Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Nombrar cada una de las personas y de las instituciones a las que debemos
mayor aprecio y gratitud por haber estado involucradas tanto en el Programa
Interamericano de Cooperación en Tecnologías Ambientales en Sectores
Claves de la Industria como en la producción de esta publicación, sería una
tarea monumental. Por lo tanto, quiero empezar por agradecer a todos los que
durante el transcurso de este Programa han puesto su entusiasmo para lograr que
la serie de mesas redondas se llevara a cabo con tan buenos resultados.
Quisiera hacer una mención especial a los miembros del Comité Administrativo,
quienes con su tiempo y dedicación fueron una fuerza constante, tanto durante la
ejecución de las mesas redondas, como en los períodos entre las mismas y por
supuesto a todo el grupo de colaboradores que apoyaron sus esfuerzos durante
este período. Quiero hacer llegar mi más sincero reconocimiento a: Susana
Kakuta de la Comisión Nacional de la Industria (CNI) de Brasil, a Eugenia
Olguín de la Asociación mundial de organizaciones de investigación tecnológica
e industrial (WAITRO), a Juan Pablo Bonilla de la Fundación para el Desarrollo
del Caribe de Colombia (FUNDESARROLLO), a Aníbal Mege Thieri de la
Sociedad de Fomento Fabril de Chile (SFF), a Jorge Monge de la Fundación
Compañía para el Desarrollo Tecnológico e Industrial de Centro América
(Fundación CODETI) de Costa Rica, a Ron Portelli de la Agencia Canadiense
de la Industria Ambiental (CEIA), a Raúl Prando de la Cámara de Industrias
del Uruguay (CIU), a Carlos Sandoval del Consejo Nacional de Industriales
Ecologistas (CONIECO) de México, y a Felipe Noguera de la Asociación Caribeña
para la Industria y el Comercio (CAIC). También quiero agradecer en forma
distinguida a Ofelia Sfetcu los servicios de coordinación del Programa.
xv
Agradecimientos
Daniel R. Vilariño
Washington, D.C., marzo de 2001
xvi
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Naming every person and institution to which I owe thanks and appreciation for
being involved in both, the Inter-American Program for Environmental Technical
Cooperation in Key Industries Sectors, and the preparation of this publication,
would be a monumental task, indeed. Thus, I would like to begin by giving thanks
to all the people, who during the span of this program have put their enthusiasm to
achieve so good results in the roundtable series.
I would like to give special credit to the members of the Steering Committee, who
with their time and effort were a constant thrust during the roundtables and the
periods between them, and to the group of people that supported their endeavors
during this time. I would like to give my appreciation to Susana Kakuta of the
National Industry Confederation (CNI) of Brazil, Eugenia Olguín of the World
Association of Industrial and Technological Research Organizations (WAITRO),
Juan Pablo Bonilla of the Foundation for the Development of the Caribbean of
Colombia (FUNDESARROLLO), Aníbal Mege Thieri of the Chilean Federation
of Industry (SFF), Jorge Monge of Foundation for Central American Industrial
and Technological Development (Fundación CODETI) of Costa Rica, Ron Portelli
of the Canadian Environment Industry Association (CEIA), Raúl Prando of the
Industrial Chamber of Uruguay (CIU), Carlos Sandoval of the National Council of
Industrial Ecologists of Mexico (CONIECO), and Felipe Noguera of the Caribbean
Association for Industry and Commerce (CAIC). I would like to give special thanks
to Ofelia Sfetcu for her Program coordination services.
All the institutions that sponsored and funded the Program deserve our deepest
recognition, including the Organization of American States (OAS), Environment
Canada, Industry Canada, WAITRO and the International Development
xvii
Acknowledgments
Research Center (IDRC). I would like to recognize also IDRC for kindly conceding
the transfer of copyright of most of the articles published in this book.
Finally, a very special posthumous recognition goes to Dr. Sitoo Mukerji, who
passed away recently, during the final preparation stages for this book. Dr. Mukerji
was the Director of the Office of Science and Technology at the OAS from 1995
until 2001 and the Chairman of the Program Steering Committee where he was
a true force behind all the aspects related to the Program. His determination and
dedication, his jovial and enterprising spirit, and the intense way in which he seized
each instant in life, have left to us, who were his colleagues, an invaluable legacy.
To him, who was my friend and mentor, thank you.
Daniel R. Vilariño
Washington, D.C., March 2001
xviii
INTRODUCCIÓN
Sitoo Mukerji+ y Daniel R. Vilariño1
1
El Doctor Sitoo Mukerji fue el Director de la Oficina de Ciencia y Tecnología de la Organización
de los Estados Americanos. El Ingeniero Daniel R. Vilariño es Especialista Principal - Ingeniero
Ambiental de la Oficina de Ciencia y Tecnología de la Organización de los Estados Americanos.
1
Introducción
• La demostración de que las tecnologías más limpias pueden ser adoptadas por
las PYMEs al mismo tiempo que se mejora la eficiencia económica de las
mismas.
2
Programa Interamericano de Cooperación en Tecnologías Ambientales...
Se realizaron en total siete mesas redondas, la primera fue realizada como una
prueba piloto, en Uruguay, sobre el sector de la industria textil y de cueros;
seguida por mesas redondas en Costa Rica, sobre el sector agro-alimentario;
en Colombia, sobre el sector de recubrimiento de metales —galvanoplastia;
en Jamaica, sobre eficiencia energética en el sector turismo; en Canadá, sobre
tratamiento de aguas municipales; en Brasil, sobre manejo de residuos sólidos; y
finalmente en Chile, sobre el sector forestal.
3
Introducción
La Mesa Redonda de los Sectores Textil y del Cuero, fue una prueba piloto que
se llevó a cabo en Montevideo, Uruguay, bajo los auspicios del Laboratorio
Tecnológico del Uruguay (LATU) como institución anfitriona. Se desarrolló del
16 al 18 de junio de 1996 y el tema de la misma fue: “Empresas más
competitivas en un medio ambiente más limpio”. En esta ocasión, el Gerente
General de la Corporación Promoción para la Pequeña y Mediana Empresa
Ecoeficiente Latinoamericana (PROPEL), el Sr. Carlos Barragán, realizó una
presentación cuyo documento “Boosting Profits and Benefiting the Environment
in Latin America: The Tannery Case” (Incrementando las ganancias y
beneficiando el medio ambiente en América Latina: el caso de las curtiembres)
es presentado en el primer capítulo de este libro. Allí se presenta el Programa de
Ecoeficiencia de PROPEL, que se basa en la existencia de una relación positiva
entre el uso de tecnologías limpias y el éxito económico de las PYMEs. Así
mismo, presenta el programa de las curtiembres, presentando el ejemplo de las
curtiembres de cuero de San Benito en las afueras de Santa Fe de Bogotá en
Colombia, específicamente, el caso de CURTIGRAN, una empresa de tipo
familiar, con no más de 13 empleados. A través de este ejemplo demuestra las
presiones sufridas por las PYMEs para cumplir con las nuevas regulaciones
ambientales, y la carencia de medios para poder hacerlo con tratamientos a final
de cañería, y cómo mediante cambios ligeros, sin mayor costo de reconversión,
se pudo lograr el objetivo de mejorar a un mismo tiempo la eficiencia ambiental
y económica de la empresa.
Luego de la mesa redonda piloto, la siguiente que se llevó a cabo, fue sobre el
Sector de la Industria Agro-Alimentaria. Ésta tuvo lugar en San José, Costa Rica,
del 6 al 8 de agosto de 1997 y fue auspiciada por la Fundación CODETI. En la
misma, el Ingeniero Robert V. Parsons realizó su presentación: “Resource
Conservation and Cost Savings Opportunities for Agri-Food Industries”
(Conservación de recursos y oportunidades de ahorro en los costos para las
industrias del sector agro-alimentario). La misma es presentada en el segundo
capítulo de este libro. En su documento, Parsons presenta las características del
sector y sus efectos contaminantes típicos. También presenta estrategias para
mejorar la eficiencia de las empresas del sector, y cómo la tendencia debe ir
evolucionando del simple cumplimiento de las normas ambientales a la adopción
de tecnologías limpias que mejoren la competitividad de la empresa y la
preparen para convertirse, eventualmente, en una industria sustentable. Así
mismo, presenta las tendencias existentes en términos de oportunidades de
4
Programa Interamericano de Cooperación en Tecnologías Ambientales...
5
Introducción
6
Programa Interamericano de Cooperación en Tecnologías Ambientales...
7
Introducción
Esperamos que este documento ayude a los encargados del diseño de políticas,
así como a las empresas, en la identificación de prácticas de producción más
limpias y en su adaptación por parte del sector productivo.
8
INTRODUCTION
Sitoo Mukerji+ and Daniel R. Vilariño1
The experts meeting in Ottawa acknowledged the importance of Small and Medium
Enterprises (SMEs) in employment generation, in almost all the countries of the
hemisphere, and also recognized that the same enterprises in the developing areas
were probably the biggest sources of pollution. The experts recommended the
establishment of a program under the auspices of the OAS which would promote
environmentally sound technologies in the region.
The introduction of cleaner production practices was also seen as essential because
of the changing nature of the market and globalization of trade. Participation
of the SMEs in the global market requires complying with the world and the
consumer standards. Consumers, specially in the developed world, are increasingly
demanding application of better environmental management practices by the
producers of goods and services. This, it was acknowledged, requires re-thinking
of traditional production processes and the existing engineering practices, to
design cleaner systems of producing goods and services, which would also utilize
resources more efficiently and result in improved productivity.
Parallel to the experts meeting, Industry Canada had organized a round table of
members representing several industry associations of the OAS member states. In a
joint meeting of the experts and the industry association members
1
Dr. Sitoo Mukerji was the Director of the Office of Science and Technology of the Organization of
American States. Daniel R. Vilariño, MS is a Senior Specialist-Environmental Engineer of the Office
of Science and Technology of the Organization of American States.
9
Introduction
The main objective of this workshop was to prepare the industry associations
of the OAS member countries to tackle the environmental management concerns
and create a hemispheric-wide support network joining these associations with
institutions and organizations capable to assist them with follow-up initiatives.
During the Design Workshop a series of goals were defined. These could be
summarized as the following:
• Demonstrate that SMEs can both, adopt cleaner technologies and improve their
economic efficiency.
10
Inter-American Program for Environmental Technical Cooperation...
Overall, seven roundtables were developed. The first one was a pilot roundtable
that took place in Uruguay, about the Textile Industry and Leather Sector. It was
followed by roundtables in Costa Rica, on the agri-food sector, in Colombia on
metal plating industry, in Jamaica on energy efficiency in the tourism sector, in
Canada, on municipal water management, in Brazil, on solid waste management,
and finally in Chile, on the forest industry sector.
This publication compiles the presentations that set the stage for each of these
roundtables. There are seven papers, which are presented in their original
languages.
A pilot roundtable on the Textile Industry and Leather Sector was held in
Montevideo, Uruguay as a pilot test, and was sponsored by the Technological
Laboratory of Uruguay (LATU, in Spanish: Laboratorio Tecnológico del
Uruguay) which was the host institution. It was held from July 16 to July 18,
1996 and the topic of the roundtable was “Competitive enterprises in a cleaner
11
Introduction
After the pilot roundtable, the next Roundtable was held on the Agri-Food
Industry Sector. It took place in San Jose, Costa Rica, from August 6 to August
8, 1997 and was sponsored by the CODETI Foundation. In that opportunity,
Eng. Robert V. Parsons made his presentation: “Resource Conservation and
Cost Savings Opportunities for Agri-Food Industries.” The presentation appears
in the second chapter of this book. In his document, Parsons presents the
characteristics of this sector and its typical contaminant effects. The document
presents also strategies to improve the sector SMEs efficiency and how the
trend is evolving from the single compliance of environmental regulations to
the use of cleaner technologies giving more competitiveness to the enterprise
and eventually achieving a sustainable industry. As well, it presents existing
trends in terms of opportunities for savings in the use of resources, with
emphasis in the controlled and optimal management of water and energy.
Parsons concludes that the tools and techniques already available or emerging
will allow a situation in which, application of these by firms will improve their
environmental records as well as their bottom line.
12
Inter-American Program for Environmental Technical Cooperation...
in the Metal Plating Sector” (in Spanish: “Situación Ambiental del Sector de
Recubrimiento de Metales”) specifically in Chile, Colombia and Ecuador. This
document is presented in the third chapter of this publication. Barragán presents
the profile of the enterprises working in the sector, as well as the challenges
faced by these enterprises from the environmental standpoint. He presents data
which shows that this industry has high impact in terms of solid, liquid and
gas contamination and medium impact in terms of sound contamination. He also
remarks on which factors will favor environmental management improvement
and cleaner technologies adoption. In this chapter, the efforts made at the
international level by some organizations and institutions, including the OAS, are
mentioned. The paper also presents a series of proposals and conclusions which
could improve the situation of the SMEs of the sector.
During the following year, 1998, three roundtables were held. The first of that
year took place in Vancouver, Canada, from March 15 to March 17. The subject
treated in that roundtable was Municipal Waters Treatment. CEIA of Canada,
the Program implementing agency, sponsored this roundtable. The document
prepared by Mr. Norman Looker, Project Manager for Latin America of R. J.
Burnside Ltd., entitled: “Municipal Wastewater Management in Latin America
and the Caribbean: A Discussion Paper on Trends, Challenges and the Market”
is presented in the fifth chapter of this book. This chapter presents a summary of
the potable water and wastewater coverage in the region, pointing out the main
environmental challenges derived from the municipal water management in the
Western Hemisphere. It also shows the key factors affecting the decision-making
process for small and medium communities in issues related to this sector.
13
Introduction
Following that, the chapter presents an assessment of the services and equipment
market for potable water and wastewater, as well as the financing options available
to cope with an increasing demand for infrastructure in Latin America and the
Caribbean. The paper goes on to describe the privatization trend in the Water
Management sector. Finally, towards the end of the chapter, it presents a summary
of the main challenges this sector will have to tackle in future years.
The last roundtable was held from October 24 to October 26, 1998, in Santiago
de Chile sponsored by SFF. This roundtable delt with the Forestry Industry
Sector. For this event, Claudio Zaror, Oscar Parra and Patricia González from
the Center of Environmental Science — EULA (in Spanish: Centro de Ciencias
Ambientales), of the University of Concepcion, prepared a study, which was
presented by Dr. Zaror. This document constitutes the last chapter of this book
and its title is: “Technical and Environmental Challenges for a Sustainable
Management of the Forestry Sector in Countries of Latin America and the
Caribbean (from Spanish: “Desafíos tecnológicos y ambientales para la gestión
sustentable del sector forestal en los países de América Latina y el Caribe”). This
chapter begins with a description of the forestry assets of the region, providing a
view of different products from the forestry industry and their uses, it also
describes the different technologies and modes of production, emphasizing
environmentally friendly methods available to the sector. This study continues
by showing diverse environmental aspects of this sector, such as deforestation,
forest fires, disease and plagues, as well as especial efforts needed to maintain the
protected areas.
14
Inter-American Program for Environmental Technical Cooperation...
It also presents the effects and environmental impacts of the activities of the
forestry industry. Among other things the study highlights the technological and
scientific requirements of this sector, and the role that social actions play in its
management. Towards the end of the chapter, a series of policies designed to
promote clean production are presented. This paper also identifies the international
programs promoting the proper management of the sector.
This book, as it has been mentioned earlier, gathers one document from each
of the seven roundtables organized under the Inter-American Program for
Environmental Technical Cooperation in Key Industry Sectors. However, it is
important to highlight, that many more documents, studies and reports were
presented during all these roundtables, some general, some very specific, but all
of them of very good quality. These documents provided rich information to the
participants and acted as catalysts for exchange of ideas and in depth analysis
of the different sectors covered in the various roundtables. For more information
about the Program, including background, as well as the complete text of most of
the documents presented in the roundtables, the reader can refer to the following
Internet address: http://www.idrc.ca/industry where the information is available in
Spanish, English, and Portuguese.
The Steering Committee of the Program, has met several times during 1999, and
will continue during the 2000 and following years to seek financing mechanisms
needed to promote this type of activities. This is a generalized wish, shared by all
the people involved in this effort, who contributed one way or another to reach
the success achieved with the roundtables of the Inter-American Program for
Environmental Technical Cooperation in Key Industry Sectors.
It is our hope that this document will be helpful to policy makers as well as the
enterprises in the identification of cleaner production practices and their adaptation
by the productive sector.
15
BOOSTING PROFITS AND BENEFITTING
THE ENVIRONMENT IN LATIN AMERICA:
THE TANNERY CASE
Carlos Barragán1
Recognizing these facts, PROPEL was established four years ago to contribute
to the sustainable development of Latin America by promoting eco-efficient
management and technical solutions for small and medium enterprises.
PROPEL’s work rests on the principle that there is a positive relationship between
sound environmental practices and business success. Using raw materials and
energy more efficiently results in greater productivity and profitability.
1
PROPEL, Colombia. Presented at Montevideo, Uruguay, 16–18 June 1996
17
Textiles and Leather Sectors - Montevideo, Uruguay
The company also faced a productivity loss due to inefficient operations. Raw
materials were also being wasted through inefficient processes. Loss of markets
meant that the company was operating at only 60% of total capacity, and thus
had experienced a fall in profits. New markets were needed, and existing foreign
markets were beginning to exert pressure on the tanners. Curtigran and the other
San Benito tanners were also under pressure from the community to improve
their environmental performance.
The objective of the solutions developed with Curtigran and the other pilot
enterprises in San Benito was not to adapt corrective end-of-pipe solutions, but
to create awareness and provide information which would lead to pollution
prevention.
18
Inter-American Program for Environmental Technical Cooperation...
Organic Load
Total Chrome
Traditional Technology 2
Sulfides
Overall Curtigran has achieved its goals in reducing its environmental impact,
improved occupational health, productivity, and product quality. Thanks to these
changes the firm is still operating. The improvement in occupational health
enhanced the relationship with their own employees and in addition the company
will be well prepared if the government continues to remove the water and
energy subsidies. The following table shows the overall eco-efficient result of
the implementation.
19
Textiles and Leather Sectors - Montevideo, Uruguay
4. Conclusion
The economic growth of Latin America and overcoming poverty through the
model of sustainable development and ecoefficiency are possible if work is done
in the following areas:
20
PRESOURCE CONSERVATION AND COST
SAVINGS OPPORTUNITIES FOR
AGRI-FOOD INDUSTRIES
Robert V. Parsons1
Agri-Food Industry
Agri-Food is typically divided into:
1
Senior Business Development Engineer, Marketing and Business Development, Central Gas
Manitoba. Presented at San Jose, Costa Rica, August 6-8, 1997
21
Agri-Food Sector - San José, Costa Rica
1. Agri-Food Industry
Characteristics
Major contributor of economic activity and employment,
second only to transport manufacture (e.g. automobiles)
Improvement Implications
• Energy savings are present, but do not represent a major
improvement driver.
22
Inter-American Program for Environmental Technical Cooperation...
Process Residuals
Industrial from Manufacturing
Process
Effects
Entity
Air-Borne
Water-Borne
Solid
Hazardous
Process Residuals
Output Products
from End-Use
23
Agri-Food Sector - San José, Costa Rica
24
Inter-American Program for Environmental Technical Cooperation...
25
Agri-Food Sector - San José, Costa Rica
26
Inter-American Program for Environmental Technical Cooperation...
27
Agri-Food Sector - San José, Costa Rica
Municipal Discharges/Surcharges
• Agri-Food dominates in industrial discharges to municipal
sewage/treatment systems.
For Metro Toronto (1993), 74% of excess loadings to the
municipal sewer system came from Food and Beverage
plants.
At same time, only 8% of direct discharges (not through
any municipal system) in all Ontario came from Food and
Beverage.
Municipal Discharges/Surcharges
(Continued)
28
Inter-American Program for Environmental Technical Cooperation...
29
Agri-Food Sector - San José, Costa Rica
Compliance To Competitiveness
• Shifting focus away from pollution control towards prevention
and conservation.
30
Inter-American Program for Environmental Technical Cooperation...
4.Savings/Opportunity Trends
• Energy:
Typically well monitored in plants.
Global optimization offers opportunities via advanced
analysis methodologies.
Linkage of energy and water important.
• Water:
Key resource but not well monitored.
Many plants built when water “free” and this is reflected in
operations.
31
Agri-Food Sector - San José, Costa Rica
• Effluent:
Process residuals lead to effluent loadings.
Result specifically because of the materials-carrier role of
water.
Opportunity in emphasizing product or input material.
Assessment/Optimizing Methods
A simple approach uses mass and energy balances.
Three examples of advanced methods:
32
Inter-American Program for Environmental Technical Cooperation...
5. Sector-Based Methodology
• Developed for the Industry Conservation Branch of Ontario
Ministry of Environment and Energy (Trish Bolton 416-327-
1454 or Nick Markettos 416-327-1453).
Example of Methodology
• Highlights of Meat and Poultry guide presented as relevant
example.
33
Agri-Food Sector - San José, Costa Rica
Generic Processes
• Detailed generic process flow diagrams prepared for four
major processes within sector:
34
Inter-American Program for Environmental Technical Cooperation...
Consumption/Impact Character
• Concerns identified for each step in each process: Thermal
Energy; Electrical Power; Water Consumption; and
Environmental Effects.
35
Agri-Food Sector - San José, Costa Rica
Operational/Low-cost opportunities
• Typically have costs less than $5,000.00 and with rapid
payback.
Retrofit Opportunities
• Typically have capital costs up to $50,000.00, and with
relatively rapid paybacks.
36
Inter-American Program for Environmental Technical Cooperation...
6. Benchmarking
(Resource-use/Residuals)
• Most easily evaluated using unit performance ratios for:
Resource utilization (e.g. energy, water, inputs)
Residual generation (e.g. BOD)
37
Agri-Food Sector - San José, Costa Rica
Using Benchmarking
• Any plant or company can use their own benchmark data
(ratios) independently to track progress over time or
compared to literature values.
7. Conclusion
• Compliance was the key improvement motivator in the
past.
38
Inter-American Program for Environmental Technical Cooperation...
8. Acknowledgements
International Delevopment Research Centre (IDRC) for
assistance
39
PROMOCIÓN DE LA PEQUEÑA
EMPRESA ECOEFICIENTE
LATINOAMERICANA
PROPEL
SITUACIÓN AMBIENTAL
DEL SECTOR DE
RECUBRIMIENTO DE METALES
—GALVANOPLASTIA—
Carlos Barragán1
1
PROPEL, Colombia. Presentado en Bogotá, Colombia, 21 al 23 de octubre de 1997.
41
Sector Recubrimiento de Metales - Bogotá, Colombia
Índice
1. Caracterización de la industria de galvanoplastia
5. Conclusiones y Propuestas
6. Lista de siglas
42
Programa Interamericano de Cooperación en Tecnologías Ambientales...
Presentación
El Programa Interamericano de Cooperación Tecnológica Ambiental en Sectores
Claves de la Industria, promovido por la Organización de Estados Americanos
(OEA), ha previsto entre sus actividades la realización de un conjunto de mesas
redondas en diferentes países de América Latina; una de las cuales, a ser realizada
en Santa Fe de Bogotá, se ocupa los días 21 al 23 de octubre de 1997, de la
situación y gestión ambiental del sector de recubrimiento de metales, también
llamado Galvanoplastia. En ese contexto, el propósito del presente documento,
elaborado por PROPEL, es motivar el análisis y debate del tema entre los asistentes
a la mencionada mesa redonda.
1. Caracterización de la industria de
galvanoplastia
La Galvanoplastia es una rama de la industria metal-mecánica, dedicada al
tratamiento de superficies metálicas o plásticas —con materiales diversos tales
como: cadmio, cobre, níquel, estaño, oro, plata, plomo o zinc— mediante
procesos químicos o electrolíticos, los cuales persiguen uno o varios de los
siguientes propósitos:
43
Sector Recubrimiento de Metales - Bogotá, Colombia
• Electrodomésticos
• Acabados para la construcción
• Grifería y muebles sanitarios
• Muebles de cocina
• Muebles de oficina
• Industria automotriz y de autopartes
• Partes eléctricas
• Industria eléctrica y electrónica
2. Contribución económica de la
galvanoplastia
Determinar la contribución de la industria de recubrimiento de metales al
conjunto de los agregados económicos, es una tarea virtualmente imposible, pues
tanto en Chile, como en Colombia y Ecuador, se encuentra una significativa
ausencia de registros oficiales sobre número de empresas, personal ocupado,
participación en el Producto Interno Bruto (PIB) o datos similares, lo cual
hace visible la dificultad de abordar una caracterización cuantitativa del sector.
Complementariamente, si se tiene en cuenta ese axioma según el cual el primer
y, quizá, más importante paso para abordar cualquier acción de mejoramiento
ambiental es cuantificar y diagnosticar las dimensiones y naturaleza del
problema que se enfrenta, podremos apreciar la índole de las dificultades que
entraña el sector de la galvanoplastia.
44
Programa Interamericano de Cooperación en Tecnologías Ambientales...
Fuentes:
(1) Fundación Natura: La Pequeña y Mediana Empresa de la Galvanoplastia en Ecuador
(2) Fedemetal: Anuario Metal 96/97
(3) Asociación de Industrias Metalúrgicas y Metal-Metálicas de Chile. Página Web.
45
Sector Recubrimiento de Metales - Bogotá, Colombia
46
Programa Interamericano de Cooperación en Tecnologías Ambientales...
Tabla 2
Operaciones y procesos más significativos en la galvanoplastia (CEPIS 1997)
Operación o Proceso Objetivo Operación Insumos
Pulido Mecánico Remoción de óxidos Máquinas pulidoras o
superficiales abrasivos
Decapado Remoción de óxidos Inmersión de las Acidos sulfúrico,
superficiales piezas en solución clorhídrico, fosfórico,
acuosa de ácidos nítrico
Desengrase Eliminación de grasas Inmersión en solventes Hidróxido de Sodio,
y aceites orgánicos o en Carbonato de Sodio,
soluciones alcalinas Cianuro de Sodio
Electro-deposición Deposición del metal Inmersión de las Sales metálicas en
de metales en la superficie de la piezas en soluciones forma de cloruros,
pieza de electrolitos y nitratos, sulfatos,
aplicación de tensión cianuros
Neutralizado Protección del acabado Inmersión de las Acido crómico, nítrico,
superficial piezas en soluciones cianuros
neutralizantes
Enjuague Remoción de químicos Inmersión de las Restos de los
de la superficie de las piezas en agua o productos removidos y
piezas soluciones acuosas agua
Secado Eliminación de la Hornos, centrífugas, Aire frío, caliente,
humedad del enjuague aserrín aserrín
47
Sector Recubrimiento de Metales - Bogotá, Colombia
• Irracionalidad en cuanto a:
• Organización de planta.
• Funcionamiento de procesos productivos.
• Uso de insumos.
• Uso de agua y energía.
• Disposición de desechos.
En relación con las grandes empresas que cuentan con procesos de recubrimiento
de metales, es difícil hacer una caracterización aproximada de sus secciones
dedicadas a tal actividad. No necesariamente, por ser grandes, debe presumirse
que cuentan con procesos limpios de producción.
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Tabla 3
Grado de impacto de la Industria Galvanoplástica de acuerdo a ACERCAR
Sólido •
Líquido •
Gaseoso •
Ruido •
Los procesos galvánicos originan cantidades de efluentes líquidos, residuos
sólidos, humos, gases y vapores. De manera general, se pueden señalar los efectos
ambientales de dicha actividad, tal como se presenta en la Tabla 4.
Tabla 4
Efecto ambiental de la Industria de la Galvanoplastia
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Sector Recubrimiento de Metales - Bogotá, Colombia
Tabla 4
Efecto ambiental de la Industria de la Galvanoplastia
(continued)
Diversos estudios (SPAR 1985; DPN, PNUD 1993; ACERCAR 1997)2 han
determinado la carga contaminante de las industrias de galvanoplastia, más por
aproximación individual que por cuantificación sectorial. Sin embargo, existe
consenso en que el poder contaminante de la galvanoplastia se origina en la alta
toxicidad de los desechos más que en el volumen de los mismos.
2
Así como otros estudios producidos por la Empresa de Acueducto y Alcantarillado de Bogotá
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Tabla 5
Impacto ambiental de la industria metal-metálica vs. otros impactos industriales
Colombia 1993 (DPN/PNUD 1994)
Indicador Impacto
Contribución al Los productos metálicos, con un 4,6% del total de los residuos
total de residuos industriales, se encuentran en séptimo lugar después de las
industriales siguientes actividades:
• Termoeléctricas,
• Productos alimenticios, bebidas y tabaco
• Textiles, confecciones y cueros
• Papel, imprentas y editoriales
• Fabricación de químicos industriales
• Industrias metálicas básicas
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Sector Recubrimiento de Metales - Bogotá, Colombia
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53
Sector Recubrimiento de Metales - Bogotá, Colombia
Aclarando que el énfasis varía de país a país, mayor en Colombia y Chile que
en Ecuador, puede señalarse que, en ese orden, actualmente los factores más
favorables al mejoramiento ambiental de la galvanoplastia son los siguientes:
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55
Sector Recubrimiento de Metales - Bogotá, Colombia
En este aspecto también cuenta el que parte de esas grandes empresas son
multinacionales que siguen políticas ambientales de su casa matriz. En
Colombia, por ejemplo, General Motors-Colmotores ha anunciado que en los
próximos meses descartará proveedores que no cumplan sus requerimientos
en materia ambiental.
Tal como se anotó, los citados factores son los que actualmente están incidiendo
más notablemente en el aún incipiente mejoramiento ambiental del sector de
galvanoplastia. Potencialmente habría otros a considerar tomando en cuenta las
características del sector que fueron mencionadas en páginas anteriores. Factores
que serían indispensables en cualquier programa sectorial de gestión ambiental a
ser activado en nuestros países motu proprio o con cooperación internacional.
Tales factores serían:
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Sector Recubrimiento de Metales - Bogotá, Colombia
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Programa Interamericano de Cooperación en Tecnologías Ambientales...
actividad se confundan con los residuos, también domésticos, que son propios de
esa ubicación.
Por el lado de los servicios de mejoramiento ambiental, los tres países acusan
déficit en la disponibilidad de profesionales específicamente formados en el
tratamiento de la contaminación industrial y, en particular, galvanoplástica.
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Sector Recubrimiento de Metales - Bogotá, Colombia
Cabe una anotación final sobre la oferta de servicios de consultoría y es que tiene
un perfil predominantemente técnico-ambiental, llamémoslo “ingenieril”; lo cual
podría parecer absolutamente ideal; sin embargo, tiene un inconveniente respecto
de las PYMEs y es que éstas, por su debilidad organizacional y administrativa,
demandan enfoques más integrales de atención que abarquen no sólo lo
estrictamente técnico sino que, además, involucren aspectos de orden
mercadológico, organizacional, económico, financiero y de administración de
personal, los cuales son indispensables dentro de un verdadero enfoque de gestión
ambiental.
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4
Téngase en cuenta que las tecnologías de producción limpia no se limitan sólo a los equipos,
sino que involucran un conjunto de prácticas difíciles de estandarizar, puesto que suponen
transformaciones de insumos, procesos y productos específicos para cada planta.
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Sector Recubrimiento de Metales - Bogotá, Colombia
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63
Sector Recubrimiento de Metales - Bogotá, Colombia
Tabla 6
Resultados de los trabajos efectuados en 18 empresas
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Tabla 7
Experiencias de mejoramiento ambiental de la galvanoplastia en Colombia
9. Conclusiones y propuestas
El predominio, de medianas y, especialmente, pequeñas empresas, explica que
la galvanoplastia sea un sector industrial vulnerable en los aspectos económico,
organizacional, financiero, administrativo, tecnológico y ambiental.
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Sector Recubrimiento de Metales - Bogotá, Colombia
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67
Sector Recubrimiento de Metales - Bogotá, Colombia
68
ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND TOURISM:
FOCUS ON THE CARIBBEAN
DISCUSSION PAPER
Martin Adelaar and Amitav Rath1
1. Introduction
This paper was prepared for the Organization of American States (OAS) and
the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) in support of a series of
“Roundtables” organized by the OAS Office of Science and Technology under the
auspices of the “Inter-American Program for Environment Technology Cooperation
in Key Economic Sectors.” This Program consists of a series of sectoral roundtables
geared primarily to industry representatives and designed to demonstrate the cost-
effective application of cleaner technologies and sound environmental management
principles in six economic sectors important to the country members of the OAS.
This paper focuses on one such sector, tourism, and was been prepared for the
Roundtable on Energy Efficiency and Tourism.
As further elaborated in this paper, tourism is one of the key economic sectors
for many of the OAS members and, in particular, the thrust of this paper is oriented
towards those countries where tourism constitutes a significant percentage of gross
domestic product (GDP). More specifically, this paper explores the opportunities
for energy efficiency in the tourism sector with the goal of catalyzing discussion
and action to implement cost-effective measures that will pay off for the industry,
government, and society in general.
Energy efficiency is the means by which certain “energy services,” such as space
conditioning, lighting, and transportation, can be provided by using less energy
while maintaining the same, or an even better, level of service. Energy efficiency
results in reduced operating costs for business, which in turn improves “bottom
line” performance. Around the world today, energy efficiency is a large and
growing business with services being delivered through a variety of means to all
1
Prepared for the: Roundtable on Energy Efficiency — Tourism Sector, Kingston, Jamaica, 9–11
December 1997
Martin Adelaar, Principal, Marbek Resource Consultants — adelaar@marbek.ca
Amitav Rath, Director, Policy Research International — arath@pri.on.ca
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Energy Efficiency in the Tourism Sector - Kingston, Jamaica
economic sectors. However, there is more that can be achieved and more rapidly;
that is one of the central themes of this paper.
As further elaborated later, the focus of the paper is on those OAS countries
situated in the Caribbean. There are two reasons for this particular focus. First,
although tourism is an important economic sector in most OAS countries, it is of
particular importance to the Caribbean members and, thus, the payoff associated
with energy efficiency will be more pronounced. Second, by virtue of some of
our recent consulting experience, we can utilize case examples of energy
efficiency located right here in the region. The primary themes discussed in the
paper are that:
First, a profile of the tourism sector in the region with the goal
of establishing a context for the potential benefits associated with energy
efficiency including a discussion of the environmental challenges facing
the tourism sector.
Second, energy use is profiled, both in terms of the sector as a whole and
for a typical hotel facility. The primary focus is on energy use within
built facilities as opposed to transportation.
Then, using Jamaica as a case study, we:
• Profile the energy-management opportunities in a typical hotel
facility and
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• In 1994, tourism accounted for roughly 24% of the GDP (about US$21
billion) generated by the Caribbean economies and accounted for one in
every six jobs.
• In 1994, tourism receipts represented 36% and 71%, respectively, of
export and service output values.
For some countries in the region there are trends that may reduce the benefits to
the local economies. These include, for example:
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Energy Efficiency in the Tourism Sector - Kingston, Jamaica
• Costs of supporting the industry continue to rise, for both the private
suppliers and government (for example, support for growth niches, such
as all-inclusive resorts requires major private investment and supporting
public infrastructure). These challenges are not insurmountable and,
indeed, there have been a variety of strategies suggested to take
advantage of the changing tourism market driven by demographics,
technology, and consumer awareness.
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It is positive to note that the tourism industry among OAS members countries has
embraced the concept of environmental management as “good business” practice
and this provides an excellent “springboard” for energy-efficiency investments. In
particular, in 1997, the Caribbean Hotel Association initiated the Caribbean Action
for Sustainable Tourism (CAST), whose mission is to promote sustainable tourism
among association members through a variety of means. Planned activities by
CAST include:
There are signs that the industry has begun to put into place its intention to
become environmentally responsible. Indeed, the nominees for the annual
Environmental Awards of the International Hotel and Restaurant Association
included: Heinz Simonitsch of Jamaica’s “Half Moon Golf, Tennis and Beach
Club,” who was runner-up in the independent category, and Gill Whitley,
Environmental Manager of Casuarine, Christchurch, Barbados, who was
shortlisted for the corporate award.
One of the key international activities in this area is the “International Hotels
Environment Initiative.” In 1996, the world’s hotel leaders met to examine how
the hotel industry should respond to the increasing needs for environmental
management. Sustainable design was a key issue discussed during this event,
which included energy-efficient design. Again, energy efficiency is viewed by
the industry as a fundamental component of environmental management.
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Energy Efficiency in the Tourism Sector - Kingston, Jamaica
to define and, indeed, a recent study undertaken for the Caribbean Development
Bank (CDB) recommends that there is an urgent need to frame what is meant
by a tourist sector, in particular, the industrial activities that constitute the sector.
Nevertheless, we use the same “working definition” as that used in the CDB
study:
• Includes all the economic activity (for example, employment, sales, and
profits) of businesses providing services to and receiving payment directly
from tourists.
• Tourists are defined to be visitors staying more than 24 hours.
Overall, the tourism sector involves the following energy using activities:
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Energy Efficiency in the Tourism Sector - Kingston, Jamaica
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Inter-American Program for Environmental Technical Cooperation...
One hundred and fifty million dollars per year is a significant operating cost for
the accommodation sector and, of course, this does not represent additional utility
costs such as water. As a reduction in operating costs, 100% of an energy-efficiency
investment will affect the bottom line directly — we provide an
example here for discussion.
The first scenario describes the current financial situation in a full-service hotel
as based on Canadian statistics of hotel revenues and costs. As shown, energy
costs are assumed to amount to 5% of total “departmental” expenses. Revenues are
typically a function of several variables: occupancy, revenue per room, and food
and beverage receipts. As shown, the hotel generated a profit of 15%.
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Energy Efficiency in the Tourism Sector - Kingston, Jamaica
Exhibit 3
A Typical Hotel
Energy Efficiency & the Bottom Line
Pre-Retrofit Post-Retrofit
Rooms 300 300
Revenue per Room $32,000.00 $32,000.00
• Rental
• Food, etc.
Item % $ % $
Revenues 100% 9,600,000 100% 9,600,000
Departmental Expenses -52% (4,953,000) -52% (4,953,000)
Net Departmental 48% 4,647,000 48% 4,647,000
Income
Undistributed Operating -25% (2,370,000) -24% (2,256,000)
Expenses
Energy Costs -5% (456,000) -4% (342,000)
Income before Fixed 24% 2,277,000 25% 2,391,000
Charges
Property Taxes & -9% (870,000) -9% (870,000)
Insurance
Net Income 15% 1,407,000 16% 1,521,000
benefits of the energy efficiency investment will accrue after the investment has
been paid off.) As shown in Exhibit 3, suppose we reduce energy costs by
25%. As a result, energy operating costs are reduced by over $100,000 per year.
Profit is increased by 1%, or more importantly, the energy-efficiency investment
represents a 20% contribution to meeting the new profit target (for example, staff
reorganizations).
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6. Energy-Efficiency Opportunities
6.1. Definition of Energy Management
The focus of our paper is on what is referred to as energy efficiency. This refers
to improvements in the efficiency with which energy is used to provide certain
“energy services” (for example, lighting, motive power, and cooling). For the hotel
owner or manager, the benefits include reduced operating costs and improved
productivity, comfort, and so on.
• Fuel substitution: This refers to the substitution of one form of energy for
another in meeting a specific energy service requirement. Hotel owners or
managers might consider this option if a less expensive form of energy is
available to provide the same service.
• Cogeneration: This refers to the provision of combined electricity and heat
services from a common supply facility in which fuel is sequentially used
to generate electricity and a useful form of thermal energy.
• Other: This refers to emerging services including fuel purchasing, total
building management, and environmental management.
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Energy Efficiency in the Tourism Sector - Kingston, Jamaica
The financial return exhibited by this case example is very achievable. In fact,
there is more that can be accomplished in a hotel facility. Exhibit 5 lists additional
capital and low-cost options to further improve energy efficiency. Of particular note
is the role that energy-management controls can play, both in terms of controlling
air conditioning and ventilation equipment and adjusting hotel-room energy use to
actual occupancy.
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Exhibit 4
Case Study of a Jamaica Hotel
Power
Quality/Distribution
7. Add capacitors to 47,661 0.8% 183.3 14.1% 6.2% $13,604 $25,500 1.9
improve power factor
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Energy Efficiency in the Tourism Sector - Kingston, Jamaica
Exhibit 5
Additional Energy Efficiency Measures
• Provide low-cost reset controls for air paneling units (supply air
reset);
• Provide low-cost chilled water reset or condenser water reset;
n Room Controls:
n Hot Water:
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83
Energy Efficiency in the Tourism Sector - Kingston, Jamaica
Therefore, this section discusses some of the means by which the tourism industry
can accelerate such investments. Before we do so, it is important for the industry
to understand that the best pay-off is “to do the job right the first time,” in other
words to optimize the efficiency savings attainable in a project. Thus, although
certain measures are already being implemented, based on experience elsewhere, it
is possible to conclude that a much greater savings effect can be achieved in the
region. There are two aspects to this potential.
Second, it is possible to expand the scope of measures that can be included, for
example, in the same way that we offered additional measures in Exhibit 5 above.
7.2. Options
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• The transfer of most risks to the firm supplying the service, commonly
referred to as the Energy Service Company (ESCO), during the term of
the agreement;
• Reduced operating costs and improved overall financial performance;
• No capital outlays are required, improvements are financed by savings
achieved;
• Once an agreement has been negotiated, no further management attention
needs to be given to the project, this responsibility being assumed by the
ESCO;
• Improved energy services (for example, better lighting, greater comfort,
and better aesthetics) resulting from installation of new equipment; and
• Greater awareness of and attention to energy efficiency on the part of
management and employees.
It is also important, however, for operators to understand that EPC services are
generally more expensive than the traditional construction approach. The ESCO
takes on additional responsibilities and tasks, which increase the overall project
cost. However, these additional costs are typically offset by the value of the
savings that are incremental to what would be achieved from the construction
approach. In other words, “you get what you pay for.”
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Energy Efficiency in the Tourism Sector - Kingston, Jamaica
One of the major reasons for the growing international success of EPC is that it
involves a fundamental transfer of risk away from the energy user to the ESCO.
Fundamentally, risk transfer through EPC occurs because the ESCO guarantees
the energy performance and, therefore, the financial obligations of the project for
the full term of the contract. Regardless of the financing instrument used, the
ESCO will be under an agreement with the owner to guarantee the performance
of the project for the full duration of the contract. The cost of shortfalls in that
performance, if they occur, are borne by the ESCO.
Service suppliers are typically proactive and seek a full range of cost-effective
measures. Because of the way in which performance contracts are structured, it is
possible for ESCOs to offer a wide range of energy-efficiency measures. In fact,
today ESCOs are offering services that extend beyond energy efficiency
and include water efficiency and cogeneration.
Financing
Building and facility owners and managers can choose from several different
means of financing energy-efficiency investments under a performance contract.
Most of these financing approaches use “routine” instruments that can be
modified to meet special conditions under EPC. Two of the most common
approaches are:
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• Direct loan or lease with a third-party lender: This is now the most
common approach to financing EPC projects in North America. Typically,
the financing arrangements are structured to conform to the two stages of
a performance contract.
Contract types
(2) The obligation of the owner to execute a long-term (typically, 5–10 years)
loan with a lending institution. (Note: In some instances, the owner may be able
to self-finance the work without a loan. In other cases, the ESCO may help the
owner to arrange financing.)
(3) The equipment and energy-efficiency measures that the ESCO will install
at the owner’s facility, the schedule for this installation, and the
responsibilities and rights of both parties during this period. (Note: The ESCO
will typically arrange its own financing for the costs associated with design,
procurement of equipment, installation activities (including testing), and
training of the owner’s staff. The owner shall have the right to inspect the
work and verify that the equipment being installed conforms to the
specification, and to approve variances when this is appropriate. The owner
shall have the right to designate an agent to actually perform these tasks.)
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Energy Efficiency in the Tourism Sector - Kingston, Jamaica
(4) The obligation of the owner or the owner’s lending institution to pay an
agreed-upon amount to the ESCO upon:
• Acceptance of the installed equipment by the owner; and
• Initial verification of savings.
(5) In the typical case where the owner does not self-finance the work, the
obligation of the owner to make monthly payments to the lender to retire the
loan.
(6) The obligation of the owner to make monthly payments to the ESCO of
a specified amount. (Note: The terms of the loan and the Master Agreement are
usually such that the sum of the monthly payments to both the lending
institution and the ESCO are slightly less than the owner’s expected monthly
cost savings.)
(8) The obligation of the ESCO to guarantee that the savings meet the level
specified in the Agreement and to otherwise maintain the equipment.
Payments to the ESCO terminate either before the end of the specified
contract term (if actual savings exceed projected impact) or at the end of the
term. Depending on the terms of the Agreement, the owner may or may not
share in the savings during the terms of the Agreement or loan. After the
contract and loan have expired, the owner receives all the cost savings
(provided he or she takes whatever steps are needed to ensure that the savings
continue). It is important to note that the Agreement is a legal document, and
as such it enables recourse for the parties involved in the event of
nonperformance.
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Inter-American Program for Environmental Technical Cooperation...
estimate of EPC investment value for the Caribbean region as a whole. Roughly,
we estimate a range of US$75 million to 100 million. This is perhaps a
conservative estimate because it is based on energy-efficiency measures only
and, thus, has excluded water-efficiency and other possible energy-management
measures.
Having established that there is a significant role for EPC to help realize the
efficiency market in the Caribbean tourism sector, then the question becomes:
how can it become a reality? Although there are hotels that could purchase EPC
today, our experience in Jamaica and elsewhere suggests that the long-term view
needs to be undertaken. Specifically, there is a need to ensure that this market
will be sustainable, both in terms of demand for and supply of services. In turn,
the reality is that a variety of capacity-building activities will be necessary for
this to happen. We comment on these below, but first address two key
observations about the EPC market in the region.
Are there, at present or likely to be in the near future, reliable and capable
EPC service providers?
As part of recent research conducted for the IDB, Caribbean hotel operators
were asked about possible impediments to energy-efficiency investments. The
availability of local technical services was identified as a key concern and it is
one that is pertinent to the question of EPC service providers.
There are two aspects as to how this question can be addressed. First, there
are individuals and corporations in the region who have some or most of the
characteristics to support such work. Unfortunately, however, there remains a
need for an institutional structure that will combine the expertise available with
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Energy Efficiency in the Tourism Sector - Kingston, Jamaica
financing and assurances to the buyer of services that what is promised will in
fact be delivered. There is a need also to aggregate the demand from the sector to
give assurances to suppliers of efficiency services and finances that in fact there
is sufficient demand. Second, if required, the regional efforts can be supported
through collaboration with North American ESCOs.
It is also possible that some of the utilities in the region might be in a position
to offer some elements of an EPC service and here the presentations made by JPS
are to be noted as representing a beginning in that direction. Utilities bring several
important attributes to this market: credibility among customers (this varies from
country to country), customer statistics, and also an important influencing force
with other key stakeholders, such as the financial community. The second aspect
pertains to the supporting contractors and trades, both in terms of installation and
ongoing maintenance. This is somewhat more of a challenge in that for some
countries in the region, local firms may require some training and capacity building.
Because of the low level of demand for energy-management services, there is a
lack of hands-on experience as well as exposure to state-of-the-art techniques and
tools. However, this should not be viewed as a problem but rather as an opportunity
to retain energy-efficiency revenues within the region. Again, the North American
ESCOs can help through collaborations with the local firms and there are also very
capable companies that sell energy using equipment, primarily air-conditioning
units (for example, chillers, rooftop units, and through-the-wall units) and lighting
who can assist.
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Inter-American Program for Environmental Technical Cooperation...
their concerns. Of course, the general economic climate in each country of the
region will have an important bearing on the role and likely involvement of local
and international financing. High borrowing costs for domestic funds are a major
deterrent in some countries.
Both the demand and supply sides of the EPC market require capacity-building
support. Key activities include:
Demand
• Stakeholder training: There are local stakeholders, in particular the utilities and
financial community, who have key roles to play in EPC development. There
is a need for these stakeholders to be trained, again, to understand the nature
of the EPC service.
Supply
• Training local service providers: There are two aspects to this requirement.
First, there may be well established engineering firms interested in starting
an EPC service. Training on how to develop and deliver EPC is a necessity.
Second, there will be a need to train local contractors and trades who would be
supporting the ESCOs in delivery of this service.
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Energy Efficiency in the Tourism Sector - Kingston, Jamaica
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9. Contacts
Amitav Rath, Policy Research International, 6 Beechwood Avenue, Suite 14,
Ottawa, ON, Canada K1L 8B4. Tel: (613) 746-2554; Fax: (613) 744-4899;
E-mail: arath@pri.on.ca
10. Abbreviations
CAST Caribbean Action for Sustainable Tourism
CDB Caribbean Development Bank
EPC energy-performance contracting
ESCO energy service company
GDP gross domestic product
HVAC heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
IDB Inter-American Development Bank
IDRC International Development Research Centre
IEA International Energy Agency in Paris, France
JPS Jamaica Public Service Company
OAS Organization of American States
SMSE Sustainable Markets for Sustainable Energy Program
93
MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT
IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN:
A DISCUSSION PAPER ON TRENDS,
CHALLENGES AND THE MARKET
Norman Looker1
1. Introduction
One only needs to recall the dramatic impact of the cholera epidemic in the early
1990s to understand the critical importance of clean water and effective
wastewater management. During the epidemic between 1991 and 1995, there
were about 1.3 million cases of cholera in Latin America and the Caribbean that
resulted in 11300 deaths (Idelovitch and Ringskog 1997). The economic losses
in Peru alone were estimated to be between US$180–500 million, which was
equivalent to about 1.5% of Peru’s gross domestic product (GDP) at that time.
There is clear documented evidence to demonstrate that those areas that had
direct access to clean water and effective wastewater management were able to
avoid the tragic impact of this epidemic. During this period, investment in Peru’s
water-sanitation sector was only 0.15% of GDP, which indicates that investment
in the sector can save lives and reduce detrimental long-term economic impacts.
This paper has been prepared for the Organization of American States (OAS)
and the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) in support of a series
of Round Table discussions organized under the Inter-American Program for
Environment Technology Cooperation in Key Industry Sectors (see
<http://www.idrc.ca/industry/index-e.html>). The program consists of a series of
sectoral Round Tables designed to exchange information on clean technologies
1
Prepared for: The Round Table on Municipal Water, Vancouver, Canada, 15–17 March 1998.
Norman Looker, Project Manager — Latin America, R. J. Burnside International Ltd, 15
Townline, Orangeville, ON L9W 3R4;Tel: (1-519) 941-5331; Fax: (1-519) 941-8120; E-mail:
burnside@headwaters.com
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Municipal Water Management Sector - Vancouver, Canada
The paper first provides a summary of water and wastewater coverage in the
region, and a summary of a number of trends in the sector. Section 3.0 provides
a review of some of the key environmental challenges to wastewater management
in the region. Key factors affecting decision making by small- and medium-sized
communities are then summarized. A review of the market for water and
wastewater services and equipment is provided in Section 5.0. This is followed
by a review of financial options to meet the growing demand for municipal
wastewater infrastructure in Latin America and the Caribbean in Section 6.0.
The privatization of water and sewage systems is a key trend in the sector and
is, therefore, given significant attention throughout the paper and in Section 7.0 in
particular. Finally, the paper provides a summary of the principal challenges
facing the sector. Throughout the paper, reference is made to web sites on the
Internet that provide additional information on specific organizations or projects.
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Figure 1 shows the degree of coverage for water supply, sewage collection, and
sewage treatment in Latin America and the Caribbean covering the period from the
late 1970s to 1995. The figures correspond to water supply and sewage collection
for urban areas only.
Source: "Wastewater Treatment in Latin America: Old and New Options", World Bank,
Idelovitch and Ringskog, 1997.
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Municipal Water Management Sector - Vancouver, Canada
collection systems, whereas in 1995 still only about 50% of the households were
connected. The vast majority of these sewage-collection systems discharge to
water bodies without any form of treatment.
It is estimated that only 5% of households in Latin America and the Caribbean are
connected to sewage-treatment systems. There is significant variation of
sewage-treatment coverage within the countries of the region but even those
countries with more extensive treatment, such as Chile and Mexico, have still not
achieved values greater than 15%. Some estimates have projected that the degree of
sewage treatment will increase to 60% of all households by the year
2005. Clearly this a very ambitious goal and will be a challenge to meet.
There is a significant variation in the degree of coverage for water supply and
sewerage as a function of income level. It is estimated that urban areas with
higher incomes generally have coverage levels four times higher than that
encountered in the lower income area (Idelovitch and Ringskog 1997).
Key Trends
Several trends have a significant effect on the municipal water and wastewater
sector in Latin America and the Caribbean. These include (not necessarily in order
of importance):
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Table 1. Population served with public water supply and sanitation in Latin
America and the Caribbean, 1995.
— Not available.
** Negligible.
Source: Idelovitch and Ringskog (1997).
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Urban Migration
Latin America and the Caribbean is the most urbanized region in the developing
world. It is well known that there is significant migration from rural areas to the
urban areas in Latin America and the Caribbean including migration to small-
and medium-sized urban centers. Based on 1994 figures, it is estimated that 74%
of the region’s population live in urban areas and that urban migration is
increasing rapidly. This has resulted in many instances of uncontrolled growth of
peri-urban areas, which has made planning and expansion of water and sewage
systems difficult and expensive to carry out. What exacerbates the problem is
that most of those moving to the urban areas have low incomes and, therefore,
are generally not able to pay fully for the water and sewer upgrades that are
required.
Sewage Treatment
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Legislation
Although there has been a clear trend toward stricter legislation throughout the
region, it is acknowledged that, in most countries and within most districts in
each of those countries, enforcement of the regulations is poor. This is
particularly prevalent with regard to sewage discharges to surface waters.
Municipal Downloading
Perhaps the most important trend in recent years has been the greater
responsibility put on municipalities to provide water and sewage services, that
is, “municipal downloading.” This trend has been particularly demanding on
the capacities and resources of small- and medium-sized municipalities. Many
municipalities in the region are now legally required to provide these services
either directly or through specialized public or private companies. The problem
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is that most of these municipalities have not had time to adjust to these new
responsibilities, particularly with regard to wastewater-treatment needs.
Wastewater treatment often is more complex and requires more skilled operators,
and resources, than is required for water-supply systems or sewage-collection
systems. There are significant financial difficulties for small- to medium-sized
municipalities to handle the costs of the construction of capital works as well as the
ongoing operation and maintenance costs.
Between 1985 and 1995, the proportion of government spending by provinces and
municipalities grew from 34 to 50% of total government spending in Argentina,
from 33 to 40% in Colombia, from 4 to 14% in Chile, and from 3 to 10% in
Peru according to a survey conducted by the IDB reported in Economic and Social
Progress in Latin America. On average, the degree of spending at this local level
is 15% for Latin America, compared to 35% for the industrial countries of the
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). Brazil, Chile,
and Colombia have historically given their departments (provinces) considerable
spending authority.
One program that has been developed to address the problems associated with
decentralization, or “municipal downloading” is RIADEL (Local Development
Research and Action Network <http://www.netline.cl/riadel>). RIADEL is a
network for interchange of information about local community development in
Latin America. Its work includes investigations about decentralization, training of
social leaders and civil servants, and intervention in projects for local development
such as participatory municipal budgets. RIADEL is being developed by the
Bolivian Center for Interdisciplinary Studies (CCEBEM) in La Paz and the Center
for Social Studies and Education (SUR) from Santiago, Chile with support from
IDRC’s office in Montevideo.
Local Participation
An important and positive trend in recent years has been the increase in
recognition of the importance of local participation in decision making and
project execution. The World Bank itself recognized this by releasing its
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An important trend in recent years has been the increased level of coordination
between the World Bank and the IDB and other international financial
institutions, particularly in the water-wastewater sector. There are now a number
of water-wastewaster projects that are cofunded by both institutions. One
example is the cofunding by the IDB and the World Bank and collaborative
planning on the National Regional Development Fund (FNDR in Spanish) in
Bolivia. This fund is focussed on communities with populations in the 10000 to
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One problem that has occurred with the FNDR program is the lack of sufficient
funds for extensive community participation in the decision-making process, and
for the provision of specialized professional consulting services. There have also
been extensive delays in the selection of consultants. Nonetheless, there have
been efficiencies and economies of scale in having the IDB and World Bank
collaborate on this type of project, and additional benefits have accrued from
using a consistent approach to implement projects of this sort. Access to central
funds of this sort helps individual communities that would probably have difficulty
accessing capital on their own. There is a similar World Bank funded program in
Bolivia for communities of less than 5000 people called the Social
Investment Fund (FIS).
The reports and documents of both the IDB and the World Bank acknowledge that
there is a need to work closer together throughout the region in the water and
sanitation sector in the future.
There is also a trend for more extensive collaboration between the private sector
(that is, consulting firms and equipment suppliers) and NGOs. This is
particularly true for Canada’s aid program in which the Canadian International
Development Agency (CIDA) is strongly encouraging collaboration between the
private sector and NGOs in providing services in the water-sanitation sectors,
particularly in Latin America and the Caribbean.
The World Bank and the IDB have recognized in recent years the importance of
carrying out better project preparation in the water-sanitation sector. It is
recognized that increasing investments in the sector without more careful quality
control at the beginning of the project cycle is not worthwhile. Although this
results in a longer “project cycle,” it leads to better formulated projects with
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Another trend that has had an effect on not only large communities but also
small- and medium-sized communities is the river-basin approach or watershed
management approach. A number of river-basin-watershed programs have been
implemented in Latin America including examples in Brazil, Chile, and Mexico
but there have been mixed results. In the Brazilian example, work was carried
out in five urbanized basins in which water-pollution control was based on
water-basin management and assimilative capacity studies. The program covered
all activities including planning and management, and took advantage of
economies of scale for wastewater treatment. One important aspect of the
Brazilian example was the water use and pricing policy that reflected specific
local characteristics and planning goals. There was also a regulatory framework
that covered the entire basin and reflected the local environmental, political, and
economic conditions.
Another trend that addresses the concern of high capital costs of wastewater
treatment systems is the optimization of existing sewage-treatment facilities.
Environment Canada, through contracts to Canadian consulting firms, is
assisting local authorities responsible for the operation of wastewater treatment
plants in the State of São Paulo in Brazil by carrying out optimization studies
of existing plants. Recommendations are provided with regard to areas such
as biosolids management, industrial source control, phosphorus removal, and
automation and process control.
A more recent trend is for more collaboration between cities in Latin America
through Mercosur — the trade block made up of Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay,
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and Uruguay. Bolivia and Chile have negotiated special agreements with
Mercosur. In 6 years, trade between Mercosur countries has more than
quadrupled, from US$4.1 billion in 1990 to US$16.9 billion in 1996. This makes
Mercosur the world’s fourth largest market (after the North American Free Trade
Association (NAFTA), the European Union, and Japan) (IDB America,
November 1997).
Privatization
Less than 5% of all wastewater collected in Latin America and the Caribbean
receives any form of treatment. The vast majority of wastewater-treatment
systems in place in the region are solely primary treatment systems (that is,
settling for removal of suspended solids without biological treatment). Of the few
wastewater treatment plants that have been built, few are in fact operating
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In the past, there has been a focus on sewage collection only, if that, and little
focus on sewage treatment. There has also been a common practice of
discharging untreated sewage and sewage sludge directly into oceans and other
water bodies. Unstabilized wastewater is often put on agricultural land, which
poses significant health risks as well as potential economic risks if consumers
become aware of this practice.
It is expected that future trends with regard to technologies and approaches for
wastewater management will include:
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One key area of improvement that could offset the enormous costs involved in
water and wastewater systems is the reduction of water losses in distribution
systems. A study by the World Bank and a Brazilian research institute concluded
that illegal connections and leaks in distribution networks amount to about
45%. Even SABESP (São Paulo State Sanitation Company), the largest and
most profitable sanitation company in Brazil (1996 revenues of US$2.4 billion),
has water losses of around 25%. The National Bank for Economic and Social
Development (BNDES) in Brazil reports that the decrease of water losses from
45% to 25% would alone represent savings of about $US2 billion per year for
the sanitation sector in Brazil (Rose 1997).
One of the key challenges for small- and medium-sized municipalities is how
to select cost-effective and appropriate technologies from the large variety of
wastewater-treatment technologies that are available. Rural areas tend to have
access to technical information through support from international NGOs, such as
CARE and World Vision, as well as national NGOs and UNICEF (United
Nation Children’s Fund). Large municipalities tend to have access to technical
information through journals, access to universities, the Internet, and so on, and
can more probably afford or obtain financing for the services of consultants,
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Round Table discussions, such as the one in Vancouver, are another means to
exchange technical, administrative, and financial information on
water-wastewater-system implementation in the region.
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5. The Market
5.1. Overview
Figure 3 shows the total annual investment (in billions of $US) in the water
supply and sewage sectors in Latin America and the Caribbean from the 1970s to
the present, as well as an estimate of the projected investment required for the
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future. Investment in the sector was significant in the late 1960s and the 1970s
averaging US$4.4 billion per year (1993 dollars). There was then a decrease in
the 1980s which created a backlog for new works and for rehabilitation of
existing systems. In the early 1990s (1990–95), investment increased to US$4
billion per year. It is estimated that investments in the order of US$12 billion per
year are needed for the period from 1995 to the year 2005. This estimate is based
on wastewater being treated for 60% of the population with sewage collection at
an average cost of US$70 per capita (Idelovitch and Ringskog 1997).
Figure 4 shows the percentage of investment required in the different water and
sewer infrastructure subsectors in Latin America and the Caribbean for the 10-
year period from 1995 to the year 2005. Of note are the large investments
required for sewage collection (37%) and sewage treatment (10%), which
together account for close to 50% of the total investment required (Idelovitch
and Ringskog 1997).
Brazil and Mexico are expected to provide the largest portions of the
investments required in the water-sanitation sector based on these World Bank
estimates. The following are the estimated figures for required annual investment
in the “environmental market” for the countries that require the highest degree of
investment (ESSA and Others 1996):
With certain notable exceptions, particularly Brazil and Chile, most wastewater
collection and treatment equipment is provided by foreign suppliers. The
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Two sources of financing for water and wastewater projects in Latin America and
the Caribbean are the IDB (<http://www.iadb.org>) and the World Bank (<http://
www.worldbank.org>). They also play a key “catalytic” role in financing technical
studies that lead to projects that are then financed or cofinanced by others.
Annual investment by the IDB in the water supply and sanitation sector in Latin
America and the Caribbean over the period from the early 1970s to 1997 has
fluctuated between about $250 million per year to as much as $695 million per
year (Figure 5) and there has been a significant increase in investment in recent
years. The IDB reports that it will be committing US$3 billion to water and
wastewater projects in Latin America and the Caribbean over the next 2 years,
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which would be equivalent to about 20% of its total lending budget. This is clearly a
large increase over past spending by the IDB in sector.
There are currently 12 projects in Latin America and the Caribbean that are in the
IDB pipeline (that is, in the preparation stage). This includes five projects
in Brazil and one project each in Argentina, Bahamas, Barbados, Ecuador, El
Salvador, Haiti, and Mexico. The total amount of possible IDB financing is
US$1.4 billion and, of this total, projects in Brazil account for $784 million
or 56%. This IDB financing is helping to leverage other financing for many of
these projects. The total estimated costs for these projects, including the IDB
contribution, is US$3.83 billion.
In 1997, the IDB continued to put emphasis on the strengthening of legal and
regulatory frameworks as well as environmental management initiatives in
improving the urban environment. It also developed a detailed strategy for
integrative water resource management that was submitted to the Board of
Executive Directors. The IDB has indicated that it considers its lending to play a
catalytic role by using its resources to attract private capital through cofinancing,
insurance, and loan guarantees. The IDB’s 1997 Annual Report says that it has
increased its catalytic (that is, leveraging) ratio that facilitates the flow of private
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Since the IDB began its private sector lending program in 1995, 16 projects for
a total of $US615 million in direct lending have been approved. Two of these
16 projects are in the water and sanitation sector (in Argentina and Columbia).
This sector has proved to be more difficult to finance given that the regulatory
frameworks in most countries are less developed than other sectors such as the
energy sector. The water-wastewater sector is not one in which private investments
have a long-standing tradition compared to other sectors. The Bank
is working to increase the number of water and wastewater projects in its
portfolio, including the development of approaches for public and private
partnerships that makes such projects more feasible for private sector
participation.
IDA and IBRD have 15 projects in the “pipeline” in the water-sanitation sector
according to its January 1998 monthly operational summary. This “pipeline”
includes five projects from Brazil, two in Trinidad and Tobago, two in
Venezuela, and one each in Argentina, Columbia, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru, and
Uruguay. The total possible World Bank financing totals US$961 million. Of
this total, US$441 million pertains to projects in Brazil, that is, 46%.
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private sector; provide more loans for wastewater-treatment systems; and extend
connection rates for water supply and sewage for the urban poor. According to the
World Bank’s 1997 Annual Report, it spent an average of 4.2% of its total loans on
water supply and sanitation projects for the fiscal years 1995, 1996, and 1997.
6. Financial Options
6.1. Overview
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One way to reduce the capital costs of treatment works is to reduce the volume
of wastewater to be treated. One way to do this is to apply appropriate tariffs
because this will often have a direct effect on the amount of wastewater
produced by the beneficiaries. One example of a tariff structure that is of interest
is that developed by Chile’s Superintendency of Sanitary Services (SSS) which
is adopting a new approach to the pricing of water and sewer services. The rates
are calculated by SSS based on the replacement value of existing installations,
expected service levels, and a 15-year investment program. Maximum rates are
fixed for a period of 5 years and they are applied gradually, slowly increasing
tariffs over a period of 5 years so that the tariffs eventually cover the full cost
of service. An interesting component of this program are subsidies provided to
low-income consumers. Representatives from Chile who were present at the Round
Table confirmed that this program is in fact in place and is becoming an effective
means of meeting the financial requirements of water and sewer infrastructure
development in the country.
Apart from the IDB, the World Bank’s IDA and IBRD, and the Caribbean
Development Bank, several other institutions play a key role in the financing of
water and sewer works in the region and the provision of related financial
services. These include the IDB’s Multi-Lateral Investment Fund (MIF) and
Inter-American Investment Corporation (IIC), and the World Bank’s International
Financial Corporation (IFC) and Multi-Lateral Investment Guarantee Agency
(MIGA). Other organizations such as the Canadian Export Development
Corporation (EDC) and the Canadian Commercial Corporation (CCC) also
provide important financial services.
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more than US$224 million. During 1997, 47 projects were approved for a total
of US$62 million. Its emphasis has been in the development of small enterprises.
It also concentrates on technical cooperation to encourage private investment and
human-resources development.
MIF offers assistance primarily in the form of grants. It also acts as a catalyst
for the formation of partnerships and other activities that encourage private-sector
growth in the region. It promotes investment in infrastructure, including the
water and sanitation sector. A special focus is planned on investments that
assist in the diffusion of appropriate technology and substantiate environmental
development.
In addition to the IDB’s MIF, the IDB also has a new Private Sector Department
that lends directly to private firms for infrastructure projects and catalyzes other
sources of investment capital. Enrique Iglesias was recently reelected to a 5-year
mandate as President of the IDB starting 1 April 1998. It is reported that he will
continue his efforts to put the private sector at the center of IDB’s efforts to spur
economic growth in the region.
In April 1997, the IDB approved its first partial risk guarantee for private
investors for a wastewater treatment plant in Bogotá, Columbia. The IDB
guaranteed US$30 million to senior-debt-note holders investing in the project to
reduce long-term contract and currency risks associated with operating the plant.
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The IIC began operations in 1989 as a member of the IDB group to promote the
economic development of its Latin American and Caribbean member countries
by providing financing for small- and medium-sized private enterprises in the
region (see <http://www.iadb.org>). The IIC finances projects proposed by
small- and medium-sized private companies that do not have access to other
suitable sources of equity capital and long-term loans. To be eligible for IIC
funding, projects must contribute to economic and development goals such as
job creation, burdening capital ownership, generating net foreign currency
income, facilitating the transfer of resources and technology, fostering local
savings, or promoting the economic integration of Latin America and the
Caribbean.
The IFC (<http://www.ifc.org>) is a member of the World Bank Group and is the
largest multilateral source of loan and equity financing for private-sector projects
in the developing world. It finances and provides advice for private-sector
projects in developing countries in partnership with private investors. Like MIF,
IFC plays a catalytic role through its stimulation of private-sector investment by
helping to demonstrate that specific investments can be profitable. IFC was
founded in 1956 and, since then, it has provided over US$19 billion in financing
to over 1 700 companies in 125 developing countries. In recent years, private-
sector participation in infrastructure projects has become a primary focus of the
IFC. These projects now account for close to 25% of its investments.
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IFC’s 1996 Annual Report indicates that it has been working to facilitate
development of private-sector infrastructure in high-risk markets. The IFC is
rapidly expanding its investment in lending to infrastructure sectors in Latin
America and the Caribbean. It has supported water and sewer projects in the past
although they have focussed primarily on such large systems as the following:
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7. Privatization
7.1. Overview
An important trend in recent years has been the move toward privatization of
infrastructure throughout the world and in Latin America and the Caribbean in
particular. Compared to such other sectors as telecommunications, power, and
transportation, the water-sanitation sector is viewed to be more difficult to
privatize because water and sewage services are considered by many to be
social services. As mentioned previously, the regulatory framework is less well
established than the energy, telecommunications, or transportation sectors and
the water-wastewaster sector is still viewed by many investors as having higher
risks and lower profit margins than these other sectors. However, there has been
significant experience with privatization in the sector in the region, particularly
with regard to the privatization of water supply systems. Experience with the
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There are various options for the roles of the public sector and their involvement in
privatization projects, including but not limited to (Idelovitch and Ringskog 1995):
The focus to date with regard to privatization of water and sewage systems has
been on large systems. However, there is a trend toward privatization of the
smaller systems for municipalities in the region. The question is whether these
smaller systems provide the economies of scale to make it economically feasible to
privatize these smaller systems.
Based on the experience to date in the privatization of water and sewage systems,
several conclusions have been arrived at:
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During the 1980s, the Brazilian government faced a financial crisis caused by
high inflation and a lack of international financing resources and foreign
investment. It significantly affected infrastructure investment. One of the sectors
that was most seriously affected by this financial crisis and the lack of public
resources was the water and sewage sector.
2
Much of the material from this section is from Rose (1997).
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through fees that are charged to the municipality during a period that generally
ranges from 15 to 30 years.
The Ministry of Planning in Brazil has designated the sanitation sector within the
national plan for privatization. A model is being prepared for the privatization of
the Brazilian sanitation sector providing financial support for the municipalities that
are interested in implementing concession projects. BNDES has a budget of $US13
billion for 1997 and has created a department to coordinate financing projects in
the sanitation sector. BNDES plans to invest $US280 million, specifically for water
projects. The major objectives of BNDES for this program are to:
During a seminar in Brazil for private and public entities held in 1997 to
consider various options for water and sewage concessions, the following
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Brazil’s privatized its first wastewater system just last year. The concession was
awarded to a US–Brazil partnership to design, construct, own and operate a
wastewater collection and treatment system in Ribeirão Prêto.
Brazil is not the only country with a progressive privatization program in the sector.
Chile is planning the privatization of 13 water supply and wastewater
treatment companies (WET January 1998).
8. Principal Challenges
In summary, the following are the principal challenges facing the sector in the
coming years:
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9. References
CCC (Canadian Commercial Corporation). 1997. Annual report, 1996–97. CCC,
Ottawa, Ontario. Pages 1-38.
ESSA Technologies; Globe Foundation of Canada; SAIC S.A. de C.V.;CGLA
Infrastructure. 1996. Assessing Latin American markets for North American
environmental goods and services. Prepared for the Commission for
Environmental Cooperation. ESSA Technologies, Ottawa, Ontario. Page 2.
IDB. 1998. Central governmental slowly cede power. IDB, Washington, DC,
USA. IDB America, 1998 (Jan–Feb). Page 13.
IDB. 1997. Iglesias named to third term, IDB President called a leader of vision
for a contingent in transformation, Santiago Real de Azua. IDB, Washington,
DC, USA. IDB America, 1997 (Dec). Page 7.
IDB. 1996. Economic and social progress in Latin America. 1996 report. Special
Section, Making Social Services Work: Privatization. IDB, Washington, DC,
USA. Pages 165-183.
Idelovitch, E.; Ringskog, K. 1995. Private sector participation in water supply
and sanitation in Latin America. World Bank, Washington, DC, USA. Page 13.
Idelovitch, E.; Ringskog, K. 1997. Wastewater treatment in Latin America —
Old and new options. World Bank, Washington, DC, USA. Pages 1-10.
IFC (International Finance Corporation). 1996. Annual report 1996. IFC,
Washington, DC, USA. Pages 1-160.
MIGA (Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency). 1998. MIGA: The Mission
and the Mandate. MIGA. Pages 14-20.
Poole, C.; Nelson, K. 1997. A flood in Brazil. Latin Trade, 1997 (May). Vol. 5
No. 5. Pages 42-43.
Rose, R.E. 1997. Brazil — Water treatment equipment — ISA970601. US
Foreign Commercial Service and US Department of State, Washington, DC,
USA. Market Research Reports.
WEF (Water Environment Federation). 1998. Wastewater markets — many
doors opening in South America. Kris Christen. Water Environment and
Technology, 1998 (Jan.) Vol 10. No. 1. 20-24.
World Bank. 1996. Participation sourcebook. World Bank, Washington, DC,
USA.
World Bank. 1996. World Bank Annual Report. World Bank, Washington, DC,
USA. Pages 1-263.
World Bank. 1997. World Bank Annual Report. World Bank, Washington, DC,
USA. Pages 1-250.
World Bank. 1995. Meeting the infrastructure challenge in Latin America and
the Caribbean. World Bank, Washington, DC, USA. July 1995. Pages 1-55.
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10. Abbreviations
BNDES National Bank for Economic and Social Development in Brazil
BOOT build-own-operate-transfer
BOT build-own-transfer
CARE formerly Cooperative for American Remittances Everywhere
CCC Canadian Commercial Corporation
CCEBEM Bolivian Center for Interdisciplinary Studies in La Paz
CIDA Canadian International Development Agency
EDC Export Development Corporation of Canada
EEAF Environmental Enterprises Assistance Fund
EMP Emerging Markets Partnership
FIS Social Investment Fund
FNDR National Regional Development Fund
GDP gross domestic product
GE GE capital
IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
IDA International Development Association
IDB Inter-American Development Bank
IDRC International Development Research Centre
IFC International Financial Corporation (World Bank)
IIC Inter-American Investment Corporation (IDB)
MIF Multi-Lateral Investment Fund (IDB)
MIGA Multi-Lateral Investment Guarantee Agency (World Bank)
NAFTA North American Free Trade Association
NGO nongovernmental organization
OAS Organization of American States
OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
RIADEL Local Development Research and Action Network
SABESP São Paulo State Sanitation Company
SSS Superintendency of Sanitary Services — Chile
SUR Center for Social Studies and Education from Santiago, Chile
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNICEF United Nation Children’s Fund
VITA Volunteers in Technical Assistance
WUSC World University Service of Canada
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GESTIÓN DE RESIDUOS SÓLIDOS
MESA REDONDA
OEA–CIID
Ingeniero Julio C. Monreal1
Los países de América Latina y el Caribe, alcanzarán antes del año 2000 una
población de 500 millones de habitantes, de los cuales el 75%, vale decir
alrededor de 375 millones, vivirán en localidades urbanas, demandando, por lo
tanto, coberturas de servicios de saneamiento básico, de entre cuyos componentes
el que encuentra menos desarrollado es el de recolección y disposición final de
residuos sólidos. De este total de 375 millones de habitantes urbanos,
aproximadamente la mitad vivirá en localidades urbanas medianas y pequeñas.
1
Ministerio de Salud de Chile, Estado 360 (8o. piso), Santiago, Chile.
Presentado en la mesa redonda del Sector de Manejo de Residuos Sólidos en Salvador, Bahía,
Brasil, del 27 al 30 de septiembre de 1998.
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En el ámbito nacional:
En el ámbito local:
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las tareas que impone un servicio de aseo urbano es casi total y en donde las
dificultades económicas, debido a presupuestos insuficientes, son aún mayores.
Por otra parte, estas cifras deben ser analizadas con precaución, ya que ellas
se calculan como porcentaje de los residuos sólidos recolectados que reciben
disposición final, y por lo tanto en ellas pesan fuertemente los datos provenientes
de las grandes ciudades, que son las grandes generadoras de residuos sólidos
urbanos y en donde, por lo general, comienzan los programas destinados a
mejorar la disposición de los mismos, por lo que la situación de las ciudades
pequeñas y medianas es aún mucho más deficitaria respecto de lo que las cifras
nacionales promedio parecen señalar.
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Guatemala
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Colombia
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Chile
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Sector Manejo de Residuos Sólidos - Salvador, Bahía, Brasil
Si se considera que para el año 2000 se pronostica que las localidades de tamaño
mediano y pequeño albergarán a más de la mitad de la población urbana de
la región, el tema del financiamiento de las inversiones necesarias para mejorar
el manejo de los residuos sólidos urbanos resulta crucial. Con las carencias y
debilidades que presenta en la actualidad la administración municipal de este
rango de ciudades en relación con el manejo de los residuos sólidos urbanos,
difícilmente podrán estar en condiciones de acceder a las entidades nacionales o
internacionales de crédito.
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• O bien se pretende imponer las mismas soluciones técnicas que han dado
buen resultado en localidades mayores, sin considerar que el cambio de
escala puede introducir distorsiones importantes, que en la práctica invalidan
su aplicación —como es el caso del relleno sanitario tradicional que ha
dado óptimos resultados en ciudades de más de 50.000 habitantes, pero que
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de financiamiento para cubrir este vacío, sin embargo parece lógico considerar que
la aplicación de tarifas a los servicios de aseo urbano puede extenderse al menos
al mismo conjunto de población que hoy en día paga su cuenta de agua potable.
En especial si se considera que el costo por habitante para proporcionar un buen
servicio de aseo urbano es definitivamente muy inferior al costo por habitante que
tiene el servicio de agua potable o cualquier otro de los servicios públicos de los
que dispone la comunidad.
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Costo Operacional
Opción de Tratamiento (US$/Tonelada)
Relleno sanitario 5 a 15
Compostaje 15 a 60
Incineración más de 100
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6. Programas de cooperación
En la últimas dos décadas se ha venido evidenciando un interés creciente por
parte de los organismos de cooperación y financiamiento internacionales,
multilaterales y bilaterales de involucrarse en el tema del manejo de los residuos
sólidos urbanos en la región de América Latina y el Caribe. En la actualidad
organismos tales como el Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo (BID), el Banco
Internacional de Reconstrucción y Fomento (BIRF), la Organización
Panamericana de la Salud y la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OPS/OMS), el
Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo (PNUD), el Programa de las
Naciones Unidas para el Medio Ambiente (PNUMA), la Comisión Económica para
América Latina y el Caribe (CEPAL), la Agencia Alemana de Cooperación Técnica
(GTZ del alemán: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische
Zusammenarbeit), la Agencia Japonesa de Cooperación Internacional (JICA del
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7. Bibliografía
Acurio, G.; Rossin, A.; Teixeira, P.F.; Zepeda, F. 1997. Diagnóstico de la
situación del manejo de residuos sólidos municipales en América Latina y el
Caribe. BID; OPS/OMS, Washington, DC, USA.
OPS/OMS. 1998. Análisis sectorial de residuos sólidos en Chile. OPS/OMS,
Washington DC, USA. Serie Análisis Sectorial No, 15.
OPS/OMS. 1996. Análisis sectorial de residuos sólidos en Colombia. OPS/OMS,
Washington, DC, USA. Serie Análisis Sectorial No. 8.
OPS/OMS. 1996. Análisis sectorial de residuos sólidos en Guatemala. OPS/OMS.
Washington, DC, USA. Serie Análisis Sectorial No. 6.
OPS/OMS. 1996. Análisis sectorial de residuos sólidos en Uruguay. OPS/OMS.
Washington, DC, USA. Serie Análisis Sectorial No. 7.
Zepeda, F. 1995. El manejo de residuos sólidos municipales en América Latina y
el Caribe. OPS/OMS, Washington, DC, USA.
Zepeda, F. 1997. Agenda 21. Manejo de residuos sólidos municipales. OPS/OMS,
Washington, DC, USA.
8. Lista de siglas
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9. Apéndice
El presente apéndice contiene información relativa a la cantidad y calidad de los
desperdicios generados en distintas ciudades de América Latina y el Caribe.
Generación
Población per cápita
Ciudad (millones) (kg/hab/día)
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Generación
Población per cápita
Ciudad (millones) (Kg/hab/día)
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Papel y Materias
País Cartón Metal Vidrio Textiles Plásticos Orgánicas Otros
Costa Rica 19 – 2 – 11 58 10
Uruguay 8 7 4 – 13 56 12
Trinidad y Tobago 20 10 10 7 20 27 6
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DESAFÍOS TECNOLÓGICOS Y
AMBIENTALES PARA LA GESTIÓN
SUSTENTABLE DEL SECTOR FORESTAL
EN LOS PAÍSES DE AMÉRICA LATINA
Y EL CARIBE
1. Introducción
La actividad forestal en la Región de América Latina y el Caribe se basa en
la explotación de los bosques naturales y de plantaciones forestales de especies
de crecimiento rápido. En las últimas décadas, esta actividad ha adquirido
creciente importancia socioeconómica y ambiental, principalmente en aquellos
países con mayor disponibilidad de recursos forestales explotables. La apertura
de las economías de los países de la Región y su creciente participación en los
mercados globales, ha generado un nuevo escenario dentro del cual el sector
forestal juega un papel activo, transformándose en un importante eje de desarrollo
económico. Ello ha conducido a inversiones significativas, tanto públicas como
privadas, en plantaciones forestales de especies de crecimiento rápido y en plantas
industriales para el procesamiento de la madera en Brasil, Chile, Argentina,
Uruguay y México.
1
Centro de Ciencias Ambientales — EULA, Universidad de Concepción.
Presentado en la mesa redonda del Sector de la Industria Forestal en Santiago de Chile, 24 al 26
de noviembre, 1998.
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2
Documento preparado para la 19ª Reunión de la Comisión Forestal para América Latina y el Caribe,
celebrada en Panamá en junio de 1996.
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El presente documento tiene como objetivo general revisar la situación del sector
forestal en América Latina y el Caribe, en el contexto de la aplicación de
tecnologías que permitan una actividad económica y ambientalmente sustentable.
Se presentan antecedentes acerca del patrimonio forestal, los productos y
procesos productivos, los aspectos ambientales y sociales de la actividad
forestal, las tecnologías ambientales y los principales desafíos que enfrenta el
sector en la Región.
2. Patrimonio forestal
El informe de la Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Agricultura y la
Alimentación (FAO, Food and Agriculture Organization) de 1997 (FAO 1997a)
indicaba que en 1990 los bosques cubrían 979 millones de hectáreas de la
Región y que esta superficie había disminuido a 950 millones en el año
1995. Señalaba, además, que el 99% de estos bosques eran naturales y que
aproximadamente el 95%, o sea 907 millones de hectáreas, eran bosques
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El mismo informe indica que varios países han observado que las cifras deben
ser actualizadas ya que han ocurrido importantes cambios. Un ejemplo es Chile,
donde un catastro terminado el año 1997 ha registrado más de 13 millones de
hectáreas de bosques naturales, en vez de los 6,9 millones de hectáreas indicadas
previo al informe mencionado.
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Tabla 1
Superficies de bosques naturales potencialmente productivos y
plantacionesforestales en países de la región (en millones de hectáreas)
Bosques
nativos,
potencialmente Plantaciones
País productivos forestales Total
Argentina 20 0,8 20,8
Bolivia 49,3 0 49,3
Brasil 400 7 407
Chile 5,5 1,8 7,3
Colombia 54,1 0,2 54,3
Ecuador 8 0,1 8,1
Guyana Francesa 8 0 8
Guyana 18,4 0 18,4
Paraguay 12,9 0 12,9
Perú 67,9 0,3 68,2
Suriname 14,8 0 14,8
Uruguay 0,7 0,2 0,9
Venezuela 44 0,6 44,6
Total América del Sur 885,7 11 896,7
Belice 2 0 2
Costa Rica 1,4 0 1,4
Cuba 1,7 0,4 2,1
República Dominicana 1,1 0 1,1
Guatemala 4,2 0,1 4,3
Haití 0 0 0
Honduras 4,6 0 4,6
Jamaica 0,2 0 0,2
México 21 0,2 21,2
Nicaragua 6 0 6
Panamá 3,1 0 3,1
Trinidad y Tobago 0,2 0 0,2
Total América Central y Caribe 73,8 0,7 74,5
Total 959,5 11,7 971,2
Los valores deben considerarse como estimaciones aproximadas, ya que las estadísticas sobre
bosques nativos potencialmente productivos poseen altos niveles de incertidumbre en varios
países. Los datos provienen de diferentes fuentes y de inventarios realizados en distintos años
(FAO 1995a,b; Neilson 1998).
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Tabla 2
Superficie de plantaciones con especies de crecimiento rápido para uso
industrial en diferentes regiones
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En su nivel más básico, la madera sirve como fuente de energía calórica para
fines domésticos e industriales. Ello constituye la principal utilización de la
madera. A nivel mundial un 57% de la madera es usado como fuente de energía
calórica, mientras que en la Región un 67% del consumo total de madera es
utilizado para dicho fin (ver Tabla 4). Es importante señalar que los países en
desarrollo consumen cerca del 90% del total mundial de madera que se utiliza
como combustible. De este total, solamente el 25% proviene de bosques
productivos y plantaciones forestales para uso industrial. La cantidad restante
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1
Leña : está constituida por el conjunto de ramas, matas y tronco que se emplea como
combustible.
2
Carbón vegetal: es el residuo sólido que se genera en la pirólisis de la madera (ie.
tratamiento térmico a temperaturas superiores a 300°C en un ambiente pobre en
oxígeno).
3
Madera: material fibroso y compacto del interior de los árboles.
4
La pulpa mecánica corresponde a fibra de madera con un alto contenido de lignina
y celulosa.
5
La pulpa química blanca está compuesta casi exclusivamente de celulosa. La pulpa
química no blanqueada, contiene un pequeña proporción de lignina remanente.
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Tabla 4
Consumo regional y global de la madera (en millones de m3/año)
Consumo Cosumo
en la mundial2
región1
Tabla 5
Proyecciones del consumo de productos forestales.
Países Países en
desarrollados desarrollo
Leña (millones de m )3
184 169 1551 1883
3
El poder calorífico de la leña seca al aire es de 15 (MJ/kg), comparado con 30 (MJ/kg) del carbón vegetal.
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4
Corresponde a la producción mundial de madera aserrada estimada por la FAO para el año 1994.
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Table 6
Producción anual media de la industria forestal primaria en América Latina
y el Caribe (1992–97)
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5
En rigor, los fibropaneles deberían estar en la categoría de productos obtenidos a partir de fibras
celulósicas.
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Tabla 7
Fuentes de madera para la producción de pulpa celulósica a nivel mundial
Porcentaje
Bosques nativos 1 13
Plantaciones indígenas 1 17
Plantaciones exóticas 7 5
Bosques tropicales 4 0
Total 36 64
Fuente: Neilson 1998.
Tabla 8
Comercio de astillas: región Asia–Pacífico (1996):
miles de toneladas (secas al aire)
Mercados
Japón
Países Madera Madera
productores latifoliada conífera Corea Taiwán EEUU Canadá Total %
Argentina 147 8 0 1 0 0 147 0,9
Australia 2651 803 0 17 0 0 3471 22,4
Brasil 235 264 0 0 0 0 499 3,2
Canadá 52 242 0 0 225 0 519 3,4
Chile 1434 98 21 81 230 0 1864 12
China 633 24 432 310 0 0 1399 9
Ecuador 199 0 0 0 0 0 199 1,3
Fiji 2 183 0 1 0 0 183 1,2
Indonesia 257 0 0 15 0 0 272 1,8
Malasia 79 2 0 1 0 0 79 0,5
Nueva Zelandia 67 211 0 16 0 0 294 1,9
PNG 37 0 0 0 0 0 37 0,2
Rusia 0 63 0 0 0 0 63 0,4
Sudáfrica 993 0 0 0 0 0 993 6,4
Taiwán 25 0 0 0 0 0 25 0,2
Tailandia 176 0 0 0 0 0 176 1,1
EEUU 3304 1361 211 17 0 191 5084 32,8
Vietnam 150 0 0 33 0 0 183 1,2
Total 10439 3249 664 489 455 191 15487 100
Fuente: Neilson 1998.
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consumo per cápita de papel en América del Norte y Europa Occidental es del
orden de 200-300 kg/año, comparado con 30 kg/año en América Latina y Asia.
El consumo específico de papel parece estar directamente relacionado con el
nivel de desarrollo económico. Considerando este factor y la tasa de crecimiento
de la población, se estima que para el año 2010 la demanda mundial de papel
incrementará en un 50% respecto a los niveles actuales (ver Tabla 5), con una
mayor incidencia de los países en desarrollo, que duplicarían su actual consumo.
• La actividad silvícola,
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Tabla 9
Producción mundial de pulpa, papel y cartón, 1996
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Incluye todas aquellas que utilizan las trozas y otros productos directos del
bosque, es decir, las industrias de aserrío, de producción de astillas, tableros,
pulpa y papel, y la generación comercial de energía (calórica y eléctrica).
Industrias de aserrío
Aserraderos móviles: Utilizan equipo para corte que puede ser transportado a las
inmediaciones de las fuentes de madera. Generalmente, permiten efectuar cortes
básicos empleando sierras de diferentes tipos. La capacidad de producción típica
de este tipo de aserraderos está dentro del rango de 500 a 10.000 m3/año
de madera aserrada. En la Región, la mayoría de los aserraderos móviles son
de bajo nivel tecnológico y de baja eficiencia, su producción está orientada
exclusivamente al mercado interno. La gran mayoría de estos aserraderos son
de tamaño pequeño, carecen de una gestión empresarial adecuada y de personal
capacitado técnicamente. En Chile, alrededor del 48% de la producción anual de
madera aserrada es llevada a cabo en aserraderos de este tipo.
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Plantas astilladoras
Industrias de tableros
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Incluye todas aquellas industrias que incorporan mayor valor agregado a los
productos de la industria primaria. Involucran aquellas que producen muebles,
materiales de construcción terminados (marcos, ventanas, puertas, pisos,
viviendas prefabricadas), envases, juguetes, utensilios, embarcaciones, etc. Sus
escalas de producción y niveles tecnológicos son extremadamente variables. El
rango varía de establecimientos de gran escala, con altos niveles de
mecanización, hasta unidades de tipo familiar con tecnología artesanal. En las
industrias de este rubro, existe una fuerte competencia con productos
alternativos, muchos de los cuales son de origen no maderero, lo cual obliga a
mantener costos competitivos y estrictos controles de calidad. Representan un
área abierta y permeable a innovaciones, tanto a nivel de procesos como de
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productos. Los países forestales de la Región que poseen una buena base en su
sector primario (aserrío) y con materias primas madereras de calidad apropiada,
deberían fortalecer el desarrollo del sector de procesamiento secundario, ya que
ello se traduce en un significativo incremento del valor agregado de la producción
forestal. La capacitación técnica y el desarrollo de nuevos productos constituyen
elementos esenciales para lograr estos objetivos.
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5.1. Brasil
Brasil posee los principales recursos forestales de la Región. Aparte de los 400
millones de hectáreas de bosques tropicales explotables, tiene 7 millones de
hectáreas de plantaciones, principalmente con especies de eucalipto de
crecimiento rápido (de 20 a 45 m3/ha/año).
Tabla 10
Superficie de plantaciones en Brasil (1996)
Para carbón
Para pulpa y papel vegetal Para otros usos
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5.2. Chile
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Tabla 11
Consumo de madera en el sector forestal primario en Chile1
Especies Para pulpa Para aserrío Para tableros Para astillas Otros usos
forestales Millones de m /año
3
Eucalipto 121 5 2 96 2
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5.3. México
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5.4. Argentina
Este país posee 35 millones de hectáreas de bosque nativo, de las cuales un 57%
son considerados como productivos. En cuanto a las plantaciones con especies
exóticas, tiene cerca de 400.000 hectáreas de pino, 240.000 hectáreas de
eucalipto y 136.000 hectáreas de otras especies latifoliadas. Gran parte de estas
plantaciones se han establecido en base a subsidios gubernamentales. A
diferencia de otros países forestales de la Región, más del 75% de la superficie
de plantaciones argentinas está en manos de pequeños propietarios; mientras que
el resto pertenece a compañías comerciales, divididos en predios de reducido
tamaño.
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5.5. Uruguay
Este país posee un área pequeña de bosque nativo (700.000 há). Gran parte de la
industria forestal se abastece de madera de plantaciones, con una extensión total
de 205.000 há., principalmente de eucalipto (83%); el resto corresponde a pino
(15%) y álamo (2%). Casi todas la plantaciones están en manos privadas, de
las cuales 4 grandes compañías poseen el 40% de la superficie plantada. Existen
generosos subsidios y exenciones de impuestos para incentivar nuevas
plantaciones forestales, lográndose tasas de reforestación del orden de 50.000
há./año. La producción de madera para uso industrial alcanza alrededor de 4
millones de m3 anuales, con incipientes grados de tecnificación en el rubro de
aserrío. La producción de pulpa y papel es aún modesta (en base, principalmente,
a eucalipto), a pesar de los esfuerzos por atraer capitales para realizar inversiones
en estas actividades. Se espera que dentro de la próxima década se establezcan
nuevas plantas, sobre la base de una interesante disponibilidad de madera
explotable. Además, se prevé que a fines de la próxima década, la producción de
madera alcanzará los 10 millones de m3 anuales. Es importante notar que, al igual
que la mayoría de los países de la Región, el consumo de leña para usos domésticos
en áreas rurales, constituye un significativo agente de degradación de los recursos
nativos, requiriendo la aplicación de medidas que permitan reducir los impactos
ambientales de esta actividad.
Por su parte, Haití solamente posee 23.000 há. de bosques naturales y 12.000 há.
de plantaciones. Sin embargo, el consumo de madera para rollizos corresponde a
más del 50% del total de la sub-región del Caribe. El consumo de leña es masivo y
representa más del 60% del total de la sub-región. El efecto negativo de tales
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Los gobiernos y, cada vez más activamente, la población de todos los países de
la Región han tomado en serio y están poniendo en marcha el Programa 21 y la
"Declaración Autorizada y sin fuerza jurídica obligatoria de Principios para un
Consenso Mundial Respecto a la Ordenación, la Conservación y el Desarrollo
Sustentable de los Bosques de Todo Tipo" aprobados en la Conferencia de las
Naciones Unidas sobre el Medio Ambiente y el Desarrollo, en Río de Janeiro,
en 1992.
Como resultado de esta sensibilización, todos los países han establecido sistemas
de áreas silvestres protegidas, que en algunos casos ocupan porcentajes
importantes de sus territorios nacionales, por ejemplo: 25,8% en Costa Rica,
18,7% en Chile, 19,6% en Guatemala, 23% en Honduras, 40% en México
(incluye áreas privadas), 17,5% en Nicaragua, y 29% en Panamá.
Sin embargo no existe una relación entre el número y la superficie de las áreas
declaradas como protegidas y la eficiencia en su protección y administración es
en gran parte deficiente. Con frecuencia se han declarado áreas como protegidas
sin tener los recursos financieros y de personal, equipos y suministros requeridos
para su debida protección y administración.
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Deforestación
Incendios forestales
Los incendios forestales son uno de los principales agentes de destrucción de los
recursos forestales tropicales y templados de la Región. En general, la mayoría
de los países sufre la mayor incidencia de incendios forestales en épocas que
coinciden con los períodos secos y de mayor calor. Una parte importante de estos
incendios son causados por el hombre, al usar el fuego para limpiar terrenos con
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En Brasil se generan cerca de 150.000 focos de incendios cada año, los que
afectan, principalmente, bosques tropicales. En el caso de Chile, entre 1995 y
1996 se destruyeron 40.000 hectáreas de recursos forestales, principalmente de
especies nativas. Chile dedica gran esfuerzo al control de incendios, a través
de la Corporación Nacional Forestal (CONAF) en estrecha colaboración con las
empresas forestales, quienes mantienen programas de prevención y control de
incendios de sus plantaciones comerciales. En Argentina, en el período 1994–95
se quemaron aproximadamente 1.600 millones de hectáreas, afectando a
pastizales y matorrales (80%), bosques nativos (19%) y a plantaciones forestales
(1%). En dicho país se puso en marcha el Plan Nacional del Manejo del Fuego.
Plagas y enfermedades
La mayor parte de los recursos forestales de la Región (ver Tabla 1) son bosques
nativos y raramente son atacados por plagas, ya que disponen de mecanismos
naturales de control. En cambio, las plantaciones forestales (monocultivos) para
uso industrial, están siendo afectadas en forma creciente por plagas y
enfermedades.
En Argentina, existen dos plagas que están atacando las plantaciones: Sirex
noctilio en plantaciones de coníferas y Nematus desanzisi, un defoliador que
ataca el género Salix. En Chile, las plantaciones de pino se encuentran
amenazadas por la polilla del brote causado por el insecto Rhyacionia buolina.
En Colombia se han detectado enfermedades que afectan plantaciones de
pinos, eucaliptos y cipreses y algunas especies autóctonas. En los países de
Centroamérica, principalmente en México, Guatemala y Nicaragua, las plagas
son causadas por las especies de los géneros Dendroctonus e Ips, insectos
descortezadores de pino.
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Tabla 12
Cargas ambientales asociadas a una planta moderna de celulosa blanca,
proceso kraft, a partir de pino, con una producción de 1.500 ton/día
Estas cargas ambientales ejercen una fuerte presión sobre los recursos hídricos
y sobre la calidad del aire local. En la actualidad existen tecnologías menos
contaminantes y sistemas de tratamiento de residuos que permiten reducir
significativamente tales impactos. Sin embargo, debido al alto costo de capital
asociado a dichas tecnologías limpias, muchas empresas eluden o postergan su
implementación.
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6
En el contexto de este artículo, definimos el concepto de “tecnología ambiental” como aquellas
tecnologías y prácticas de gestión que reducen el impacto ambiental de la actividad productiva y
permiten un desarrollo sustentable. En rigor, corresponde al concepto de “producción limpia”.
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Area Silvícola: Se necesita llevar a cabo estudios sobre: Las especies, selección
genética y sensibilidad a condiciones climáticas. Inventarios forestales.
Evaluación del banco genético nativo. Evaluación de especies exóticas, ecotipos
adaptados. Registro, intercambio y difusión de germoplasma. Características
anatómicas y propiedades físico-mecánicas de las especies nativas. Sistemas de
cultivo mixto. Sistemas de propagación. Ciclos de nutrientes y requerimientos
de fertilización. Métodos de preparación del suelo. Métodos de establecimiento
de plantación. Procedimientos de manejo sustentable de plantaciones y bosques
naturales. Control biológico de plagas. Procedimientos de raleos y podas.
Procedimientos de cosecha de mínimo impacto.
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Requerimientos tecnológicos
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Por último cabe indicar que las normas y exigencias de calidad ambiental de
productos y procesos forestales se están manifestando en el comercio
internacional a través de: (1) exigencias del sello de calidad ambiental, y (2)
diferencias de precios entre los productos certificados ambientalmente y aquellos
no certificados. Al respecto, en Brasil y Chile ya se están implementando
iniciativas para certificar sus productos forestales. La implementación de
certificados ambientales se facilitará por la condición de que en su mayoría los
procesos de manejo silvícola e industrialización forestal son casi universales por
lo que se estima que no será difícil lograr definiciones internacionales de
estándares ambientales.
7. Aspectos sociales
La actividad forestal en la Región tiene importantes implicaciones sociales, ya
que representa una importante fuente de empleo. Sin embargo, ella da origen a
conflictos sociales que pueden constituir un factor limitante en su desarrollo
futuro.
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Tabla 13
Empleo en el sector forestal en países seleccionados de la región
Empleo en industrias Empleo en actividades
forestales silvícolas para uso industrial
Miles de personas
Argentina 29 25
Chile 50 45
Colombia 11 5
Costa Rica 3 2
México 29 24
Perú 11 10
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Sin embargo, dichas iniciativas no han logrado difundirse en forma efectiva entre
las pequeñas y medianas empresas forestales de la Región. En la mayoría de los
países, los Gobiernos y agencias internacionales han desarrollado iniciativas para
implementar conceptos modernos de control ambiental en este sector industrial. Tal
es el caso de Chile, donde recientemente se ha impulsado una Política de Fomento a
la Producción Limpia, basada en las recomendaciones de la Agenda 21 así como en
los lineamientos de la política ambiental y acuerdos del Tercer Foro de Desarrollo
Productivo realizado en 1997. Dicha política implica:
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Los acuerdos, convenios y procesos en los cuales los países han participado
incluyen: el Proceso de Montreal, el Proceso de Taropoto en el marco del
Tratado de Cooperación Amazónica (TCA), el Proceso de Lepaterique para
Centro América, la Red Internacional de Bosques Modelos con la participación
de Argentina, Chile y México, y el “Iwokrama International Rain Forest
Programme.”
10. Conclusiones
A pesar de los vastos recursos forestales existentes en la Región, la producción
industrial forestal está concentrada en Brasil, Chile y, en menor medida, en
Argentina y México. En todos ellos se han desarrollado plantaciones de especies
de crecimiento rápido que sirven de base a la industria de productos forestales.
Las actividades de aserrío y producción de pulpa y papel consumen la mayor
parte de los recursos madereros explotados comercialmente en dichos países.
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