SAPPMA Technical Manual 2011

SOUTHERN AFRICAN PLASTIC PIPE MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION
Copyright Protected
SAPPMA TECHNICAL MANUAL | jANUAry 2011 | 3rd Edition
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION BY THE CEO OF SAPPMA
You are now reading the third edition of the SAPPMA Technical Pipe Manual. Since the rst edition saw the light in 2006, we have continually updated, amended and added to the publication. This edition now includes for the rst time, sections on Hot & Cold Water Plumbing Pipe, HDPE fabricated ttings, as well as the jointing of HDPE. An enormous amount of data could be included in a manual such as this, but for practical and nancial reasons we limit it to the most important/relevant info required by a design engineer. I therefore repeat the standing invitation to users of this book, to send us your constructive comments for future improvements. Pipelines are one of the three most important elements of a countrys infrastructure. The disruption of water supply and sewage disposal is a most unpleasant experience - something that could be avoided by reliable piping systems. The key elements in achieving reliability are: o Knowledgeable civil engineering design (hydraulics, soil conditions) o Selection of the right pipe material (plastic, steel, concrete, etc.) for the application o Using the best available pipe grade polymer o Pipe manufacturing of the highest standard in approved factories o Installation by skilled and responsible contractors When done correctly, there is no reason why plastic pipelines should not give reliable service for a hundred years or more! We trust this manual will enable you to make informed choices in terms of the above and that your experiences with the plastics pipe industry will always be pleasant and constructive. Jan Venter
(Pr Eng)
SAPPMAs role
The role and importance of SAPPMA can hardly be overestimated. With big and ever increasing demand for water and sewage systems, a serious shortage of water in the country and the need for reliable, leak-free, long term piping systems, the critical importance of products of the highest quality is a clear. This is an area where SAPPMA plays a key role, together with the SABS. The natural tendency of people is to follow the way of least resistance; this is evident in all areas of society. In the piping industry, it is far easier and a lot more protable to use the cheapest raw material available and to overlook some critical long test requirements. Experience has shown that even the SABS mark on the product is not necessarily a watertight guarantee. SAPPMA continuously introduce additional measures to its members over and above the requirements of the national standards. Members are also subjected to regular factory audits. It is a matter of pride to use the SAPPMA logo on your products.
Purpose
Our purpose is to create absolute consumer condence within the Plastic Pipe Industry and to ensure the long term health & sustainability of high quality plastic pipes and pipe systems.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART I GENERAL ............................................................................................................. 3 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. Purpose and Scope of Manual ......................................................................................... Plastic Pipe Applications ............................................................................................... Pipe Material Properties ............................................................................................... International Market .................................................................................................... South African Market ................................................................................................... Pipeline Design and Selection ......................................................................................... Gravity and Pressure Systems ......................................................................................... PIPE MATERIAL CLASSIFICATION ......................................................................................... Soil Structure Systems................................................................................................. Flexible and Rigid Pipes ............................................................................................... Classication of Plastics .............................................................................................. Comparison of Various Flexible Pipes ............................................................................... Regression Curves (stress/time relationship) ...................................................................... 4 4 4 4 6 6 8 8 10 10 11 13 13 15
PART II SELECTION AND INSTALLATION .................................................................................. 19 HYDRAULIC REQUIREMENTS............................................................................................... Basic Principles ......................................................................................................... Operating Pressure, Hoop Stress and Wall Thickness ............................................................. Surge and Fatigue ...................................................................................................... Factory Tests ............................................................................................................ EXTERNAL LOADS ........................................................................................................... Design Basis ............................................................................................................. Load Classication ..................................................................................................... Pipe Stiffness ........................................................................................................... Determining Required Pipe Stiffness ................................................................................ Vertical Deection ..................................................................................................... 20 20 23 24 25 26 26 26 27 28 30
DURABILITY REQUIREMENTS .............................................................................................. 31 Durability ................................................................................................................ 31 SYSTEM COMPONENTS ..................................................................................................... Secondary loads ........................................................................................................ Manholes ................................................................................................................ Joints And Fittings ..................................................................................................... Valves .................................................................................................................... INSTALLATION ............................................................................................................... Preconstruction Activities............................................................................................. Excavation .............................................................................................................. Embedment ............................................................................................................. Pipe Laying and Jointing .............................................................................................. Backlling ............................................................................................................... Anchoring................................................................................................................ Site Tests ................................................................................................................ 31 31 31 31 32 32 32 32 33 33 34 35 35
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART III PLASTIC PIPE PROPERTIES ....................................................................................... 37 POLYETHYLENE (PE) ....................................................................................................... 38 Typical Physical Properties ........................................................................................... 38 Benets of PE ............................................................................................................38 Polymers ................................................................................................................. 38 Applications ............................................................................................................. 39 Benets of PE 100 ...................................................................................................... 40 Design .................................................................................................................... 40 Other Relevant Values ................................................................................................. 44 PE in Gas Distribution ................................................................................................. 44 Cost Benets of PE ..................................................................................................... 45 Pipe Dimensions ........................................................................................................ 45 POLYVINYL CHLORIDE (PVC) .............................................................................................. 50 Composition of PVC Pipe material ................................................................................... 50 Physical Properties ......................................................................................................50 Benets of PVC ......................................................................................................... 51 Applications of PVC Pipe Systems ....................................................................................52 Design .....................................................................................................................52 Pipe Dimensions .........................................................................................................55 Strength and Toughness ............................................................................................... 62 Effect of Temperature Change ....................................................................................... 63 POLYPROPYLENE (PP) ...................................................................................................... 65 Benets and Specications ............................................................................................65 POLYETHYLENE JOINTING SYSTEMS ......................................................................................66 Polyethylene Welding Processes ......................................................................................66 Heated - Tool Socket Welding .........................................................................................68 Welder Training and Qualications ...................................................................................71 Welding Equipment .....................................................................................................72 Destructive Test .........................................................................................................72 Air Test....................................................................................................................73 Hydraulic Pressure Test ................................................................................................73 Minimal Dimensional Requirements for Fittings ....................................................................74 Fabricated Fittings (HDPE & PP) ..................................................................................... 76 Segmented Bends ...................................................................................................... 79 Seamless Long Radius Bends Plain Ended .......................................................................... 80 Electrofusion Socket Dimensions .................................................................................... 81 Spigot Dimensions ...................................................................................................... 82 HOT & COLD WATER PRESSURE PIPES ................................................................................... 83 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 83 Classication ............................................................................................................ 84 APPENDICES .................................................................................................................. 87 Appendix A: Identication of Plastics ................................................................................87 Appendix B: Chemical Resistance of Thermoplastics used for pipes ............................................88 ABOUT SAPPMA ........................................................................................................... 100
PART 1 GENERAL
PART I GENERAL ............................................................................................................. 3
INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 4 Purpose and Scope of Manual ......................................................................................... 4 Plastic Pipe Applications ............................................................................................... 4 Pipe Material Properties ............................................................................................... 4 International Market .................................................................................................... 6 South African Market ................................................................................................... 6 Pipeline Design and Selection ......................................................................................... 8 Gravity and Pressure Systems ......................................................................................... 8
PIPE MATERIAL CLASSIFICATION ......................................................................................... 10 Soil Structure Systems................................................................................................. 10 Flexible and Rigid Pipes ............................................................................................... 11 Classication of Plastics .............................................................................................. 13 Comparison of Various Flexible Pipes ............................................................................... 13 Regression Curves (stress/time relationship) ...................................................................... 15
INTRODUCTION
Purpose and Scope of Manual
The behaviour of plastic pipes used for buried pipelines has been researched and studied for many years. There is however, in general, a lack of technical understanding amongst designers, speciers and users of plastic pipes and ttings about these products. This lack of understanding relates specically to the differences between the various types of plastic pipes and how the principles developed should be applied to ensure that these products provide a long trouble free service life. The purpose of this manual is to provide the basic information and guidance needed to ensure that plastic pipes for water supply and waste-water disposal applications are correctly selected and specied. This publication does not attempt to replace published text books and codes on the subject, but is a basic guide to the use, selection and specication of these products. It covers the differences between the various types of plastic pipe and the basic procedures for determining product size, strength and material properties for a range of applications. It has been written from the perspective of the civil or municipal designer who probably has no formal education or training in the use of these products. Plastic pipes fall into two broad categories, namely thermoplastics such as PVC and PE and thermoset plastics such as GRP. Thermoplastics can tolerate high strains and can be recycled. Thermoset plastics can tolerate high stress and cannot be recycled. The current edition of this publication focuses on thermoplastics. A future revision will include sections on the thermoset plastics.
Pipe Material Properties

Like all materials there are positive and negative properties that need to be considered. Positive characteristics are: Resistance against chemicals, corrosion and abrasion Light weight and ease of handling Available in long lengths, reducing the number of joints Flexibility and toughness Excellent hydraulic properties with low friction resistance throughout life Able to withstand water hammer Very low thermal conductivity
Plastic Pipe Applications

Plastic pipe is used throughout the entire spectrum of potential pipe applications, including: Water distribution and wastewater disposal Mining applications such as the conveyance of potable water, cooling, slurries and air Irrigation Plumbing(Hot and cold water) Efuent conveyance in the chemical and other industries Telecommunications applications conduits for cables or bre optics Gas distribution Rehabilitation of deteriorated pipelines used in the above applications such as
There are also some characteristics that need special care in the design of pipelines: High coefcient of expansion/contraction with temperature changes compared to metallic pipe Flexibility requires shorter support distances when installed above ground Flammability (PVC is self-extinguishing and PE not)
By understanding these properties the designer can take them into account and take the necessary precautions.
INTRODUCTION
TABLE 1: GENErAL PrOPErTIES OF THErMOPLASTICS Property Surface feel Usual colours Sound when dropped Combustibility Waxy Black Clatter Bright ame: Drops continue to burn while falling Like candles Impression possible Yes No Thermal or mechanical welding and/or spigot or socket 0.2 0.40 0.55 0.96 PE Waxy Ivory white, blue, green brown Clatter Bright ame: Drops continue to burn while falling Like resin Very slight impression possible Yes No Thermal or mechanical welding and/or spigot or socket 0.15 0.19 0.46 0.91 PP Smooth Blue, Sand, White High clatter Self Extinguishing PVC
Odour of smoke after ame is extinguished Nail test impression Floats on water Notch sensitivity Method of joining
Pungent like hydrochloric acid Impression not possible No Yes (not in case of PVC-M & PVC-O) Solvent cement and/ or thermal, chemical or mechanical welding and/or spigot or socket 0.07 0.10 0.23 1.45
Linear expansion mm/m/oC Thermal conductivity - kcal/mhoC Specic heat - kcal/mhoC Specic weight - kg/m3 Tensile yield at 20oC - MPa (Short Term) Youngs modulus at 20oC - MPa (Short Term)
17-24 800 - 1100
23-31 1250 - 1700
48-75 3000-4000
Note: The designer should check with the pipe supplier about the product and its properties.
INTRODUCTION
International Market
Worldwide, the most popular plastic pipe materials are PVC (polyvinyl chloride), PE (polyethylene), PP (polypropylene), GRP (glass reinforced polyester), ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) and PB (polybutylene). Plastics are a by-product of only 4% of the worlds oil consumption. In exchange, plastics help conserve fossil fuels for power and heat. The increasing use of plastics in motor vehicles for instance, has led to decreases in overall mass and better fuel efciency. Europe, as an example, saves 12 million tons of oil per year in the automotive sector by using lightweight plastics. This is equivalent to 30 million tons of carbon dioxide each year. Plastic pipes are used in many infrastructural and industrial applications such as water, gas and sewerage conveyance. In the European pipe market, plastic pipes rank rst among all pipe materials and globally about 54% of all pipes in terms of length installed are plastic. Plastic pipelines have encroached on steel and asbestos cement in traditional pressure systems and asbestos cement and concrete in the sewer market. Old pipe installations in the developed world lose vast quantities of water, costing billions (11 million cubic meters of treated drinking water per day in the United States, with similar situations in Europe). The properties of certain types of plastic pipes are ideally suited to the rehabilitation of these deteriorated pipelines, promising continuous growth in plastic pipe use. The continuous drive for competitive advantages in the piping industry has stimulated a great deal of research and development (R & D) by polymer scientists in the quest for higher performance at lower cost. Design stresses have increased from 10 to 32 MPa in PVC and 5 to 8 MPa in PE. Further developments can be expected, which will result in considerable reductions in wall thickness and product mass, as well as the ability to produce larger diameter pipes. The advancement of modern polymers has enabled the production of solid wall polyethylene (PE 100) pipe in diameters up to 2 500 mm with wall thicknesses around 100 mm; structured wall pipe is made in even bigger sizes. In the US PVC pressure and sewer pipes are produced in diameters up to 1200 mm.
South African Market

The South African (SA) plastic pipe industry is well developed and compares very well with its counterparts in Europe and the US. The latest technology is used for processing and testing, polymers that comply with international standards. Several local companies are either subsidiaries of international rms, or are linked with technical licenses, thereby sharing in the benets of the international research and development (R&D) and benchmarking against the best in the world. The main source of the thermoplastic polymers is ethylene, obtained from either oil or coal. All have hydro-carbon molecular structures. PVC & LDPE polymers are locally produced by Sasol Polymers and HDPE by Safripol. The ethylene they both use as basic feedstock is obtained from Sasol Synfuels. A big pipeline recently completed from the Mozambique gas elds to Sasol in Secunda supplies natural gas as an additional source of feedstock. Some high performance polymers are imported. Plastic pipes for various applications are made to SA national standards as detailed in Table 2. These standards are comparable to international standards and many are based on European documents.
INTRODUCTION
TABLE 2: CUrrENT SOUTH AFrICAN PLASTIC PIPE rANGES AVAILABLE Pipe Material & application PVC-U Rigid Pressure Pipe PVC-M Rigid Pressure Pipe Mine Pipe PVC-O Rigid Pressure Pipe PVC Solid Wall Sewer Pipe PVC Multilayer Sewer Pipe PVC U. Corrugated pipe PE100 Pressure Pipe PE80 Pressure Pipe PE100 Gas Pipe PE Structured Wall Pipe PE Corrugated Wall Pipe PP Pipe PP - R Hot & Cold pressure pipe PE - X Hot & Cold pressure pipe Nominal size (mm) 20 - 500 50 - 500 55 - 355 110 - 250 110 - 500 110 - 250 110 - 250 Design Stress (MPa) 10, 12.5 18 10 - 12.5 28 Pressure rating (bar) 4 - 25 6 - 25 6 - 25 9 - 16 100, 300 100, 200, 400 400 Pipe Stiffness (kPa) Specication Nominal Stiffness kN/m/m
SANS 966:1 SANS 966:2 SANS 1283 SANS 1808 - 85 SANS 791 SANS 1601 SANS 1601 2, 6 2, 4, 8 8
16 -1000 16 - 1000 16 - 630 280 - 1800 75 - 160 8 - 1000 12 - 160
8.0 6.3 5.0
6 - 20 3 - 20 10 200, 400, 800 400
SANS ISO 4427 SANS ISO 4427 SABS ISO 4437 ISO 9969 ISO 9969 SANS 15494 Parts 1,2,3 & 5 SANS 15874 4, 8, 16 8
6.3 6.93
6 - 20 10 - 20
7.6
10 - 20
SANS 15875
These standards are all performance specications that prescribe the minimum requirements that the products must meet. They do not cover how the product should be selected or installed.
INTRODUCTION
Pipeline Design and Selection
The primary function of any pipeline is to convey a uid. Its size is based on predictions of the future demand. It is usually not economic to design for the maximum predicted future ow. If a pipeline proves to be too small at some future date an additional pipeline can be constructed with minimal or no disruption to the operation of the existing one. To meet this primary requirement the pipeline must also meet the secondary or supporting requirements of strength, water-tightness and durability. Usually it is in not meeting one of these secondary requirements that a pipeline fails. Irrespective of whether a pipeline is designed to serve a 20 year, 40 year or some other predicted population or demand it must be designed to meet the secondary requirements based on the worst case scenario. If it fails to meet these requirements, any remedial work will cause a major disruption to its operation and may necessitate its replacement even though it still has the required hydraulic capacity. When there are junctions, transitions and changes in vertical or horizontal alignment access is generally needed. This takes the form of manholes or other appurtenant structures. In the case of pressure pipelines the accumulation of air in the system and the structures needed to house air relief valves or other devices also have to be considered. As these are vertical structures the loading on these is different from that on the adjacent sections of pipeline that are loaded with soil and as a result there can be relative movement between these structures and the adjacent pipes. Many of the failures on pipelines occur at joints and in particular those at the interfaces with structures such as manholes. If the correct measures are not taken to minimize the disruption to ow through these structures and the associated energy losses not considered, the hydraulic performance of a pipeline can be seriously compromised. If measures are not taken to accommodate any potential relative movement between pipes and these structures, pipes can crack or deform resulting in leakages. The structural design of buried pipelines involves the understanding of a complex system consisting of soil and trafc loads, soil properties, water movement through the soil and pipes and appurtenant structures made from a wide range of materials. The designer can do little about the installation conditions, but he can make decisions about the requirements the pipe must meet and then choose the most appropriate pipe material for the conditions on a particular project. There are two broad categories of pipelines, namely pressure and gravity systems and the way in which they operate is very different. There are also two broad categories of pipe materials, namely rigid and exible and the way in which they respond to load is also very different. It is essential that the designer understands these two sets of differences.
Gravity and Pressure Systems

Pressure pipelines ow full and the energy in them has three components in addition to pipe diameter namely, velocity head, pressure head and frictional losses. With pressure pipelines it is the energy difference between the inlet and outlet that determines the discharge capacity. As the hydraulic performance of this type of pipeline is not dependant on its gradient the vertical alignment is essentially determined by the ground surface and it is placed at relatively shallow depths. The dominant stresses in the pipe wall will be those due to the internal pressure however the inuence of external loads cannot be ignored. Gravity pipelines on the other hand, especially stormwater drains and sewers that ow partly full, have no pressure component to their energy so they can ow down hill only. This means that gravity pipelines must be laid at gradients that will ensure self cleansing velocities for efcient operation. With gravity pipelines it is the gradient of the attest section that will determine the capacity. To maintain self cleansing velocities it may be necessary to install such pipelines in deep trenches and at gradients that are not parallel to the ground surface. To achieve this they are frequently placed at depth below the surface. As a result the dominant stresses developed in the pipe wall are due to the external earth loads, although under certain circumstances internal pressure may also have to be considered. When pipes are used for low pressure or gravity applications it is the external loads that will determine the required wall thickness or pipe stiffness.
INTRODUCTION
It needs to be appreciated that the way in which a pipe handles internal uid pressures and external earth loads is different. Internal pressure generates direct tension in the pipe wall, whereas external earth and trafc loads are non symmetrical and cause circumferential bending of the pipe wall. In most soils the vertical loads will exceed the horizontal loads and the pipe deforms to form a horizontal ellipse. This effectively activates the lateral soil pressures resulting in the transfer of load to the surrounding soil.
(a) PRESSURE CONDUIT FLOWING FULL Figure 1: Difference between gravity and pressure pipelines Where: hf V g hp D z Y head loss due to friction (m) velocity (m/sec) acceleration due to gravity (m/sec2) pressure head (m) pipe diameter (m) height above datum (m) Depth of ow partially full pipe (m)
(b) GRAVITY CONDUIT FLOWING PARTLY FULL
PIPE MATERIAL CLASSIFICATION

Soil Structure Systems
The way in which the loads are carried will depend on the relative stiffness of the pipes and the surrounding soil. SANS 10102 part I (p18), uses the approach given in Young and Trott, namely:
Figure 2: Range of exural stiffness ratios for pipe materials used in South Africa
Y = E/SR SR = EI/D3 Where Y E SR E D I -
(1) and (2) exural stiffness ratio, the soil stiffness pipe ring stiffness elastic modulus for pipe material undeformed vertical diameter of pipe moment of inertia of section
This ratio Y is directly proportional to soil stiffness and indirectly proportional to pipe ring stiffness, or exural stiffness as it is dened in this document. Soil stiffness can vary from 1 to 20 MPa. Pipe ring stiffnesses ranges from 1kN/m/m for exible pipes where the pipes deform and shed the load to the surrounding soil to >2 000kN/m/m for rigid pipes where the pipes carry the load directly by moment and shear. The Y value of a rigid system is thus two to ve orders of magnitude less than that of a exible system. A comparison of the pipe materials commonly used in SA is shown in Figure 3.
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Flexible and Rigid Pipes
Rigid pipes have to carry the imposed loads on their own and the critical structural parameter is their strength. The main determinant of these loads is usually the installation condition. On the other hand exible pipes deect under imposed loads and are reliant on the horizontal soil support that develops and the critical structural parameter is the soil stiffness around them. The main determinant of deection will be the stiffness of the surrounding material. The standard installation conditions for rigid pipes are illustrated in Figure 3. A useful concept is the geostatic load, which is the load on the pipeline due to the prism of material directly over it. With a trench installation the loading will always be less than the geostatic loading because the frictional forces act upwards and reduce the loading on the pipe. With an embankment installation the loading will always be greater than the geostatic load because the frictional forces act downwards and increase the loading on the pipe.
As the exural stiffness ratio increases so the strength of the pipe/soil system becomes more dependant on the properties of the surrounding material. The emphasis shifts from ensuring that the pipe, produced in a factory has the required strength to carry the loads, to ensuring that the embedment around the pipe, constructed on site has the strength to provide the pipe with the required lateral support. This gure also shows the difference between the various types of plastics, which the civil designer frequently does not appreciate. It should be appreciated that there is a signicant difference between the performance of the thermoplastics such as PE and PVC and the thermoset plastics such as GRP and GRE. This publication focuses on the former where the development of high strains will not cause the structural failure of the pipe wall. The same can not be said for GRP and GRE pipes where strain is a limiting factor. Excessive deection of PE or PVC pipe could however cause operational problems such as the water tightness of joints and accessibility for maintenance. No matter what pipe material is used care must be taken to ensure that the foundation support is uniform.
TRENCH
GEOSTATIC
EMBANKMENT
Figure 3: Comparison of installation conditions for rigid pipes
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The geostatic load on a exible pipe will be the column of earth directly on top of it. The pipe will deform more under this load than the columns of earth on either side of it and as a result upward frictional forces will develop between the column of earth directly above the pipe and the columns of earth on either side of the pipe. The vertical load on the pipe will therefore be less than the prism load. Irrespective of the installation condition the load on a exible pipe will always be less than the geostatic load calculated by using its outside diameter. The basic formula for calculating the soil load on a buried pipe is: WE = CEB2 (3) founding level. Once the ll height exceeds + 1.7BC there is a straight line relationship between load and ll height and there will be no limiting value to the load. These earth loads will be: WE = 1.69Bc H in sand WE = 1.54Bc H in clay (4) (5)
For trench installations upper limits to loading on a rigid pipe occur when complete arching action occurs. WE = 2.63Bt2 in sand WE = 3.84Bt2 in clay (6) (7)
Where WE - total earth load in kN/m of pipeline CE - earth load coefcient B - ll material density - outside pipe diameter (BC) or trench width (BT)
In practice the walls of a trench dug through a sandy material will not stand and the equation (5) is hypothetical. Open trench installations are seldom so deep that full arching action and limiting loads can be achieved and hence it would be uneconomic to use these values to determine the required pipe strength. A comparison of the loading on rigid and exible pipes under trench installation conditions is given in Figure 4.
For embankment installations the most severe loading on a rigid pipe occurs when the founding conditions are unyielding and the whole pipe projects above the
RIGID
GEOSTATIC
FLEXIBLE
Figure 4: Comparison of rigid and exible pipe in a trench installation
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As the thermoplastic pipes such as those made from PVC, PE and PP have a high strain tolerance, they will deform more than the columns of earth next to them and the frictional forces that develop between the columns of earth will act upwards and reduce the load on the pipe. If the ll height is great enough full arching will take place and the earth load will have an upper limit as given by formulae (6) and (7) above where the trench width is replaced by the outside diameter of the pipe. This approach, however, is seldom taken. PVC, PE & PP pipe have a proven track record of over 40 years.In the absence of details of actual soil properties and installation conditions the earth loads on exible pipes can conservatively be taken as: WE = Bc H Where the terms are as dened above. (8)
Classication of Plastics
Plastics cover a wide range of synthetic materials which can be molded or formed when soft and set. They fall into two broad categories, thermoplastics and thermosets. Thermoplastics soften when heated and harden when cooled. This cycle can be repeated over and over again. Thermosets on the other hand are materials that when processed and shaped are hardened by heating. They cannot be softened again by further heating. An international system for identifying plastics that uses a polymer identifying logo has been developed. This is given in Appendix A. Only some of these materials are used to manufacture pipes.
Comparison of Various Flexible Pipes

There are signicant differences between plastic pipes and steel pipes both in terms of their properties and applications. Some of the differences between PE, PVC and steel are listed in Table 3.
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TABLE 3: COMPArISON OF VArIOUS FLEXIBLE PIPES PE Flexibility Less affected by soil settlement Can be wound onto drums in diameters [Up to 160 mm in SA] Suitable for relining and ploughing in Cold bending radius at 20C = 30D Suitable for temperatures down to minus 40C Can withstand crushing Affected to some extent by soil settlement Only corrugated pipes can be wound onto drums (single wall) Limited use for relining Cold bending not possible Laying at sub-zero temperatures risky for PVC-U, less so for PVC-M and PVC-O PVC-U cannot withstand crushing, PVC-M can withstand to some extent and PVC-O can withstand crushing Affected to some extent by soil settlement Cannot be wound onto drums Difcult to use for relining pipe A limited amount of bending is possible PVC Steel
jointing Technique Can be fusion welded Joints have good tensile strength Special equipment required Chemical resistance Resistant to acids, alkalis, solvents, alcohol Not resistant to oxidizing acids, ketones, aromatic hydrocarbons and chlorinated hydrocarbons Resistant to microbial corrosion Resistant to all natural gas constituents Resistant to acids, alkalis, salt solutions and many organic compounds such as fats, oils, aliphatic hydrocarbons. Resistant to microbial corrosion Resistant to natural gas Limited resistance to chemicals Unsuitable for concentrated oxidizing acids Not resistant to microbial corrosion Not resistant to acid containing condensates (corrosion) Bonded joints with good tensile strength. Can be bonded without costly special equipment Push-in joints easily made Victaulic restrained joints Can be welded Joints have good tensile strength
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PE Weather resistance Due to the required carbon black additive, outdoor weathering has virtually no effect on creep rupture properties Cannot be painted Thermal Expansion 0,2mm/m/C
PVC
Steel
Normal periods of outdoor storage present no loss in creep rupture strength. Addition of stabiliser products to improve UV resistance is required Can be painted
UV resistant Corrosion could be a problem Can be painted
0,07mm/m/C
0,012mm/m/C
Abrasion (depends on type of material being pumped) 0,25mm after 600 000 cycles Wear rate 0,23 0,75mm after 600 000 cycles Wear rate 1,42
Flammability Normal ammability: ignites on contact with ame. Continues to burn when the ignition source is removed and melts with burning drips PVC pipe is selfextinguishing Non ammable
youngs Modulus 800 - 1100 Mpa (Short Term) 3000 - 4000 MPa (Short Term) 210 000 MPa
Regression Curves (stress / time relationship)

With plastic materials the relationship between stress and strain is time dependant. This means that if the stress is kept constant the strain will increase with time. This is called the creep phenomenon. In practical terms this creep means that failure will occur after a certain loading period. As the time to burst is inversely dependent on the stress it is possible to determine a stress level at which the time to failure will far exceed the pipelines design life. All plastics used for the manufacture of pipeline systems are classied and their allowable stress limits determined by long term performance under hydrostatic pressure in accordance with ISO 9080 (2003) Classication is achieved by testing pipe samples at different temperatures and internal pressures and recording the time to failure. The data is then extrapolated in accordance with ISO 9080 in order to predict the stress after 50 years. These results are plotted to give a regression curve. This classication
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system is based on the predicted minimum required stress (MRS) that would cause failure after 50 years. The 97.5% lower condence limit of the predicted stress is rounded down to give the MRS value for each manufacturers material. The values given assume an operating temperature of 20C. The MRS value increases at lower temperatures and vice versa. When designing pipelines for use at temperatures above 20C the correct MRS value must be therefore be used for the given operating temperature. As these regression curves are the basis for designing plastic piping, a detailed description of how they are constructed follows. At a xed temperature the pipe is put under a xed hoop stress and the failure time t is measured. A range of hoop stresses are investigated (from 2 to 40MPa, depending on the polymer and the temperature), resulting in a range of failure times from 1 to 10 000 hours. The regression curve is calculated and presented as a log/log plot. The long term hydrostatic strength (SLTHS) is the predicted mean strength at a given temperature, calculable over a time range from 1 hour to 50 years. It is extrapolated from the 20/40/60/80 degree C curves (failure times measured from 1h to 10 000h = 416 days). To ascertain the reliability of the extrapolation, the lower prediction limit sLPL is calculated: SLTHS (MPa): Long Term Hydrostatic Stress = predicted mean stress at a temperature T and time t. SLCL (MPa): Lower Condence Limit 97,5% = lower condence limit of the interpolated hydrostatic stress at a temperature T and a time t. SLPL (MPa): Lower Prediction Limit 97.5% = lower prediction (extrapolation) limit of the predicted (extrapolated) hydrostatic stress for a single value at a temperature T and a time t. The failure can be either ductile (which corresponds to creep rupture) or brittle (which corresponds to environmental stress cracking). Ductile failure occurs at high hoop stress and gives a short failure time. Brittle failure occurs at low hoop stress and gives a long failure time. The two kinds of failure give rise to a linear curve made of two branches of different slope: almost horizontal for ductile failure (short failure time), and then steep for brittle failure (long failure time). The transition point between the 2 modes of failure, which is represented by a change of slope on the regression curve, is called the knee of the regressi on curve. PVC as well as the latest grades of PE will not display a knee on the curves. At between 60 and 80C it may be possible to observe the knee before 10 000 h but at 20C the knee should not be observed before 10 000 h - it can only be determined through extrapolation. As the behaviour of a resin can not be known before starting its regression curve, the exact failure times can not be predicted. In practice the creation of a regression could take 18 months or longer. The permissible design stress is obtained by applying a safety factor (1,25 2,5) to the projected burst stress at 50 years.
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Example of regression curve displaying a knee.
Time (Hours)
Figure 5: Typical Regression Curve for Hydrostatic Stress Ductile failure is a creep induced failure, or plastic deformation the pipe stretches and deforms under pressure. Ductile failure resistance can be enhanced by increasing the crystallinity and therefore the density of the polymer. The material is then stiffer. Brittle failure is the result of (age induced) environmental stress cracking (slow crack growth) through the disentanglement of the polymeric chains. It can be prevented by increasing the entanglement (higher molecular weight, chain branching).
reference Stress (MPa)
In failure induced by creep, the failure time depends on the applied pressure. This means that a small change in pressure implies a large change in failure time. Conversely, environmental stress cracking / slow crack growth corresponds to an age induced degradation of the polymer. When the polymer becomes older, the polymeric chains disentangle themselves; micro cracks build and grow, so that the polymer loses its stress resistance.
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NOTES
18
PART II SELECTION AND INSTALLATION

PART II SELECTION AND INSTALLATION .................................................................................. 19 HYDRAULIC REQUIREMENTS............................................................................................... 20 Basic Principles ......................................................................................................... 20 Operating Pressure, Hoop Stress and Wall Thickness ............................................................. 23 Surge and Fatigue ...................................................................................................... 24 Factory Tests ............................................................................................................ 25 EXTERNAL LOADS ........................................................................................................... 26 Design Basis ............................................................................................................. 26 Load Classication ..................................................................................................... 26 Pipe Stiffness ........................................................................................................... 27 Determining Required Pipe Stiffness ................................................................................ 28 Vertical Deection ..................................................................................................... 30 DURABILITY REQUIREMENTS .............................................................................................. 31 Durability ................................................................................................................ 31 SYSTEM COMPONENTS ..................................................................................................... 31 Secondary loads ........................................................................................................ 31 Manholes ................................................................................................................ 31 Joints And Fittings ..................................................................................................... 31 Valves .................................................................................................................... 32 INSTALLATION ............................................................................................................... 32 Preconstruction Activities............................................................................................. 32 Excavation .............................................................................................................. 32 Embedment ............................................................................................................. 33 Pipe Laying and Jointing .............................................................................................. 33 Backlling ............................................................................................................... 34 Anchoring................................................................................................................ 35 Site Tests ................................................................................................................ 35
19
HYDRAULIC REQUIREMENTS
Basic Principles
The three principles used in the hydraulic design of pipelines are continuity, energy and momentum. The continuity principle states that the ow rate at one section of a pipeline will be the same as at any other section, provided there is no change in the discharge. Q
1
Friction is developed as a uid moves past the pipe wall. The rougher the surface the higher the energy required to overcome this friction. In a pipe owing full, the energy to overcome friction is provided by the pressure gradient, where as in an open channel this energy is provided by the weight of the water running down the slope. In a closed conduit the friction resisting the ow is around the whole boundary. In an open channel there are two types of surfaces, a free air water interface where there is negligible friction and the interface between the uid and the pipe wall, where friction is developed. In its simplest form the velocity through a conduit can be described by the Chezy equation. V= C rS (12)
=A
=Q
=A
(9)
The energy equation or Bernoulli expressed in SI units states that V12/2g + p1/ + Z1 = V22/2g + p2/ + Z2 + hL(10) V g S P Z h Q velocity in m/s acceleration due to gravity in m/s2 gradient in m/m pressure in kPa unit weight of uid kN/m3
Where V C R S -
is the velocity the Chezy coefcient describes the conduit geometry describes the gradient
height above datum in m head loss between sections 1 and 2 in m Volumetric ow rate in m3/sec
The momentum principle states that the change in momentum between two sections of a pipeline equals the sum of the forces causing the change. Fx = QVx F Q V force in direction x in kN/m2 unit mass of uid in kg/m3 volumetric ow rate in m3/s velocity in m/s (11)
There are several derivatives of this basic equation. Equations such as Manning and Hazen-Williams are based on empirical roughness values, whereas Colebrook-White is theoretically correct and based on absolute roughness values. The empirical equations are easier to apply and are adequate for most applications. Manning is used for both pipes owing full and partly full. V = Where V n R S 1/n r S1/2 n velocity roughness coefcient hydraulic radius slope of energy line for pipes owing full (m/m)
Subscript x refers to the velocity in the x direction The hydraulic capacity of any conduit will be determined by a combination of factors, namely the energy difference between the inlet and outlet, the geometric properties of pipe, pipeline alignment and the physical properties of pipe material. The energy losses in a pipeline are due to friction and transitions.
(13)
slope of pipeline for pipes owing partly full (m/m)
20
Hazen-Williams is the preferred formula for pipes owing full and has a similar format. V = 0.345CD0,63S0.54 Where V C D S velocity (m/s) roughness coefcient diameter in m hydraulic gradient (m/m) (14)
Colebrook-White gives a more rigorous formula that accounts for the absolute roughness of the pipe material and the viscosity of the uid. The values are more accurate, but also more difcult to calculate and it is not so easy for the designer to develop a feel for how the formula responds to changes in the variables. It is expressed as: V = -2 2gDS log(ks/3.7D + 2.51v/D 2gDS) Where ks - absolute roughness of pipe material (mm) v - kinematic viscosity of uid (m2/s) The other symbols are already dened. It should be noted that v is temperature dependant and this must be taken into account when accurate results are required. A comparison of different absolute roughness values is given in Table 5. TABLE 5: ABSOLUTE rOUGHNESS VALUES Material k (mm) 0,002 0,01 0,05 0,15 0,5 1,0 1,0 1,5 (15)
Values of the roughness coefcient for use in the Hazen Williams equation are given in table 4. TABLE 4: PIPE rOUGHNESS COEFFICIENT Pipe Material PE, PP & PVC Smooth concrete & FRC Steel Bitumen lined/ galvanised Cast iron Vitried Clay New 150 150 25 yrs old 140 130 50 yrs old 140 120 Badly corroded Do not corrode 100
150 130 120
130 110
100 90 80
60 50 Does not corrode
Polyethylene & PVC GRP Steel, new Galvanised Iron, new Ductile Iron, new
For diameters smaller than 1000mm reduce the value of C by 0,1 [1 - dia (mm)] c
Ductile Iron, corroded
For a quick determination of ow parameters the nomograph in Figure 6 can be used. However, when accurate values are required, they should be calculated.
21
For practical reasons the velocities in pressure pipelines should fall in the range of 0.8 to 2.5 m/s. the lower limit to maintain self cleansing ow and the upper limit to minimize air release at high points. The velocity range in gravity systems is the same with the proviso that downstream velocities should not be appreciably lower than upstream values, to prevent the deposition of the bed load being carried. (A drop in velocity to 0.7 of the upstream value is probably the maximum that should be allowed. Another factor to consider in pipes that ow partly full is super critical ow. When this occurs the velocity should not exceed 2.5 m/s. or the velocity head should be contained in the pipe.
Figure 6: Nomograph for solving Colebrook White. Applied to PVC or PE
22
Operating Pressure, Hoop Stress and Wall Thickness
Figure 7: Flow in a pressure pipeline The operating pressure at any section along a pressure pipeline will be determined by the vertical alignment and the energy losses that occur. The total energy as described by Bernoullis equation, given earlier is applicable to all sections along a pipeline. The operating pressure will be the total head above the pipe invert less the velocity head. This internal pressure will generate stresses in the pipe wall. The hydrostatic pressure capacity of plastic pipe is related to a number of variables: The ratio between the outside diameter and the wall thickness (standard dimension ratio) The hydrostatic design stress of the material The operating temperature The duration and variability of the stress applied by the internal hydrostatic pressure The relationship between the internal pressure, diameter, wall thickness and the hoop stress in the pipe wall, is given by the Barlow formula, which can be conservatively expressed as follows:
e =
P Dm 2s internal pressure (MPa) minimum wall thickness (mm) mean pipe diameter (mm) hoop stress across the pipe wall (MPa)
(16)
Where: P e
Dm s -
Although plastic pipes can withstand short-term hydrostatic pressures at levels substantially higher than the pressure rating, the design is always based on the long-term strength at 20C to ensure a design life of at least 50 years.
This formula has been standardized for use in design, testing and research and is applicable at all levels of pressure and stress. For design purposes, P is taken as the maximum allowable working pressure and s the maximum allowable hoop stress at 20C.
23
Figure 8: Internal Pressure in pipe When this equation is used for the design of an installed pipe it is written: s PN where s Dm 2e (17) Surge generates pressures that generally rise above the static rating of the pipeline and these pressures are applied over very short periods. The initial rate of pressure change is rapid but of short duration. Fatigue is associated with cyclic pressure variations that are repeated over a long period. It is a condition often occurring below the rated pressure. This is not a problem with the slow daily pressure cycles which frequently occur in distribution systems, but in circumstances where short-term surges may be repeated at frequent intervals, there is concern that the pipes may weaken due to fatigue. Fatigue response studies show that fatigue cracks initiate from a dislocation in the material matrix, usually towards the inside surface of the pipe, where stress levels are highest and propagate or grow with each stress cycle at a rate dependent on the magnitude of the stress. Ultimately the crack penetrates the pipe wall. Typically surge occurs when valves are opened or closed or pumps are stopped. The maximum theoretical surge can be calculated from Joukowskys formula:
- permissible design stress (MPa)
PN - nominal pressure rating
Surge & Fatigue

It should be noted that the modern thermoplastics such as PE and PVC-O are very tolerant to the rapid loading which occurs with transient pressures. They develop great short term strength and stiffness as the structure of the materials molecular chain reacts to resist the deformation. Hence, at high pressurisation rates pipes are better able to resist the higher stress levels associated with surge. The strength of the material increases with high rates of loading. Surge and fatigue are often combined as a single parameter. Although both phenomena arise from the events such as valves closing quickly and pump shut down, they should be considered separately, since they have a different effect on the pipe material.
24
The pressure change or surge in a pipe line (water hammer) can be determined by applying Joukowskys equation H = C v/g (18)
TABLE 6: ELASTIC MODULUS IN N/mm2 OF PIPE MATErIALS SUBjECT TO SUrGE PrESSUrES Temperature 20oC 40oC 60oC 80oC PE 1680 1230 760 PP 1470 950 560 390
Where H - change in head due to water hammer (m) c - wave celerity through the pipe material (m/s) v g - change in ow velocity of uid (m/s) - acceleration due to gravity (9,81m/s)
Values for wave celerity rate at 20oC in water are shown in Table 5. Because PE has a low elastic modulus, the wave propagation rate and surge intensity are considerably lower than in elastic pipe material (steel, concrete). In tests with PE pipes under dynamic pressure loading it has been shown that the pressure surges can with good approximation be calculated according to the pressure surge theory of Joukowsky. Furthermore, it may be concluded from tests carried out by Lortsch that surges do not damage PE pipes provided that the mean stress is not higher than the stress at nominal pressure; i.e. for example with a SDR 17 (PN 6) pipe at an operation pressure of 6 bar at 20oC the mean pressure does not exceed 6 bar or a relative stress of 5 MPa. The surge amplitude in this case could be 6 bar.
Values for wave celerity through various materials conveying water at 20C are given in table 5. The elastic modulus of the pipe ER under surge pressure is temperature dependant. Applicable values for PE and PP are given in Table 6. TABLE 5: WAVE CELErITy (m/s) FOr rANGE OF PIPES AT 20OC Pressure rating (bar) 6 9 12 16 20 25 Wave Celerity C (m/s) PE PP 204 229 258 290 368 416 215 240 290 370 405
SDr rating SDR 33 SDR 26 SDR 17 SDR 11 SDR 9
PVC-U PVC-M 340 420 485 560 625 601 266 297 342 383 637 486
Factory Tests
A comprehensive testing program is carried out at the plastic pipe factories to ensure that the performance requirements of the specications are met. Of particular signicance to the designer are those that deal with the structural performance and water tightness. For details of these tests the reader is referred to the relevant SANS or ISO documents as listed in Table 2. These tests, however, do not guarantee the performance of the installed pipeline. For this it is essential that the pipeline installation is checked and the necessary testing done on site.
25
EXTERNAL LOADS
Design Basis
The strength of a buried pipe must be selected so that it will be strong enough to carry the most severe combination of loads that could be imposed on it. If the imposed loads exceed the pipe strength the pipe will fail. The failure mode of a pipe can be due to its inability to handle circumferential or longitudinal loading. This section addresses the external loads which cause circumferential stress. Failure can occur due to high bending stresses in the walls of rigid pipes or the excessive vertical deection of exible pipes. Buckling is rarely a problem with plastic pipes. For exible pipes the stiffness of the surrounding material is more important for limiting deection than the stiffness of the pipe itself, so controlled backll is particularly important. The design process consists of determining the load and then ensuring that acceptable deection is not exceeded by using an embedment material that has the required properties and compaction.
Load Classication
The loads imposed on a buried pipeline are due to primary forces such as soil loads, superimposed trafc loads and internal pressures and secondary ones resulting from soil movements caused by the ow of water, temperature effects and settlement under buildings. The pipes provide the conduit and may or may not provide the structure designed to take the primary forces. The joints are designed to ensure that the conduit remains watertight and copes with secondary forces. The primary forces can be calculated, but the secondary forces cannot, hence they have to be estimated. The primary loads on any buried pipe are inuenced by the installation conditions and initially will be the same irrespective of the type of pipe material. However, the way in which the loads are carried will vary signicantly depending on the interaction of the components in the pipe/soil system. These components are the pipes, the virgin soil, the embedment material and the founding conditions as shown in Figure 9 below.
VIRGIN SOIL
BACKFILL
VIRGIN SOIL
BEDDING FOUNDATION RIGID PIPE
BLANKET CRADLE FLEXIBLE PIPE
EMBEDMENT FOUNDATION
Figure 9: Comparison of rigid and exible pipe installation details
26
EXTERNAL LOADS
The interaction of these components will determine how the pipe chosen will handle the load. Hence, any design guidelines must cover the interaction between them, describe what to do as they vary and where necessary, set limits to their structural properties. For rigid pipes it is assumed that the reaction from the bedding cradle is vertical only. Hence it is only necessary to provide support around the bottom portion of the pipe. For exible pipes it is essential that the reaction from the surrounding material also gives side support. This means that the pipes should be encased in a suitable material at least up to the level of the pipe crown. In this case the supporting material is called embedment. The earth load on a buried conduit is the mass of the earth prism directly above it that is either increased or decreased by the arching action resulting from the friction between adjacent columns of earth above and next to the pipe. The arching is dependent on installation type, founding conditions and properties of insitu and backll materials: limiting installation types are narrow trench and complete embankment projection where the load is minimum and maximum respectively. limiting founding conditions are yielding and rigid, where the load is minimum and maximum respectively. the most signicant properties of the insitu and backll materials are their mass, stiffness and friction angles. The friction angle is the most signicant for rigid pipes and the stiffness the most signicant for exible pipes.
material and the frictional forces will act upwards and reduce the load that the pipes have to carry. The worst combination of values for these limiting factors could result in loads that are in excess of twice the value of those for the most favourable conditions for the same ll height. Trafc loading is distributed from the contact areas on the surface through the ll. At ll heights greater than 1.25m earth loads make a greater contribution than trafc loads to the total load. At ll heights less than 600mm or half the conduits outside diameter trafc and other transient loads are not uniformly distributed over the conduit and they cannot be evaluated in the same way as earth loads. Not withstanding the calculated radius it is recommended that the ll height over exible pipes under a roadway should be at least the larger of 900 mm or the pipe diameter. Although gravity pipelines usually ow partly full, there are times when they may be pressurised due to operating conditions or problems such as blockages that occur. These pipes and their joints should therefore be designed and manufactured to cope with a nominal operating pressure of 1 bar, which is well within the capability of pipes supplied for these applications.
Pipe Stiffness
Various parameters are used to dene pipe stiffness. They all relate to the ability of a pipe to resist deformation. The incorrect understanding of these parameters can lead to serious overloading of pipes. Pipe stiffness is obtained by subjecting a pipe to a parallel plate test. PS = F/L Where PS is pipe stiffness F is the force necessary to deect the pipe by a given percentage taken from the relevant specications (19)
In practice most pipelines are installed in conditions falling somewhere between these limiting cases. Irrespective of the pipe material the soil loads on the horizontal plain level with the top of the pipe, before any deection has taken place will be the same for any given installation. However, when the material on top of the pipeline is compacted, the critical plane which is the horizontal line over the top of the pipeline will deform either side of the pipeline line depending upon whether the frictional forces that develop will act upwards or downwards. With exible pipes that have the required side support, the pipes will settle more than the adjacent
Y is the vertical deection This is usually expressed as kPa. ( kN /m2 )
27
EXTERNAL LOADS
Pipe stiffness factor is calculated from the pipe material properties and the pipe geometry. DIN PSF = EI/r3 (20) pressure at the level of the top of the pipe can be evaluated using column theory: WE = HD Where: W H (23)
Where - PSF is the pipe stiffness factor in kN/m/m - E is the elastic modulus of pipe material - I is the moment of inertia of the pipe wall - r is the pipe radius Pipe ring stiffness is also calculated from the pipe material properties and the pipe geometry. It is an eighth of the PSF. ISO PrS = EI/D3 (21)
Downward, or geostatic load on pipe (kN/m) Depth (m) Unit weight of the soil (kN/m ) External pipe diameter (m)
D -
Most pipes are laid in trenches. The loading will be reduced by the friction and cohesion between the backll material and the trench walls. Friction in the side of the trench supports some of the ll. The load in kN/m i.e. per unit length of trench of width B is thus: WE = C1 HB (24)
Where - PRS is the pipe ring stiffness in kN/m/m - E is the elastic modulus of pipe material - I is the moment of inertia of the pipe wall - D is the pipe diameter The relationship between these factors is: 0.149 PS = PSF = 8 PrS; PS = 6.71 PSF = 53.69 PrS (22)
Where C1 is obtained from in Figure 10 as a function of H/B and k tan , k is the ratio of lateral to vertical soil stress and is the soil angle of friction. k TAN
TABLE 7: rELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PS, PSF AND PrS PIPE STIFFNESS kPA 100 200 300 400 PIPE STIFFNESS FACTOr kN/m/m 14.9 29.8 44.7 59.6 PIPE rING STIFFNESS kN/m/m 1.860 3.725 5.588 7.450
Determining Required Pipe Stiffness

The vertical soil is generally the dominant loading causing the deection of exible pipes or circumferential bending of rigid pipes. For exible pipes, irrespective of whether they are installed under embankment of trench conditions the vertical C1 Figure 10: Load coefcients for trench conditions
28
EXTERNAL LOADS
When the side ll is correctly compacted, exible pipes deform more under load than the material adjacent to them. Load sheds to the side ll so the nal load on the pipe is less than what the column theory indicates. The actual soil load on a exible pipe will be: WE = C1HD (25) In service light eld loads are all a exible pipe should take. Heavier loads should be accommodated with sleeves or placing a concrete slab over the pipes. The live load WL could be corrected for load shedding, but as it is only a temporary load, it activates a higher pipe modulus, E, than the soil load does.
The calculation of C1 involves determining the soil properties which can be complex. For practical reasons the conservative approach to calculating the load on a exible pipe can be done using equation (25) with C1 having a value of unity. There are various ways of calculating the live loads on a buried pipe. Some of these are tedious to apply by hand and do not give answers that differ much from the simple approach of just distributing the load through the ll material at 45, as shown in equation (26). The load on a pipe in kN/m due to a live load of P at the surface is: WL = PxD (x + 2H)(y + 2H) (26) Figure 11: Wheel Load on Buried Conduit However, during construction any buried pipeline could be subject to the same trafc loads as roads, because there are deliveries to site. In South Africa the legal limits for road vehicles is a 40 kN wheel load. Table 8 has been compiled for two such vehicles parked next to each other with a space of 400 mm between them.
Where x and y are the footprint dimensions with formula of the load P at the surface. Other symbols dened elsewhere.
TABLE 8: : LOADS IN KN/M ON BUrIED CONDUITS FrOM A GrOUP OF 40KN WHEELS PIPE OD MM 50 90 110 160 200 250 315 355 400 450 500 560 630 710 800 900 1000 0.6 1.18 2.13 2.60 3.79 4.73 5.92 7.46 8.40 9.47 10.65 11.83 13.25 14.91 16.80 18.93 21.30 23.67 1.0 0.69 1.25 1.52 2.21 2.77 3.46 4.36 4.91 5.54 6.23 6.92 7.75 8.72 9.83 11.07 12.46 13.84 1.5 0.41 0.74 0.91 1.32 1.65 2.07 2.60 2.93 3.31 3.72 4.13 4.63 5.21 5.87 6.61 7.44 8.26 FILL HEIGHT OVEr PIPES IN M 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 0.27 0.20 0.15 0.11 0.49 0.35 0.26 0.20 0.60 0.43 0.32 0.25 0.88 0.63 0.47 0.36 1.10 0.78 0.58 0.45 1.37 0.98 0.73 0.57 1.73 1.23 0.92 0.71 1.95 1.39 1.04 0.80 2.19 1.56 1.17 0.91 2.47 1.76 1.31 1.02 2.74 1.95 1.46 1.13 3.07 2.19 1.64 1.27 3.46 2.46 1.84 1.43 3.90 2.77 2.07 1.61 4.39 3.13 2.34 1.81 4.94 3.52 2.63 2.04 5.49 3.91 2.92 2.27 4.0 0.09 0.16 0.20 0.29 0.36 0.45 0.57 0.64 0.72 0.81 0.91 1.01 1.14 1.29 1.45 1.63 1.81 5.0 0.06 0.11 0.14 0.20 0.25 0.31 0.39 0.44 0.49 0.55 0.62 0.69 0.78 0.87 0.98 1.11 1.23 6.0 0.04 0.08 0.10 0.14 0.18 0.22 0.28 0.32 0.36 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.56 0.63 0.71 0.80 0.89 7.0 0.03 0.06 0.07 0.11 0.13 0.17 0.21 0.24 0.27 0.30 0.34 0.38 0.43 0.48 0.54 0.61 0.67
29
EXTERNAL LOADS
Vertical Deection
The vertical deection of a exible pipe is limited by lateral soil resistance that develops as the pipe deforms horizontally into it. The load is carried through the arching action of the soil rather than circumferential bending of the pipe. Hence the wall stresses in a exible pipe are considerably less than those that develop in the walls of a rigid pipe. In simple terms the deection of a exible pipe is expressed in formula (27). Since E decreases with age the 50 year E value could be used for soil load deection calculation as a conservative assumption. For live loads a separate calculation using the short term E value could be used assuming the wall is not all stressed to the limit. The deections due to soil and live loads should then be added to give the total deection.. The deformation due to live loads is calculated from formula (29) dL D kB WL/D (29)
d = Where d W PS SS
(P
W
S + SS
(27)
- pipe deection Load on pipe in kN/m Pipe stiffness in kN/m/m - Soil stiffness in kN/m/m
= 8EI/D3 + 0,061 FdE1
Where dL - vertical deection due to live or trafc loading For low stiffness pipes such as PE and PVC that can tolerate signicant strain the deection is almost exclusively determined by the E1 of the soil and the use of short or long term E values for the pipe material will have little impact. It is essential therefore that the E1 value of the supporting material surrounding the pipe has a value of at least 5 MPa. Note: There are also other useful design principles available. Wall Stress The maximum wall stress around the circumference of a pipe is due to a combination of ring bending under vertical load and arching. At the haunch it is : f= W3 2t x 20 Et2/D2 + Es 24 Et3/D3 + Es (30)
This deection is usually determined using the Iowa formula or one of its derivatives, such as the reclamation formula (28) d D Where d D Tf = TfkBH 8EI/D3 + 0,061 FdE1 (28)
- vertical deection due to soil loads - pipe diameter - a dimensionless time lag factor, having a value between 1.5 and 3.0 that takes into account the increase in soil load with time and the consolidation of soil at the sides of pipes with time - bedding constant, having a value between 0.11 and 0.083 - backll density - ll height on pipe - pipe ring stiffness - a dimension design factor varying from 0.5 to 1.0 depending on the effectiveness of side ll compaction. It converts average to maximum values of deection. - soil stiffness
KB H EI/D3 Fd
E1
It is recommended that installation conform strictly to the requirements of the relevant sections of the SABS 2001-4: 2008. This calls for a material with a low compaction factor to be compacted to 90% or more, of modified AASHTO density. This will result in an E s value of at least 5 MPa for selected material. Good bedding also reduces deflection, and circumferential wall stress in particular.
30
DURABILITY & SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Durability
Probably the property of any pipelines that has the greatest impact on its long term performance are those that relate to the pipe material property and their ability to handle installation and operating conditions. Plastics are in general inert to a very wide range of aggressive elements in the soil and in the efuents that may be conveyed in a pipeline. Appendix B gives a comprehensive list of the chemical resistance offered by the thermoplastics used for pipe manufacture to a wide range of potentially aggressive substances. The effect of temperature which could be a signicant factor for industrial applications is also covered in these tabulations. Material specic properties are covered in more detail in Part III of this document that covers the various pipe types. It is preferable to avoid or eliminate the causes of these loads rather than attempt to resist them. Where this is not possible, particular attention must be paid to pipe joints and the interfaces between the pipeline and other structures, such as manholes to ensure that there is sufcient exibility. The reader is referred to the section in this handbook which deals with joints.
Manholes
Apart from the upper reaches of reticulation systems the access to pipelines is via manholes. Manholes are the interfaces between sections of pipeline where changes are made. They are placed whenever there are junctions, transitions and changes in alignment and where access is needed on long straight sections. As the loading on manholes is different from that on the adjacent sections of pipeline there can be relative movement between manholes and pipes. Many of the failures in sewers occur at joints and in particular those at the interfaces where changes are made. If measures are not taken to minimize the disruption to ow through these manholes and the associated energy losses not considered the hydraulic performance of a sewer can be seriously compromised and if measures are not taken to accommodate any potential relative movement between pipes and manholes, pipes can crack or deform resulting in leakages.
Secondary Loads
Secondary loads are not easy as to determine as the primary loads, because they are variable, unpredictable and localised. They can however cause considerable damage to a pipeline due to differential movements between pipes and between pipes and other components. It is therefore essential that their potential impact be recognised and that where necessary precautions are taken. Examples of factors that could cause secondary loads are: Volume changes in clay soils due to variations in moisture content Pressures due to growth of tree roots Foundation and bedding behaving unexpectedly Settlement of embankment foundation Elongation of pipeline under deep lls Effects of thermal and moisture changes on pipe materials and joints Effects of moisture changes and movements on bedding Restraints caused by bends, manholes etc.
Joints and Fittings

Most of the problems that occur in pipelines happen at joints between pipes, at bends, at junctions and at transitions. The making of joints can be complicated by site conditions, so it is essential that the necessary precautions and correct procedures are followed. Joints and ttings can be both material and supplier specic and for these the reader is referred to the product brochures of the individual manufacturers. (A list of the SAPPMA members with contact details is given on the outside back cover.)
31
INSTALLATION
Valves
Air and scour valves are needed in pressure pipe lines to facilitate their lling, emptying and operation. Air accumulates at the high points in a pipeline where the operating pressure is low. This has the effect of reducing and at times stopping the ow. For this reason air valves are placed at high points and other sections of pressure pipelines so that any air that accumulates is released. Scour valves are placed at low sections of pressure pipelines so that they can be discharged for cleaning. project documentation and check that the conditions on site correspond to those given and that if there are any discrepancies that these are resolved before installation starts. Once these issues have been addressed the line, level and trench widths should be surveyed to ensure that there are no unforeseen obstructions to the route. If there are any, the necessary changes should be made.
Preconstruction Activities
Following the correct design procedures is no guarantee that a pipeline will perform as required. It is essential that the design is based on the actual conditions on site and that the installation is in accordance with the specications. Justly, the design must be preceded by a site investigation that establishes all the relevant topographical and geotechnical features and carries out the necessary material tests. Secondly, the design stage must be followed by supervising the construction to ensure that the correct installation procedures are followed and that the necessary onsite testing is done to check that the pipeline meets the required performance standards. The satisfactory long term operation of any pipeline is thus dependant on the quality of design, manufacture and installation. It is therefore important that installation procedures be followed as detailed in: SANS 2001 Standard specication for Civil Engineering Construction ISO TR 4191 PVC-U pipes for water supply recommended practice for laying DD ENV (452 - 6 : 2002 Plastics Piping Systems for Water Supply (PVC-U) - Part 6, Guidance for installation.
Excavation
Trench excavation should be kept to a minimum width, allowing just sufcient working area for jointing and embedment compaction around the pipe. For small diameter pipes a trench 300mm wider than the diameter of the pipe allows enough room for jointing. For pipes 300mm in diameter and larger the trench widths recommended in the relevant sections of SANS 2001 should be followed.
Figure 12:Trench Installation Details It is important that the trench is not opened too far in advance of the pipe laying operation. Pipes must be backlled immediately after laying, with the joints left open for testing. When the insitu soils have low E1 values it will be necessary to increase the trench width to accommodate additional embedment material to provide the pipes wih adequate lateral support. It is recommended that the depth of cover from the top of the pipe to the ground surface is not less than 0.9 metres or the pipe diameter, whichever is the greater.
What follows emphasizes the same important aspects about installation procedures. Before pipe orders are nalized the contractor and consultants supervision should go through the
32
INSTALLATION
Embedment
The quality of the bedding material and its compaction, together with the nature of the undisturbed material of the trench wall are all relevant to the ultimate performance of all pipes once installed. The trench bed must be free from any stones or hard projections, which are likely to cause damage to the pipe. The bottom of the trench should be backlled to a depth of 100mm, with suitable bedding material such as free drainage coarse sand, gravel, or soil of a friable nature. The majority size of soil particles in the bedding material should not exceed 20mm. The presence of some particles of up to 40mm in size is permissible, providing that the total quantity of these particles represents a very small fraction of the whole and that these particles have no sharp edges. Reference should be made to SANS 2001-4: 2008 for the bedding specication. To determine the suitability of a soil for use as bedding material take a 2 kg sample of the material and pass it through a sieve with a nominal aperture size of 20mm. If the weight of material retained on the sieve exceeds 25 grams or if on passing the retained material through a sieve of nominal aperture size of 40mm particles are again retained and will not break up under light nger pressure, the material must be regarded as unsuitable. If the material passes the sieve test as indicated above then proceed with testing as follows: Take a further sample of approx. 50 kg in mass, heap on a clean level surface. Using a spade, divide this heap through the middle in 2 separate heaps. Sub-divide one of the heaps again and again until a sample which will ll a 2,0 litre container is obtained. Cut a length of 250mm from a pipe, 160mm in diameter, and stand this upright on a level surface. Ensure that the moisture content of this sample is the same as that of the main body from which it was taken and then loosely ll the pipe with this material. Empty the material from the pipe, into a suitable container. Using this same material charge the pipe in layers of 60mm in height, rmly tamping each layer with a metal hammer weighing between 1 and 1,25 kg and having a striking face of approximately 40mm in diameter. Use up all material out of the container which originally was loosely lled into the pipe, tamping continually until no further compression of the material occurs. Measure the distance from the top of the pipe to the surface of the tamped material. If this measurement does not exceed 25mm then the material is suitable for use.
Figure 13:Testing suitability of bedding material
Pipe Laying and Jointing

The pipeline must be laid directly on the prepared bedding in the trench and any temporary supports, bricks or other foreign hard bodies must be removed. There are many joint types and the reader should refer to the particular supplier for their details. By way of example the procedure for a typical PVC pipe joint is described herein. All spigots must be checked to ensure that they are free from burrs. Both the spigot and socket surfaces must be carefully cleaned with a dry cloth prior to the application of the gel lubricant. It is important to ensure that the rubber ring is clean and free of stones and grit. It is however not necessary to remove the rubber ring as this has been tted in the factory and held rmly in position.
33
INSTALLATION
Modern developments include steel reinforced rubber seals which cannot be dislodged on jointing and are user friendly especially unskilled installers. Check the chamfer on the spigot end a uniform chamfer to approximately 15 must occur around the external circumference of the pipe for approximately half the wall thickness. The depth of entry is marked on the spigot end which must be so positioned as to be just visible outside the mouth of the socket. This allows for expansion and contraction in the pipeline. above the crown of the pipe. All layers must be rmly tamped by hand. All joints are still exposed at this stage.
Figure 14: Joining of PVC Pipes
Backlling
It is essential that plastic pressure pipes are backlled immediately after each pipe is installed, in order to contain the expansion and contraction that may occur in an open trench. Immediate backlling restricts expansion and contraction to each individual pipe length where it is catered for by the integral socket. Before doing the side-lling and initial backlling check that the depth of entry mark is just visible on all joints. Selected material (as for bedding) should be placed gently and evenly in uncompacted layers of 75mm in thickness between the sides of the trench and the pipe, as shown in Figure 15 .Tamp each layer rmly with a hand tamper until the level of the crown of the pipe is reached, taking care to ensure that no voids are left under the pipe. All joints must be left exposed at this stage. Movement of the pipe should be prevented by the lling and compaction of material simultaneously on either side of the pipe until level with the top of the pipe. Selected material should be placed in even and uncompacted layers of 150mm in thickness over the entire width of the trench to a height of 300mm Figure 15:Bedding and Backll Details The main backll for the remainder of the trench, excluding the areas where joints must still remain exposed, should be placed and compacted in 300mm thick layers. Excavated trench material can be used. Each layer must be rmly tamped, the rst layer by hand and subsequent layers by mechanical means if so required. The main backll should be compacted to the same density as the surrounding insitu material. The nal level to which the trench is backlled should be slightly higher than the natural ground level to accommodate the consolidation of the backll material in the trench.
34
INSTALLATION
Anchoring
When an internal hydrostatic pressure is applied to the pipe, unbalanced forces develop at all changes of size and direction in a pipeline. Thrust blocks prevent the movement of ttings and must be placed at all changes of direction, valves, stop ends and reducers. Concrete thrust blocks are the most commonly used at all anchor points. The dimensions of the thrust blocks must be calculated to suit the pipe diameter, pressure and the load bearing capacity of the soil. Typical thrust block sizes are given in Table 9. The actual size required for a particular project should be calculated and specied by the design engineer. In recent years mechanical restraint joints have become an alternative option to concrete anchor blocks in some cases.
TABLE 9: TYPICAL THRUST BLOCK SIZES Pipe Sizes (mm) 90 Bends AxB 45 Bends AxB Tees AxB End Caps, Valves, reducers AxB 0.30x0.60 m 0.45x0.80 m 0.60x1.00 m 0.80x1.50 m
110 200 315 400
0.30x0.30 m 0.45x0.70 m 0.60x1.30 m 1.00x1.60 m
0.30x0.25 m 0.30x0.70 m 0.60x0.90 m 1.00x1.20 m
0.30x0.30 m 0.45x0.60 m 0.60x0.90 m 0.80x1.50 m
Cutting to Length When cutting pressure pipe, clearly mark the cutting position on the pipe, ensuring that the cut is square to the axis of the pipe. Use a ne-toothed saw or power saw to cut the pipe. Remove all burrs from the cut end and chamfer the pipe with a ne medium le, at 15o to half of the pipe wall thickness. Redraw the depth of entry mark.
Site Tests
Any pipeline that is to convey water under pressure must be pressure tested, as soon as possible after it is installed to check the integrity of installation. Only when any required remedial work has been done and if necessary the pipeline has passed a retest should the pipeline be backlled. Both pressure and gravity pipelines should be checked with a CCTV camera after installation to check if there are any internal faults such as excessive deections, open joints and local damage. Any defects, no matter how small, that could result in the future malfunctioning of the pipeline must be rectied before the pipeline is commissioned.
35
INSTALLATION
Nominal Size (mm) 55 90 105/110 155/160 200/210 250 215 355 400
Span between support (mm) 250 325 350 450 500 550 575 600 650
Pipe Size 40 50 75 110 160
Horizontal (mm) 400 500 800 900 1000
Vertical (mm) 1200 1200 1600 1800 2000
36
PART III PLASTIC PIPE PROPERTIES

PART III PLASTIC PIPE PROPERTIES ....................................................................................... 37 POLYETHYLENE (PE) ....................................................................................................... 38 Typical Physical Properties ........................................................................................... 38 Benets of PE ............................................................................................................38 Polymers ................................................................................................................. 38 Applications ............................................................................................................. 39 Benets of PE 100 ...................................................................................................... 40 Design .................................................................................................................... 40 Other Relevant Values ................................................................................................. 44 PE in Gas Distribution ................................................................................................. 44 Cost Benets of PE ..................................................................................................... 45 Pipe Dimensions ........................................................................................................ 45 POLYVINYL CHLORIDE (PVC) .............................................................................................. 50 Composition of PVC Pipe material ................................................................................... 50 Physical Properties ......................................................................................................50 Benets of PVC ......................................................................................................... 51 Applications of PVC Pipe Systems ....................................................................................52 Design .....................................................................................................................52 Pipe Dimensions .........................................................................................................55 Strength and Toughness ............................................................................................... 62 Effect of Temperature Change ....................................................................................... 63 POLYPROPYLENE (PP) ...................................................................................................... 65 Benets and Specications ............................................................................................65 POLYETHYLENE JOINTING SYSTEMS ......................................................................................66 Polyethylene Welding Processes ......................................................................................66 Heated - Tool Socket Welding .........................................................................................68 Welder Training and Qualications ...................................................................................71 Welding Equipment .....................................................................................................72 Destructive Test .........................................................................................................72 Air Test....................................................................................................................73 Hydraulic Pressure Test ................................................................................................73 Minimal Dimensional Requirements for Fittings ....................................................................74 Fabricated Fittings (HDPE & PP) ..................................................................................... 76 Segmented Bends ...................................................................................................... 79 Seamless Long Radius Bends Plain Ended .......................................................................... 80 Electrofusion Socket Dimensions .................................................................................... 81 Spigot Dimensions ...................................................................................................... 82 HOT & COLD WATER PRESSURE PIPES ................................................................................... 83 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 83 Classication ............................................................................................................ 84 APPENDICES .................................................................................................................. 87 Appendix A: Identication of Plastics ................................................................................87 Appendix B: Chemical Resistance of Thermoplastics used for pipes ............................................88 ABOUT SAPPMA ........................................................................................................... 100
37
POLYETHYLENE (PE)
Typical physical properties
Physical Properties Density Melt Flow Index (190oC/21.6Kg) Melt Flow Index (190oC/5Kg) Vicat Softening Point (5Kg) Crystalline Melting Range Viscosity Number Test method ISO 1183 ISO 1133 ISO 1133 ISO 306 ISO 3146-85 ISO 1628-3 Values 0,958 6,5 0,23 67 130133 390 Unit g/cm3 g/10 min. g/10 min.
oC oC
Benets of PE
High impact strength Excellent corrosion resistance Very good chemical resistance Excellent abrasion resistance Chemically inert and unaffected by acidic soil conditions Biologically inert against micro organisms Can be fusion welded, ensuring absolutely leak free joints Very smooth bore and low friction loss (k=0,002mm and C=150) and maintaining this smoothness throughout its useful life Low mass (about 1/8 of steel) and ease of handling High exibility, enabling long lengths to be coiled Inherent resistance to effects of ground movement Non toxic and safe for drinking water Low installation cost and maintenance free Large range of sizes, from 16 2 000 mm Very suitable for rehabilitation of old pipelines through trenchless technologies
cm3/g
Mechanical Properties Shore D, Hardness Tensile Yield Ultimate Tensile Ultimate Elongation Elastic Modulus Flexural Stress (3.5% Deection) Notched Impact (Charpy) acN 23oC Notched Impact (Charpy) acN - 30oC Thermal Stability 200oC Carbon Black Content
Test Method ISO 868 ISO 527 ISO 527 ISO 527 ISO 527 ISO 178 ISO 179 ISO 179 ISO 10837 ASTM D 1603
Values 61 25-30 35 >600 >800 19 20 6 >60 2.0-2.5
Unit MPa MPa % MPa MPa KJ/ m2 KJ/ m2 min. %
Polymers
In the rst generation of PE the curve at 60C and 80C showed a knee before 10 000h, making it possible to calculate the co-ordinates of the knee at 20C by extrapolation. They were generally stiff polymers of high density, but unsatisfactory slow crack growth resistance at 80C. With the second (PE80-1980) and third (PE100-1990) generations of PE there is no knee anymore at 60C and even at 80C, with hardly ever any brittle failure before 10 000h. Second generation polymer development resulted in improvements to the slow crack growth mechanism by increasing the chain branch content of the polymer. This resulted in a MDPE PE 80 pipe resin which had the added benecial characteristic of exibility that allowed long lengths of pipe to be coiled. This made it suitable for low cost installation.
38
POLYETHYLENE (PE)
The third generation resins were formed by new production technologies, in particular the manufacture of bi-modal polyethylene resins. The science of molecular design recognised that the placement of the co-monomer branches in a specic part of the molecular weight distribution could signicantly retard the slow crack growth properties of a PE resin, without affecting the creep resistance performance. The increased strength and toughness of these resins allowed a new classication of PE resins to be developed PE 100. Polymer Classication Designation PE100 PE80 PE63 Classication MrS (MPa) 10,0 8,0 6,3 Design Stress (MPa) Water 8,0 6,3 5,0
Mining (Surface and Underground) Polyethylene pipes have yielded excellent results when used in mining applications. Owing to their high abrasion and corrosion resistance, ease of handling and installation and their high mechanical strength, they are ideal for Tailings (slurries and efuents) Irrigating leaching piles Acid and alkaline solutions Concentrate pipelines (Reduction works and Drainage) Fire ghting installations Drinking water lines Chilled water lines Compressed air lines Ventilation ducting Vacuum lines (Drum lter)
Applications
Some typical applications of PE pipes are listed below: Water supply Polyethylene pipes offer distinct advantages over other materials (e.g. steel, bre cement, concrete, etc.) especially when used for water supply and in areas with a high water table, in which their installation is simplied by jointing outside the trench. Some examples: Potable water reticulation Sewage works Water Works & Water Treatment Plants
Agriculture/Irrigation PE pipes have various uses in agriculture and nonpermanent couplings allow rapid coupling and uncoupling. Because it is exible it can be coiled, which facilitates transport 50m, 100m or longer coils. Some applications are: Spray irrigation (Acids, Ammonia, Brine, Carbon Dioxide, Sugar solutions, Syrups, Fertilizers, etc.) Water pipes
Fishing In the shing industry, the use of PE pipes is increasing. Because of their lightweight and ease of handling, resistance to salt water and attack by marine organisms, they are ideal for these applications, amongst others: Salmon breeding cages Maritime discharge and suction (Abalone farms) Salt water
Furthermore, because of their exibility and low weight, they are ideal for use in underwater environments in various applications, such as outfall sewers.
39
POLYETHYLENE (PE)
Chemical/Steel/Reneries In the chemical industry, PE pipes have produced excellent results. Owing to their high resistance to corrosion, chemicals and abrasion, they are ideal for: Conveying acid and alkaline solutions Conveying chemical products (Bleach, Peroxides, Dye Liquors, Sulphide Water, Hot efuent) Conveying water under pressure Fire-ghting systems
Benets of PE 100 vs PE 80
In the early 1990s, a new type of PE material was developed in Europe with higher hoop strength giving rise to the PE100 classication. These materials are sometimes termed bimodal or 3rd generation because of the two stage polymerisation process used to produce them. PE100 materials produce stronger pipes which are used for higher pressure operation in gas and water distribution systems. Example: 200 mm OD Pipe with water as uid at 10 bar operating pressure Heading Wall thickness Mass (kg/m) ID (mm) Cross Sectional area (cm 2) 226 242
Gas Distribution PE is the preferred material for natural gas distribution pipelines in most countries in the world. In SA natural gas is not yet available for general consumer applications, although there are promising indications that it might change. At that stage, it will become necessary to include the relevant design information in this Manual. General PE pipe systems have been used successfully in many applications, both general as well as highly specialised, in industrial and civil sectors. The most common applications are the following: Compressed air and ventilation air Protection of electrical and telephone cables High temperature liquids and gases Gas, petroleum and its derivatives Corrosive waste water, hot efuents Potable Water Pneumatic transport Drainage and Sub-Soil Drainage Dewatering
PE 80 PE 100
14.7 11.9
8.63 7.10
169.6 175.5
Comparative saving in mass 18% and increase in cross sectional area 7%
Design
PE100 polymer pipe therefore provides the opportunity to choose either: Higher operating working pressure Thinner walls and therefore less material Higher safety margin Bigger cross sectional area and improved ow
Design Stress and Safety Factor (service factor) Safety factors take into account handling conditions, service conditions and other circumstances not directly considered in the design. In terms of SABS ISO 4427 the minimum safety factor for water is 1.25. This factor, when applied to the Minimum Required Strength (MRS), for the particular material classication (e.g. PE80, PE100), gives the maximum allowable hydrostatic design stress for the designated material.
40
POLYETHYLENE (PE)
The design stress used to calculate standard pipe dimensions for a given pressure duty is obtained by dividing the MRS by a safety factor C (or design coefcient). The safety factor adopted by ISO from eld experience is a minimum of 1,25 for water and 2,0 for gas. The main criteria to select a good pipe material are: Strength Stiffness (or exibility) Ductility (in toughness) Chemical resistance
Designation of material PE 100 PE 80 PE 63 i) e Where: e p PDm = 2 -
MrS at 50 years and 20C MPa 10 8 6.3 ii)
Maximum allowable hydrostatic design stress for water, - MPa 8 6.3 5 PD e= 2+P
minimum wall thickness (mm) internal pressure (MPa) outside diameter (mm) design stress (MPa)
D -
All these properties are time-dependent and therefore a compromise must be made on the basis of both short-term and long-term properties for a particular application as indicated below: The choice of polymer should be based upon the optimal balance of those properties. External or internal stresses occurring at elevated temperatures can cause environmental stress cracking in polyethylene. This is essentially slow rate crack growth and can be accelerated by a chemical environment other than air or water. Environments that can accelerate crack growth are agents such as: Detergents Alcohols Silicone products
For example the minimum wall thickness for a 250 mm Class 10 PE pipe made from PE 80 material is: e 1.0 x 250 / {(2 x 6.3) + 1.0} 18.38 mm
Round up to 18.4 mm for manufacture and/or the appropriate SDR for the Class and Material designation. Minimum required Strength (MrS) and Design Stress The MRS (minimum required strength) classification of pipe is based on a 50 year life. This does not mean that the pipe will fail at 50 years, because the design stress is calculated using the 97.5% lower confidence limit of the predicted stress, coupled with a minimum safety factor of 1.25 (for water). Consequently when in service, the pipe is operating well below the stress that would cause a failure at 50 years and the actual failure time due to creep is likely to be only after hundreds of years. MRS values usually assume an operating temperature of 20C. The MRS value increases at lower temperatures and decreases at higher temperatures; therefore when designing pipelines for use at temperatures above 20C the correct MRS value must be used for the given operating temperature.
41
POLYETHYLENE (PE)
relevance of Material Properties Property Ductility Strength Stiffness Flexibility Chemical resistance (ESCR) Effect Impact resistance; Resistance to rapid crack propagation (RCP) Resistance to internal pressure Resistance to loading Deformation under stress Resistance to slow crack growth
Notched hoop stress bar 80 C 500 hr
Design Coeff. For water 20 C
Wall Thickness mm *
Test stress MPa 80 C 1000 hrs
Test stress MPa 165 hrs 80 C
Test stress MPa 20 C 100 hrs
PN Nominal Pressure Bar
MrS MPa 50 yr 20 C
Max design stress MPa
PE 100
10
1,25
8.0
5.4
12,4
5,0
9.2
10,0 8,1 6,6
16 12,5 10 12,5 10 8 10 8 6,3
11 13,6 17 11 13,6 17 11 13,6 17
6,3 8 5 6,3 8 5 6,3 8
PE 80
1,25
6.3
4.5
10.0
4,0
8.0
10,0 8,1 6,6
PE 63
6,3
1,25
5.0
3.5
8,0
3,2
6.4
10,0 8,1 6,6
* Example of 110 mm OD Pipe
42
Pipe series 5
Polymer Grading
SDr
POLYETHYLENE (PE)
The Stress regression Line The traditional method of portraying the long term tensile strength is by means of a graph of log stress vs log time to failure. This is known as the stress regression line. It is a plot of the circumferential hoop stress in the wall of the pipe (from internal pressure) against time to failure. Numerous test results are needed to determine both the classication of the resin and to ensure that no ductile- brittle knee is observed before 50 years at 20C. Testing is performed over a range of pipe pressures and temperatures (typically 20C, 60C 80C) with a minimum of 30 hoop stress results being obtained at each temperature. There must be at least four pipes that do not fail before 7000 hours and one that does not fail untill after 9000 hours. The data produced can then be used to dene the linear regression with the line extrapolated to 50 years at 20C thus allowing the material classication to be determined (refer ISO 9080 & SANS/ISO 4427). The hoop stress is derived from Barlows formula and is as follows: e 2 e + eP = = = PD 2+P PD P (D-e) 2e internal pressure (MPa) minimum wall thickness (mm) outside diameter (mm) circumferential hoop stress in wall of pipe (MPa)
where:
p e D
The Stress Regression Line for PE is given below. Refer to general explanation of regression lines on page 15
REGRESSION CURVE OF A MODERN PE 100 MATERIAL
43
POLYETHYLENE (PE)
Other relevant values
Bending limit The minimum bending radius permitted for a pipe depends on its pressure class (PN, SDR), the elastic modulus of the material and its permissible stress, which in turn vary as a function of the applied load and the temperature. The following table lists the values suggested for the minimum bending radii of Polyolen pipes. SDr 33 26 17 11 Min. bending radius - PE 40D 30D 30D 30D D = OD of pipe Min. bending radius - PP 45D 25D 25D 20D
PE in Gas Distribution
The high cost of the replacement of corroded iron and steel mains led to the focus being shifted to Plastics in the 50s. Many types of plastics were considered and tested as a material for gas distribution and by the end of the 60s it was concluded that polyethylene offered the best answers to the important aspects of: Ductility Injection moulded ttings Jointing by fusion
Gas pipe operating pressures are classied as follows: Low pressure up to 100mbar Medium pressure up to 4 bar Intermediate pressure 5 to 19 bar High pressure 50 to 70 bar
Abrasion resistance Dry sliding abrasion of a number of PE 80, PE 100 and some other grades of thermoplastic materials (Taber Abrasion Method in accordance with DIN 53754 E)
High pressure lines make use of polyethylene coated steel pipes with cathodic protection. For distribution systems operating below 4 bar, polyethylene is the most suitable material - technically as well as economically; even for 200mm pipes polyethylene still represents a 15% cost saving on the installed system (European basis). Over 90% of the pipe installed for natural gas distribution in the U.S. and Canada is plastic and of that, 99% is polyethylene. PE is the material of choice worldwide.
44
POLYETHYLENE (PE)
Cost Benets of PE
Installed Cost in rural Area (ratio steel/PE) Diameter (mm) Material Laying Trenching/ Finishing Overall 80 1,1 1,3 1,2 1,21 100 1,0 1,4 1,2 1,21 150 0,9 1,7 1,2 1,22 200 0,7 1,8 1,2 1,14
Installed Cost in City (ratio steel/PE) Diameter (mm) Material Laying Trenching/ Finishing Overall 80 1,1 1,3 1,3 1,29 100 1,0 1,4 1,3 1,28 150 0,9 1,7 1,3 1,3 200 0,7 1,8 1,3 1,22
Pipe Dimension
In this table it can be seen that SANS ISO 4427 have grouped together the different pressure classes, produced from different material designations, under a common heading known as the Standard Diameter (Dimension) Ratio or SDR. The minimum wall thicknesses specied are not exactly that which would be derived from a calculation using Barlows formula or the SDR but are the rounded up values of the highest minimum wall thickness calculated for any size and class in the SDR group.
45
POLYETHYLENE (PE)
Pipe series
SDR 6 S 2,5 SDR 7,4 S 3,2 SDR 9 S4 SDR 11 S5
a
SDR13,6 S 6,3
SDR 17 S8
Nominal pressure (PN) bar

PE 80 PE 100 PN 25 _ PN 20 PN 25 PN 16 PN 20
PN 12,5 PN 16
PN 10 PN 12,5
PN 8 PN 10
Wall Thicknesses b mm
Nominal size 16 20 25 32 40 50 63 75 90 110 125 140 160 180 200 225 250 280 315 355 400 450 500 560 630 710 800 900 1000 3.0 3,4 4,2 5,4 6,7 8,3 10,5 12,5 15,0 18,3 20,8 23,3 26,6 29,9 33,2 37,4 41,5 46,5 52,3 59,0 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 3,4 3,9 4,8 6,1 7,5 9,3 11,7 13,9 16,7 20,3 23,0 25,8 29,4 33,0 36,7 41,3 45,8 51,3 57,7 65,0 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 2,3
c
emin
emax
emin
emax
2,7 3,4 4,0 5,0 6,2 7,7 9,6 11,5 13,7 16,8 19,0 21,3 24,2 27,2 30,3 34,0 37,8 42,3 47,6 53,5 60,3 67,8 _ _ _ _ _ _ _
emin
2,0 2,3
c c
emax
2,3 2,7 3,4 4,1 5,1 6,3 8,0 9,4 11,3 13,7 15,1 17,4 19,8 22,3 24,8 27,9 30,8 34,6 38,9 43,8 49,3 55,5 61,5 68,9 77,5 87,4 98,4 _ _
emin
_ 2,0 2,3
c c
emax
_ 2,3 2,7 3,4 4,2 5,2 6,5 7,6 9,2 11,1 12,7 14,1 16,2 18,2 20,2 22,7 25,1 28,1 31,6 35,6 40,1 45,1 50,1 56,0 63,1 71,1 80,0 90,0 99,4
emin
_ _ 2,0
c
emax
_ _ 2,3 2,8 3,5 4,2 5,3 6,3 7,5 9,1 10,3 11,5 13,1 14,8 16,3 18,4 20,4 22,8 25,7 28,9 32,5 36,6 40,6 45,5 51,1 57,6 64,8 73,0 79,9
emin
_ _ _ 2,0 2,4 3,0 3,8 4,5 5,4 6,6 7,4 8,3 9,5 10,7 11,9 13,4 14,8 16,6 18,7 21,1 23,7 26,7 29,7 33,2 37,4 42,1 47,4 53,3 59,3
emax
_ _ _ 2,3 2,8 3,4 4,3 5,1 6,1 7,4 8,3 9,3 10,6 11,9 13,2 14,9 16,4 18,4 20,7 23,4 26,2 29,5 32,8 36,7 41,3 46,6 52,3 58,8 65,4
3,0 3,5 4,4 5,5 6,9 8,6 10,3 12,3 15,1 17,1 19,2 21,9 24,6 27,4 30,8 34,2 38,3 43,1 48,5 54,7 61,5 _ _ _ _ _ _ _
3,0 3,6 4,5 5,6 7,1 8,4 10,1 12,3 14,0 15,7 17,9 20,1 22,4 25,2 27,9 31,3 35,2 39,7 44,7 50,3 55,8 62,5 70,3 79,3 89,3 _ _
3,0 3,7 4,6 5,8 6,8 8,2 10,0 11,4 12,7 14,6 16,4 18,2 20,5 22,7 25,4 28,6 32,2 36,3 40,9 45,4 50,8 57,2 64,5 72,6 81,7 90,2
2,4 3,0 3,7 4,7 5,6 6,7 8,1 9,2 10,3 11,8 13,3 14,7 16,6 18,4 20,6 23,2 26,1 29,4 33,1 36,8 41,2 46,3 52,2 58,8 66,2 72,5
46
POLYETHYLENE (PE)
Pipe series
SDR 21 S 10 SDR 26 S 12,5 SDR 33 S 16 SDR 41 S 20
Nominal pressure (PN) a bar

PE 80 PE 100 PN 6
d
PN 8
PN 5 PN 6 c
PN 4 PN 5 b
PN 3,2 PN 4
Wall Thickness mm
Nominal size 16 20 25 32 40 50 63 75 90 110 125 140 160 180 200 225 250 280 315 355 _ _ _ _ 2,0 c 2,4 3,0 3,6 4,3 5,3 6,0 6,7 7,7 8,6 9,6 10,8 11,9 13,4 15,0 16,9 _ _ _ _ 2,3 2,8 3,4 4,1 4,9 6,0 6,7 7,5 8,6 9,6 10,7 12,0 13,2 14,9 16,6 18,7 _ _ _ _ _ 2,0 2,5 2,9 3,5 4,2 4,8 5,4 6,2 6,9 7,7 8,6 9,6 10,7 12,1 13,6 _ _ _ _ _ 2,3 2,9 3,3 4,0 4,8 5,4 6,1 7,0 7,7 8,6 9,6 10,7 11,9 13,5 15,1
emin
emax
emin
emax
emin
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 9,7 10,9
emax
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 10,8 12,1
emin
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 7,7 8,7
emax
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 8,6 9,7
47
POLYETHYLENE (PE)
Pipe series SDR 21 S 10 SDR 26 S 12,5 Nominal pressure (PN) bar PE 80 PE 100 PN 6
d a
SDR 33 S 16
SDR 41 S 20
PN 5 PN 6
c
PN 4 PN 5
b
PN 3,2 PN 4
PN 8
Wall Thicknesses MM
Nominal size
emin emax emin emax
emin
emax
emin
emax
400 450 500 560 630 710 800 900 1000 NOTE
19,1 21,5 23,9 26,7 30,0 33,9 38,1 42,9 42,9
21,2 23,8 26,4 29,5 33,1 37,4 42,1 47,3 47,3
15,3 17,2 19,1 21,4 24,1 27,2 30,6 34,4 34,4
17,0 19,1 21,2 23,7 26,7 30,1 33,8 38,3 38,3
12,3 13,8 15,3 17,2 19,3 21,8 24,5 27,6 27,6
13,7 15,3 17,0 19,1 21,4 24,1 27,1 30,5 30,5
9,8 11,0 12,3 13,7 15,4 17,4 19,6 22,0 22,0
10,9 12,2 13,7 15,2 17,1 19,3 21,7 24,3 24,3
1 bar = 0,1 MPa = 105 Pa; 1 MPa = 1 N/mm2
PN values are based on C = 1,25 Tolerances in accordance with ISO 11922-1:1997, grade V, calculated form (0,1emin+0,1)mm rounded up to the next 0,1mm. For certain applications for e > 30 mm, ISO 11922-1:1997, grade T, tolerances may be used calculated from 0,15emin rounded up to the next 0,1 mm. The calculated value of emin according to ISO 4065 is rounded up to the nearest value of either 2,0, 2,3 or 3,0. This is to satisfy certain national requirements. For practical reasons, a wall thickness of 3,0 mm is recommended for electrofudion jointing and lining applications. Actual calculated values are 6,4 bar for PE 100 and 6,3 bar for PE 80.
48
POLYETHYLENE (PE)
PE PE 100 (Orange) pipe, SABS ISO 4437 (Supply of Gaseous Fuels) NOMINAL DIAMETEr D mm 16 20 25 32 40 50 63 75 90 110 125 140 160 180 200 225 250 280 315 355 400 450 500 560 630
(1) (2) (3) (4)
SDr 17.6 PN6 e(3) 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.9 3.6 4.3 5.2 6.3 7.1 B 9.1 10.3 11.4 12.8 14.2 15.9 17.9 20.2 22.8 25.6 28.4 31.9 35.8 ID 11.2 15.2 20.2 27.2 35.2 44.0 55.5 66.1 79.2 97.0 110.3 123.5 141.2 158.8 176.5 190.7 220.0 247.2 278.3 313.5 353.2 397.5 441.2 494.6 556.6
STANDArD DIMENSIONS rATION SDr(1) SDr 11 NOMINAL PrESSUrE - PN(2) PN10 Kg/M 0.10 0.13 0.17 0.22 0.2B 0.44 0.69 0.9B 1.42 2.09 2.6B 3.3B 4.3B 5.57 6.84 B.62 10.64 13.39 16.86 21.46 27.25 34.42 42.44 53.33 67.31 e 3 3 3 3 3.2 4.5 3.8 6.8 8.2 10 11.4 12.7 14.5 16.4 18.2 20.5 22.7 25.4 28.6 32.3 35.4 40.9 45.5 50.9 57.3 ID 9.8 13.8 18.8 25.8 32.3 40.4 50.9 60.9 72.9 89.3 101.3 113.7 129.7 146.0 162.2 182.5 203.0 227.4 255.8 288.1 324.6 365.4 405.8 454.7 511.4 Kg/M 0.12 0.16 0.21 0.28 0.43 0.67 1.06 1.47 2.14 3.17 4.11 5.12 6.73 8.50 10.48 13.27 16.32 20.46 25.90 32.96 41.83 52.85 65.33 81.83 103.66
OVALITy(4) Coiled 1.2 1.2 1.5 2 2.4 3 3.8 4.4 5 6 -
Straight 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.8 2.2 2.5 2.8 3.2 3.6 4 4.5 5 9.8 11.1 12.5 14 15.6 17.5 19.6 22.1
The standard dimensions ration SDR corresponds to the quotient between the outside diameter and the wall thickness of the pipe. It is non-dimensional The nominal pressure PN corresponds to the maximum permissible operating pressure of the pipe at 20C, in bar e = Minimum Wall Thickness in mm Out of Roundness as per ISO 11922-1
This table is based on the standards ISO 4437 and ISO 4065/ISO 161/1. The weights are calculated on the base of average diameter and thickness values, according to tolerance specied in the standard ISO 11922-1.
49
POLYVINYL CHLORIDE (PVC)

Composition of PVC Pipe Material
PVC is a vinyl chloride polymer and is derived from coal or oil, and salt. The unique properties of polyvinyl chloride polymer are further enhanced by the addition of special additives to create tough, resilient and ductile compounds, which are then used in the extrusion of PVC pipes. The extrusion process itself is nely controlled and has a direct bearing on the nal properties of the product. The pipe manufacturers objective is to manufacture pipe within tight dimensional tolerances at high output rates while maintaining mechanical performance characteristics. Therefore polymers for pipe extrusion are manufactured to a high degree of consistency, with an emphasis on maintaining tight control of all key properties. The nature and volumes of additives used vary to some extent, depending on the required end result. The essential additives used in PVC pipe and ttings formulations are heat stabilisers, lubricants, impact modiers, processing aids and pigments. Heat stabilisers Heat stabilisers are required to prevent decomposition of the polymer during processing and outdoor use. Lubricants The reason for adding lubricants is to provide good melt ow through the processing equipment as well as a good physical appearance. Impact modiers Impact modiers are added to formulations to specically improve the impact strength and toughness of the pipes manufactured. Fillers Small amounts of llers are added to PVC potable water pipe formulations and have an effect on the surface nish and may also modify the mechanical properties of the pipe. Pigments As most PVC pipes are coloured, an appropriate pigment, which may have an effect on weathering and long-term mechanical performance, has to be selected on the basis of cost and performance.
Physical Properties
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) is a thermoplastic material and different formulations are used to obtain specic properties for different applications. Pipes can therefore be developed to meet the requirements of a wide variety of applications and conditions. The major part of each formulation is the PVC resin. General (PVC-U, PVC-M, PVC-0) The general properties given below are those for PVC formulations used in pipe manufacture. It should be noted that these properties are dependant on temperature and the duration of stress application. PVC-U is unplasticized (Rigid) PVC and is the oldest PVC pipe technology. PVC-M is modied PVC to provide improved ductility and impact resistance. Biaxially oriented PVC (PVC-O) pressure pipes are produced by a special process where the molecules are stretched or orientated to provide signicant increase is in strength and toughness.
50

Typical Physical Properties Physical Co-efcient of linear expansion Density Flammability (oxygen index) Shore hardness (D) Softening point (Vicat - minimum) Specic heat Thermal conductivity (at 0-50C) Mechanical Elastic Modulus (long term - 50 years) Elastic Modulus (short term - 100 seconds) Elongation at break Poisons Ratio Tensile strength (50 year - extrapolated) Tensile strength (short-term) Friction Factors Manning Hazen Williams Nikuradse roughness (k) mm 0.008 - 0.009 150 0.03 0.008 - 0.009 150 0.03 0.008 - 0.009 150 0.03 MPa MPa MPa MPa % 1 500 3 300 50 0.4 26 52 1 400 3 000 75 0.4 26 48 1 800 4 000 75 0.4 50 75 C J/kg/K W/m/K Units K-1 kg/m3 % PVC-U 6 x 10-5 1.4 x 10 45 70 - 80 78 - 81 1.0 x 10 0.14 PVC-M 6 x 10-5 1.4 x 10 45 70 - 80 78 - 81 1.0 x 10 0.14 PVC-O 45 70 - 80 78 - 81 1.0 x 10 0.14
Benets
Resistance to abrasion and scouring. Resistance to attack by acid or alkaline soils. Impervious to chemicals found in sewerage. Good ow characteristics. Not damaged by modern cleaning methods. Good impact properties, an important factor in installation, transportation and operation. Durability and toughness - resistance to handling and installation damage. Corrosion resistance - greater service life. Inamable - self extinguishing. Lower mass - ease of handling and installation, particularly suited to labour intensive projects. Ease of repair. Elastomeric, locked-in sealing ring system - no specialist installation skills required. No power required onsite during installation. Service performance in excess of 100 years. Unique combination of properties - Toughness. - Stiffness. - High Tensile and hoop strength. - Excellent resistance of creep. Predictable long-term behaviour. Excellent strength/cost ratio.
51
Applications for PVC Pipe Systems

PVC pressure pipes are specied with condence in the following applications: Water mains and reticulation systems. Irrigation. Mining Industrial applications. Sewer efuent control and water purication. It is this combination of strength and toughness which leads to the unique properties of PVC-O pipes. These properties provide: A very cost effective pressure pipe. Material efciency, giving lower pipe mass for easier handling and installation. Higher ow capacity and lower pumping costs. Resistance to damage during transport, handling and installation. High resistance to crack propagation due to layered structure. Very low wave celerity, thereby reducing water hammer. Energy efciency due to material efciency and improved ow capacity. conditions of temperature and pressure to achieve optimum molecular orientation and improvement in strength in the two directions. The increased resistance to internal pressure makes the product extremely well suited to pressure applications. Biaxial orientation also leads to marked increase in toughness properties.
Design
General Once installed, PVC pressure pipes will operate efciently under pressure, without failure or leakage, over long periods of time while simultaneously preserving water quality. Modied PVC (PVC-M) Pressure Pipes PVC raw material formulations used for the manufacture of PVC pressure pipes result in specic and controllable mechanical properties. Pipes can therefore be engineered to cater for a wide variety of applications and conditions. In particular, the toughness of PVC-M pressure pipe is enhanced by the incorporation of impact modifying additives. The enhanced toughness results in improved resistance to crack propagation and therefore enables the use of a higher design stress, which results in signicantly reduced mass. The mass reduction and larger pipe bore brings about savings in energy consumed during manufacture and subsequent operation. Biaxially Oriented (PVC-O) Pressure Pipes The molecular orientation process is used in the manufacture of plastic products where increased strength is required. In the case of PVC-O pipes the process is one of biaxial orientation when the molecules are stretched (oriented) in both the circumferential (hoop) and axial (length) directions and thus aligned to provide strength in both directions. A small diameter, thick-walled pipe is extruded and then stretched under controlled
Hoop Stiffness and Creep rupture Strength The hoop stress (from Barlows formula) is plotted against the time (in hours) to rupture, using log scales on both axes. The resultant creep rupture regression lines for PVC-U/M and PVC-O pressure pipes are given below at 20C.
52
Figure 1: Stress-Time Lines for PVC-4, PVC-M and PVC-0 at 20C
PVC-O regression line as per SANS 1808-85 PVC-U and PVC-M regression lines per SANS 966-Parts 1 & 2 PVC-O design stress, SANS 1808-85 (28 MPa) PVC-M design stress, SANS 966-2 (18 MPa) PVC-U design stress, SANS 966-1 (12.5 MPa)
Notes 1. 20C Regression Line The line for PVC-U and PVC-M meets the requirements of SANS 966, (Parts 1 and 2 respectively.) while the line for PVC-O meets SANS 1808-85. Hydrostatic Strength The addition of modifying agents reduces the short term strength but leads to a considerable increase in toughness in PVC-M pressure pipe, especially the resistance of the material to the propagation of cracks. The 1 hour hydrostatic strength at 20C of PVC-M is 40Mpa, compared to 42Mpa for PVC-U pipe. The failure stress of both PVC-U and PVC-M at 50 years is similar, i.e. 25 MPa.
Testing at elevated temperatures is essential for the identication of ductile-brittle transitions. Should operating temperatures rise above 25C the working pressures should be de-rated. Impact resistance The measurement of the impact performance under external blows is a major requirement of SANS 966-2. The ductility of PVC-M pipe is shown by the standard quality control test for impact; when impacted by masses of up to 30kg dropped from a height of 20m, there is no evidence of brittle failure as experienced with PVC-U.
53
A comparison of the impact properties of PVC-U, PVC-M and PVC-O pressure pipes tested as per SANS specications is given in the following table. Example: 200mm Class 16 pipe:
Mass of Striker (kg) 5 Pipe must not shatter.
Material Specication PVC-U SANS 966-1 & SANS 966-2 PVC - M SANS 966-2 PVC-O SANS 1808-85
Drop Test (m) 2,0
Temperature C 23
remark
20,0
23
20
Pipe must fail in ductile manner (smooth hole).
2,0
10
Pipe must not shatter.
Pipe Design Principles: PVC-U, PVC-M and PVC-O Design Stress (s) and the Long-Term Safety Factor The design stress is dened as the constant stress that the pipe wall can withstand for 50 years, with a dened safety factor. A safety factor or overall service (design) co-efcient (C) is applied to take into account minor variations in pipe quality, the possibility of the occurrence of brittle failure, slight surges or uctuations in pressure or superimposed bending stresses or point loads on the pipe, or slight surface damage resulting during installation (refer SANS 966, SANS 1808-85 and SANS ISO 4427). Thus the safety factor is applied to account for any unknown loading or environmental conditions. The design stress is derived from the stress-time line (refer Figure I) which gives the minimum required strength (MRS), as follows: s = MrS C - Design stress Minimum required strength at 50 years
PVC-U pipes designed as per SANS 966 Part 1 have a safety factor of 2.5 for pipe diameters of 90mm and below, and 2.0 for pipe diameters 110mm and above. These safety factors relate to design stresses of 10.0 and 12.5 MPa respectively. PVC-M pipes designed as per sans 966-2 have a safety factor of 1.4. PVC-O pipes designed as per sans 1808-85 may have a design factor of 1.4 (32 mpa) or 1.6 (28 mpa)
Short-term Safety Factors It should be noted that the short-term safety factor is much higher. In fact, the more rapid the rate of pressure increase the higher the strength exhibited by the pipe. Short-term safety factors for PVC-U, PVC-M and PVC-O are over three times the design working pressure. Thus at high pressurisation rates pipes are better able to resist the higher stress levels generated by surge.
Where s
MRS C
- Design coefcient (safety factor).
54

Pipe Dimensions
TABLE 1: SABS 966 -1:2010
Outside Diameter Size Class
eMin. eMax.
O.D. At Any Point

eMin. eMax.
Wall Thickness
eMin. eMax.
Avg Id
16 20
20 16 20
16 20 20 25 25 25 32 32 32 32 40 40 40 40 40 50 50 50 50 50 63 63 63 63 63 75 75 75 75 75 75 90 90 90 90 90 90 110 110 110 110 110 110 110
16.2 20.2 20.2 25.2 25.2 25.2 32.2 32.2 32.2 32.2 40.2 40.2 40.2 40.2 40.2 50.2 50.2 50.2 50.2 50.2 63.2 63.2 63.2 63.2 63.2 75.2 75.2 75.2 75.2 75.2 75.2 90.3 90.3 90.3 90.3 90.3 90.3 110.3 110.3 110.3 110.3 110.3 110.3 110.3
15.5 19.5
16.5 20.5
1.50 1.50 1.90
1.90 1.90 2.30 1.90 2.30 2.80 1.90 2.20 2.90 3.40 1.90 2.20 2.90 3.60 4.30 2.20 2.70 3.30 4.30 5.30 2.30 3.20 4.20 5.50 6.40 1.90 2.70 3.80 5.20 6.50 8.00 2.30 3.20 4.50 5.90 7.60 9.50 2.70 3.10 4.50 5.90 7.60 9.50 11.60
12.7 16.7 15.9 21.7 20.9 20 28.7 28.1 26.8 25.8 36.7 36.1 34.9 33.5 32.1 46.1 45.2 44 42.1 40.2 58.9 57.2 55.3 52.9 50.9 71.7 70.2 68.1 65.6 63 60.2 86.05 84.25 81.75 79.15 75.85 72.45 105.25 104.45 101.75 99.15 95.85 92.45 88.55
25
12 16 20
24.5
25.5
1.50 1.90 2.30
32
9 12 16 20
31.5
32.5
1.50 1.80 2.40 2.90
40
6 9 12 16 20
39.5
40.5
1.50 1.80 2.30 3.00 3.70
50
6 9 12 16 20
49.4
50.6
1.80 2.20 2.80 3.70 4.60
63
6 9 12 16 20
62.2
63.8
1.90 2.70 3.60 4.70 5.80
75
4 6 9 12 16 20
74.1
75.9
1.50 2.20 3.20 4.30 5.60 6.90
90
4 6 9 12 16 20
88.9
91.1
1.80 2.70 3.90 5.10 6.70 8.20
110
4 6 9 12 16 20 25
108.6
111.4
2.20 2.60 3.90 5.10 6.70 8.20 10.00
55

eMin. eMax.
O.D. At Any Point

eMin. eMax.
Wall Thickness
eMin. eMax.
Avg Id
125
4 6 9 12 16 20 25
125 125 125 125 125 125 125 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 315 315 315 315 315 355 355 355 355 355 400 400 400 400 400 450 450 450 450 500 500 500 500
125.3 125.3 125.3 125.3 125.3 125.3 125.3 140.4 140.4 140.4 140.4 140.4 140.4 140.4 160.4 160.4 160.4 160.4 160.4 160.4 160.4 200.5 200.5 200.5 200.5 200.5 200.5 200.5 250.6 250.6 250.6 250.6 250.6 250.6 250.6 315.6 315.6 315.6 315.6 315.6 355.7 355.7 355.7 355.7 355.7 400.7 400.7 400.7 400.7 400.7 450.8 450.8 450.8 450.8 500.9 500.9 500.9 500.9
123.5
126.5
2.50 3.00 4.40 5.80 7.60 9.30 11.40
3.00 3.60 5.10 6.70 8.80 10.50 13.20 3.30 3.90 5.70 7.50 9.80 12.00 14.80 3.80 4.40 6.50 8.60 11.20 13.70 16.80 4.70 5.50 8.10 10.70 14.00 17.20 21.00 5.70 6.70 6.80 13.30 17.40 21.40 26.30 7.20 8.60 12.70 16.70 21.90 8.10 9.70 14.30 18.80 24.70 10.00 10.90 16.20 21.20 27.80 10.30 12.20 18.10 23.90 11.30 13.60 20.10 26.40
119.65 118.55 115.65 112.65 108.75 105.35 100.55 134.1 133 129.6 126.2 121.9 117.8 112.6 153.2 152 148.1 144.2 139.3 134.6 128.8 191.65 190.05 185.15 180.35 174.15 168.15 161.05 239.7 237.7 234.8 225.5 217.8 210.3 201.2 301.9 299.3 291.6 284.1 274.4 340.25 337.25 328.65 320.25 309.25 382.55 380.05 370.15 360.75 348.45 431.2 427.6 416.6 405.8 479.35 475.05 462.95 451.15
140
4 6 9 12 16 20 25
138.3
141.7
2.8 3.30 4.90 6.50 8.50 10.40 12.80
160
4 6 9 12 16 20 25
158
162
3.20 3.80 5.60 7.40 9.70 11.90 14.60
200
4 6 9 12 16 20 25
197.6
202.6
3.90 4.70 7.00 9.20 12.10 14.90 18.20
250
4 6 9 12 16 20 25
247
253
4.90 5.90 8.70 11.50 15.10 18.60 22.80
315
4 6 9 12 16
311.2
318.8
6.20 7.40 11.00 14.50 19.00
355
4 6 9 12 16
350.7
359.3
7.00 8.40 12.40 16.30 21.40
400
4 6 9 12 16
395.2
404.8
7.80 9.40 14.00 18.40 24.10
450
4 6 9 12
445.1
454.9
8.90 10.60 15.70 20.70
500
4 6 9 12
494
506
9.80 11.80 17.40 22.90
56
TABLE 2: SABS 966 - 2

eMin. eMax.
O.D. At Any Point

eMin. eMax.
Wall Thickness
eMin. eMax.
Avg Id
50
6 9 12 16 20 25
50 50 50 50 50 50 63 63 63 63 63 63 75 75 75 75 75 75 90 90 90 90 90 90 110 110 110 110 110 110 122 122 122 122 122 122 125 125 125 125 125 125 140 140 140 140 140 140
50.2 50.2 50.2 50.2 50.2 50.2 63.2 63.2 63.2 63.2 63.2 63.2 75.2 75.2 75.2 75.2 75.2 75.2 90.3 90.3 90.3 90.3 90.3 90.3 110.3 110.3 110.3 110.3 110.3 110.3 122.3 122.3 122.3 122.3 122.3 122.3 125.3 125.3 125.3 125.3 125.3 125.3 140.4 140.4 140.4 140.4 140.4 140.4
49.4
50.6
1.50 1.50 1.70 2.20 2.70 3.30
1.90 1.90 2.10 2.70 3.20 3.90 1.90 2.00 2.60 3.20 4.00 4.80 1.90 2.30 3.00 3.80 4.70 5.70 2.20 2.70 3.60 4.50 5.60 6.80 2.70 3.20 4.20 5.50 6.70 8.30 2.90 3.60 4.70 6.00 7.50 9.20 3.00 3.70 4.80 6.30 7.60 9.50 3.30 4.10 5.30 7.00 8.60 10.50
46.7 46.7 46.3 45.2 44.2 42.9 59.7 59.5 58.4 57.2 55.7 54.2 71.7 70.9 69.6 68.1 66.4 64.5 86.15 85.25 83.55 81.75 79.75 77.45 105.25 104.25 102.35 99.95 97.65 94.65 116.85 115.55 113.45 110.95 108.15 104.95 119.65 118.35 116.25 113.45 110.95 107.45 134.1 132.6 130.3 127.2 124.2 120.6
63
6 9 12 16 20 25
62.2
63.8
1.50 1.60 2.10 2.70 3.40 4.10
75
6 9 12 16 20 25
74.1
75.9
1.50 1.90 2.50 3.20 4.00 4.90
90
6 9 12 16 20 25
88.9
91.1
1.80 2.20 3.00 3.90 4.80 5.90
110
6 9 12 16 20 25
108.6
111.4
2.20 2.70 3.60 4.70 5.80 7.20
122
6 9 12 16 20 25
120.6
123.4
2.40 3.00 4.00 5.20 6.50 8.00
125
6 9 12 16 20 25
123.5
126.5
2.50 3.10 4.10 5.40 6.60 8.20
140
6 9 12 16 20 25
138.3
141.7
2.80 3.50 4.60 6.00 7.40 9.10
57
TABLE 2: SABS 966 - 2 continued

eMin. eMax.
O.D. At Any Point

eMin. eMax.
Wall Thickness
eMin. e Max.
Avg Id
160
6 9 12 16 20 25
160 160 160 160 160 160 177 177 177 177 177 177 200 200 200 200 200 200 250 250 250 250 250 250 315 315 315 315 315 355 355 355 355 355 400 400 400 400 400 450 450 450 450 450 500 500 500 500 500
160.4 160.4 160.4 160.4 160.4 160.4 177.5 177.5 177.5 177.5 177.5 177.5 200.5 200.5 200.5 200.5 200.5 200.5 250.6 250.6 250.6 250.6 250.6 250.6 315.6 315.6 315.6 315.6 315.6 355.7 355.7 355.7 355.7 355.7 400.7 400.7 400.7 400.7 400.7 450.8 450.8 450.8 450.8 450.8 500.9 500.9 500.9 500.9 500.9
158
162
3.20 4.00 5.20 6.90 8.50 10.40
3.90 4.70 6.00 8.00 9.80 12.00 4.10 5.10 6.70 8.90 10.90 13.30 4.40 5.70 7.50 9.90 12.30 15.00 5.70 7.10 9.40 12.40 15.20 18.80 7.20 8.90 11.80 15.60 19.10 8.10 10.10 13.30 17.50 21.60 9.00 11.30 15.00 19.70 24.30 10.30 12.70 16.80 22.10 27.30 11.30 14.10 18.70 24.50 30.40
153.1 151.5 149 145.3 141.9 137.8 169.65 167.75 164.75 160.65 156.95 152.45 191.95 189.65 186.25 181.75 177.35 172.25 239.7 237.1 232.8 227.2 221.9 215.2 301.9 298.7 293.3 286.2 279.6 340.25 336.55 330.55 322.65 315.05 383.55 379.25 372.35 363.55 354.95 431.2 426.7 419 409.1 399.4 479.35 474.15 465.55 454.65 443.65
177
6 9 12 16 20 25
175
179
3.50 4.40 5.80 7.70 9.40 11.50
200
6 9 12 16 20 25
197.6
202.6
3.90 4.90 6.50 8.60 10.60 13.00
250
6 9 12 16 20 25
247
253
4.90 6.10 8.10 10.70 13.20 16.30
315
6 9 12 16 20
311.2
318.8
6.20 7.70 10.20 13.50 16.60
355
6 9 12 16 20
350.7
359.3
7.00 8.70 11.50 15.20 18.70
400
6 9 12 16 20
395.2
404.8
7.80 9.80 13.00 17.10 21.10
450
6 9 12 16 20
445.1
454.9
8.90 11.00 14.60 19.20 23.70
500
6 9 12 16 20
494
506
9.80 12.20 16.20 21.30 26.40
58
TABLE 3: SABS 967 & 791

Outside Diameter Size 40 50 75 110 160 Class N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
eMin. eMax.
O.D. At Any Point

eMin. eMax.
Wall Thickness
eMin. eMax.
Avg Id 36 45 68 103 153
40 50 75 110 160
40.2 50.2 75.3 110.3 160.4
39.5 49.4 74.1 108.6 158
40.5 50.6 75.9 111.4 162
2.00 2.20 3.20 3.20 3.30
2.40 2.60 3.80 3.80 3.90
Outside Diameter Size 110 160 200 250 315 400 500 Class ND HD ND HD ND HD ND HD ND HD ND HD ND HD
eMin. eMax.
O.D. At Any Point

eMin. eMax.
Wall Thickness
eMin. eMax.
Avg Id 105 104 153 150 192 188 240 235 302 296 384 376 480 470
110 110 160 160 200 200 250 250 315 315 400 400 500 500
110.3 110.3 160.4 160.4 200.5 200.5 250.5 250.5 315.6 315.6 400.7 400.7 500.9 500.9
108.6 158 197.6 247 311.2 395.2 494
111.4 162 202.6 253 318.8 404.8 506
2.20 3.00 3.20 4.70 3.90 5.90 5.00 7.30 6.20 9.20 7.90 11.70 9.80 14.60
2.80 3.50 3.80 5.40 4.50 6.70 5.70 8.30 7.10 10.40 8.90 13.10 11.00 16.30
TABLE 4: SABS 1283 12,5 mpa

Outside Diameter Size 105 Class 6 9 12 16 20 25 110 6 9 12 16 20 25 125 6 9 12 16 20 25
eMin. eMax.
O.D. At Any Point

eMin. eMax.
Wall Thickness
eMin. eMax.
Avg Id 99.75 97.25 94.85 91.55 88.65 85.05 104.55 101.85 99.25 95.95 92.75 88.95 118.65 115.75 112.85 109.05 105.45 100.95
105 105 105 105 105 105 110 110 110 110 110 110 125 125 125 125 125 125
105.3 105.3 105.3 105.3 105.3 105.3 110.3 110.3 110.3 110.3 110.3 110.3 125.3 125.3 125.3 125.3 125.3 125.3
103.9
106.1
2.50 3.70 4.80 6.40 7.80 9.50
2.90 4.20 5.50 7.20 8.70 10.60 3.00 4.40 5.80 7.50 9.20 11.20 3.50 5.00 6.50 8.50 10.40 12.80
108.6
111.4
2.60 3.90 5.10 6.70 8.20 10.00
123.5
126.5
3.00 4.40 5.80 7.60 9.30 11.40
59
SABS 1283 12,5 mpa (continued)

Outside Diameter Size 140 Class 6 9 12 16 20 25 155 6 9 12 16 20 25 160 6 9 12 16 20 25 200 6 9 12 16 20 25 210 6 9 12 16 20 25 225 6 9 12 16 20 25 250 6 9 12 16 20 25
eMin. eMax.
O.D. At Any Point

eMin. eMax.
Wall Thickness
eMin. eMax.
Avg Id 133.1 129.8 126.4 122.2 118.2 113.2 147.5 143.7 140.1 135.3 130.9 125.4 152.1 148.3 144.5 139.7 135.1 129.4 190.2 185.3 180.7 174.6 168.8 161.8 199.5 194.7 189.7 183.1 177.3 169.9 213.95 208.55 203.45 196.55 190.05 182.05 237.75 231.85 225.95 218.35 211.05 202.25
140 140 140 140 140 140 155 155 155 155 155 155 160 160 160 160 160 160 200 200 200 200 200 200 210 210 210 210 210 210 225 225 225 225 225 225 250 250 250 250 250 250
140.4 140.4 140.4 140.4 140.4 140.4 155.4 155.4 155.4 155.4 155.4 155.4 160.4 160.4 160.4 160.4 160.4 160.4 200.4 200.4 200.4 200.4 200.4 200.4 210.4 210.4 210.4 210.4 210.4 210.4 225.5 225.5 225.5 225.5 225.5 225.5 250.5 250.5 250.5 250.5 250.5 250.5
138.3
141.7
3.30 4.90 6.50 8.50 10.40 12.80
3.80 5.50 7.30 9.50 11.60 14.20 4.10 6.10 8.00 10.50 12.80 15.70 4.30 6.30 8.30 10.80 13.20 16.20 5.30 7.90 10.30 13.50 16.50 20.20 5.70 8.20 10.80 14.40 17.30 21.20 6.00 8.80 11.50 15.10 18.50 22.70 6.60 9.70 12.80 16.80 20.60 25.20
153.1
156.9
3.60 5.40 7.10 9.40 11.50 14.10
158
162
3.80 5.60 7.40 9.70 11.90 14.60
197.6
202.6
4.70 7.00 9.20 12.10 14.90 18.20
207.5
212.7
5.00 7.30 9.70 12.70 15.60 19.10
222.8
227.2
5.30 7.90 10.30 13.60 16.70 20.50
247
253
5.90 8.70 11.50 15.10 18.60 22.80
60
SABS 1283 12,5 mpa (continued)

Outside Diameter Size 315 Class 6 9 12 16 355 6 9 12 16 400 6 9 12 16 450 6 9 12 500 6 9 12
eMin. eMax.
O.D. At Any Point

eMin. eMax.
Wall Thickness
eMin. eMax.
Avg Id 299.6 292.1 284.7 275.2 337.55 329.15 320.95 310.25 380.45 370.75 361.45 349.55 428 417.3 406.8 475.55 463.75 452.05
315 315 315 315 355 355 355 355 400 400 400 400 450 450 450 500 500 500
315.6 315.6 315.6 315.6 355.7 355.7 355.7 355.7 400.7 400.7 400.7 400.7 450.8 450.8 450.8 500.9 500.9 500.9
311.2
318.8
7.40 11.00 14.50 19.00
8.30 12.20 16.10 21.10 9.40 13.80 18.10 23.70 10.50 15.60 20.50 26.70 11.80 17.40 22.90 13.10 19.30 25.50
352
358
8.40 12.40 16.30 21.40
396.8
403.2
9.40 14.00 18.40 24.10
446.6
453.4
10.60 15.70 20.70
496.4
503.6
11.80 17.40 22.90
TABLE 5: SABS 1283 10 mpa

Outside Diameter Size 55 Class 4 6 9 12 16 90 4 6 9 12 16
eMin. eMax.
O.D. At Any Point

eMin. eMax.
Wall Thickness
eMin. eMax.
Avg Id 51.8 51.6 49.9 48.2 46.3 86.25 84.35 81.85 79.25 75.95
55 55 55 55 55 90 90 90 90 90
55.2 55.2 55.2 55.2 55.2 90.3 90.3 90.3 90.3 90.3
54.4
55.6
1.50 1.60 2.40 3.20 4.10
1.80 1.90 2.80 3.70 4.70 2.10 3.10 4.40 5.80 7.50
88.9
91.1
1.80 2.70 3.90 5.10 6.70
61
Strength and Toughness

PVC-M Pressure Pipes The stress-time lines for PVC-U, PVC-M and PVC-O are related to the strength properties of these materials. However, strong materials are not necessarily tough and in many cases can be quite brittle. The best example is glass which, in its purest form, is extremely strong but by the introduction of a small defect or notch becomes very brittle indeed. This is due to the high stresses that are developed at the tip of the notch which leads to unstable crack growth. In the case of engineering materials, especially those used for pipes, in addition to strength and stiffness, a major requirement is toughness since it is this property that increases the resistance of the material to the propagation of cracks. The E modulus of PVC-U is almost three times that of PE but, because of its higher susceptibility to brittle failure, this cannot be fully exploited. Thus, based on the widely used safety factors of 2,0 and 1,25 respectively for PVC-U and HPDE, the wall thickness of PVC-U is only about 50% that of the equivalent PE (PE 80) pipe and not 33% as it would be purely on a strength basis. The reason for the relatively large safety factor with PVC-U against that of PE is the result of the greater ductility of polyethylene. Larger safety factors are normally a requirement of materials having greater strength, but perceived to be more brittle. In the development of PVC-M advantage was taken of many years of work on the science and technology of alloys and blends, the objective being to develop a material with the long-term strength of PVC-U along with the toughness of polyethylene. The excellent long-term strength properties of PVC-U have been retained while the toughness of the material has been enhanced by the incorporation of impact modiers which, even in relatively small amounts, signicantly change the characteristics of the pipe such that a completely ductile failure mode may be achieved in the fracture toughness, high speed impact and other tests as per SANS 966 Part 2. PVC-M pressure pipe is produced so as to have the optimum balance between strength and toughness, which allows the material to survive point loads, for example, without embrittlement or loss in pressure carrying capacity. The higher safety factors used in the design of PVC-U pipes are not necessary with tough materials such as PVC-M since this materials failure mode is dominated by ductile yielding. The safety factor for PVC-M is 1.4 and a design stress of 18 MPa is used to calculate the wall thickness according to Barlows formula: e where e p = p.de 2s+ p minimum wall thickness (mm) maximum operating pressure (MPa) mean external diameter (mm) design stress (MPa)
de s -
The improved material efciency and hydraulic capacity give signicant life cycle energy savings.
62
Thus, in addition to strength, toughness is the other important property of plastic pipe materials. PVC-O is unique in that it has both very high strength and high toughness. Long-term pipeline performance is dependent on both these properties. Toughness can be dened as resistance to impact and resistance to crack growth, ie. toughness prevents cracks from starting (initiation) and also prevents the transfer (propagation) of cracks through the pipe wall. Cracks or notches may be initiated during handling or installation and result in stress concentration effects in the pipe which can eventually result in failure. It is the toughness properties of PVC-O which prevents this common cause of pipeline failure. The superior toughness properties arise from the biaxial orientation of the molecules which gives a layered or laminar structure. Given the outstanding strength and toughness properties, a 50 year safety factor of 1,6 can be applied for MRS 45 PVC-O materials, as specied in SANS 1808-85. Design stress of 28 MPa is used for these PVC-O pipes resulting in material savings of over 50% and 30% against the equivalent PVC-U and PVC-M products, respectively. Advantages of PVC-O pipes which relate to the higher design stress are increased hydraulic capacity and improved handling and installation characteristics. The greater ow capacity of PVC-O pipes provide greater energy savings and thus have less effect on the environment than other pipe materials, including traditional materials such as ductile iron. Pressure Variation and Surge Pressures The stress regression lines are derived using constant stresses; in pipelines the stress on the material is rarely constant, varying as the pressure varies and as superimposed loads vary. The latter usually stabilise fairly quickly, at least within the rst year of the network life, but pressure variations are there forever. As with any other pipe material, due allowance for this must be made in designing a water reticulation network with PVC pipes. Anti-surge devices such as air vessels, non-return valves, programmed use
of pumps etc, should be incorporated where necessary. Lower surge pressures develop in PVC pipes as a result of lower surge wave velocities and this has enabled PVC pipes to be used in areas where water hammer has caused pipes manufactured from other materials to fracture. Above all, it enables one to operate with lower pressure classes for PVC. Considerable research has been done on the fatigue properties of plastic pipelines. Recently work has been published on fatigue properties of PVC-M related to actual site conditions in water distribution systems. It is concluded that PVC-M pipes will not fail under conditions of dynamic and static stress within 50 years provided the total stress does not exceed 17,5MPa and the stress amplitude over one million pressure cycles (equal to 55 cycles per day for 50 years) is below 3,0MPa
Effect of Temperature Change

Working Pressure 20C is the standard design temperature for PVC pipes and rated working pressures are usually quoted for this temperature. PVC pressure pipe functions perfectly well below 20C right down to freezing point and can in fact, withstand higher pressures than those quoted at 20C. Above 20C, working pressures must be down-rated if the same factors of safety are to be held. The following reduction factors should be applied: Working Temperature (C) 20 30 40 50 60 Multiplication Factors 1.0 0.9 0.7 0.5 0.3
It should be noted that PVC-O pipes cannot be used at operating temperatures above 45C .
63
Sub Zero Temperatures Material Water has been known to freeze in PVC pipes without causing fractures, but permanent strain can result, leading to severe reduction in the working life of the pipe. Hence PVC pipes like other pipes should be protected against sub zero temperatures. Expansion and Contraction All plastics have high co-efcients of expansion and contraction, several times those of metals. This must be allowed for in any installation by the use of expansion joints, expansion loops etc. PVC PE Steel Copper Ultra Violet resistance
Co-efcient of expansion mm/mC 0,08 0,2 0,012 0,02
Most plastics are affected by U.V. light. PVC pressure pipes have pigments and light stabilisers incorporated in their formulations and if pressure pipes have to be exposed for an indenite period, they should be painted, preferably with one coat of white alkyd enamel or PVA, or suitable covering should be provided. Paint containing solvent thinners should be avoided.
64
POLYPROPYLENE (PP)
Physical Properties of Polypropylene (PP)

Typical Value
Density Melt Flow rate Melt Flow rate Tensile Stress at yield (230oC/2.16kg) (190oC/5.0kg) (50 mm/min) 905 0.30 0.50 30
Unit
kg/m3 g/10 min g/10 min MPa
Test Method
ISO 1183 ISO 1133 ISO 1133 ISO 527-2
Tensile Strain at yield (50 mm/min) Tensile Modulus Charpy Impact Strength, notched Charpy Impact Strength, notched Vicat Softening Temperature Heat deection Temperature (1 mm/min) (+23oC)
10 1300 50
% MPa kJ/m2
ISO 527-2 ISO 527 ISO 179/1eA
(-20oC)
kJ/m2
ISO 179/1eA
B (50 N)
91
oC
ISO 306
(HDT)
96
oC
ISO 75 B
Benets & Specications

The major benet of Polypropylene pipe is related to its ability to withstand higher operating temperatures (up to 95oC for water) than PE or PVC. In addition PP is also resistant to a very wide range of corrosive chemicals and is therefore a very suitable material for most industrial applications. Suitable polymer for large diameter pressure pipe is not produced locally and has to be imported. Typically this would be a propylene homo-polymer with high molecular weight, low melt ow and nely grained crystalline structure, giving it excellent impact strength even at low temperatures, as well as increased hydrostatic strength and improved chemical resistance. The colour is usually ivory grey. PR-R (Polypropylene Random) is increasingly used in hot and cold water systems and has excellent impact properties at low and high temperatures. The color is typical blue, green or brown. Major applications include hot industrial efuents, plumbing, under oor heating and other industrialchemical installations.
65
POLYETHYLENE JOINTING SYSTEMS
Polyethylene Welding Processes

General There are ve stages in the welding process, namely a) bead-forming (also known as adapting), b) heating (also known as soaking or pre-heating), c) changeover (also known as conversion), d) joining e) cooling. These stages are represented in gure 3. The principle of heated-tool butt welding is illustrated in gure 4. To ensure that the pipe walls remain at a constant ambient temperature, the open ends of the pipes may be closed off before welding to prevent airow through the pipe, which could cause uneven temperatures and too rapid cooling of the weld. Bead-forming The heated tool, heated to the predetermined temperature, is inserted between the joint faces to be joined and the joint faces are pressed against the heated tool under the force or pressure setting for bead-forming. The force or pressure is maintained until the full joint faces of the pipes are in contact with the heated tool and a bead is formed around the circumference of both pipe components at the contact face (see column 2 of table 2). Heating or soaking The welding pressure setting for heating is reduced to 0,01 N/mm2 during the heating or soaking period. Changeover After the heating or soaking time has expired, the joint faces are withdrawn from the heating tool, which is either swung out of the way or removed and placed in a holding bin. The heating plate shall be removed without damage to, or contamination of the joint faces. The joint faces are then immediately pressed together. (See table 2 for changeover times, which must be kept to a minimum to prevent cooling of the molten plastics.)
SANS 10268-1:2009 Edition 1.3
Figure 3 Pressure/time diagram
66
Table 2 Recommended values for the heated-tool welding of high-density polyethylene (PE-HD), determined at an ambient temperature of 20 C and at moderate airow
1 Nominal wall thickness mm 2 Bead-forming = 0,15 N/mm2 Height of bead prior to heating period (min. values) mm 3 Heating < 0,02 N/mm2 Heating timea s 4 Changeover Joining = 0,15 to 0,20 N/mm2 Maximum time s 45 45 to 70 70 to 120 120 to 190 190 to 260 260 to 370 370 to 500 500 to 700 5 5 to 6 6 to 8 8 to 10 10 to 12 12 to 16 16 to 20 20 to 25 Time to complete pressure build-up s 5 5 to 6 6 to 8 8 to 11 11 to 14 14 to 19 19 to 25 20 to 35 Total cooling time while under joining pressure min 6 6 to 10 10 to 16 16 to 24 24 to 32 32 to 45 45 to 60 60 to 80 5 6
Up to 4,5 4,5 to 7 7 to 12 12 to 19 19 to 26 26 to 37 37 to 50 50 to 70
a
0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0 3,5 4,0
For PE-HD, the heating time, in seconds, is approximately 10 times the wall thickness, in millimetres.
NOTE Less than wall thickness 4,5 mm will result in an increase in the risk factor for weld failure and care should be taken with regard to the substance being carried by the completed installation. If the installation is to carry dangerous substances, other welding methods should be considered.
b) Heated-tool temperature as a function of pipe wall thickness for polyethylene (PE-HD) Figure 1 Heated-tool temperature as a function of pipe wall thickness for polyethylene (PE-HD)
67
SANS 10268-1:2009 Edition 1.3
SANS 10268-1:2009 Edition 1.3
Figure 5 Bead formation Testing and approval For testing of the nished welds, see SANS 6269. For approval of welders, see SANS 10269. For approval of welding procedures, see SANS 10270.
Heated-tool socket welding

Principle Heated-tool socket welding is a variant of heatedtool butt welding, except that the heating tool is made up of a socket on one side and a spigot on the other side. The pipe to be welded is inserted into the socket while the tting is placed over the spigot. When heating has been completed, the heating tool is withdrawn and the two components are pushed one into the other and held under pressure until cool. This method of joining is used for semi-crystalline materials such as polyvinylidene uoride (PVDF), polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP). Manual welding may be undertaken with pipes of diameter up to and including 50 mm, but above this diameter, a welding machine is required to obtain the necessary pressure to ensure a good joint. When large numbers of joints in the smaller diameters are required, production efciency is increased if a welding machine is used. In heatedtool socket welding, the welding temperature is much higher than in heated-tool butt welding (between 250 C and 270 C), since no pre-heating takes place. The heating tool has to be treated with a nonstick coating such as PTFE to prevent adhesion to the molten plastics components. See ISO 8085-1 and ISO 8085-2 for the pipe-tting specications. Figure 6 illustrates the principle of heated-tool socket welding.
Figure 4 Principle of heated-tool butt welding joining When the components to be welded have been brought into contact with each other, the joining force or pressure shall be continuously and evenly increased from zero to the nal value indicated in table 2. This increase shall occur within the time frame indicated in the table that is used, and the nal pressure shall be maintained until the weld has cooled. The bead will attain its nal shape during this time. Fast cooling or the use of coolants will severely affect the weld quality and are therefore forbidden. A uniform bead shall be present inside and outside the pipe at the joint as indicated in gure 5. In the case of larger pipes of wall thickness 20 mm or more, covering the weld zone during cooling to slow the cooling process will have a benecial effect on the weld quality. Uneven bead formation might be caused by uneven ow behaviour of the materials being joined.The established height K (see gure 5) of the bead shall always exceed zero.
68
SANS 10268-1:2009 Edition 1.3
Execution of the weld Manual welding The tting is pushed onto the heated spigot and the pipe is inserted into the heated socket up to a mark previously made. The components are retained on the heating tool for the heating time specied in table 6 and 7 (depending on the material being welded).
Figure 6 Principle of heated-tool socket welding The pipe components to be joined and the heating tool are rst axially aligned, after which the pipe and the tting are moved into and onto the heated tool and held there for the specied time in accordance with table 6 and 7 (depending on the material being welded). They are then withdrawn from the tool, which is rapidly moved out of the way. The pipe and tting are then brought together and held under pressure for the specied time in accordance with table 6 and 7. SANS 10268-1:2009 Edition 1.3
After expiration of the heating time, the components are sharply withdrawn from the heating tool and, without any twisting motion, are pushed together up to the mark on the pipe. Table 6 and 7 (depending on the material being welded) give the maximum permissible changeover periods. The components shall be held in this position without any movement for the period indicated in table 6 and 7 (depending on the material being welded) to allow the joint to cool before stress loads can be applied. The end of the pipe shall not touch the shoulder inside the socket. A weld upset or bead shall be present over the entire circumference of the joint. If the bead is not present, the weld is not acceptable. After every weld has been completed, the heating tool shall be allowed to cool to a safe temperature and shall be cleaned with cleaning solvent and lintfree paper. Welding with a welding machine The basic principles are the same as for manual welding, except that the components are held in clamping devices that can be moved in a horizontal direction to bring the components up to the heating tool, to withdraw them from the heating tool (which is then swung out of the way), and to press the pipe into the tting once fusion temperature has been reached. Before welding starts, the axial alignment of the clamping devices shall be checked, and the movement stops that are set up to control the insertion depth of the pipe into the tting shall also be checked. All other details concerning welding temperature, heating, changeover and cooling times are contained in table 6 and 7 (depending on the material being welded).
Table 5 Pipe chamfering

Dimensions in millimetres
1
Pipe diameter d
16 20 25 32 40 50 63 75 90 110
2
Pipe peeling diameter
15,90 0,05 19,90 0,05 24,90 0,05 31,90 0,05 39,85 0,10 49,85 0,10 62,80 0,15 74,80 0,15 89,80 0,15 109,75 0,20
3
Insertion depth l
13 14 15 17 18 20 26 29 32 35
4
Pipe chamfer b
2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3
69
SANS 10268-1:2009 Edition 1.3 Table 6 Recommended values for the heated-tool socket welding of pipeline components of polypropylene (PP) at an ambient temperature of 20 C and at moderate airow
1 Outside pipe cooling times mm
15 20 25 32 40 50 63 75 90 110
2 Minimum pipe wall thickness mm

2,0 2,5 2,7 3,0 3,7 4,6 3,6 4,3 5,1 6,3
3 Heating time s
5 5 7 8 12 18 24 30 40 50
4 Changeover time (maximum) s

4 4 4 6 6 6 8 8 8 10
5 Cooling min.
2 2 2 4 4 4 6 6 6 8
Table 7 Recommended values for the heated-tool socket welding of pipeline components of high-density polyethylene (PE-HD) at an ambient temperature of 20 C and at moderate airow
1 Outside pipe diameter mm
16 20 25 32 40 50 63 75 90 110 125
a b
2 Heating time s For PN10 For PN 6 SDR 11a SDR 17,666a

5 5 7 8 12 12 24 30 40 50 60
b b b b b
3 Changeover time (maximum) s

4 4 4 6 6 6 8 8 8 10 10
5 6 Joining and Cooling Times Joining s

6 6 10 10 20 20 30 30 40 50 60
Cooling mm
2 2 2 4 4 4 6 6 6 8 8
15 22 30 35
Standard dimension ratio of nominal diameter to wall thickness. Not recommended because of insufcient wall thickness.
70
Welder Training and Qualications

Welders need to be trained by a recognised institution in one of the following welding processes: Butt-welding (HS) Socket fusion welding (HS) Electro fusion welding (HM) Hot-gas extrusion welding (WE) Ensure the welder is trained for the process being specied. PFSA training course are currently the only nationally recognised thermal welder training course and is registered through Merseta. On successful completion of the training course the welder is tested in accordance with SANS 10269 Testing and approval of welders. A certicate is issued indicating the welding process the welder is found to be competent in. Welders that do not achieve a min. of 70% in the theoretical exam may only weld under supervision of a fully qualied welder. (see annexure) Beware that there are dubious characters out there that will fraudulently manipulate certicates, please check their legitimacy with PFSA. IFPA members only make use of certied welders that has gained appropriate experience.
71
Welding - Equipment
Minimum standards as per SANS 1671PART 1: Heated Tool Welding PART 2: Electro fusion Welding PART 3: Hot Gas Welding PART 4: Hot Gas Extrusion Welding PART 5: Solvent Welding Quality Control - Pre-Installation: Sample welds to be performed and bend tests performed i.a.w. SANS 6269 Paragraph 7.2 Ensure welding equipment gauges e.g. pressure gauges and temperature gauges are calibrated. Refer to SANS 10268-10 Weld defects to be used as a guide for visual inspection. Material PE-HD PP, PVDF PVC The speed of testing shall be in accordance with table 7. Table 7 Bending test speeds for relevant thermoplastics 1 2 Test speed mm/min 50 20 10
Destructive Test
Procedure Unless otherwise agreed upon or specied in the terms of delivery for the product to be tested, the test shall be carried out at an ambient temperature of 23 C 2 C. The test specimen and testing equipment shall be set up as shown in gure 5.
The bending beam shall be applied at the centre of the weld. In the case of hot-gas welded single-V welds, the bending beam shall be applied to the weld root, whereas, in the case of asymmetrical double-V welds, the bending beam shall be applied to the shallower side of the weld (see gure 6).
Figure 6 Bending beam position Start the bending process at the required test speed until fracture or crack initiation occurs, or up to an angle of 160. Measure the bending angle as shown in gure 5, with the test piece under load. The complete pressing-through of the test specimen between the supports corresponds to a bending angle of approximately 160. If this is achieved without crack initiation, record the result as 160. Figure 5 Diagram of the mechanical test NOTE If a better indication of the onset of cracking is required, a force-displacement curve may be recorded and evaluated.
72
If a maximum of two test specimens from a batch of ve fail the test, two new substitute test specimens from the same test sample may be tested. No value shall then lie below the required minimum. Reference to be made to SANS 10268 -1 Welding of thermoplastics - Welding Process Part1: Heated-tool welding.
B: Main experiment - After a succesfull 30 minute period with pressure decrease within 30% the pipeline test pressure, pressure is decreased back to pipeline pressure rating ( PN Rating), this is observed for 30 minutes for contraction. - If the pressure maintains or increases within the 30 minutes, test is accepted. Tips when pressure testing: - Always ensure that there is no air trapped in pipeline - Refrain from performing test when pipe surface temperature is above 30C - Always ensure that all ange joints or other connections are leak free - Visually inspect all pressure guages for any damage, if damaged do not use , replace before test.
Air Test:
Air testing in accordance with SABS 1200 LD par 7.2 recommended for sewer on storm water pipelines.
Hydraulic Pressure Tests:

Procedure A: Preliminary test - Pipeline is lled with water and the valve at the highest point is opened to release air - Pipeline is closed on both ends and pressure testing equipment is connected - Testing pressure is detetermined between the lowest of two choices ( PN x 1.25 ) - Test pressure is reached and pump is stopped, pipeline is observed for 30 minutes ( The pipeline will deform in a visco-elastic way, the pressure shouldn't decrease by more than 30% in 30 minutes.) If pressure decrease by more than 30% there's either a leakage or a temperature increase in the pipeline, either way the test is stopped, visually inspect line and joints for leaks, check surface temperatur of HDPE pipe, if above 30C test is aborted.
73
Minimal dimensional requirements for ttings

BUTT-WELD STUBS
d4
d4
Pipe outside diameter d1
d3
d4
h1
h2
h3
ID
z1
20 25* 32* 40* 50* 63* 75 90* 110 125 140 160 180 200 225 250 280 315 355 400 450* 500 560* 630 710 800 900 1000 1200
27 33 40 50 61 75 89 105 125 132 155 175 180 232 235 285 291 335 373 427 514 530 615 642 737 840 944 1047 1245
45 56 65 73 82 98 110 129 158 158 188 212 212 268 268 320 320 370 430 482 540 585 645 685 800 905 1005 1110 1330
7 9 10 11 12 14 16 17 18 25 25 25 30 32 32 35 35 35 40 46 60 60 60 60 50 52 55 60 60
13 13 13 15 15 20 20 20 25 20 28 28 30 40 30 40 30 40 40 45 60 50 60 40 50 50 50 70 70
30 28 27 24 23 16 14 43 37 35 27 27 20 28 38 25 35 25 40 29 10 10 10 20 20 18 15 10 10
50 50 50 50 50 50 50 80 80 80 80 80 80 100 100 100 100 100 120 120 120 120 120 120 120 120 120 140 140
95 105 15 140 50 165 185 200 220 220 250 285 285 340 340 395 395 445 505 565 670 670 780 780 895 1015 1115 1230 1455
*Note: On Stub Flanges sizes 25; 32; 40; 50; 63; 90; 450 & 560 OD dimension d4 is reduced to accommodate SABS 1123 1000/3; 1600/3; BS10 Table D and ASA 150 Flanges.
74
BS4504 10/3 SABS 1123 1000/3 Dimensions OD D ID B PCD No of Bolts 20 25 32 40 50 63 75 90 110 125 140 160 180 200 225 250 280 315 355 400 450 500 95 105 115 140 150 165 185 200 220 220 250 285 285 340 340 395 395 445 505 565 615 670 30 38 45 52 63 74 86 103 136 136 158 190 190 237 237 279 292 330 376 430 476 533 10 10 10 12 12 12 12 12 15 15 15 20 20 20 20 25 25 25 25 27 30 30 65 75 85 100 110 125 145 160 180 180 210 240 240 295 295 350 350 400 460 515 565 620 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 12 12 12 16 16 20 20 D
BS4504 16/3 SABS 1123 1600/3 Dimensions ID B PCD No of Bolts 95 105 115 140 150 165 185 200 220 220 260 285 285 340 340 405 405 460 520 580 640 30 38 45 52 63 74 86 103 136 136 158 190 190 237 237 279 292 330 376 430 476 10 10 10 12 12 12 12 12 15 15 16 20 20 20 20 25 25 25 25 27 30 65 75 85 100 110 125 145 160 180 180 210 240 240 295 295 355 355 410 470 525 585 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 8 8 8 8 8 8 12 12 12 12 12 16 16 20 20 No of bolts Bolt Size M12 M12 M12 M16 M16 M16 M16 M16 M16 M16 M16 M16 M20 M20 M20 M20 M20 M20 M24 M24 M24/ M30* M24/ M30* 230 180 Plastic to plastic SDR11 SDR7.4 75 75 75 100 100 100 100 100 125 125 125 180 180 180 180 230 255 255 230 255 255 Plastic to steel SDR11 SDR7.4 65 65 65 75 75 75 75 75 90 90 90 125 125 125 140 165 165 164 165 165 180
560 630 710 800 900 1000
730 835 895 1.015 1.115 1.230
592 662 737 840 942 1.045
36 36 40 45 50 55
675 780 840 950 1.050 1.060
20 20
20 20 24 24 28 28
M24/ M30* M24/ M30* M24 M30 M30 M30
230 230 250 280 310 340
180 200 180 210 240 250 *For T 1600/3
75
Fabricated Fittings (HDPE & PP)

Pipe ttings can be manufactured from pipe in a wide variety of sizes and pressure classes but mostly from 75 mm OD upwards and Class 6 or higher. Permissable working pressure is 50% of class of pipe used to fabricate tting, eg 1000 kPa produces a 500 kPa fabricated tting. Fabricated tees plain ended
OD
OD
L
OD
50 63 75 90 110 125 140 160 200 225 250 280 315 355 400 450 500 560 630 710 800 900 1000
Add permissible working pressure
H
150 150 400 400 400 400 400 400 450 450 450 450 650 650 650 850 850 900 900 1150 1150 1150 1150
L
300 300 800 800 800 800 800 800 900 900 900 900 1300 1300 1300 1700 1700 1800 1800 2300 2300 2300 2300
76
Fabricated Fittings (HDPE & PP)

Pipe ttings can be manufactured from pipe in a wide variety of sizes and pressure classes but mostly from 75 mm OD upwards and Class 6 or higher. Permissable working pressure is 50% of class of pipe used to fabricate tting, eg 1000 kPa produces a 500 kPa fabricated tting. Fabricated lateral plain ended
OD
50 63 75 90 110 125 140 160 180 200 225 250 280 315 355 400 450 500 560 630 710 800 900 1000
Add permissible working pressure
A
200 200 475 475 475 475 475 475 875 875 875 875 900 900 900 900 1100 1100 1200 1200 1500 1500 2000 2000
B
150 150 370 370 370 370 370 370 530 530 530 530 700 700 700 700 870 870 950 950 1200 1200 1600 1600
L
400 400 950 950 950 950 950 950 1350 1350 1350 1350 1800 1800 1800 1800 2200 2200 2400 2400 3000 3000 4000 4000
77
Fabricated tting dimensions

Dimensions in millimetres Nominal outside diameter
dn
Minimal tubular length of tting

le, min
Nominal bend radius

r
Nominal branch length

z
Nominal angle of tting
90 110 125 140 160 180 200 225 250 280 315 355 400 450 500 560 630 710 800 900
150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 Declared 250 250 300 300 300 300 350 350 350 350 350 400 by the tting manufacturer e.g 1,5 x d 2xd 2.5 x d 3xd The maximum tolerance for pipe bends shall be +- 5 With a tolerance of +- 2 Declared by the tting manufacturer Declared by the tting manufacturer
78
Segmented bends
90 Segmented Bend
15
30
11 .2 5
Le
45 Segmented Bend
15
Le Z d
Le
22.5
11.
30
25
PLAIN ENDED diameter (d)

50 63 75 90 110 125 140 160 180 200 225 250 280 315 355 400 450 500 560 630 710 800 900 1000
radius (r)
75 95 113 135 165 188 210 240 270 300 338 375 420 472 532 600 675 750 840 945 1065 1200 1350 1500
90
Z 220 280 330 400 370 400 430 470 510 550 600 650 710 620 680 760 1300 1400 1150 1300 1450 1500 1700 1800
45
Z 220 280 330 400 370 400 430 470 510 550 600 650 710 620 680 760 900 900 950 1100 1250 1300 1500 1600
Derating factors for segmented bends Cut angle

7.5 7.5 < 15
Derating factor B
1.0 0.8
79
Seamless long radius bends plain ended

Radius: 3 x OD of pipe
Table 33 OD
110 125 140 160 180 200 225 250 280 315 355 400 450 500
OD
45 L
345 360 380 405 430 455 485 515 555 585 645 705 765 830
Radius
330 375 420 480 540 600 675 750 840 945 1065 1200 1350 1500
90 L
535 580 625 685 745 805 880 955 1045 1150 1270 1405 1555 1705
The minimum wall thickness of the pipe bend after bending shall be in accordance with ISO 4427-2. Destructive techniques may be used to demonstarte consistency of the manufacturing process. For bends fabricated out of pipes, usually no derating factor applies.
80
Electrofusion socket dimensions

Key D1 D2 L1 L2 L3
a b c d e
mean inside diameter in fusion zone
a b
bore that is minimum diameter of ow channel through body of tting depth of penetration of pipe or male end of spigot tting heated length within socket
d e c
distance between mouth of tting and start of fusion zone D2 > (dn 2emin).
D1 is measured in a plane parallel to the plane of the mouth at a distance of L3 + 0,5L2. In the case of a coupling without a stop, it is not greater than half the total length of the tting. As declared by the manufacturer to be the nominal length of the fusion zone. As declared by the manufacturer to be the nominal unheated entrance length of the tting. L3 shall be > 5 mm.
Nominal diameter of the tting

dn
Depth of penetration l. 1. min l. 1. max Intensity regulation Voltage regulation

25 25 25 25 28 31 35 40 53 58 62 68 74 80 88 95 104 115 127 140 155 170 188 209 41 41 44 49 55 63 70 79 82 87 92 98 105 112 120 129 139 150 164 179 195 212 235 255 10 10 10 10 10 11 12 13 15 16 18 20 21 23 26 33 35 39 42 47 51 56 61 67 20 20 20 20 20 23 25 28 32 35 38 42 46 50 55 73 81 89 99 110 122 135 147 161
Fusion zone l. 2. min
20 25 32 40 50 63 75 90 110 125 140 160 180 200 225 250 280 315 355 400 450 500 560 630
81

Spigot dimensions
Key D1 D2 E E1 L1 L2
a b c d
mean outside diameter of fusion end piece body wall thickness of tting fusion face wall thickness
d e c
a b
bore comprising minimum diameter of ow channel through body of tting
cut-back length of fusion end piece tubular length of fusion end piece
f
D1
is measured in any plane parallel to the plane of the entrance face at a distance not greater than L2 (tubular length) from the plane of the entrance face. The measurement of this diameter does not include the fusion pad (if present). It comprises the thickness measured at any point of the wall of the tting. It is measured at any point at a maximum distance of L1 (cut back length) from the entrance face and shall be equal to the pipe wall thickness and tolerance to which it is intended to be butt fused, as specied in ISO 4427-2:2007, Table 2. E1 for small dimensions is at least 3 mm. It comprises the initial depth of the spigot end necessary for butt fusion or reweld and may be obtained by joining a length of pipe to the spigot end of the tting provided the wall thickness of the pipe is equal to E1 for its entire length. It comprises the initial length of the fusion end piece and shall allow the following (in any combination): the use of clamps required in the case of butt fusion; assembly with an electrofusion tting; assembly with a socket fusion tting; the use of a mechanical scraper.
Socket Fusion Tubular length L2.min Tubular length L2.min Out-ofroundness max. Butt fusion Cut-back length L1.min Tubular length L2.min Normal
c
Nominal outside diameter of spigot dn
Mean outside diameter of fusion end Grade A D1.max Grade B D1.max Out-ofroundness max.
Electrofusion Min.bore D2 Cut-back length L1.min
D1.min
Special
20 25 32 40 50 63 75 90 110 125 140 160 180 200 225 250 280 315 355 400 450 500 560 630
a b
20.0 25.0 32.0 40,0 50.0 63.0 75.0 90.0 110.0 125.0 140.0 160.0 180.0 200.0 225.0 250.0 280.0 315.0 355.0 400.0 450.0 500.0 560.0 630.0
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 282.6 317.9 358.2 403.6 454.1 504.5 565.0 635.7
20.3 23.5 32.3 40.4 50.4 63.4 75.5 90.6 110.7 125.8 140.9 161.0 181.1 201.2 226.4 251.5 281.7 316.9 357.2 402.4 452.7 503.0 563.4 633.8
0.3 0.4 0.5 0,6 0.8 0.9 1.2 1.4 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.4 2.7 3.0 3.4 3.8 4.2 4.8 5.4 6.0 6.8 7.5 8.4 9.5
13 18 25 31 39 49 59 71 87 99 111 127 143 159 179 199 223 251 283 319 359 399 447 503
25 25 25 25 25 25 25 28 32 35 38 42 46 50 55 60 75 75 75 75 100 100 100 100
41 41 44 49 55 63 70 79 82 87 92 98 105 112 120 129 139 150 164 179 195 212 235 255
11 12.5 14.6 17 20 24 25 28 32 35 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ 1.5 1.6 1.8 2.2 2.5 2.88 3.2 3.6 4.0 4.5 5.0 9.8 11.1 12.5 14.0 15.6 17.5 19.6 22.1
_ _ _ _ _ 5 6 6 8 8 8 8 8 8 10 10 10 10 10 10 15 20 20 20
_ _ _ _ _ 16 19 22 28 32 35 40 45 50 55 60 70 80 90 95 60 60 60 60
_ _ _ _ _ 5 6 6 8 8 8 8 8 8 10 10 10 10 12 12 15 15 15 20
Tolerance grades A and B are in accordance with ISO 11922-1:1997. The values of L2 (electrofusion) are based on the following equations:
- for dn 90, L2 = 0.6dn + 25 mm; - for dn 110, L2 = dnl3 = 45 mm. c Used by preference.
d e
Used for ttings fabricated in the factory. Spigot ttings designed for electrofusion are also suitable for butt fusion.
82
HOT & COLD WATER PRESSURE PIPES
Introduction
The use of metal pipes for hot water installations has long prevailed because of the demanding requirements related to operating temperatures between 60C and 70C and short-term requirements for temperatures up to 95C. During the last 20 years, polymer piping systems for full range plumbing and heating systems have been developed and successfully approved in many countries worldwide. Numerous benets have made Polymer Piping the material of choice for a safe and reliable long-lasting installation in domestic water management, such as hot and cold-water distribution, radiator connections or wall cooling and heating.
Applications:
Domestic water supply (Hot & Cold water) Under Floor Heating Systems Heating systems Air Conditioning Systems (Chilled Water) Liquid distribution in industrial plants Compressed air pipe layouts
Polymers for Pipes:

PE-X (Cross Linked Polyethylene) - PE-Xa Peroxide - PE-Xb Silane - PE-Xc Irradiation PP (Polypropylene) - PP-H Homopolymer - PP-B Block Copolymer - PP-R Random Copolymer PE-RT (Polyethylene with Raised Temperature Resistance) PB (Polybutylene) PVC-C (Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride)
Benets:
Long life of at least 50 years No limitations to pH value of the water No contact corrosion when exposed to iron particles Taste and odour neutral Bacteriological neutral Fast and easy installation Entire plastics systems available from 16 up to 315mm Good chemical resistance Low tendency to incrustations
83
Classication:
Monolayer Pipe Denition: Single layer with a solid wall thickness of a polymer material. Multilayer Pipe Denition - Pipe comprised of different stress designed layers Multilayer M type pipe: Pipe comprised of stress designed polymeric layers and one or more stress designed metallic layer. The wall thickness of the pipe consists of at least 60 % of polymeric materials (E.g. PE-X /Al / PE-X or PE-RT /Al / PE-RT) Multilayer P type pipe: Pipe comprised of more than one stress designed polymeric layers (E.g. PE-X / EVOH / PE-X or PE-RT/EVOH/PE-RT) PPSU PVDF (Polyphenilsulfone) (Polyvinylidene Fluoride)
DZR Brass (Dezincication Resistance Brass) EN 1254 - 3
Standards:
PP (Polypropylene) SANS ISO 15874 PE-X (Cross Linked Polyethylene) SANS ISO 15875 PB (Polybutylene) SANS ISO 15876 PVC-C (Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride) SANS ISO 15877 PE-RT (Polyethylene with Raised Temperature Resistance) SANS ISO 22391 MULTILAYER SANS ISO 21003 Each Standard consists of the following parts: PART 1 General PART 2 Pipes PART 3 Fittings PART 5 Fitness for the purpose of the system PDRT 7 - Guidance for the assessment of conformaty.
Pipe Sizes
Metric Pipe Sizes OD 12,16, 20, 25, 32, 40, 50, 63, 75, 90, 110, 125, 140 & 160mm Copper Pipe Sizes OD 15, 22 & 28mm
Materials for Fittings:

PE-X PP PB PVC-C PSU (Cross Linked Polyethylene) (Polypropylene) (Polybutylene) (Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride) (Polysulfone)
84
Service Conditions (ISO 10508)

Td (Design temperature) 70*C 49 years Tmax (Max temperature) 80*C 1 year Tmal (Malfunction temperature) 95*C 100 hours
Jointing methods:
Socket Fusion welding Electro fusion Crimping / Pressing Compression Push-Fit Expansion & shrink
Standards Requirements
Inuence on water Geometrical characteristics (OD, wt & CLASS) Mechanical characteristics (Resistance to Internal Pressure at 20*C & 95*C) Physical and Chemical characteristics (Thermal Stability, Impact Resistance, MFR) Material characteristics for ttings (Plastics & Metallic) Mechanical characteristics of Plastic ttings Physical and Chemical characteristics of Plastic ttings & components Fitness for purpose of joints and piping system (Internal Pressure, Bending test, Pull out test, Thermal Cycling, Pressure Cycling test, Leak tightness under vacuum test)
Axial Compression Sleeve
85
Pipe material & Application
Nominal Size
Design Stress Mpa 6.93
Pressure rating Bar 10 to 20
Pipe Stiffness Kpa
Specication
Nominal Stiffness kN/m/m
mm PP Hot & Cold Pressure Pipe & Fittings PE-X Hot & Cold Pressure Pipe & Fittings PB Hot & Cold Pressure Pipe & Fittings PVC-C Hot & Cold Pressure Pipe & Fittings PE-RT Hot & Cold Pressure Pipe & Fittings Multilayer Hot & Cold Pressure Pipe & Fittings 12 - 160mm 12 - 160mm 12 - 160mm 12 - 160mm 12 - 160mm 12 - 160mm
SANS 15874 Part 1, 2, 3 &5
7.6
10 to 20
SANS 15875 Part 1, 2, 3 &5
10 to 20
SANS 15876 Part 1, 2, 3 &5
10 to 20
SANS 15877 Part 1, 2, 3 &5
6.68
10 to 20
SANS 22391 Part 1, 2, 3 &5
10 to 20
SANS 21003 Part 1, 2, 3 &5
86
IDENTIFICATION OF PLASTICS
APPENDIX A: Identication of plastics International identication number for benet of recyclers
INT. ID NO FOr BENEFIT OF rECyCLErS
TyPE OF PLASTIC
PET
PrOPErTIES
COMMON USES
rECyCLED IN :
Polyethylene Terephthalate PE-HD
Clear, tough, solvent resistant, barrier to gas and moisture, softens at 80o Hard to semi-exible, resistant to chemicals and moisture, waxy surface, opaque, softens at 75oC, easily coloured, processed and formed. Strong, tough, can be clear, can be solvent welded, softens at 80oC
Soft drink and water bottles, salad domes, biscuit trays, salad dressing and containers Shopping bags, freezer bags, milk bottles, ice cream containers, juice bottles, shampoo, chemical and detergent bottles, buckets, pressure pipe, crates Cosmetic containers, electrical conduit, plumbing pipes and ttings, blister packs, wall cladding, roof sheeting, bottles, pressure pipe Flexible hose, shoe soles, cable sheathing, blood bags and tubing
Pillow and sleeping bag lling, clothing, soft drink bottles, carpeting, building insulation Recycling bins, compost bins, buckets detergent containers, posts, fencing, pipes, plastic timber
High Density Polyethylene
PVC Unplasticised Polyvinyl Chloride PVC-U PVC-M 3 PVC-O Plasticised Polyvinyl Chloride PVC-P PE-LD 4 Low Density Polyethylene PP 5 Polypropylene
Flooring, lm and sheets, cables, speed bumps, packaging, binders, mud aps and amts, new gumboots and shoes
Flexible, clear, elastic, can be solvent welded
Soft, exible, waxy surface, translucent, softens at 70oC, scratches easily Hard but still exible, waxy surface, softens at 140oC, translucent, withstands solvents, versatile
Cling wrap, garbage bags, squeeze bottles, irrigation tubing, mulch lm, refuse bags Bottles and ice cream tubs, potato chip bags, straws, microwave dishes, kettles, garden furniture, lunch boxes, packaging tape, pressure pipe CD cases, plastic cutlery, imitation glassware, low cost brittle toys, video cases
Bin liners, pallet sheets
Pegs, ins, pipes, pallet sheets, oil funnels, car battery cases, trays
PS Polystyrene
6 PS-E Expanded Polystyrene
Clear, glassy, rigid, opaque, semi-tough, softens at 95oC. affected by fat, acids and solvents, but resistant to alkalis, salt solutions. Low water absorption, when not pigmented is clear, is odour and taste free Special types of PS are available for special applications
Coat hangers, coasters, white ware components, stationary trays and accessories, picture frames, seed trays, building products
Foamed polystyrene cups, takeaway clamshells, foamed meat trays, protective packaging and building and food insulation Automotive, and appliance components, computers, electronics, cooler bottles, packaging Automotive components, plastic timber
OTHEr 7 Letter below indicates ISO code for plastic type e.g SAN, ABS, PC, Nylon
Includes all resins and multi-materials (e.g. laminates). Properties dependent on plastic or combination of plastics
87
CHEMICAL RESISTANCE OF THERMOPLASTICS USED FOR PIPES

APPENDIX B: Chemical resistance of thermoplastics used for pipes Introduction Pipes and ttings made of thermoplastic materials are widely used in industries where conveyance of highly corrosive liquids and gases requires high quality products featuring excellent corrosion resistance. Thermoplastic materials can often economically, safely, reliably and efciently replace coated steel, stainless steel, glass and ceramic materials under similar operating conditions. The listed data are taken from the ISO TC 138/WG3 schedules which are based upon immersion tests. Variations in the analyses of the chemical compounds or the operating conditions can signicantly modify the actual chemical resistance of the materials in comparison with this guide indicated value. jointing Where threaded joints are made only PTFE tape must be used for sealing. Where fusion welding is used the resulting assembly has the same chemical resistance as the materials joined. Degree of Chemical resistance This guide species three Classes of chemical resistance: Class 1: HIGH rESISTANCE all materials belonging to this class are completely or almost completely corrosion proof against the conveyed liquid at the specied operating conditions. Class 2: LIMITED rESISTANCE the materials belonging to this class are partially attacked by the conveyed chemical compound. The average life of the material is therefore shorter, and it is advisable to use a higher safety factor than the one adopted for Class 1 materials.
PVC-U PVC-M PVC-O 45-60
Class 3: NO rESISTANCE all material belonging to this class are subject to corrosion by the conveyed uid and they should therefore not be used. Where no class is indicated this means that no data is available concerning the chemical resistance of the material in respect of the uid to be conveyed. Abbreviations and maximum operating temperatures
PVC-C
Note: PTFE can withstand all compounds reported in the chemical resistance table. Abbreviations sat nd deb dil : saturated solution at 20C : undened concentration : weak concentration : diluted solution
comm. : commercial solution
88
PVC
89
90
PVC
PVC
91
92
PVC
PVC
93
94
PVC
PVC
95
96
PVC
PVC
97
98
PVC
PVC
99
ABOUT SAPPMA
Objectives
Promote and monitor product quality of member companies. Work towards the long-term sustainability of the Plastics Pipe Industry in Southern Africa. Ensure compliance with all relevant national and international standards and specications.
Projects and Activities

Publish a comprehensive Technical Manual (regularly updated). Annual Technical Conferences of the highest standard. Continuous high intensity involvement with the SABS in terms of a partnership to drive long term quality in the market. Strong participation with SANS relative to product standards. Maintain a policy of best production practice on environmental issues in keeping with world trends. Increase downstream inuences through IFPA - Installation and Fabrication Plastic Pipe Association. Establishing minimum QA Standards. Interaction with Professional Bodies CESA, ECSA, IMIESA, SAICE. Participating in relevant activities of the GBCSA. Maintain an informative website. Promotion of plastic pipe systems (Editorials, adverts, proles, photo competition, etc.). Creation of a technical library of product specications.
Playing an instrumental role to upgrade and amend existing standards. Facilitate the development and acceptance of new standards where applicable. Continuous interaction with SABS in terms of standards, certication, testing, monitoring & enforcing. Providing reliable and objective technical design information to the market by way of consultations, conferences and technical literature. Promote the production and ethical selling of plastic pipes and plastic pipe systems. Promote the growth of Polyolen, Rigid PVC, GRP as well as plastic based hot and cold water piping systems, markets and materials. Act as a forum and voice for the industry.
100
ABOUT SAPPMA
Specic benets to Members

Power of the SAPPMA brand as an assurance of product quality. Informative interaction at the SAPPMA Technical Committee. Access to unbiased technical information. Direct input at SABS to improve product specs (SABS stated policy is to preferably deal with Industry bodies, rather than companies). Development of Internal Technical Standards and Guidelines. Solving of technical problems and queries of the market. A valuable source of technical learning. The SAPPMA Technical Conferences (Transfer of knowledge and standards to decision makers & interaction with key people in the Industry). SAPPMA factory audits - An independent inspection and evaluation of production and quality assurance standards and policies. The SAPPMA Technical Manual- an independent source of valuable design information. Interaction with SABS at high level; opportunities to inuence them for the benet of the Plastics Piping Industry. A useful marketing tool in terms of audit certicates (required by some customers). Effective market exposure through SAPPMA adverts, website and activities. Membership provides access to other relevant associations and the Plastics Federation of SA. Participation in the regulation of downstream activities: IFPA (Installation and Fabrication Plastics Pipes Association). Participation in the regulation of upstream activities (raw material suppliers). Being part of a movement to promote and preserve the long term future of the Plastics Piping Industry. SAPPMA membership makes a company and its products more marketable, due to customers realization of the additional quality measures and Code of Conduct. Participation in the only forum for the plastics piping sector.
Benets to Designers and Customers

By insisting on the SAPPMA mark when specifying or purchasing plastic pipes or ttings, additional assurance is obtained in terms of the quality of the product. SAPPMA members are self-regulating and bound by a strict Code of Conduct underwritten by the companys chief executive. Reliable and independent technical design information is always available from SAPPMA members at no cost. Valid complaints or queries are handled by a central body. Factory audit certicates of SAPPMA members are further proof of high standards.
101
ABOUT SAPPMA
Membership
SAPPMA Members mainly comprise of pipe manufacturing operations, as well as polymer suppliers. However, the structure of Membership and related fees has recently been revised in order to better accommodate small pipe manufacturers and suppliers of raw materials. This makes it possible now for all relevant companies to become SAPPMA members. There is also a category for Individual Membership, which was previously only available to persons linked to Tertiary Educational- or Research Institutions. This requirement is being relaxed somewhat in order to make room for individuals who are either intimately involved, or has a strong interest in our Industry, and consequently being able to contribute to our activities.
SAPPMA Membership Structure is as follows: Corporate Members Pipe Manufacturers Large Medium Small Polymer Suppliers Other Suppliers Associated Members Afliate Members (No voting rights) Individual Members Visit www.sappma.co.za for current Member list
102
NOTES
103
NOTES
104
SOUTHERN AFRICAN PLASTIC PIPE MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION Registration No 2008/019270/08 An Association incorporated under Section 21
CONTACT DETAILS
Website: www.sappma.co.za E-mail: admin@sappma.co.za
18 Gazelle Ave, Corporate Park, Midrand P/Bag X68, Halfway House, 1685 Tel 011 314 4021 Fax 086 550 7495
Consultants and users of plastic pipe benet greatly by using SAPPMA branded products as safeguard against sub-standard quality and questionable ethics
Copyright All material published in the SAPPMA Technical Manual is reserved to SAPPMA. Permission to use any part of the material must be addressed to the CEO of the Association in writing. Every measure has been taken to ensure accuracy of information; however, no liability for negligence will be accepted by SAPPMA or its Members.

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SOUTHERN AFRICAN PLASTIC PIPE MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

SAPPMA TECHNICAL MANUAL | jANUAry 2011 | 3rd Edition

SAPPMA TECHNICAL MANUAL | jANUAry 2011 | 3rd Edition

SAPPMA TECHNICAL MANUAL | jANUAry 2011 | 3rd Edition

SAPPMA TECHNICAL MANUAL | jANUAry 2011 | 3rd Edition

Pipe Material Properties

Plastic Pipe Applications

SAPPMA TECHNICAL MANUAL | jANUAry 2011 | 3rd Edition

17-24 800 - 1100

23-31 1250 - 1700

SAPPMA TECHNICAL MANUAL | jANUAry 2011 | 3rd Edition

South African Market

SAPPMA TECHNICAL MANUAL | jANUAry 2011 | 3rd Edition

16 -1000 16 - 1000 16 - 630 280 - 1800 75 - 160 8 - 1000 12 - 160

8.0 6.3 5.0

6 - 20 3 - 20 10 200, 400, 800 400

SAPPMA TECHNICAL MANUAL | jANUAry 2011 | 3rd Edition

Gravity and Pressure Systems

SAPPMA TECHNICAL MANUAL | jANUAry 2011 | 3rd Edition

(b) GRAVITY CONDUIT FLOWING PARTLY FULL

SAPPMA TECHNICAL MANUAL | jANUAry 2011 | 3rd Edition

PIPE MATERIAL CLASSIFICATION

Y = E/SR SR = EI/D3 Where Y E SR E D I -

SAPPMA TECHNICAL MANUAL | jANUAry 2011 | 3rd Edition

PIPE MATERIAL CLASSIFICATION

Figure 3: Comparison of installation conditions for rigid pipes

SAPPMA TECHNICAL MANUAL | jANUAry 2011 | 3rd Edition

PIPE MATERIAL CLASSIFICATION

Figure 4: Comparison of rigid and exible pipe in a trench installation

SAPPMA TECHNICAL MANUAL | jANUAry 2011 | 3rd Edition

PIPE MATERIAL CLASSIFICATION

Comparison of Various Flexible Pipes

SAPPMA TECHNICAL MANUAL | jANUAry 2011 | 3rd Edition

PIPE MATERIAL CLASSIFICATION

SAPPMA TECHNICAL MANUAL | jANUAry 2011 | 3rd Edition

PIPE MATERIAL CLASSIFICATION

UV resistant Corrosion could be a problem Can be painted

Regression Curves (stress / time relationship)

SAPPMA TECHNICAL MANUAL | jANUAry 2011 | 3rd Edition

PIPE MATERIAL CLASSIFICATION

SAPPMA TECHNICAL MANUAL | jANUAry 2011 | 3rd Edition

PIPE MATERIAL CLASSIFICATION

reference Stress (MPa)

SAPPMA TECHNICAL MANUAL | jANUAry 2011 | 3rd Edition

SAPPMA TECHNICAL MANUAL | jANUAry 2011 | 3rd Edition

PART II SELECTION AND INSTALLATION

SAPPMA TECHNICAL MANUAL | jANUAry 2011 | 3rd Edition

slope of pipeline for pipes owing partly full (m/m)

SAPPMA TECHNICAL MANUAL | jANUAry 2011 | 3rd Edition

150 130 120

60 50 Does not corrode

Ductile Iron, corroded

SAPPMA TECHNICAL MANUAL | jANUAry 2011 | 3rd Edition

Figure 6: Nomograph for solving Colebrook White. Applied to PVC or PE

SAPPMA TECHNICAL MANUAL | jANUAry 2011 | 3rd Edition

SAPPMA TECHNICAL MANUAL | jANUAry 2011 | 3rd Edition

- permissible design stress (MPa)

PN - nominal pressure rating

Surge & Fatigue

SAPPMA TECHNICAL MANUAL | jANUAry 2011 | 3rd Edition

SDr rating SDR 33 SDR 26 SDR 17 SDR 11 SDR 9

SAPPMA TECHNICAL MANUAL | jANUAry 2011 | 3rd Edition

BEDDING FOUNDATION RIGID PIPE

BLANKET CRADLE FLEXIBLE PIPE