguyn c Ngha Nguyn T Thnh. Ton Ri rc. Nh xut bn i hc Quc
gia H Ni - 2003.

Giáo Trình Toán R I R C - Vũ Kim Thành

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Trng i hc Nng nghip H Ni Gio trnh Gio trnh Ton Ri rc...

ngi c cng thng

. Theo nh l 1, G' l thi

sao cho nh l nm mt na ng trn

cch sp xp ch ngi phn bit nh sau (hnh 13 v hnh 14):

l tc bin ca bin x. D thy:

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