AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT - II DESIGN PROJECT OF HUNDRED SEATER TWIN ENGINE PASSENGER AIRCRAFT

A PROJECT REPORT Submitted by ABDU SSALAM.P GUNASEKARAN.S LOKESHWARAN.VJ MIDHUN DAS.AM PRATHEESH.CP (32208101001) (32208101019) (32208101027) (32208101032) (32208101041)

In partial fulfillment for the awards of the degree Of BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING IN AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DHANALAKSHMI SRINIVASAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, CHENNAI. ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025 APRIL 2011
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BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this report A DESIGN PROJECT OF HUNDRED SEATER TWIN ENGINE PASSENGER AIRCRAFT is the bonafide work of ABDUSSALAM.P (32208101001) who carried out the project work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE G.SARAVANAN, M.E., PhD, HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING, DHANALAKSHMI SRINIVASAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY,CHENNAI.

SIGNATURE J.P. RAMESH, M. E., LECTURER, AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING, DHANALAKSHMI SRINIVASAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY,CHENNAI.

Internal Examiner
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External Examiner

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This report for the Design of HUNDRED SEATER TWIN ENGINE PASSENGER AIRCRAFT is prepared on the basis of Anna University Syllabus. This is prepared by references attached in this report.

For getting interested in this subject and nurturing my knowledge base, I would like to thank my beloved teachers. Mr. Saravanan.G, Head of the Department and Mr.Ramesh.J.P, lecture who deserve all credit Last but not least, I am thankful to all of my Department staffs.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT SYMBOLS USED INTRODUCTION SPECIFICATIONS

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1. V N DIAGRAM MANUVERING ENVELOPE GRAPH 2. GUST ENVELOPE FAA SPECIFICATIONS GRAPH 3. STRUCTURA L DESIGN APPROACH THEORY SCHRENKS CURVE 4. LOADING PERFORMANCE & CALCULATIONS

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SHEAR FORCE & BENDING MOMENT - TRANSVERSE GRAPHS SHEAR FORCE & BENDING MOMENT CHORDWISE GRAPHS

5. CRITICAL FLIGHT CONDITIONS SHEAR FORCE & BENDING MOMENT -NORMAL GRAPHS SHEAR FORCE & BENDING MOMENT CHORDWISE GRAPHS 6. MATERIAL SELECTION PROPERTIES OF THE MATERIAL 7. DETAILED WING DESIGN SPAR DESIGN FRONT SPAR REAR SPAR 8. FUSELAGE DESIGN SYMMETRIC FLIGHT CONDITION SHEAR FORCE GRAPH BENDING MOMENT GRAPH SHEARFLOW GRAPH 9. THREE VIEWS 10.SOFTWARE ANALYSIS PRESSURE PLOT VELOCITY PLOT 11.CONCULSION 12.REFERENCES

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ABSTRACT

All of the airliners aim at building an aircraft with large capacity and long range at a higher velocity and with low fuel consumption. Our project conceptualizes this aim. So in our aircraft design project we have concentrated on a100seater passenger aircraft with twin engine which can travel at a cruise Mach number of 0.66 and a minimum range of4500km at an optimum altitude. For the propulsion system we have chosen an existing engine for reference. Historic data is being used wherever necessary to make our project more precise

LIST OF SYMBOLS

W0 Wf S b T/W W/S A.R cr, ct h1, h2 CL CL,max (L/D)max Vdiv Vcruise Vs K M

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Overall weight Weight of fuel Wing area Wing span Thrust loading Wing loading Aspect ratio Chord length of wing root & tip Thickness of front &rear spar Coefficient of lift Maximum coefficient of lift Maximum lift drag ratio Dive velocity Cruise velocity Stall velocity Gust alleviation factor Airplane mass ratio Lift curve slope

Umax k Cn

Maximum gust velocity Proportionality factor Co-eff of forces along normal direction

Cc

Co-eff of forces along chord wise direction

Mfr, Mr

Bending moment taken up by front & rear spar

Afr, Ar ult FOS E V I q 0

Area of front & rear spar Ultimate shear stress Factor of safety Youngs modulus Poisson ratio Shear force at the spar Moment of inertia Shear flow Zero lift angle of attack

INTRODUCTION Overview: The structural design of an airplane actually begins with the flight envelope or V-n diagram, which clearly limits the maximum load factors that the airplane can withstand at any particular flight velocity. However in normal practice the airplane might experience loads that are much higher than the design loads. Some of the factors that lead to the structural overload of an airplane are high gust velocities, sudden movements of the controls, fatigue load in some cases, bird strikes or lightning strikes. So to add some inherent ability to withstand these rare but large loads, a safety factor of 1.5 is provided during the structural design. The two major members that need to be considered for the structural design of an airplane are wings and the fuselage. As far as the wing design is concerned, the most significant load is the bending load. So the primary load carrying member in the wing structure is the spar (the front and rear spars) whose cross section is an I section. Apart from the spars to take the bending loads, suitable stringers need to take the shear loads acting on the wings. Unlike the wing, which is subjected to mainly unsymmetrical load, the fuselage is much simpler for structural analysis due to its symmetrical crossing and symmetrical loading. The main load in the case of fuselage is the shear load because the load acting on the wing is transferred to the fuselage skin in the form of shear only. The structural design of both wing and fuselage begin with shear force and bending moment diagrams for the respective members. The maximum bending stress produced in each of them is checked to be less than the yield stress of the material chosen for the respective member.

SPECIFICATIONS
Take-off gross weight= 548516N Fuel fraction= 0.264 Payload fraction= 0.186 Empty Weight Ratio=0.55 Structural Weight fraction of Wings=0.1 Fuselage=0.1 Horizontal Tail=0.04 Vertical Tail=0.2 Cruise Velocity= 225m/s Cruise altitude= 10000m Wing area= 99.78 m2 Wing span= 31.59m Cruise CL= 0.0536; Density at 10000 m=0.412 kg/m3 Chord length at Wing root= 4.21 m Wing tip= 2.10 m Sweepback angle= 25o CLmax = 1.41; CLmax = -0.91 Cdo = 0.0387; k = 0.864; T/W = 0.34

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1. V-n DIAGRAM
MANEUVERING ENVELOPE: It is the graph between velocity (v) and load factor (n). It is mainly used to know the structural damage when it is going at different angle of attack Load factor It is the ratio between lift to weight ie, nmax = (L/D)max(T/W)max

When the angle of attack is increasing, the lift will increase. The maximum load factor will get when the lift is maximum Positive limit load factor It is the limit for the load factor ie, beyond this limits the load factor should not increase when the angle of attack is increasing positively. If it increases, structural damage will occur

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Stall velocity
Stalls depend only on angle of attack, not airspeed. Because a correlation with airspeed exists, however, a "stall speed" is usually used in practice. It is the speed below which the airplane cannot create enough lift to sustain its weight in 1g flight. In steady, un accelerated (1g) flight, the faster an airplane goes, the less angle of attack it needs to hold the airplane up (i.e., to produce lift equal to weight). As the airplane slows down, it needs to increase angle of attack to create the same lift (equal to weight). As the speed slows further, at some point the angle of attack will be equal to the critical (stall) angle of attack. This speed is called the "stall speed". The angle of attack cannot be increased to get more lift at this point and so slowing below the stall speed will result in a descent. And so, airspeed is often used as an indirect indicator of approaching stall conditions. The stall speed will vary depending on the airplane's weight, altitude and configuration (flap setting, etc.). From the figure, it is clear that for a particular velocity, it is not possible to fly at a value of CL higher than the CLmax corresponding to that velocity. If we wish to increase the lift of the airplane to that value of CLmax, then we should increase the flying speed of the airplane.

We know that, The maximum positive limit load factor is given by the formula nmax = (L/D)max(T/W)max (L/D)max = 1/[(4*0.0374*0.0387)^0.5] = 13.1 nmax= 4.45 Dive velocity is the highest velocity attainable theoretically given by the formula Vdiv = 1.5Vcruise = 1.5*225 = 337.5 m/s

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Consider Curve OA: Point A: Corner velocity It is the velocity corresponding to the condition of smallest possible turn radius and largest possible turn rate. It is the corner point on the V-n diagram where the structural and aerodynamic boundaries meet So we can find out the corner velocity as VA = (2*nmax*(W/S))/ CLmax)^0.5 = 92.6m/s nA= nmax= 4.45 The load factor along the curve OA is given by the expression n=L/W = CL*0.5*V2 * /(W/S) n=5.186*10-4*V2 So this OA curve will get by giving some different velocity to above equation. From that we can see the Corner velocity Velocity (m/s)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 92

Load Factor (n)

0 0.05184 0.207 0.466 0.829 1.296 1.86 2.540 3.31 4.19 4.38

Therefore the OA curve in the V-n diagram is drawn

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Consider Curve AB: The velocity at point B is given by the formula VB= {{[(T/W)*(W/S)]+[(W/S)*((T/W)2-(4*k*CDo))0.5]}/*CDo}0.5 VB= 125.69 m/s nB = nA A straight line is drawn to join the points A and B

Consider Curve BC: The velocity at point C is given by VC=1.5*VB= 188.4 m/s nC= 0.75*nA= 3.285 A straight line is used to join the points Band C Consider Line CD: A vertical line is drawn from the point C to meet the V-axis at point D where D corresponds to zero load factor Consider Curve DE: VE= VB nE= -1.8 (for a semi-aerobatic aircraft) A straight line is drawn to join the points D and E Consider Curve OF: The negative load factor along the curve OF is given by the expression n=L/W = CL*0.5*V2 * /(W/S) n=-3.34*10-4*V2 Substituting for various values of velocity, the load factor values can be obtained as follows

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Velocity (m/s)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 73.32

Load Factor (n)

-0.0334 -0.133 -0.30 -0.5 -0.835 -1.202 -1.636 -1.8

Therefore the OF curve in the V-n diagram is drawn Now, F is the point on the curve where the load factor is -1.8 Hence, VF= 73.32 m/s

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2.GUST ENVELOPE
Gust Gust is an rough air, when encountered should reduce the aircrafts speed. Gust load factors increase with increasing airspeed, and the strength used for design purposes usually corresponds to the highest level flight speed. The effect of turbulence gust is to produce a short time change in the effective angle of attack. These changes produce a variation in lift and thereby load factor The increase in the load factor due to the gust can be calculated by n+ve = 1+ KUmax Vm/2(W/S) (for curve above V-axis) n-ve = 1- KUmax Vm/2(W/S) (for curve below V-axis) where , = density at sea level(kg/m3) K= gust alleviation factor K can be calculated by K=0.88 /(5.3+ ) where is airplane mass ratio given by =2(W/S)gcm where c=mean aerodynamic chord (3.162 m) m= lift curve slope (0.1) g= gravitational constant (9.81m/s2) Umax= max. gust velocity

Using the formulae, = 295.95 and K= 0.864

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From the manual available,

Points A and F B and E C and D

Umax(m/s) 16 12 7

We know that , The velocities at points B,C, D, E are the same as those at points B, C, D, E in the Maneuvering envelope The load factors at the various points can be found using the formula using the corresponding values of Umax n A = 2.395 n F= -0.3950 n B = 2.419 n E = -0.419 n C = 2.241 n D = -0.24 CURVE OA: The positive load factor along the curve OA is given by the equation n = L/W = CL*0.5*V2 * /(W/S) n = 1.535*10-3 * V2

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Velocity (m/s) 0 10 20 30 39

Load Factor 0 0.153 0.612 1.377 2.3

The velocity at A is that corresponding to nA; Hence, VA=39 m/s The curve OA is now drawn Since the velocities and load factors at B, C, D and E are known, straight lines are used to join these points in sequence LINE EF: VF= VA; Now a straight line is used to join the points F and E

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3. STRUCTURAL DESIGN Modern aircraft structures are designed using a semi-monocoque concepta basic load-carrying shell reinforced by frames and longerons in the bodies, and a skin-stringer construction supported by spars and ribs in the surfaces Proper stress levels, a very complex problem in highly redundant structures, are calculated using versatile computer matrix methods to solve for detailed internal loads. Modern finite element models of aircraft components include tens-of-thousands of degrees-of-freedom and are used to determine the required skin thicknesses to avoid excessive stress levels, deflections, strains, or buckling. The goals of detailed design are to reduce or eliminate stress concentrations, residual stresses, fretting corrosion, hidden undetectable cracks, or single failure causing component failure. The structure of a pressurized fuselage which fulfills this criterion has to guarantee neither that neither the crack in the skin becomes unstable nor that the stiffeners perpendicular to the crack (i.e. the frames) fail statically. The twobay-crack criterion is the designing criterion for large areas in the upper and side shells of the pressurized fuselage of medium and long range aircraft. These aircraft types have lower design service goals in flights compared with short range aircraft with the result that the fatigue and damage tolerance criteria have less influence on the design. To limit the implications on the weight due to the compliance with the two-bay-crack requirement following precautions are possible: selection of skin material with high residual strength selection of frame material with high static strength limitation of the allowable frame pitch

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SCHRENKS CURVE:
We know that the Tip Stalling on the wing begins in the region near the wing tips .This is because the distribution of local lift coefficient(Cl) is not uniform along the span and as the angle of attack of the wing increases, the stalling will begin at a location where the local lift coefficient exceeds the value of maximum lift coefficient (Clmax) there .To appreciate this phenomenon let us consider an un swept tapered wing. The lift distribution on such a wing has a maximum at the root and goes to zero at the tip. This distribution is also known as distribution. Further, the local lift (L) can be equated to(1/2)V2 c Cl y, where c is the local chord and Cl is the local lift coefficient over an element (y) of span. Thus distribution is proportional to the product c Cl .The local lift coefficient (Cl) is proportional to /c and is not uniform along the span .The distribution along the span can be approximately obtained by Schrenks method.

Lift is a component of the resultant aerodynamic force acting at the centre of pressure of an aerodynamic chord, along a direction perpendicular to the direction of the relative wind. At a particular altitude and at
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a specific angle of attack, Lift varies along the wing span due to the variation in chord length along the span. Schrenks curve defines this lift distribution over the wing span of an aircraft. Since the wings of an aircraft are symmetrical about the longitudinal axis, the Schrenks curve for the starboard wing alone can be obtained at first. This is given by y= (y1+y2)/2 where y1= linear variation of lift along the wing semi-span y2 =equivalent elliptic lift distribution along the wing semi-span

To find y1: Lift force is found along the line joining the aerodynamic centers of chords along the wing span. Hence, the wing is rotated about the wing root so that the line joining the aerodynamic centers becomes the horizontal line. a= (17.42/cos 25) = 17.42 m Lift per unit length at wing root= CL*0.5**V2*CR = .0536*0.5*0.412*2252*4.21 = 2357.31 N/m Lift per unit length at wing tip = CL*0.5**V2*Ct = .0536*0.5*0.412*2252*2.10 = 1178.3 N/m

2357.31N/m 1178.3N/ m 17.42

Equation of this line, y1=-67.5x + 2353.1 Area under y1= Total lift= 30795.25 N

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To find y2:

Area of the above quarter ellipse, (*a1*b1/4) =Area enclosed by y1=30795.25N a1= 17.42 Hence, b1=2251 Equation of this curve is (x/a1)2+(y/b1)2=1 y2= 2248*((1-0.0574x2)^ 0.5) Equation of Schrenks curve is given by y= (y1+y2)/2 y=-67.5x + 2353.1+2248*((1-0.0574x2)^0.5)

Therefore, for the port wing, replace x by x y=67.5x + 2353.1+2248*((1-0.0574x2)^0.5)

Hence, substituting for different values of x, Lift force distribution can be determined at the required span wise location.

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SCHRENKS CURVE TABULATION:

Span wise Location -17.42 -15 -13 -11 -9 -7 -5 -3 -1 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17.42

Lift Force 1177 2485 2974 3356 3673 3942 4172 4368 4533 4604 4533 4368 4172 3942 3673 3356 2974 2485 1177

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4. LOADING PERFORMANCE & CALCULATIONS

SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS OF A WING DUE TO LOADS IN TRANSVERSE DIRECTION AT CRUISE CONDITION:

The expressions that are derived can be used for load on the wing to calculate bending moment. The first step is to start by integrating total load to

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Determine shear force: V(x) = - q r(x) dx. The bending moment can then be calculated by integrating shear force: M(x) = V(x) dx. The solution methods which follow Eulers beam bending theory (/y=M/I=E/R) use the bending moment values to determine the stresses developed at a particular section of the beam due to the combination of aerodynamic and structural loads in the transverse direction. Most engineering solution methods for structural mechanics problems (both exact and approximate methods) use the shear force and bending moment equations to determine the deflection and slope at a particular section of the beam. Therefore, these equations are to be obtained as analytical expressions in terms of span wise location. The bending moment produced here is about the longitudinal (x) axis. As both the wings are symmetric, let us consider the starboard wing at first. There are three primary loads acting on a wing structure in transverse direction which can cause considerable shear forces and bending moments on it. They are as follows: Lift force (given by Schrenks curve) Self-weight of the wing Weight of the power plant LIFT FORCE:

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y= (y1+y2)/2=-67.5x + 2353.1+2248*((1-0.0574x2)^0.5) where y1=-67.5x + 2353.1 [Trapezium] y2= 2248*((1-0.0574x2)^0.5) [Ellipse] This has already been explained under the topic Schrenks curve SELF WEIGHT OF THE WING: The wing weight varies along the span as the chord length and thickness decrease on moving from wing root to tip. Hence the spar cross-section should also decrease from root to tip. This implies weight is higher at the root and it is assumed to decrease parabolically to zero at the tip. Weight of the wing= 0.05*W0= 27425.8N
17.42

y0 y3=k*(x-(b/2))2

k*(x-17.42)2 dx = 4611.6667 k=-15.63 y3= -15.63*(x-15.92)2 The negative sign implies downward load; since this will be taken care of while finding shear force and bending moment, the sign is omitted. yx=0 = 4743.0

POWERPLANT WEIGHT: The power plant chosen for 100-seater aircraft is CFM56-5B5 Wpp= 0.03*W0= 23361.4 N

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CURVE/COMPONENT

AREA ENCLOSED/STRUCTURAL WEIGHT 51116.254N 10262.9N 274258N 27425.8N 23361.4N

CENTROID (from wing root) 5.80 m (a/3) 8.71 m (a/2) 7.393 m (4a/3) 4.355 m (a/4) 3.57 m

Triangle (under y1/2) Rectangle(under y1/2) y2/2 Wing Powerplant

The wing is fixed at one end and free at other end.

1 2 y2/2

MA A VA 1 2 B

y1/2

y3

FV=0

274258-27425.8-23361.4-VA=0; Hence, VA=223471 N MA=0 MA-(5116.25*5.80)-(10262.9*8.71)+ (23361.4*3.57)+(27425.8*4.355)-(137129*7.393)=0 MA=960068 Nm

Powerplant

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SHEAR FORCE: Force acting on a substance in a direction perpendicular to the extension of the substance, as for example the pressure of air along the front of an airplane wing. Shear forces often result in shear strain. Resistance to such forces in a fluid is linked to its viscosity. Also called shearing force.

SHEAR FORCE S.F= -33027+(-67.5x + 2353.1)dx +2248*((1-0.0574x2)^0.5) dx -15.63*(x-15.79)2 dx BENDING MOMENT

BM= -33027x+(-67.5x + 2353.1)(x-x)dx +2248*((1-0.0574x2)^0.5)(x-x)dx+9960068 -15.63*(x-15.79)2 (x-x)dx These analytical expressions are used to calculate the shear force and bending moment at different span wise locations of the starboard wing By symmetry, the shear force and bending moment of the other wing can also be tabulated.

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SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS OF A WING DUE TO LOADS IN TRANSVERSE DIRECTION AT CRUISE CONDITION TABULATION:
S NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 SPANWISE DISTANCE FROM ROOT (M) 17.42 15 13 11 9 7 5 3 1 0 -1 -3 -5 -7 -9 -11 -13 -15 -17.42 SHEAR FORCE (N) -301178 -304490 -307402 -310205 -312649 -314482 -315455 -315316 -313815 -312476 -313815 -315316 -315455 -314482 -312649 -310205 -307402 -304490 -301178 BENDING MOMENT (Nm) -3238280 -3093293 -2636019 -2203978 -1959324 -1425630 -846351 -233467 406016 734906 406016 -233467 -846351 -1425630 -1959324 -2636019 -2636019 -3093293 -3238280

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SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS DUE TO LOADS ALONG CHORDWISE DIRECTION AT CRUISE CONDITION:
SPECIFICATIONS: Cruise CL=0.0536 Cruise CD= 0.02 Angle of attack= -1.5 Angle of attack at zero lift= 4o Wing lift curve slope= 0.1 Location of aerodynamic center= 0.25c Location of shear center= 0.35c

SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT: Lift and Drag are the components of resultant aerodynamic force acting normal to and along the direction of relative wind respectively. As a result, components of them act in the chordwise direction also which produce a bending moment about the normal (z) axis.
CL Vrelative CC CD

Co-efficient of force along the normal direction, Cn= CL cos + CD sin Cn= 0.0536 cos (4) +0.02sin (4) Cn= -0.185
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Co-efficient of force along the chordwise direction, CC= -CL sin + CD cos CC= -0.0536 sin (4) + 0.02cos (4) CC= 0.02692 Therefore, force per unit length= CC*0.5**V2*c Let x represent the spanwise location from the wing tip to root Hence, force per unit length at the wing root (x=17.42 m) = CC*0.5**V2*cR = 1181.9 N/m Force per unit length at the wing tip (x=0) = CC*0.5**V2*cT = 590.96N/m Equation of force per unit length is linear: in the form y=mx+c where, slope m= (1181.9-590.96)/17.42 = 33.92 x=0, y=590.9 c=590.96 Hence, y=33.92x+590.9 On integrating over a length dx, Shear force over the segment can be obtained Shear force over dx16.95x2+590.9x 1 On integrating again over the length dx, bending moment over the segment can be obtained Bending moment over dx= 5.65x3+295.45x2 2 These equations can be used to obtain the shear force and bending moment values at a particular span wise location

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SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS DUE TO LOADS ALONG CHORDWISE DIRECTION AT CRUISE CONDITION TABULATION:

S.NO SPANWISE LOCATION(m)

SHEAR FORCE(N)

BENDING MOMENT(Nm)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

17.42 15 13 11 9 7 5 3 1 0

15437 12677 10546 8551 6691 4967 3378 1925 608 0

119523 85545 62344 43270 28050 16415 8093 2812 301 0

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5. CRITICAL FLIGHT CONDITION

Optimum Wing structural design consists of determining that stiffness distribution which is proportional to the local load distribution. The aerodynamic forces of lift and drag are resolved into components normal and parallel to the wing chord. The distribution of shear force, bending moment and torque over the aircraft wing are considered for wing structural analysis.

SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS OF A WING DUE TO NORMAL FORCES AT CRITICAL FLIGHT CONDITION:
In the preliminary stage of structural analysis, the critical flight loading condition of positive high angle of attack (represented by point A in V-n diagram) will be investigated. nA= 4.45; VA = 92.62 m/s; CL = 1.414 Therefore, LA=1.414*0.5*1.2256*92.622*99.78 = 736846.5 N; In steady flight, L= 0.053*0.5*1.2*2252*99.78 = 160633.3 N Proportionality factor, k= LA/L = 4.58 The aim is to find the shear forces and bending moments due to normal forces in critical flight condition. There are three primary loads acting on a wing structure in transverse direction which can cause considerable shear forces and bending moments on it. They are as follows: Lift force (given by Schrenks curve) Self-weight of the wing Weight of the power plant Now, the proportionality constant influences the lift force alone and other factors remain unaffected.

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CURVE/COMPONEN T Triangle (under y1/2) Rectangle(under y1/2) y2/2 Wing Power plant

AREA ENCLOSED/STRUCTURAL WEIGHT 4.58*51116.254N 4.58*10262.9N 4.58*274258N 27425.8N 23361.4N

CENTROID (from wing root) 5.80 m (a/3) 8.71 m (a/2) 7.393 m (4a/3) 4.355 m (a/4) 3.57 m

FV = 0
(274258*4.58) 27425.8 - 0 - VA = 0 VA = 1228675N

MA = 0 MA - (51116*5.80) - (10262*8.71) - (274258*7.39) + (27425.8*4.355) =0 MA = 10934134Nm SHEAR FORCE S.F= -1205315+4.58((-67.5x + 2353.1)dx +2248*((1-0.0574x2)^0.5) dx )-15.63*(x-15.79)2 dx BENDING MOMENT BM = -1205315x+4.58[(-67.5x + 2353.1)(x-x)dx +2248*((1-0.0574x2)^0.5)(x-x)dx]+9960068 -15.63*(x-15.79)2 (x-x)dx

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SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS OF A WING DUE TO NORMAL FORCES AT CRITICAL FLIGHT CONDITION TABULATION:
S NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 SPANWISE DISTANCE FROM ROOT (M) 17.42 15 13 11 9 7 5 3 1 0 SHEAR FORCE (N) -1082727 -1097984 -1111719 -1126206 -1141194 -1156432 -1171670 -1186657 -1201143 -1208120 BENDING MOMENT (Nm) -17135704 -15275801 -12599960 -10622018 -8520580 -6318162 -4032572 -1676765 -475233.5 741226.63

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SHEAR FORCE, BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS OF A WING DUE TO CHORDWISE FORCES AT CRITICAL FLIGHT CONDITION:
In the preliminary stage of structural analysis, the critical flight loading condition of positive high angle of attack (represented by point A in V-n diagram) will be investigated. nA= 4.45; VA=92.26 m/s; CL=1.41 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT: Lift and Drag are the components of resultant aerodynamic force acting normal to and along the direction of relative wind respectively. As a result, components of them act in the chord wise direction also which produce a bending moment about the normal (z) axis.
CL Vrelative 38 CD

CL= a*(-0) a=0.1; CL=1.41; 0= 4o hence, = 15o Co-efficient of force along the normal direction, Cn= CL cos + CD sin Cn= 1.41 cos (15) + 0.02 sin (15) Cn= 1.365 Co-efficient of force along the chordwise direction, CC= -CL sin + CD cos CC= -1.41 sin (15) + 0.02 cos (15) CC= -0.34 Therefore, force per unit length= CC*0.5**V2*c Let x represent the spanwise location from the wing tip to root Hence, force per unit length at the wing root (x=17.42 m) = CC*0.5**V2*cR = -14928 N/m Force per unit length at the wing tip (x=0) = CC*0.5**V2*cT = -7464 N/m Equation of force per unit length is linear: in the form y=mx+c where, slope m= (-14928+7464)/17.42 = -428.47 x=0, y= -7464 c= -7464 Hence, y= -428x-7464 On integrating over a length dx, Shear force over the segment can be obtained Shear force over dx= -214x2-7464x 1 On integrating again over the length dx, bending moment over the segment can be obtained Bending moment over dx= -71.3x3-3732x2 2
39

These equations can be used to obtain the shear force and bending moment values at a particular span wise location and plots can therefore be drawn In the following table and plot, x=0wing root and x=17.42wing tip of starboard wing

SHEAR FORCE, BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS OF A WING DUE TO CHORDWISE FORCES AT CRITICAL FLIGHT CONDITIONTABULATION
S.No. SPANWISE LOCATION (m) 1 17.42 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 13 11 9 7 5 3 1 0 -194963 -160110 -133198 -107998 -84510 -62734 -42670 -24318 -7678 0 SHEAR FORCE (N) BENDING MOMENT (Nm) -1509406.093 -1080337.5 -787354.1 -546472.3 -354269.7 -207323.9 -102212.5 -35513.1 -3803.3 0

40

41

6. MATERIAL SELECTION
WOOD, ALUMINUM, STEE AND COMPOSITES PROPERTIES Aircraft structures are basically unidirectional. This means that one dimension, the length, is much larger than the others - width or height. For example, the span of the wing and tail spars is much longer than their width and depth; the ribs have a much larger chord length than height and/or width; a whole wing has a span that is larger than its chords or thickness; and the fuselage is much longer than it is wide or high. Even a propeller has a diameter much larger than its blade width and thickness, etc.... For this simple reason, a designer chooses to use unidirectional material when designing for an efficient strength to weight structure. Unidirectional materials are basically composed of thin, relatively flexible, long fibers which are very strong in tension (like a thread, a rope, a stranded steel wire cable, etc.) An aircraft structure is also very close to a symmetrical structure. That means the up and down loads is almost equal to each other. The tail loads may be down or up depending on the pilot raising or dipping the nose of the aircraft by pulling or pushing the pitch control; the rudder may be deflected to the right as well as to the left (side loads on the fuselage). The gusts hitting the wing may be positive or negative, giving the up or down loads which the occupant experiences by being pushed down in the seat ... or hanging in the belt. Because of these factors, the designer has to use a structural material that can withstand both tension and compression. Unidirectional fibers may be excellent in tension, but due to their small cross section, they have very little inertia (we will explain inertia another time) and cannot take much compression. They will escape the load by bucking away. As in the illustration, you cannot load a string, or wire, or chain in compression. In order to make thin fibers strong in compression, they are "glued together" with some kind of an "embedding". In this way we can take advantage of their
42

tension strength and are no longer penalized by their individual compression weakness because, as a whole, they become compression resistant as they help each other to not buckle away. The embedding is usually a lighter, softer "resin" holding the fibers together and enabling them to take the required compression loads. This is a very good structural material. WOOD Historically, wood has been used as the first unidirectional structural raw material. They have to be tall and straight and their wood must be strong and light. The dark bands (late wood) contain many fibers, whereas the light bands (early wood) contain much more "resin". Thus the wider the dark bands, the stronger and heavier the wood. If the dark bands are very narrow and the light bands quite wide, the wood is light but not very strong. To get the most efficient strength to weight ratio for wood we need a definite numbers of bands per inch. Some of our aircraft structures are two-dimensional (length and width are large with respect to thickness). Plywood is often used for such structures. Several thin boards (foils) are glued together so that the fibers of the various layers cross over at different angles (usually 90 degrees today years back you could get them at 30 and 45 degrees as well). Plywood makes excellent "shear webs" if the designer knows how to use plywood efficiently. (We will learn the basis of stress analysis sometime later.) Today good aircraft wood is very hard to come by. Instead of using one good board for our spars, we have to use laminations because large pieces of wood are practically unavailable, and we no longer can trust the wood quality. From an availability point of view, we simply need a substitute for what nature has supplied us with until now. ALUMINUM ALLOYS So, since wood may not be as available as it was before, we look at another material which is strong, light and easily available at a reasonable price (there's no point in discussing Titanium - it's simply too expensive). Aluminum alloys are certainly one answer. We will discuss the properties of those alloys which are used in light plane construction in more detail later. For the time being we will look at aluminum as a construction material.
43

Extruded Aluminum Alloys: Due to the manufacturing process for aluminum we get a unidirectional material quite a bit stronger in the lengthwise direction than across. And even better, it is not only strong in tension but also in compression. Comparing extrusions to wood, the tension and compression characteristics are practically the same for aluminum alloys so that the linear stress analysis applies. Wood, on the other hand, has a tensile strength about twice as great as its compression strength; accordingly, special stress analysis methods must be used and a good understanding of wood under stress is essential if stress concentrations are to be avoided! Aluminum alloys, in thin sheets (.016 to .125 of an inch) provide an excellent two dimensional material used extensively as shear webs - with or without stiffeners - and also as tension/compression members when suitably formed (bent). It is worthwhile to remember that aluminum is an artificial metal. There is no aluminum ore in nature. Aluminum is manufactured by applying electric power to bauxite (aluminum oxide) to obtain the metal, which is then mixed with various strength-giving additives. (In a later article, we will see which additives are used, and why and how we can increase aluminum's strength by cold work hardening or by tempering.) All the commonly used aluminum alloys are available from the shelf of dealers. When requested with the purchase, you can obtain a "mill test report" that guarantees the chemical and physical properties as tested to accepted specifications. As a rule of thumb, aluminum is three times heavier, but also three times stronger than wood. Steel is again three times heavier and stronger than aluminum. STEEL The next material to be considered for aircraft structure will thus be steel, which has the same weight-to-strength ratio of wood or aluminum. Apart from mild steel which is used for brackets needing little strength, we are mainly using a chrome-molybdenum alloy called AISI 413ON or 4140. The common raw materials available are tubes and sheet metal. Steel, due to its high density, is not used as shear webs like aluminum sheets or plywood. Where we would need, say.100" plywood, a .032 inch aluminum sheet would be required, but only a .010 steel sheet would be required, which is just too thin to handle with any hope of a nice finish. That is why a steel fuselage uses tubes also as diagonals to carry the shear in compression or tension and the whole structure is then covered with fabric (light weight) to give it the required aerodynamic
44

shape or desired look. It must be noted that this method involves two techniques: steel work and fabric covering. We will be discussing tubes and welded steel structures in more detail later and go now to "artificial wood" or composite structures. COMPOSITE MATERIALS The designer of composite aircraft simply uses fibers in the desired direction exactly where and in the amount required. The fibers are embedded in resin to hold them in place and provide the required support against buckling. Instead of plywood or sheet metal which allows single curvature only, the composite designer uses cloth where the fibers are laid in two directions .(the woven thread and weft) also embedded in resin. This has the advantage of freedom of shape in double curvature as required by optimum aerodynamic shapes and for very appealing look (importance of esthetics). Today's fibers (glass, nylon, Kevlar, carbon, whiskers or single crystal fibers of various chemical compositions) are very strong, thus the structure becomes very light. The drawback is very little stiffness. The structure needs stiffening which is achieved either by the usual discreet stiffeners, -or more elegantly with a sandwich structure: two layers of thin uni- or bi-directional fibers are held apart by a lightweight core (foam or "honeycomb"). This allows the designer to achieve the required inertia or stiffness. From an engineering standpoint, this method is very attractive and supported by many authorities because it allows new developments which are required in case of war. But this method also has its drawbacks for homebuilding: A mold is needed, and very strict quality control is a must for the right amount of fibers and resin and for good adhesion between both to prevent too "dry" or "wet" a structure. Also the curing of the resin is quite sensitive to temperature, humidity and pressure. Finally, the resins are active chemicals which will not only produce the well-known allergies but also the chemicals that attack our body (especially the eyes and lungs) and they have the unfortunate property of being cumulatively damaging and the result (in particular deterioration of the eye) shows up only years after initial contact. Another disadvantage of the resins is their limited shelf life, i.e., if the resin is not used within the specified time lapse after manufacturing, the results may be unsatisfactory and unsafe.

45

LIGHT AIRCRAFT RAW MATERIALS The focus of our article is our Table which gives typical values for a variety of raw materials. Column 1 lists the standard materials which are easily available at a reasonable cost. Some of the materials that fall along the borderline between practical and impractical are:

Magnesium: An expensive material. Castings are the only readily available forms. Special precaution must be taken when machining magnesium because this metal burns when hot. Titanium: A very expensive material. Very tough and difficult to machine. Carbon Fibers: Still very expensive materials. Kevlar Fibers: Very expensive and also critical to work with because it is hard to "soak" in the resin. When this technique is mastered, the resulting structure is very strong, but it also lacks in stiffness.

Columns 2 through 6: Column 2 through 6 list the relevant material properties in metric units. Column 2 the density (d), is the weight divided by the volume. Column 3, the yield stress (fy), is the stress (load per area) at which there will be a permanent deformation after unloading (the material has yielded, given way ...).
Materials 1 Wood Spruce Poplar Oregon Pine Fiberglass Matte d 2 .45 .43 .56 2.2 2.2 fy 3 fu 4 3.5/11 30/12 4.0/13 15 35 e E/103 5 6 1.4 1.0 1.5 1.5 2.0 E/d 7 Root2 of N/d Root3 of E/d fu/d 8 9 22.0 22.0 22.0 5.0 6.0 10 (15) (15) (15) 7 16

2200 70 2200 70 2200 70 700 900 17 20

(70% Glass) Woven

Unidirectional Alum. Alloy 5052-H34 8086-H34 6061 -T6

2.2 2.7 2.7 2.7

16 22 24

60 24 31 26

4 5 9

3.5 7.1 7.1 7.1

1500 27 2600 30 2600 30 2600 30

7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0

27 11 11 11

46

6351 -T6 6063-T6 2024-T3 Steel AISI 1026

2.7 2.7 2.8 7.8

25 17 25 25 42 20 50

28 21 41 38 63 30 80

9 9

7.1 7.1

2600 30 2600 30 2600 30 2700 18 2700 18 -

7.0 7.0 7.0 3.5 3.5 9.0 5.0

11 11 14 5 7 16 18

12 7.2 15 21.0 10 21.0 4.5 11.0

4130 N (4140) 7.8 Lead Magnesium Alloy Titanium 11.3 1.8 4.5

2500 37 2400 23

Units for above to obtain: multiply by:

kg/dm3 kg/mm2 kg/mm2 % kg/mm2 km lbs/cu3 KSI .0357 1420 KSI 1420 % KSI 1420

kg-m2

kg2/3m1/3

km

Column 4, the ultimate stress (fu), is the stress (load per area) at which it cannot carry a further load increase. It is the maximum load before failure. Column 5, the elongation at ultimate stress (e), in percentage gives an indication of the 'Toughness" of the material. Column 6 lists the Youngs Modular or Modulus of Elasticity (E), which is the steepness of the stress/strain diagram as shown in Figure 1. Important Note: For wood, the tension is much greater (2 to 3 times) than the compression. Both values are given in the Table. For fiberglass, the same applies, but the yield is so dependent on the manufacturing process that we cannot even give 'typical values'.

47

7. DETAILED WING DESIGN

SPAR DESIGN: Spars are members which are basically used to carry the bending and shear loads acting on the wing during flight. There are two spars, one located at 15-25% of the chord known as the front spar, the other located at 60-70% of the chord known as the rear spar. Some of the functions of the spar include: They form the boundary to the fuel tank located in the wing. The spar flange takes up the bending loads whereas the web carries the shear loads. The rear spar provides a means of attaching the control surfaces on the wing. Considering these functions, the locations of the front and rear spar are fixed at 0.175c and 0.75c respectively. The spar design for the wing root has been taken because the maximum bending moment and shear force are at the root. It is assumed that the flanges take up all the bending and the web takes all the shear effect. The maximum bending moment for high angle of attack condition is 734906 Nm. the ratio in which the spars take up the bending moment is given as h1=0.686m h2=0.380m (Mfr/Mr) = (h12/h22) = (0.6862/0.3802) = 3.259 Mfr+Mr = 734906Nm From the above two equations, Mfr = 562312 Nm, Mr = 172594 Nm The yield tensile stress y for 6061 T6 Al Alloy is = (24*10^6) MPa. The area of the flanges is determined using the relation y = Mz/(A*z2) where M is bending moment taken up by each spar, A is the flange area of each spar,
48

z is the centroid distance of the area = h/2. Using the available values, Area of front spar Afr 0.0683m2, Area of rear spar Ar = 0.037m2 Each flange of the spar is made of two angle sections. For the front spar, the length of the angle is 6t, angle height is 5t with angle thickness t. Area for each angle of front spar is found to be 0.017m2 and hence value of t is found to be 0.412m

Front spar - Dimensions of each angle: Length = 0.247m Height 0.206m Thickness = 0.412m.

For the rear spar, the length of the angle is 8t, angle height is 3.5t with vertical thickness t and horizontal thickness t/2. Area for each angle of rear spar is found to be 9.25*10^-3 m2 and hence value of t is found to be 0.0304m.

Rear spar - Dimensions of each angle:

49

Length = 0.2432m Height = 0.1064m Thickness = 0.0304m.

Now to determine the thickness of the web portion, the ultimate shear stress for 6061 T6 Al Alloy is 26Kg/mm2. The maximum shear force at root of the wing for high angle of attack condition is 1082727 N. The wing chord is assumed to be a simply supported beam supported at the two spars. The maximum shear force acts at the center of pressure which is located at 0.2982c.
V
0.1232c

0.585c

Vfr

Vr

50

8. FUSELAGE DESIGN
Fuselage contributes very little to lift and produces more drag but it is an important structural member/component. It is the connecting member to all load producing components such as wing, horizontal tail, vertical tail, landing gear etc. and thus redistributes the load. It also serves the purpose of housing or Accommodating practically all the equipments, accessories and systems in addition to carrying the payload. Because of large amount of equipment inside the fuselage, it is necessary to provide sufficient number of cutouts in the fuselage for access and inspection purposes. These cutouts and discontinuities result in fuselage design being more complicated, less precise and often less efficient in design. As a common member to which other components are attached, thereby transmitting the loads, fuselage can be considered as a long hollow beam. The reactions produced by the wing, tail or landing gear may be considered as concentrated loads at the respective attachment points. The balancing reactions are provided by the inertia forces contributed by the weight of the fuselage structure and the various components inside the fuselage. These reaction forces are distributed all along the length of the fuselage, though need not be uniformly. Unlike the wing, which is subjected to mainly unsymmetrical load, the fuselage is much simpler for structural analysis due to its symmetrical cross-section and symmetrical loading. The main load in the case of fuselage is the shear load because the load acting on the wing is transferred to the fuselage skin in the form of shear only. The structural design of both wing and fuselage begin with shear force and bending moment diagrams for the respective members. The maximum bending stress produced in each of them is checked to be less than the yield stress of the material chosen for the respective member. Loads and its distribution: To find out the loads and their distribution, consider the different cases. The main components of the fuselage loading diagram are: (i) Weight of the fuselage (ii) Engine weight (iii) Weight of the horizontal and vertical stabilizers (iv) Tail lift (v) Weight of crew, payload and landing gear (vi) Systems , equipments, accessories

51

Case I: Symmetric flight condition (i) Steady and level flight: (Downward forces negative) Values for the different component weights are obtained from aerodynamic design calculations. Load factor = 4.38 (from v-n diagram) FUSELAGE Cg TABULATION

Type of parts

Distance from the reference point(M)

weight(N)

Fuselage Cock pit Nose landing gear Horizontal stabilizer Vertical stabilizer Wing Pay load (station-1) Pay load (station-2) Pay load (station-3)

18.58 3.679 5.136 33.22 30.22 6.9575 10.575 17.575 24.575

54851.6 3924 16455.48 21940.6 10970.32 54851.6 25506 47088 25506

52

FUSELAGE SHEARFORCE TABULATION LOCATION(M) 18.58 3.679 5.136 33.22 30.22 6.9575 10.575 17.575 24.575 SHEAR FORCE(N) 54851.6 3924 16455.48 21940.6 10970.32 54851.6 25506 47088 25506

53

FUSELAGE BENDING MOMENT TABULATION

LOCATION(m) 18.58 3.679 5.136 33.22 30.22 6.9575 10.575 17.575 24.575

BENDING MOMENT(Nm) -1019143 -14436.4 -84515 -728867 -331523 -381630 -269726 -827572 -626810

54

8. DETAILED DESIGN OF FUSELAGE: Design of the fuselage can be carried out by considering the maximum bending moment which is taken as the design bending moment. The cross-sectional area required to withstand the bending stress is found out by using the formula for bending stress. This area is divided among several stringers which are spaced evenly. The stringers spacing is calculated by considering the buckling of the portion between adjacent stringers which can be modeled as a plate. Now, the first step is to calculate the required cross-sectional area of the stringers. Use the following formula for bending stress. = M*y/I Where, = Tensile strength of the material used (6061 T6 Al Alloy) = 24 MPa M = Design bending moment = 1019143Nm I = Second moment of area (m4) = A*(d/2)2 y = d/2 d =4.9m (diameter of the fuselage) A = cross-sectional area of the fuselage stringers (m2) A stringer cross section is chosen satisfying the condition that the actual stress is less than the yield stress of the material. The properties of the stringer section chosen are as follows,

55

t = 0.03515m The total circumference of the fuselage cross section is found to be 5.497775 m. This circumference is distributed with n number of stringers such that the total bending moment is taken up by these stringers effectively. Assume skin is ineffective in bending. Arbitrarily, let us set the number of stringers to be equal to 40 i.e. 10 stringers in each quadrant. Now, the net IYY is computed considering these stringers to be lumped masses. As it is a symmetric cross section,

No. of stringers = 60

SHEAR FLOW:

Stringer distribution

Consider the stringer at = 0 of the first quadrant of the cross section as the first stringer and number it in anticlockwise direction. Make a cut between stringers 1 and 2 and determine shear flow using the formula,

56

FUSELAGE SHEARFLOW TABULATION

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

Angle 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 90 96 102 108 114 120 126 132 138 144 150 156 162 168 174 180 186 192 198 204 210 216 222 228 234

x 3.5 3.480828 3.423521 3.328708 3.197427 3.031116 2.831598 2.601058 2.342021 2.057327 1.750094 1.423687 1.081683 0.727828 0.366 0.000162 -0.36568 -0.72751 -1.08137 -1.42339 -1.74981 -2.05706 -2.34178 -2.60084 -2.83141 -3.03095 -3.19729 -3.32861 -3.42345 -3.48079 -3.5 -3.48086 -3.42359 -3.32881 -3.19756 -3.03128 -2.83179 -2.60127 -2.34226 -2.05759

y 0 0.365839 0.72767 1.081529 1.423539 1.749953 2.057196 2.341901 2.600949 2.831502 3.031035 3.197361 3.328658 3.423487 3.480811 3.5 3.480845 3.423555 3.328758 3.197493 3.031197 2.831693 2.601166 2.342142 2.057458 1.750234 1.423835 1.081837 0.727987 0.366161 0.000324 -0.36552 -0.72735 -1.08122 -1.42324 -1.74967 -2.05693 -2.34166 -2.60073 -2.83131

A 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297

Ax 0.060541 0.060209 0.059218 0.057578 0.055307 0.05243 0.048979 0.044991 0.040511 0.035586 0.030272 0.024626 0.01871 0.012589 0.006331 2.8E-06 -0.00633 -0.01258 -0.0187 -0.02462 -0.03027 -0.03558 -0.04051 -0.04499 -0.04898 -0.05243 -0.0553 -0.05758 -0.05922 -0.06021 -0.06054 -0.06021 -0.05922 -0.05758 -0.05531 -0.05243 -0.04898 -0.045 -0.04051 -0.03559 57

q*l 0 -156335.4731 -467293.676 -929467.8864 -1537794.725 -2285609.629 -3164719.865 -4165494.284 -5276968.838 -6486966.697 -7782231.654 -9148573.349 -10571022.74 -12033996.09 -13521465.71 -15017135.52 -16504619.62 -17967621.78 -19390114 -20756512.06 -22051846.3 -23261925.61 -24373492.89 -25374370.29 -26253592.64 -27001527.55 -27609980.99 -28072286.99 -28383380.75 -28539854.04 -28539992.62 -28383794.97 -28072972.32 -27610929.9 -27002729.67 -26255034.78 -25376036.66 -24375365.24 -23263983.42 -22054067.02

q fin 55598896 54989400.98 53777088.3 51975239.52 49603594.93 46688137.21 43260806.86 39359152.2 35025918.08 30308577.49 25258811.58 19931943.37 14386331.71 8682731.897 2883630.082 -2947441.37 -8746599.54 -14450311.3 -19996090.4 -25323178.2 -30373214.3 -35090872.4 -39424468.1 -43326524.2 -46754291.6 -49670217.2 -52042355.4 -53844718.0 -55057559.1 -5566759.48 -55668131.7 -55059174.0 -53847389.8 -52046054.8 -49674903.8 -46759914.0 -43333020.8 -39431767.6 -35098895.1 -30381872.1

q abs 55598896 54989400.98 53777088.3 51975239.52 49603594.93 46688137.21 43260806.86 39359152.2 35025918.08 30308577.49 25258811.58 19931943.37 14386331.71 8682731.897 2883630.082 2947441.307 8746599.594 14450311.73 19996090.34 25323178.29 30373214.33 35090872.47 39424468.1 43326524.24 46754291.67 49670217.27 52042355.42 53844718.01 55057559.15 55667591.48 55668131.75 55059174.04 53847389.83 52046054.89 49674903.87 46759914.06 43333020.82 39431767.69 35098895.1 30381872.11

41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 1

240 246 252 258 264 270 276 282 288 294 300 306 312 318 324 330 336 342 348 354 0

-1.75037 -1.42398 -1.08199 -0.72815 -0.36632 -0.00049 0.365355 0.727194 1.081066 1.423094 1.749532 2.056802 2.341539 2.600624 2.831216 3.030792 3.197163 3.328507 3.423386 3.48076 3.5

-3.03087 -3.19723 -3.32856 -3.42342 -3.48078 -3.5 -3.48088 -3.42362 -3.32886 -3.19762 -3.03136 -2.83188 -2.60138 -2.34238 -2.05772 -1.75051 -1.42413 -1.08215 -0.7283 -0.36648 0

0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297 0.017297

-0.03028 -0.02463 -0.01872 -0.01259 -0.00634 -8.4E-06 0.00632 0.012579 0.0187 0.024616 0.030262 0.035577 0.040502 0.044984 0.048972 0.052425 0.055302 0.057574 0.059215 0.060208 0.060541

-20758871.36 -19392586.04 -17970179.49 -16507234.96 -15019779.84 -13524110.04 -12036611.47 -10573580.51 -9151045.482 -7784591.071 -6489187.551 -5279026.796 -4167366.801 -3166386.426 -2287051.977 -1538997.058 -930417.0309 -467979.2344 -156749.9347 -138.8241828 0 -856223000.1

-25332376.3 -20005727.9 -14460283.2 -8756795.84 -2957750.54 2873320.792 8672535.501 14376359.92 19922305.43 25249613.07 30299919.19 35017894.85 39351851.94 43254309.54 46682514.02 49598907.47 51971539.15 53774415.55 54987785.14 55598354.78 55598896

25332376.37 20005727.95 14460283.28 8756795.84 2957750.546 2873320.792 8672535.501 14376359.92 19922305.43 25249613.07 30299919.19 35017894.85 39351851.94 43254309.54 46682514.02 49598907.47 51971539.15 53774415.55 54987785.14 55598354.78 55598896

58

9.THREE VIEWS OF AIRCRAFT

59

10. SOFTWARE MODELING DESIGN& ANALYSIS

WING MODELING (CATIA)

ANALYSIS (FLUENT) Meshing the Airfoil Import the airfoil through IGES format. Since the imported file contains two faces, delete the airfoil from the wind tunnel using Boolean operation through the face command. Select the mesh command and select the face command button. Select the face to be mesh on Faces, Tri on Element, Pave on Type and give appropriate size in Interval Size option. On the Zone command, select Specify Boundary type command. Using the VELOCITY_INLET, OUTLET_VENT, and WALL type select the corresponding edge and apply. Save the file as mesh in Export-Mesh from File command.

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Computing and Analyzing the Airfoil Import the mesh file using option File > Read > Case in Fluent. Grid Check using option Grid > Check. After the completion of reading by fluent, the report shows "done". Tick the checkbox on energy equation using option Define > Model > Energy. Click Ok. Set the velocity and temperature as required using options Define > Model > Boundary Conditions > VELOCITY_INLET. Now open Solution Initialization window using option Solve > Initialize > Initialize. On solution Initialization, set Gauge Pressure, x-velocity, and temperature for required values (At the altitude of aircraft flying) and click limits and Apply. Click solve and then Iterate. In this window give appropriate number of iterations and give iterate. Wait till the iterations shows "solution is converged". Save the file as "Case and Data" through File > Save as. Choose Display > Contours. Tick the "Filled" Checkbox. On the drop down list of "Contours of.." select the required conditions and click display.

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STATIC PRESSURE (pascal)

VELOCITY VECTORS (m/s)

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11. CONCLUSION

We have come to a completion of the conceptual design of an aircraft. Aircraft design involves a variety of faculties of the field of Aerospace engineering like structures, performance, aerodynamics, stability etc. this project has enabled us to get a taste of what it is to design a real aircraft. The fantasies of the flying world seem to be much more than what we thought. With this design project as the base, we will strive to progress in the field of airplane design and maintenance. We convey our heartfelt gratitude to all of them who have provided their helping hand in the completion of this project.

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12. REFERENCES
Aerodynamic design: 1. Janes All the worlds aircraft 2. Aircraft design a conceptual approach Daniel P. Raymer 3. Design of aircraft Thomas Corke 4. Aircraft Performance J.D. Anderson 5. Aircraft performance, Stability and control Perkins and Hage 6. Fluid dynamic Drag - Hoerner 7. Summary of airfoil data Abbott, Doenhoff and Stivers 8. www.airliners.net 9. www.wikipedia.org 10. www.aerospaceweb.org

Structural design: 1. Analysis of Aircraft structures Bruhn 2. Aircraft Structures for engineering students T.H.G Megson 3. Aircraft structures Peery and Azar 4. Airplane design Jan Roskam 5. Airframe Stress Analysis and Sizing Niu

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