Luoc Su Thoi Gian1

LC S THI GIAN
MC LC
Li gii thiu ca nh xut bn Bantam Books.................................................................. 3 Gii thiu cun sch "Lc s thi gian"........................................................................... 5 Phn 1.................................................................................................................................. 7 Phn 2................................................................................................................................ 12 Phn 3................................................................................................................................ 16 Phn 4................................................................................................................................ 20 Phn 5................................................................................................................................ 25 Phn 6................................................................................................................................ 29 Phn 7................................................................................................................................ 33 Phn 8................................................................................................................................ 38 Phn 9................................................................................................................................ 42 Phn 10.............................................................................................................................. 46 Phn 11.............................................................................................................................. 51 Phn 12.............................................................................................................................. 55 Phn 13.............................................................................................................................. 61 Phn 14.............................................................................................................................. 64 Phn 15.............................................................................................................................. 68 Phn 16.............................................................................................................................. 73 Phn 17.............................................................................................................................. 78 Phn 18.............................................................................................................................. 83 Phn 19.............................................................................................................................. 89 Phn 20.............................................................................................................................. 93 Phn 21.............................................................................................................................. 99 Phn 22............................................................................................................................ 104 Phn 23............................................................................................................................ 109 Phn 24............................................................................................................................ 114 Phn 25............................................................................................................................ 118 Phn 26............................................................................................................................ 122 Phn 27............................................................................................................................ 126 Phn 28............................................................................................................................ 130 Phn 29............................................................................................................................ 135 Phn 30............................................................................................................................ 139 Phn 31............................................................................................................................ 141
http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
Phn 32............................................................................................................................ 144 Phn 33............................................................................................................................ 148 Phn 34............................................................................................................................ 152 Phn 35............................................................................................................................ 156 Phn 36............................................................................................................................ 158 Phn 37............................................................................................................................ 160 Phn 38............................................................................................................................ 162 Phn 39............................................................................................................................ 168 Phn 40............................................................................................................................ 173 Phn 41............................................................................................................................ 177 Phn 42............................................................................................................................ 180 Phn 43............................................................................................................................ 183 Phn 44............................................................................................................................ 186 Phn 45............................................................................................................................ 189 Phn 46............................................................................................................................ 193 Phn 47............................................................................................................................ 197 Phn 48............................................................................................................................ 201 Phn 49............................................................................................................................ 205 Phn 50............................................................................................................................ 209 Phn 51............................................................................................................................ 213 Phn 52............................................................................................................................ 217 Phn cui......................................................................................................................... 224
LC S THI GIAN
Li gii thiu ca nh xut bn Bantam Books

[...] Chng ta ang sng cuc sng hng ngy ca chng ta m hu nh khng hiu c th gii xung quanh. [...] Ngoi tr tr em (v chng cn bit qu t khng ngn ngi t ra nhng cu hi quan trng), cn t ai trong chng ta tn thi gian bn khon, ti sao t nhin li nh th ny m khng nh th khc, v tr ra i t u, [...]
Chng ta ang sng cuc sng hng ngy ca chng ta m hu nh khng hiu c th gii xung quanh. Chng ta cng t khi suy ngm v c ch to ra nh sng mt tri - mt yu t quan trng gp phn to nn s sng, v hp dn - ci cht keo kt dnh chng ta vo tri t, m nu khc i chng ta s xoay tt v tri dt vo khng gian v tr, v nhng nguyn t cu to nn tt c chng ta - m chng ta hon ton l thuc vo s bn vng ca chng. Ch tr c tr em (v chng cn bit qu t khng ngn ngi t ra nhng cu hi quan trng) cn t ai trong chng ta tn thi gian bn khon ti sao t nhin li nh th ny m khng nh th khc, v tr ra i t u, hoc n c mi mi nh th ny khng, liu c mt ngy no thi gian s tri git li, hu qu c trc nguyn nhn hay khng; hoc c gii hn cui cng cho s hiu bit ca con ngi hay khng? Thm ch c nhng a tr con, m ti c gp mt s, mun bit l en l ci g; ci g l ht vt cht nh b nht, ti sao chng ta ch nh qu kh m khng nh tng lai; v nu lc bt u l hn lon th lm th no c s trt t nh ta thy hm nay, v ti sao li c v tr. Trong x hi ca chng ta, cc bc ph huynh cng nh cc thy gio vn cn thi quen tr li nhng cu hi bng cch nhn vai hoc vin n cc gio l m h. Mt s gio l y li hon ton khng thch hp vi nhng vn va nu trn, bi v chng phi by qu r nhng hn ch ca s hiu bit ca con ngi. Nhng rt nhiu mn trit hc v khoa hc li ra i t nhng cu lc vn nh vy. Ngy cng c nhiu ngi ln cng mun t nhng cu hi thuc loi v thi thong h nhn c nhng cu tr li kh l lng. Nm trung gian gia cc nguyn t v cc v sao, chng ta ang m rng chn tri khm ph ca chng ta, nhm bao qut c nhng ci rt nh ln nhng ci rt ln.
Stephen Hawking
Ma xun nm 1974, khong 2 nm trc khi con tu v tr Viking h cnh xung sao Ha, ti c tham d mt cuc hp t chc Anh, do Hi Hong gia London ti tr, bn v vn lm th no tm kim s sng ngoi Tri t. Vo gi gii lao, ti thy mt cuc hp ln hn nhiu c t chc phng bn cnh v v t m ti bc vo xem. Th ra ti ang chng kin mt nghi l c knh, l kt np hi vin mi ca Hi Hong gia London, mt trong nhng t chc hc thut lu i nht ca hnh tinh chng ta. hng trn cng, mt thanh nin ngi trong xe y ang rt chm ri k tn mnh vo cun s m nhng trang u tin ca n cn gi c ch k ca Isaac Newton. Khi Stephen Hawking, cui cng k xong tn mnh, nhng trng hoan h nh sm ni ln, ngay t lc ng l c mt huyn thoi. Hin nay, Hawking l gio s ton hc ca trng i hc Cambridge, vi cng v m trc y Newton, ri sau ny P.A.M Dirac - hai nh nghin cu ni ting v nhng ci cc ln v nhng ci cc nh - m nhim. Hawking l ngi k tc ht sc xng ng ca h. Cun sch u tin ca Hawking dnh cho nhng ngi khng phi l chuyn gia ny c th xem l mt phn thng v nhiu mt cho cng chng khng chuyn. Cun sch hp dn va bi ni dung phong ph ca n, va bi n cho chng ta mt ci nhn khi qut qua nhng cng trnh ca chnh tc gi. Cun sch cha ng nhng khm ph trn nhng ranh gii ca vt l hc, thin vn hc, v tr hc v ca c lng dng cm na. y cng l cun sch v Thng ... hay ng hn l v s khng-cmt-ca-Thng-. Ch Thng xut hin trn nhiu trang ca cun sch ny. Hawking dn thn i tm cu tr li cho cu hi ni ting ca Einstein: Liu Thng c s la chn no trong vic to ra v tr ny hay khng? Hawking nhiu ln tuyn b mt cch cng khai rng ng c nh tm hiu ngha ca Thng . V t n lc , ng rt ra kt lun bt ng nht, t nht l cho n hin nay, l v tr khng c bin trong khng gian, khng c bt u v kt thc trong thi gian v chng c vic g cho ng sng th phi lm y c. Peter Guzzardi
LC S THI GIAN
Gii thiu cun sch "Lc s thi gian"

Cun sch m chng ti gii thiu vi cc bn sau y c tn l "Lc s thi gian" (A Brief History of Time), mt cun sch tuyt diu, c vit bi mt trong nhng nh khoa hc v i nht ca thi i chng ta: nh ton hc v vt l l thuyt ngi Anh Stephen Hawking.
S.W. Hawking sinh nm 1942. Trong cuc sng c nhn, ng gp nhiu bt hnh. Nm 1985, ng b sng phi v sau khi phu thut m kh qun, Hawking mt kh nng pht m. Trc , mt cn bnh t lit thn kinh (bnh ALS) gn cht ng vo chic xe y. Hawking ch cn cch lm vic v giao tip vi mi ngi bng mt my vi tnh v mt my tng hp ting ni lp lin vi gh. Tuy nhin, tt c nhng bt hnh ny khng qut ng c ch ca nh vt l thin ti. Hin nay ng l gio s ti i hc Cambridge (Anh), chc v m ngy xa Newton, ri sau l P.A.M. Dirac, m nhim. ng chuyn nghin cu v l thuyt tng i rng. Nhng kt qu thu c cng vi George Ellis, Roger Penrose,... v nht l s pht hin kh nng bc x ca cc cc l en a Hawking ln hng nhng nh vt l ni ting nht th gii. Cun "Lc s thi gian" c vit xong nm 1987. Ngay t khi ra i, n tr thnh mt trong nhng cun sch bn chy nht th gii. "Lc s thi gian" ng trong danh mc sch bn chy nht ca New York Times trong 53 tun, v ti nc Anh, 205 tun lin n c tn trong mc sch bn chy nht ca Sunday Times. Chnh Stephen Hawking cng phi kinh ngc. T trc n nay, cha c mt cun sch khoa hc no c cng chng n nhn nng nhit nh vy (tuy rng nhiu ngi ni, h mua n ch by t sch ch khng thc s c. V im ny, cun sch ca Hawking cng c s phn tng t nh Kinh Thnh hoc cc v kch ca Shakespeare). Bng mt li trnh by sng sa, ging vn hi hc, hi nhum mu bi quan, Stephen Hawking dn dt ngi c phiu lu sut lch s v tr, t khi n cn l mt im k d vi nng lng v cng ln, cho ti ngy nay. Cuc tm kim ca Hawking gip ngi c khm ph ht b mt ny n b mt khc. i khi ng d c gi vo nhng ng nhn tng nh rt c l, ri li bt ng ch ra s phi l trong cch ngh, ri ph v mi ng nhn. Cun sch cp n nhng vn nghim trng v hc ba nht ca http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
vt l l thuyt, nh v n ln, l en, khng - thi gian, thuyt tng i, nguyn l bt nh... m khng h lm bn c b ri. Bn ting Vit m chng ti gii thiu vi cc bn sau y c dch bi Cao Chi v Phm Vn Thiu, nh xut bn Vn ha Thng tin, H Ni, 2000. Minh Hy
LC S THI GIAN
Phn 1
[...] Bn cht ca thi gian l g? N c im tn cng khng? Nhng t ph mi y trong vt l hc - mt phn nh nhng cng ngh mi tuyt xo - a ra cu tr li cho mt s cu hi tn ti dai dng t xa xa va nu trn. [...]
Chng 1: Bc tranh ca chng ta v v tr Mt nh khoa hc ni ting (hnh nh l Bertrand Russell) mt ln c trc cng chng mt bi ging v Thin vn hc. ng m t tri t quay quanh mt tri nh th no v n lt mnh, mt tri li quay quanh tm ca mt qun th khng l cc v sao - m ngi ta gi l thin h - ra sao. Khi bi ging kt thc, mt b gi nh b ngi cui phng ng dy v ni: Anh ni vi chng ti chuyn nhm nh g vy? Th gii thc t ch l mt ci a phng ta trn lng mt con ra khng l m thi. Nh khoa hc mm mt n ci h c trc khi tr li: Th con ra y ta ln ci g?. Anh thng minh lm, anh bn tr , anh rt thng minh, b gi ni, nhng nhng con ra c xp chng ln nhau mi xung di, ch cn sao na. Nhiu ngi chc thy rng bc tranh v v tr ca chng ta nh mt ci thang v tn gm nhng con ra chng ln nhau l chuyn kh nc ci, nhng ti sao chng ta li ngh rng chng ta hiu bit hn b gi nh b kia? Chng ta bit g v v tr v bng cch no chng ta bit v n? V tr ti t u v n s i v u? V tr c im bt u khng v nu c th iu g xy ra trc ? Bn cht ca thi gian l g? N c im tn cng khng? Nhng t ph mi y trong vt l hc - mt phn nh nhng cng ngh mi tuyt xo - a ra cu tr li cho mt s cu hi tn ti dai dng t xa xa va nu trn. Mt ngy no , rt c th nhng cu tr li ny s tr nn hin nhin i vi chng ta nh chuyn tri t quay xung quanh mt tri hoc cng c th tr nn nc ci nh chuyn thp nhng con ra. Ch c thi gian (d cho c th no i na) mi c th phn quyt. T rt xa xa, khong nm 340 trc cng nguyn, nh trit hc Hy Lp Aristotle, trong cun sch ca ng nhan V Bu tri, a ra hai lun chng sng gi chng minh rng tri t c hnh cu ch khng phi l ci a phng. Th nht, ng thy rng hin tng nguyt thc l do tri t xen vo gia mt tri v mt trng. M bng ca tri t http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
ln mt trng lun lun l trn, iu ny ch ng nu tri t c dng cu. Nu tri t l mt ci a phng th bng ca n phi dt nh hnh elip, nu trong thi gian c nguyt thc mt tri khng lun lun ngay di tm ca ci a . Th hai, t nhng chuyn du hnh ca mnh, ngi Hy Lp bit rng sao Bc u nhn phng nam dng nh thp hn khi nhn nhng vng phng bc! (Bi v sao Bc u nm ngay trn cc bc, nn n dng nh ngay trn u ngi quan st Bc cc, trong khi i vi ngi quan st xch o, n dng nh nm ngay trn ng chn tri). T s sai khc v v tr biu kin ca sao Bc u Ai Cp so vi Hy Lp, Aristotle thm ch cn a ra mt nh gi v chiu di con ng vng quanh tri t l 400.000 stadia. Hin nay ta khng bit chnh xc 1 stadia di bao nhiu, nhng rt c th n bng khong 200 thc Anh (1 thc Anh bng 0,914 mt). Nh vy, c lng ca Aristotle ln gn gp 2 ln con s c chp nhn hin nay. Nhng ngi Hy Lp thm ch cn a ra mt lun chng th 3 chng t rng tri t trn bi v nu khng th ti sao khi nhn ra bin, ci u tin m ngi ta nhn thy l ct bum v ch sau mi nhn thy thn con tu? Aristotle ngh rng tri t ng yn cn mt tri, mt trng, cc hnh tinh v nhng ngi sao chuyn ng xung quanh n theo nhng qu o trn. ng tin vo iu bi v ng cm thy - do nhng nguyn nhn b n no - rng tri t l trung tm ca v tr, rng chuyn ng trn l chuyn ng hon thin nht. tng ny c Ptolemy pht trin thnh mt m hnh v tr hon chnh vo th k th 2 sau Cng nguyn. Theo m hnh ny th tri t ng tm v bao quanh n l 8 mt cu tng ng mang mt trng, mt tri, cc ngi sao v 5 hnh tinh bit vo thi gian : sao Thy, sao Kim, sao Ha, sao Mc v sao Th (Hnh 1.1). Chnh cc hnh tinh li phi chuyn ng trn nhng vng trn nh hn gn vi cc mt cu tng ng ca chng ph hp vi ng i quan st c tng i phc tp ca chng trn bu tri. Mt cu ngoi cng mang cc thin th c gi l cc ngi sao c nh, chng lun lun nhng v tr c nh i vi nhau, nhng li cng nhau quay ngang qua bu tri. Bn ngoi mt cu cui cng l ci g th m hnh khng bao gi ni mt cch r rng, nhng chc chn n
Hnh 1.1: M hnh v tr ca Aristotle - Ptolemy coi tri t l trung tm ca v tr.
LC S THI GIAN
cho rng l phn ca v tr m con ngi khng th quan st c. M hnh ca Ptolemy to ra c mt h thng tng i chnh xc tin on v tr ca cc thin th trn bu tri. Nhng tin on nhng v tr mt cch hon ton chnh xc, Ptolemy phi a ra gi thuyt rng mt trng chuyn ng theo mt qu o i khi a n ti gn tri t ti 2 ln nh hn so vi nhng thi im khc. Ptolemy nh phi chp nhn im yu , nhng du sao v i th, l c th chp nhn c. M hnh ny c nh th Thin cha gio chun y nh mt bc tranh v v tr ph hp vi Kinh Thnh, bi v n c mt u im rt ln l dnh kh nhiu ch ngoi mt cu cui cng ca cc ngi sao c nh cho thin ng v a ngc. Tuy nhin, mt m hnh n gin hn c mt mc s ngi Ba Lan, tn l Nicholas Copernicus xut vo nm 1554. (Thot u, c l v s nh th quy l d gio, Copernicus cho lu hnh m hnh ca mnh nh mt tc phm khuyt danh). tng ca ng l mt tri ng yn, cn tri t v nhng hnh tinh chuyn ng theo nhng qu o trn xung quanh mt tri. Phi mt gn mt th k, tng ny mi c chp nhn mt cch thc s. Hai nh thin vn - mt ngi c tn l Johannes Kepler v mt ngi Italy tn l Galileo Galilei - bt u cng khai ng h hc thuyt Copernicus, mc d nhng qu o m n tin on cha n khp hon ton vi nhng qu o quan st c. V vo nm 1609 mt n ch mng ging xung hc thuyt Aristotle - Ptolemy. Vo nm , Galileo bt u quan st bu tri bng chic knh thin vn ca ng va pht minh ra. Khi quan st sao Mc, Galileo thy rng km theo n cn c mt s v tinh hay ni cch khc l nhng mt trng quay xung quanh n. iu ny ng rng khng phi mi thin h u nht thit phi trc tip quay xung quanh tri t, nh Aristotle v Ptolemy ngh. (Tt nhin vn c th tin rng tri t ng yn trung tm ca v tr v cc mt trng ca sao Mc chuyn ng theo nhng qu o cc k phc tp khin ta c cm tng nh n quay quanh sao Mc. Tuy nhin hc thuyt ca Copernicus n gin hn nhiu). Cng thi gian , Kepler ci tin hc thuyt ca Copernicus bng cch a ra gi thuyt rng cc hnh tinh khng chuyn ng theo ng trn m theo ng elip. V nhng tin on by gi hon ton n khp vi quan st. i vi Kepler, cc qu o elip n gin ch l mt gi thuyt tin li v chnh th n cng kh chp nhn bi v cc elip r rng l km hon thin hn cc vng trn. Khi pht hin thy gn nh mt cch ngu nhin rng cc http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
10
qu o elip rt n khp vi quan st, Kepler khng sao dung ha c n vi tng ca ng cho rng cc hnh tinh quay quanh mt tri l do cc lc t. iu ny phi mi ti sau ny, vo nm 1867, mi gii thch c, khi Isaac Newton cng b tc phm Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Nhng nguyn l ton hc ca trit hc t nhin) ca ng. C l y l cng trnh vt l hc quan trng bc nht c xut bn t trc n nay. Trong cng trnh ny, Newton khng ch a ra mt l thuyt m t s chuyn ng ca cc vt trong khng gian v thi gian, m ng cn pht trin mt cng c ton hc phc tp dng phn tch cc chuyn ng . Hn th na, Newton cn a ra mt nh lut v hp dn v tr m theo mi mt vt trong v tr u c ht bi mt vt khc bng mt lc cng mnh nu hai vt cng nng v cng gn nhau. Chnh lc ny buc cc vt phi ri xung t.(Cu chuyn k rng, do c qu to ri trng u m Newton cm hng pht minh ra nh lut hp dn v tr chc chn ch l chuyn thu dt. Tt c nhng iu m Newton ni ra ch l: tng v hp dn n vi ng khi ang ngi trng thi chim nghim v c ny sinh bi s ri ca qu to). Newton ch ra rng theo nh lut ca ng, lc hp dn s lm cho mt trng chuyn ng theo qu o elip xung quanh tri t v cc hnh tinh chuyn ng theo qu o elip xung quanh mt tri. M hnh Copernicus vt b nhng thin cu ca Ptolemy v cng vi chng vt b lun tng cho rng v tr c mt bin gii t nhin. V nhng ngi sao c nh dng nh khng thay i v tr ca chng tr s quay xung quanh bu tri do tri t quay xung quanh trc ca n, nn s l hon ton t nhin nu gi thit rng cc ngi sao c nh l nhng thin th ging nh mt tri ca chng ta, nhng xa hn rt nhiu. Cn c vo l thuyt hp dn ca mnh, Newton thy rng do cc ngi sao ht nhau nn v cn bn chng khng th l ng yn c. Vy liu chng c cng ri vo mt im no khng? Trong bc th vit nm 1691 gi Richard Bentley, cng l mt nh t tng li lc thi , Newton chng t rng iu thc t c th xy ra nu ch c mt s hu hn cc ngi sao c phn b trong mt vng hu hn ca khng gian. Nhng mt khc, ng cng ch ra rng nu c mt s v hn cc ngi sao c phn b tng i ng u trong khng gian v tn th iu khng th xy ra c, bi v khi s khng c im no l trung tm cho chng ri vo. Lun chng ny l mt v d v nhng ci by m ta c th gp khi ni v s v hn. Trong v tr v hn, mi mt im u c th c xem l mt tm, bi mi mt im u c mt s v hn cc ngi sao mi pha ca n. Cch tip cn ng n - m iu ny phi mi sau ny mi c - phi l xem xt mt tnh http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
LC S THI GIAN
11
trng hu hn trong tt c cc ngi sao s ri vo nhau v sau t cu hi tnh hnh s thay i nh th no nu ta thm vo mt s ngi sao na c phn b gn nh ng u ngoi vng ang xt. Theo nh lut ca Newton th v trung bnh, nhng ngi sao mi thm vo ny cng hon ton khng lm c iu g khc vi nhng ngi sao ban u, tc l chng cng ri nhanh nh vy. Chng ta c th thm vo bao nhiu ngi sao ty , nhng chng cng s ri sp vo nhau. By gi th chng ta hiu rng khng th c mt m hnh tnh v hn ca v tr trong hp dn lun l lc ht. y l s phn nh l th v bu khng kh t tng chung ca mt giai on trc th k hai mi, trong khng mt ai ngh rng v tr ang gin n hoc ang co li. Mi ngi u tha nhn rng hoc v tr tn ti vnh cu trong trng thi khng thay i, hoc n c to ra mt thi im hu hn trong qu kh gn ging chng ta quan st thy hin nay. iu ny c th mt phn l do thin hng ca con ngi mun tin vo nhng s tht vnh cu cng nh s tin li m h tm thy trong ngh rng v tr l vnh cu v khng thay i, mc d ngay bn thn h cng c th gi i v cht.
Stephen Hawking
12
Phn 2
[...] Nhng vn : v tr c im bt u trong thi gian v c b gii hn trong khng gian hay khng sau ny c nh trit hc Immannuel Kant xem xt mt cch bao qut trong cun Ph phn s suy l thun tu, mt cng trnh v i (v rt ti ngha) ca ng, c xut bn nm 1781. [...]
Thm ch ngay c nhng ngi thy rng l thuyt hp dn ca Newton chng t v tr khng th l tnh, cng khng ngh ti chuyn cho rng n c th ang gin n. Thay v th, h li c nh ci bin l thuyt ny bng cch lm cho lc hp dn tr thnh lc y nhng khong cch rt ln. iu ny khng nh hng ng k n nhng tin on ca h v chuyn ng ca cc hnh tinh, nhng li cho php mt s dn tri v hn ca cc ngi sao cn trng thi cn bng: nhng lc ht ca cc ngi sao gn nhau s c cn bng bi lc y t cc ngi sao rt xa. Tuy nhin, ngy nay chng ta bit chc chn rng, s cn bng l khng bn: nu nhng ngi sao mt vng no ch cn xch li gn nhau mt cht l lc ht gia chng s mnh hn v ln t lc y, v th l cc ngi sao s tip tc co li vo nhau. Mt khc, nu nhng ngi sao dch ra xa nhau mt cht l lc y s li ln t, v cc ngi sao s chuyn ng ra xa nhau. Mt phn bc na i vi m hnh v tr tnh v hn thng c xem l ca nh trit hc ngi c Heinrich Olbers, ngi vit v l thuyt ny vo nm 1823. Thc t th rt nhiu ngi ng thi ca Newton nu ra vn ny, v bi bo ca Olbers thm ch cng khng phi l bi u tin cha ng nhng l l hp l chng li n. Tuy nhin, y l bi bo u tin c nhiu ngi ch . Kh khn l ch trong mt v tr tnh v hn th gn nh mi mt ng ngm u kt thc trn b mt ca mt ngi sao. Nh th th ton b bu tri s phi sng chi nh mt tri, thm ch c ban m. L l phn bc ca Olbers cho rng nh sng t cc ngi sao xa s b m nht i do s hp th ca vt cht xen gia cc ngi sao. Tuy nhin, d cho iu c xy ra i na th vt cht xen gia cui cng s nng ln, cho n khi n cng pht sng nh nhng ngi sao. Con ng duy nht trnh c kt lun cho rng ton b bu tri m cng sng chi nh b mt ca mt tri l phi gi thit rng, cc ngi sao khng pht sng vnh vin, m ch bt sng mt thi im hu hn no trong qu kh. Trong trng hp hp , vt cht hp th cn cha th nng, hay nh sng t cc ngi http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
LC S THI GIAN
13
sao xa cha kp ti chng ta. V iu ny li t ra cho chng ta mt cu hi: ci g lm cho cc ngi sao bt sng u tin? S bt u ca v tr, tt nhin, c ngi ta tho lun t trc rt lu. Theo mt s l thuyt v v tr c t xa xa, v theo truyn thng ca ngi Do Thi gio/ Thin Cha gio/ Hi gio, th v tr bt u c t mt thi im hu hn nhng cha tht qu xa trong qu kh. Mt l l chng t c s bt u l cm gic cn phi c ci nguyn nhn u tin gii thch s tn ti ca v tr. (Trong v tr, bn lun lun gii thch mt s kin nh l c gy ra bi mt s kin khc xy ra trc , nhng s tn ti ca chnh bn thn v tr ch c th c gii thch bng cch , nu n c s bt u). Mt l l na do St. Augustine a ra trong cun sch ca ng nhan Thnh ph ca Cha. ng ch ra rng, nn vn minh cn ang tin b, v chng ta nh c ai l ngi thc hin k cng ny hoc ai pht trin k thut kia. Nh vy, con ngi v c l c v tr na u cha th c tri nghim c qu lu di. V tha nhn ngy ra i ca v tr vo khong 5.000 nm trc Cng nguyn, ph hp vi sch Cha sng to ra th gii (phn Sng th k ca Kinh Cu c). (iu l th l thi im khng qu xa thi im kt thc ca thi k bng h cui cng, khong 10.000 nm trc Cng nguyn, thi im m cc nh kho c ni vi chng ta rng nn vn minh mi thc bt u). Mt khc, Aristotle v cc trit gia Hy Lp khc li khng thch tng v s Sng th v n dnh lu qu nhiu ti s can thip ca thn thnh. Do h tin rng loi ngi v th gii xung quanh tn ti v s cn tn ti mi mi. Nhng ngi c i xem xt l l nu trn v s tin b v h gii p nh sau: c nhiu nn hng thu hoc cc tai ha khc xy ra mt cch nh k a loi ngi tt li im bt u ca nn vn minh. Nhng vn : v tr c im bt u trong thi gian v c b gii hn trong khng gian hay khng sau ny c nh trit hc Immannuel Kant xem xt mt cch bao qut trong cun Ph phn s suy l thun tu, mt cng trnh v i (v rt ti ngha) ca ng, c xut bn nm 1781. ng gi nhng cu hi l s mu thun ca suy l thun tu, bi v ng cm thy c nhng l l vi sc thuyt phc nh nhau tin vo lun cho rng v tr c im bt u, cng nh vo phn cho rng v tr tn ti mi mi. L l ca ng bnh vc lun l: nu v tr khng c im bt u th trc bt k mt s kin no cng c mt khong thi gian v hn, iu ny ng cho l v l! L l ca ng bo v phn l: nu v tr c im bt u, th s c mt khong thi gian v hn trc n, vy th ti http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
14
sao v tr li bt u mt thi im no ? S tht th nhng trng hp ng a ra cho c lun v phn u ch l mt l l m thi. C hai u da trn mt gi thit khng ni r ra cho rng thi gian li v tn v pha sau bt k v tr c tn ti mi mi hay khng. Nh chng ta s thy sau ny, khi nim thi gian mt ngha trc thi im bt u ca v tr. St. Augustine l ngi u tin ch ra iu . Khi c hi: Cha lm g trc khi Ngi sng to ra th gii? ng khng p: Ngi ang to ra a ngc cho nhng k t nhng cu hi nh vy. Thay v th, ng ni rng thi gian l mt tnh cht ca v tr m Cha to ra v thi gian khng tn ti trc khi v tr bt u. Khi m s ng tin rng v tr v cn bn l tnh v khng thay i th cu hi n c im bt u hay khng thc t ch l mt cu hi ca siu hnh hc hoc thn hc. Ngi ta c th vin l rng nhng iu quan st c u ph hp tt nh nhau vi l thuyt cho rng n bt u vn ng mt thi im hu hn no , theo cch sao cho dng nh l n tn ti mi mi. Nhng vo nm 1929, Edwin Hubble thc hin mt quan st c tnh cht l mt ct mc cho thy d bn nhn u th nhng thin h xa xi cng ang chuyn ng rt nhanh ra xa chng ta. Ni mt cch khc, v tr ang gin n ra. iu ny c ngha l, nhng thi gian trc kia cc vt gn nhau hn. Thc t, dng nh l c mt thi, mi hoc hai mi ngn triu nm v trc, tt c chng u chnh xc cng mt ch v do mt ca v tr khi l v hn. Pht minh ny cui cng a cu hi v s bt u v tr vo a ht ca khoa hc. Nhng quan st ca Hubble gi rng c mt thi im, c gi l v n ln, ti v tr v cng nh v v cng c (mt v hn). Di nhng iu kin nh vy, tt c cc nh lut khoa hc v do mi kh nng tin on tng lai u khng dng c. Nu c nhng s kin trc im th chng khng th nh hng ti nhng ci ang xy ra trong hin ti. Do , s tn ti ca chng c th b qua bi v n khng c nhng hu qu quan st c. Ngi ta c th ni rng thi gian c im bt u v n ln, theo ngha l nhng thi im trc khng th xc nh c. Cng cn nhn mnh rng s bt u ny ca thi gian rt khc vi nhng s bt u c xem xt trc . Trong v tr tnh khng thay i, s bt u ca thi gian l ci g c p t bi mt ng ngoi v tr, ch khng c mt yu t no cho s bt u c. Ngi ta c th tng tng Cha to ra th gii bt k mt thi im no trong qu kh. Tri li, nu v tr gin n th c http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
LC S THI GIAN
15
nhng nguyn nhn vt l cn phi c s bt u. Ngi ta vn cn c th tng tng Cha to ra th gii thi im v n ln hoc thm ch sau theo cch sao cho dng nh c v n ln, nhng s l v ngha nu cho rng v tr c to ra trc v n ln. Mt v tr gin n khng loi tr ng sng to, nhng n t ra nhng hn ch khi Ngi cn thc hin cng vic ca mnh!
Stephen Hawking
16
Phn 3
[...] Ngay t bui bnh minh ca nn vn minh, loi ngi khng bng lng nhn nhng s kin nh nhng th ri rc v khng gii thch c. H khao kht hiu bit ci trt t nm su kn trong th gii. Ngy hm nay chng ta cng vn trn tr mun bit ti sao chng ta li y v chng ta t u ti. [...]
ni v bn cht ca v tr v tho lun nhng vn nh: n c im bt u hay kt thc hay khng, cc bn cn hiu r mt l thuyt khoa hc l nh th no. y, ti s ly mt quan nim mc mc cho rng l thuyt ch l mt m hnh v v tr, hoc v mt phn hn ch no , ca n cng vi tp hp nhng quy tc lin h cc i lng ca m hnh vi quan st m chng ta s thc hin. Tt nhin l thuyt ch tn ti trong u ca chng ta ch khng c mt thc ti no khc (d n c th c ngha g i na). Mt l thuyt c xem l tt nu n tha mn hai yu cu: n phi m t chnh xc mt lp rng ln nhng quan st, trn c s ca m hnh ch cha mt s t nhng phn t ty ; v n phi a ra c nhng tin on v cc quan st trong tng lai. V d, l thuyt ca Aristotle cho rng mi vt u c cu to nn t bn yu t: t, khng kh, la v nc. N c u im l kh n gin, nhng li khng a ra c mt tin on xc nh no. Trong khi , l thuyt ca Newton v hp dn da trn mt m hnh cn n gin hn, trong cc vt ht nhau bi mt lc t l vi mt i lng c gi l khi lng ca vt, v t l nghch vi bnh phng khong cch gia chng. Th nhng n li tin on c nhng chuyn ng ca mt tri, mt trng v cc hnh tinh vi mt chnh xc cao. Bt k mt l thuyt vt l no cng ch l tm thi, theo ngha n ch l mt gi thuyt: bn s khng khi no c th chng minh c n. D cho nhng kt qu thc nghim ph hp vi mt l thuyt vt l bao nhiu ln i na, bn cng khng bao gi m bo c chc chn rng kt qu th nghim ln ti s khng mu thun vi l thuyt. Trong khi , bc b mt l thuyt bn ch cn tm ra mt quan st khng ph hp vi nhng tin on ca l thuyt . Nh nh trit hc ca khoa hc Karl Popper nhn mnh, mt l thuyt tt c c trng bi iu l: n a ra c nhiu tin on m v nguyn tc c th bc b bi quan st. Mi mt ln nhng thc nghim mi cn ph hp vi nhng tin on th l thuyt cn sng st http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
LC S THI GIAN
17
v nim tin ca chng ta vo n li c tng thm, nhng nu thm ch ch c mt quan st mi t ra l khng ph hp th chng ta cn phi vt b hoc phi sa i l thuyt . t nht l iu c xem l s xy ra, nhng bn cng lun lun c th t vn v thm quyn ca ngi thc hin quan st . Trn thc t, iu thng hay xy ra l mt l thuyt mi thc ra ch l s m rng ca l thuyt trc. V d, nhng quan st rt chnh xc v hnh tinh Thy (m ta quen gi sai l sao Thy) cho thy s sai khc nh gia chuyn ng ca n v nhng tin on ca l thuyt hp dn Newton. S tht l nhng tin on ca Einstein hon ton n khp vi quan st, trong khi nhng tin on ca Newton cha t c iu - l mt trong nhng khng nh c tnh cht quyt nh i vi l thuyt mi. Tuy nhin, chng ta vn cn thng xuyn s dng l thuyt ca Newton cho nhng mc ch thc tin, bi v s khc bit gia nhng tin on ca n v ca thuyt tng i rng l rt nh trong nhng tnh hung m chng ta gp thng ngy. (L thuyt ca Newton cng cn mt u im ln na l n d s dng hn l thuyt ca Einstein rt nhiu). Mc ch ti hu ca khoa hc l to ra c mt l thuyt duy nht c kh nng m t c ton b v tr. Tuy nhin, cch tip cn m phn ng cc nh khoa hc thc s theo ui l tch vn ny ra lm hai phn. Th nht l nhng quy lut cho bit v tr s thay i nh th no theo thi gian. (Nu chng ta bit mt thi im no v tr l nh th no th cc nh lut vt l s cho chng ta bit n s ra sao bt k thi im no tip sau). Th hai l vn v trng thi ban u ca v tr. Mt s ngi cm thy rng c l khoa hc ch nn quan tm ti phn th nht; h xem vn v trng thi ban u ca v tr l vn ca siu hnh hc hoc ca tn gio. H cho rng Cha, ng ton nng c th cho v tr bt u theo bt c cch no m Ngi mun. Cng c th l nh vy, nhng trong trng hp Ngi cng c th lm cho v tr pht trin mt cch hon ton ty . Nhng ha ra Ngi li chn cch lm cho v tr tin trin mt cch rt quy c ph hp vi mt s quy lut. V vy cng s l hp l nu gi thit rng cng c nhng quy lut chi phi trng thi ban u. Thc ra, rt kh c th xy dng c mt l thuyt m t c ton b v tr trong tng th ca n. Thay v th, chng ta phn bi ton thnh tng phn v t pht minh ra nhiu l thuyt c tnh cht ring phn. Mi mt l thuyt nh th m t v tin on ch c mt lp hn ch nhng quan st, trong khi phi b qua nh hng ca nhng i lng khc hoc biu http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
18
din chng bng tp hp n gin cc con s. Cng c th cch tip cn ny l hon ton sai lm. Nu mi vt trong v tr ph thuc vo nhau mt cch cn bn, th s khng th tip cn li gii y bng cch nghin cu cc phn ca bi ton mt cch ring r, c lp. Tuy nhin, chc chn l cch m chng ta lm ra s tin b trong qu kh. Mt v d kinh in li l l thuyt hp dn ca Newton. L thuyt ny ni vi chng ta rng lc hp dn gia hai vt ch ph thuc vo mt con s gn lin vi mi vt - l khi lng ca chng, nhng li hon ton c lp vi chuyn vt c lm bng cht g. Nh vy ngi ta khng cn phi c mt l thuyt v cu trc v thnh phn ca mt tri v cc hnh tinh m vn tnh c qu o ca chng. Ngy nay, cc nh khoa hc m t v tr da trn hai l thuyt c s c tnh cht ring phn, l thuyt tng i rng v c hc lng t. Hai l thuyt l nhng thnh tu tr tu v i ca na u th k ny. L thuyt tng i rng m t lc hp dn v cu trc cc v ca v tr, - cu trc t quy m t dm ti triu triu triu triu (1 v hai mi bn s 0 tip sau) dm tc l kch thc ca v tr quan st c. Tri li, c hc lng t li m t nhng hin tng phm vi cc nh, c mt phn triu triu ca 1 inch. Tuy nhin, khng may, hai l thuyt ny li khng tng thch vi nhau - ngha l c hai khng th u ng thi ng. Mt trong nhng n lc ch yu trong vt l hc ngy nay v cng l ti ch yu ca cun sch ny, l tm kim mt l thuyt mi c th dung np c hai l thuyt trn - l thuyt lng t ca hp dn. Hin chng ta cn cha c mt l thuyt nh vy v c th cn lu mi c c, nhng chng ta bit c nhiu tnh cht m l thuyt cn phi c. V nh chng ta s thy trong cc chng sau, chng ta cng bit kh nhiu v nhng tin on m l thuyt lng t ca hp dn cn phi a ra. By gi, nu bn tin rng v tr khng phi l ty tin m c iu khin bi nhng quy lut xc nh th iu ti hu l cn phi kt hp nhng l thuyt ring phn thnh nhng l thuyt thng nht hon chnh c kh nng m t mi iu trong v tr. Nhng trong qu trnh tm kim mt l thuyt thng nht hon chnh nh vy, li vp phi mt nghch l rt c bn. Nhng nim v cc l thuyt khoa hc c phc ra trn xem rng chng ta l nhng sinh vt c l tr t do quan st v tr theo chng ta v rt ra nhng suy din logic t nhng ci m chng ta nhn thy. Trong mt s nh th, s l hp l nu cho rng chng ta c th ngy cng tin gn ti cc quy lut iu khin v tr. Nhng nu qu thc c mt l thuyt thng nht hon chnh, th n cng s c th quyt nh nhng hnh ng ca chng ta. V nh vy t bn thn l thuyt s quyt nh kt qu vic tm kim l thuyt y ca chng ta! Hn na, ti sao n s http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
LC S THI GIAN
19
quyt nh rng chng ta s i ti nhng kt lun ng t nhng iu quan st c? Hay l ti sao n khng th quyt nh chng ta rt ra nhng kt lun sai? Hay l khng c mt kt lun no ht? Cu tr li duy nht m ti c th a ra cho vn vn ny l da trn nguyn l chn lc t nhin ca Darwin. Y tng nh sau: trong bt c qun th no ca cc c th t sinh sn, cng u c nhng bin i trong vt liu di truyn v s gio dng, khin cho c cc c th khc nhau. S khc nhau c ngha l, mt s c th c kh nng hn nhng c th khc trong vic rt ra nhng kt lun ng v th gii quanh mnh v bit hnh ng mt cch ph hp. Nhng c th ny c sc sng v sinh sn mnh hn, v v th, kiu mu hnh vi v suy ngh ca h s dn chim u th. Trong qu kh, ng l nhng ci m chng ta gi l tr tu v pht minh khoa hc truyn c ci li th sng st ca con ngi. Nhng cn cha r rng l liu iu c cn ng trong trng hp khi m nhng pht minh khoa hc ca chng ta c th s tiu dit tt c chng ta v thm ch nu khng xy ra iu , th mt l thuyt thng nht hon chnh cng c th khng lm khc i bao nhiu c hi sng st ca chng ta. Tuy nhin, vi iu kin v tr tin trin mt cch quy c, chng ta c th hy vng rng nhng kh nng suy lun m s chn lc t nhin cho chng ta vn cn c dng trong cuc tm kim mt l thuyt thng nht hon chnh v s khng dn chng ta ti nhng kt lun sai lm. V nhng l thuyt ring phn m chng ta c a ra nhng tin on v tt c, tr nhng tnh hung cc oan nht, nn vic tm kim mt l thuyt ti hu v v tr kh c th bin minh trn c s nhng ng dng thc tin. (Tuy nhin, cn phi thy rng chnh l l tng t c a ra chng li thuyt tng i v c hc lng t, th m chnh nhng l thuyt ny mang li cho chng ta c nng lng ht nhn ln cuc cch mng vi in t!). Do s pht minh ra l thuyt thng nht hon chnh c th khng gip g cho s sng st ca chng ta. N thm ch cng khng nh hng g n li sng ca chng ta. Nhng ngay t bui bnh minh ca nn vn minh, loi ngi khng bng lng nhn nhng s kin nh nhng th ri rc v khng gii thch c. H khao kht hiu bit ci trt t nm su kn trong th gii. Ngy hm nay chng ta cng vn trn tr mun bit ti sao chng ta li y v chng ta t u ti. Kht vng tri thc, kht vng su xa nht ca loi ngi, bin minh cho s tm kim lin tc ca chng ta. V mc ch ca chng ta khng g khc hn l s m t y v tr, ni chng ta ang sng.
Stephen Hawking
20
Phn 4
[...] C Aristotle ln Newton u tin vo thi gian tuyt i. Ngha l, h tin rng ngi ta c th o chnh xc khong thi gian gia hai s kin, rng thi gian hon ton nh nhau d bt k ai tin hnh o n, min l h dng mt chic ng h tt. [...] Tuy nhin, n lc chng ta phi thay i nhng nim ca chng ta v khng gian v thi gian. [...]
Chng II: Khng gian v thi gian Nhng nim ca chng ta hin nay v chuyn ng ca vt th bt ngun t Galileo v Newton. Trc h, ngi ta tin Aristotle, ngi ni rng trng thi t nhin ca mt vt l ng yn, v n ch chuyn ng di tc dng ca mt lc hoc mt xung lc. T suy ra rng, vt nng s ri nhanh hn vt nh, bi v n c mt lc ko xung t ln hn. Truyn thng Aristotle cng cho rng ngi ta c th rt ra tt c cc nh lut iu khin v tr ch bng t duy thun ty, ngha l khng cn kim tra bng quan st. Nh vy, cho ti tn Galileo khng c ai bn khon th quan st xem c thc l cc vt c trng lng khc nhau s ri vi vn tc khc nhau hay khng. Ngi ta k rng Galieo chng minh nim tin ca Aristotle l sai bng cch th nhng vt c trng lng khc nhau t thp nghing Pisa. Cu chuyn ny chn hn l khng c tht, nhng Galileo lm mt vic tng ng: ng th nhng vin bi c trng lng khc nhau trn mt mt phng nghing nhn. Tnh hung y cng tng t nh tnh hung ca cc vt ri theo phng thng ng, nhng c iu n d quan st hn v vn tc ca cc vt nh hn. Cc php o ca Galileo ch ra rng cc vt tng tc vi mt nhp nh nhau bt k trng lng ca n bng bao nhiu. V d, nu bn th mt vin bi trn mt mt phng nghing c nghing sao cho c 10 m dc theo mt phng th cao li gim 1m, th vin bi s ln xung vi vn tc 1m/s sau 1 giy, 2m/s sau 2 giy... bt k vin bi nng bao nhiu. Tt nhin, vin bi bng ch s ri nhanh hn mt chic lng chim, nhng chic lng chim b lm chm li ch v sc cn ca khng kh m thi. Nu th hai vt khng chu nhiu sc cn khng kh, v d nh hai vin bi u bng ch, nhng c trng lng khc nhau, th chng s ri nhanh nh nhau.
LC S THI GIAN
21
Nhng php o ca Galileo c Newton s dng lm c s cho nhng nh lut v chuyn ng ca ng. Trong nhng thc nghim ca Galileo, khi mt vt ln trn mt phng nghing, n lun lun chu tc dng ca cng mt lc (l trng lc ca n) v kt qu l lm cho vn tc ca n tng mt cch u n. iu chng t rng, hu qu thc s ca mt lc l lun lun lm thay i vn tc ca mt vt, ch khng phi l lm cho n chuyn ng nh ngi ta ngh trc . iu ny cng c ngha l, bt c khi no vt khng chu tc dng ca mt lc, th n vn tip tc chuyn ng thng vi cng mt vn tc. tng ny c pht biu mt cch tng minh ln u tin trong cun Principia Mathematica (Cc nguyn l ton hc), c cng b nm 1867, ca Newton v sau ny c bit nh nh lut th nht ca Newton. nh lut th hai ca Newton cho bit iu g s xy ra i vi mt vt khi c mt lc tc dng ln n. nh lut ny pht biu rng vt s c gia tc, hay ni cch khc l s thay i vn tc t l vi lc tc dng ln n. (V d, gia tc s tng gp i, nu lc tc dng tng gp i). Gia tc cng s cng nh nu khi lng (lng vt cht) ca vt cng ln.(Cng mt lc tc dng ln vt c khi lng ln gp hai ln s to ra mt gia tc nh hn hai ln). Mt v d tng t ly ngay t chic t: ng c cng mnh th gia tc cng ln, nhng vi cng mt ng c, xe cng nng th gia tc cng nh. Ngoi nhng nh lut v chuyn ng, Newton cn pht minh ra nh lut v lc hp dn. nh lut ny pht biu rng mi vt u ht mt vt khc vi mt lc t l vi khi lng ca mi vt. Nh vy lc gia hai vt s mnh gp i nu mt trong hai vt (v d vt A) c khi lng tng gp hai. y l iu bn cn phi trng i bi v c th xem vt mi A c lm t hai vt c khi lng ban u, v mi vt s ht vt B vi mt lc ban u. Nh vy lc tng hp gia A v B s hai ln ln hn lc ban u. V nu, v d, mt trong hai vt c khi lng hai ln ln hn v vt kia c khi lng ba ln ln hn th lc tc dng gia chng s su ln mnh hn. By gi th ta c th hiu ti sao cc vt li ri vi mt gia tc nh nhau: mt vt c trng lng ln gp hai ln s chu mt lc hp dn ko xung mnh gp hai ln, nhng n li c khi lng ln gp hai ln. Nh vy theo nh lut 2 ca Newton, th hai kt qu ny b tr chnh xc cho nhau, v vy gia tc ca cc vt l nh nhau trong mi trng hp. nh lut hp dn ca Newton cng cho chng ta bit rng cc vt cng xa nhau th lc hp dn cng nh. V d, lc ht hp dn ca mt ngi sao ng bng mt phn t lc ht ca mt ngi sao tng t, nhng khong cch gim i mt na. nh lut ny tin on qu o ca tri t, mt trng v http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
22
cc hnh tinh vi chnh xc rt cao. Nu nh lut ny khc i, chng hn, lc ht hp dn ca mt ngi sao gim theo khong cch nhanh hn, th qu o ca cc hnh tinh khng cn l hnh elip na, m chng s l nhng ng xon c v pha mt tri. Nu lc li gim chm hn, th lc hp dn t cc ngi sao xa s ln t lc hp dn t mt tri. S khc bit to ln gia nhng t tng ca Aristotle v nhng t tng ca Galileo v Newton l ch Aristotle tin rng trng thi ng yn l trng thi c a thch hn ca mi vt - mi vt s ly trng thi , nu khng c mt lc hoc xung lc no tc dng vo n. c bit, ng cho rng tri t l ng yn. Nhng t nhng nh lut ca Newton suy ra rng khng c mt tiu chun n nht cho s ng yn. Ngi ta hon ton c quyn nh nhau khi ni rng, vt A l ng yn v vt B chuyn ng vi vn tc khng i i vi vt A hoc vt B l ng yn v vt A chuyn ng. V d, nu tm gc ra mt bn chuyn ng quay ca tri t quanh trc ca n v qu o ca n xung quanh mt tri, ngi ta c th ni rng tri t l ng yn v on tu trn n chuyn ng v pha bc vi vn tc 90 dm mt gi hoc on tu l ng yn cn tri t chuyn ng v pha nam cng vi vn tc . Nu ngi ta tin hnh nhng th nghim ca chng ta vi cc vt chuyn ng trn con tu th tt c cc nh lut ca Newton vn cn ng. V d, khi nh bng bn trn con tu , ngi ta s thy rng qu bng vn tun theo cc nh lut ca Newton ht nh khi bn bng t cnh ng ray. Nh vy khng c cch no cho php ta ni c l con tu hay tri t ang chuyn ng. Vic khng c mt tiu chun tuyt i cho s ng yn c ngha l ngi ta khng th xc nh c hai s kin xy ra hai thi im khc nhau c cng mt v tr trong khng gian hay khng. V d, gi s qu bng bn trn con tu ny ln v ri xung chm bn cng mt ch sau khong thi gian 1 giy. i vi ngi ng cnh ng ray th hai ln chm bn xy ra hai v tr cch nhau 40 m v con tu chy c qung ng trong khong thi gian gia hai ln qu bng chm bn. S khng tn ti s ng yn tuyt i, v vy, c ngha l ngi ta khng th gn cho mt s kin mt v tr tuyt i trong khng gian, nh Aristotle tm nim. V tr ca cc s kin v khong cch gia chng l khc nhau i vi ngi trn tu v ngi ng cnh ng ray v chng c l do g thch v tr ca ngi ny hn v tr ca ngi kia. Newton l ngi rt bn khon v s khng c v tr tuyt i, hay nh ngi ta vn gi l khng c khng gian tuyt i, v iu khng ph http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
LC S THI GIAN
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hp vi nim ca ng v Thng tuyt i. Thc t, Newton chi b, khng chp nhn s khng tn ti ca khng gian tuyt i, mc d thm ch iu ngm cha trong nhng nh lut ca ng. ng b nhiu ngi ph phn nghim khc v nim tin phi l , m ch yu nht l bi Gim mc Berkeley, mt nh trit hc tin rng mi i tng vt cht v c khng gian ln thi gian ch l mt o nh. Khi ngi ta k cho tin s Johnson ni ting v quan im ca Berkeley, ng ku ln: Ti s bc b n nh th ny ny! v ng ngn chn ci vo mt hn ln. C Aristotle ln Newton u tin vo thi gian tuyt i. Ngha l, h tin rng ngi ta c th o mt cch ng hong khong thi gian gia hai s kin, rng thi gian hon ton nh nhau d bt k ai tin hnh o n, min l h dng mt chic ng h tt. Thi gian hon ton tch ri v c lp vi khng gian. l iu m nhiu ngi xem l chuyn thng tnh. Tuy nhin, n lc chng ta phi thay i nhng nim ca chng ta v khng gian v thi gian. Mc d nhng quan nim thng thng ca chng ta vn c kt qu tt khi cp ti cc vt nh qu to hoc cc hnh tinh l nhng vt chuyn ng tng i chm, nhng chng s hon ton khng dng c na i vi nhng vt chuyn ng vi vn tc bng hoc gn bng vn tc nh sng. Nm 1676, nh thin vn hc an Mch Ole Christensen Roemer l ngi u tin pht hin ra rng nh sng truyn vi vn tc hu hn, mc d rt ln. ng quan st thy rng thi gian cc mt trng ca sao Mc xut hin sau khi i qua pha sau ca hnh tinh khng cch u nhau nh ngi ta ch i, nu cc mt trng chuyn ng vng quanh sao Mc vi vn tc khng i. Khi tri t v sao Mc quanh xung quanh mt tri, khong cch gia chng thay i. Roemer thy rng s che khut cc mt trng ca sao Mc xut hin cng mun khi chng ta cng xa hnh tinh . ng l lun rng iu xy ra l do nh sng t cc mt trng n chng ta mt nhiu thi gian hn khi chng ta xa chng hn. Tuy nhin, do nhng php o ca ng v s bin thin khong cch gia tri t v sao Mc khng c chnh xc lm, nn gi tr vn tc nh sng m ng xc nh c l 140.000 dm/s, trong khi gi tr hin nay o c ca vn tc ny l 186.000 dm/s (khong 300.000 km/s). D sao thnh tu ca Roemer cng rt ng k, khng ch trong vic chng minh c rng vn tc ca nh sng l hu hn, m c trong vic o c vn tc , c bit n li c thc hin 11 nm trc khi Newton cho xut bn cun Principia Mathematica.
Stephen Hawking
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Mt l thuyt ch thc v s truyn nh sng phi mi ti nm 1865 mi ra i, khi nh vt l ngi Anh James Clerk Maxwell thnh cng thng nht hai l thuyt ring phn cho ti thi gian vn c dng m t ring bit cc lc in v t. Cc phng trnh ca Maxwell tin on rng c th c nhng nhiu ng ging nh sng trong mt trng in t kt hp, rng nhng nhiu ng s c truyn vi mt vn tc c nh ging nh nhng gn sng trn h. Nu bc sng ca nhng sng (khong cch ca hai nh sng lin tip) l mt mt hoc ln hn, th chng c gi l sng radio (hay sng v tuyn). Nhng sng c bc sng ngn hn c gi l sng cc ngn (vi bc sng vi centimet) hoc sng hng ngoi (vi bc sng ln hn mi phn ngn centimet). nh sng thy c c bc sng nm gia bn mi phn triu n tm mi phn triu centimet. Nhng sng c bc sng cn ngn hn na l tia t ngoi, tia - X v cc tia gamma.
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Phn 5
[...] L thuyt tng i buc chng ta phi thay i mt cch cn bn nhng nim ca chng ta v khng gian v thi gian. Chng ta buc phi chp nhn rng thi gian khng hon ton tch ri v c lp vi thi gian m kt hp vi n thnh mt i tng gi l khng - thi gian [...]
L thuyt ca Maxwell tin on cc sng v tuyn v sng nh sng truyn vi mt vn tc c nh no . Nhng l thuyt ca Newton gt b khi nim ng yn tuyt i, v vy nu nh sng c gi thit l truyn vi mt vn tc c nh, th cn phi ni vn tc c nh l i vi ci g. Do ngi ta cho rng c mt cht gi l ether c mt khp mi ni, thm ch c trong khng gian trng rng. Cc sng nh sng truyn qua ether nh sng m truyn trong khng kh, v do vy, vn tc ca chng l i vi ether. Nhng ngi quan st khc nhau chuyn ng i vi ether s thy nh sng i ti mnh vi nhng vn tc khc nhau, nhng vn tc ca nh sng i vi ether lun lun c mt gi tr c nh. c bit, v tri t chuyn ng qua ether trn qu o quay quanh mt tri, nn vn tc ca nh sng c o theo hng chuyn ng ca tri t qua ether (khi chng ta chuyn ng ti gn ngun sng) s phi ln hn vn tc ca nh sng hng vung gc vi phng chuyn ng (khi chng ta khng chuyn ng hng ti ngun sng). Nm 1887, Albert Michelson (sau ny tr thnh ngi M u tin nhn c gii thng Nobel v vt l) v Edward Morley thc hin mt thc nghim rt tinh xo ti trng Khoa hc ng dng Case Cleveland. H so snh vn tc nh sng theo hng chuyn ng ca tri t vi vn tc nh sng hng vung gc vi chuyn ng ca tri t. V h v cng ngc nhin khi thy rng hai vn tc hon ton nh nhau! Gia nm 1887 v nm 1905 c mt s nh, m ch yu l ca vt l ngi H Lan Hendrik Lorentz, nhm gii thch kt qu ca th nghim Michelson - Morley bng s co li ca cc vt v s chm li ca ng h khi chng chuyn ng qua ether. Tuy nhin, trong bi bo cng b vo nm 1905, Albert Einstein, mt nhn vin thuc vn phng cp bng sng ch pht minh Thy S, ngi m trc cn cha ai bit ti, ch ra rng ton b tng v ether l khng cn thit nu ngi ta sn lng vt b tng v thi gian tuyt i. Quan nim tng t cng c mt nh ton
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hc hng u ca Php l Henri Poincar a ra ch t tun sau. Tuy nhin, nhng l l ca Einstein gn vi vt l hn Poincar, ngi xem vn ny nh mt vn ton hc. Cng lao xy dng nn l thuyt mi ny thng c tha nhn l ca Einstein, nhng Poincar vn thng c nhc nh ti v tn tui ca ng gn lin vi mt phn quan trng ca l thuyt . Tin c bn ca l thuyt mi - m ngi ta thng gi l thuyt tng i - c pht biu nh sau: mi nh lut ca khoa hc l nh nhau i vi tt c nhng ngi quan st chuyn ng t do bt k vn tc ca h l bao nhiu. iu ny ng i vi cc nh lut ca Newton v chuyn ng, nhng by gi l thuyt c m rng ra bao hm c l thuyt ca Maxwell v vn tc nh sng: mi ngi quan st u o c vn tc nh sng c gi tr hon ton nh nhau bt k h chuyn ng nhanh, chm nh th no. tng n gin c mt s h qu rt ng ch . C l ni ting nht l h qu v s tng ng ca khi lng v nng lng c c kt trong phng trnh ni ting ca Einstein: E = mc2 v nh lut ni rng khng c vt no c th chuyn ng nhanh hn nh sng. V c s tng ng gia nng lng v khi lng nn nng lng m vt c th nh chuyn ng s lm tng khi lng ca n. Ni mt cch khc, n s lm cho vic tng vn tc ca vt tr nn kh khn hn. Hiu ng ny ch trc s quan trng i vi cc vt chuyn ng vi vn tc gn vi vn tc nh sng. V d, vn tc ch bng 10 % vn tc nh sng khi lng ca vt ch tng 0,5 % so vi khi lng bnh thng, trong khi vn tc bng 90 % vn tc nh sng khi lng ca n cn tng nhanh hn, v vy s cng mt nhiu nng lng hn tng vn tc ca n ln na. Thc t khng bao gi c th t ti vn tc ca nh sng v khi khi lng ca vt s tr thnh v hn v do s tng ng gia nng lng v khi lng, s phi tn mt lng v hn nng lng t c iu . V l do , mt vt bnh thng vnh vin b tnh tng i gii hn chuyn ng ch chuyn ng vi vn tc nh hn vn tc nh sng. Ch c nh sng hoc cc sng khc khng c khi lng ni ti l c th chuyn ng vi vn tc nh sng. Mt h qu cng ng ch khng km ca thuyt tng i l n lm cch mng nhng nim ca chng ta v khng gian v thi gian. Trong l thuyt ca Newton, nu mt xung nh sng c gi t ni ny n ni khc th nhng ngi quan st khc nhau u nht tr vi nhau v thi gian truyn xung nh sng (v thi gian l tuyt i). V vn tc nh sng http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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chnh bng khong cch m n truyn c chia cho thi gian tn i ht qung ng , nn nhng ngi quan st khc nhau s o c vn tc ca nh sng c gi tr khc nhau. Trong thuyt tng i, tri li, mi ngi quan st u phi nht tr v gi tr vn tc ca nh sng. Tuy nhin, h vn cn khng nht tr v khong cch m nh sng truyn, v vy h cng phi khng nht tr v thi gian m nh sng tn (thi gian ny bng khong cch nh sng truyn - iu m cc nh quan st khng nht tr chia cho vn tc nh sng - iu m cc nh quan st u nht tr). Ni mt cch khc, l thuyt tng i co chung cho tng v thi gian tuyt i! Ha ra l mi ngi quan st cn phi c mt b o thi gian ring ca mnh nh c ghi nhn bi ng h m h mang theo v cc ng h ging ht nhau c mang bi nhng ngi quan st khc nhau khng nht thit phi ch nh nhau. Mi mt ngi quan st c th dng radar bit mt s kin xy ra u v khi no bng cch gi mt xung nh sng hoc sng v tuyn. Mt phn ca xung phn x t s kin tr v v ngi quan st o thi gian m h nhn c ting di. Thi gian xy ra s kin khi s bng mt na thi gian tnh t khi xung c gi i n khi nhn c ting di tr li, cn khong cch ti s kin bng na s thi gian cho hai lt i-v nhn vi vn tc nh sng. (Mt s kin, theo ngha ny, l mt iu g xy ra mt im duy nht trong khng gian v mt im xc nh trong thi gian).
Hnh 2.1: Thi gian c o theo trc ng v khong cch t ngi quan st c o theo trc ngang. ng i ca ngi quan st trong khng-thi gian c biu din bng ng thng ng bn tri; ng i ca cc tia sng ti v phn x t s kin l cc ng cho.
tng ny c minh ha trn hnh 2.1, n l mt v d v gin khng-thi gian. Dng th tc ny, nhng ngi quan st chuyn ng i vi nhau s gn cho cng mt s kin nhng thi gian v v tr khc nhau. Khng c nhng php o ca ngi quan st c bit no l ng hn nhng ngi khc, nhng tt c cc php o u quan h vi nhau. Bt k mt ngi quan st no cng tnh ra c mt cch chnh xc thi gian v v tr m mt ngi quan st khc gn cho mt s kin, min l ngi bit c vn tc tng i ca ngi kia.
Ngy hm nay o khong cch mt cch chnh xc, chng ta vn cn dng phng php ni trn, bi v chng ta c th o thi gian chnh xc hn o chiu di. Thc t, mt c nh ngha l khong cch m nh sng i c trong khong thi gian 0,000000003335640952 giy o theo ng http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
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h nguyn t xesi. (Nguyn nhn dn ti con s l lng ny l n tng ng vi nh ngha c tnh cht lch s ca mt: l khong cch gia hai vch trn mt ci thc c bit lm bng bch kim c gi Paris). Nh vy chng ta c th dng mt n v mi thun tin hn, c gi l giynh-sng. N n gin l khong cch m nh sng i c trong mt giy. Trong l thuyt tng i, by gi ta nh ngha khong cch thng qua thi gian v vn tc nh sng, nh vy phi t ng suy ra rng mi ngi quan st o vn tc ca nh sng s nhn c cng mt gi tr (theo nh ngha l 1 mt trong 0,000000003335640952 giy). Khi cn phi a vo khi nim ether, v li s c mt ca n khng th c ghi nhn bng cch no, nh th nghim ca Michelson - Morley chng t. Tuy nhin, l thuyt tng i buc chng ta phi thay i mt cch cn bn nhng nim ca chng ta v khng gian v thi gian. Chng ta buc phi chp nhn rng thi gian khng hon ton tch ri v c lp vi khng gian m kt hp vi n thnh mt i tng gi l khng - thi gian.
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Phn 6
[...] Chng ta khng th tng tng ni mt khng gian 4 chiu. Ring bn thn ti hnh dung mt khng gian 3 chiu cng vt v lm ri. Tuy nhin v mt s v khng gian 2 chiu th li kh d dng, chng hn nh v b mt ca tri t. [...]
Theo kinh nghim thng thng, ngi ta c th m t v tr ca mt im trong khng gian bng ba con s, hay ni cch khc l ba ta . V d, ngi ta c th ni: mt im trong phng cch mt bc tng 7 b, cch mt bc tng khc 3 b, v cao so vi sn 5 b. Hoc ngi ta c th ch r mt im kinh tuyn no, v tuyn bao nhiu v cao no so vi mc nc bin. Ngi ta c th thoi mi dng ba ta thch hp no m mnh mun, mc d chng ch c phm vi ng dng hn ch. Chng hn, chng ta s khng ch v tr ca mt trng bng khong cch theo phng bc v phng ty so vi rp xic Piccadilly v chiu cao ca n so vi mc nc bin. Thay v th, ngi ta cn phi m t n qua khong cch t mt tri, khong cch t mt phng qu o ca cc hnh tinh v gc gia ng ni mt trng vi mt tri v ng ni mt tri ti mt ngi sao gn nh sao Alpha ca chm sao Nhn M. Nhng thm ch nhng ta ny cng khng c dng nhiu m t v tr ca mt tri trong thin h ca chng ta hoc ca thin h chng ta trong qun th thin h khu vc. Thc t, ngi ta c th m t ton b v tr bng mt tp hp cc mng gi ln nhau. Trong mi mt mng, ngi ta c th dng mt tp hp ba ta khc nhau ch v tr ca cc im. Mt s kin l mt ci g xy ra mt im c bit trong khng gian v mt thi im c bit. Nh vy, ngi ta c th ch n bng 4 con s hay l 4 ta . V ln ny cng th, vic la chn cc ta l ty , ngi ta c th dng ba ta khng gian bit v mt o no ca thi gian. Trong thuyt tng i, khng c s phn bit thc s gia cc ta khng gian v thi gian, cng ht nh khng c s khc bit thc s gia hai ta khng gian. Ngi ta c th chn mt tp hp ta mi, trong , chng hn, ta khng gian th nht l t hp ca ta khng gian c th nht v th hai. V d, thay v o v tr ca mt im trn mt t bng khong cch theo phng bc v ty ca n i vi rp xic Piccadilly ngi ta c th dng khong cch theo hng ng bc v ty bc i vi Piccadilly. Cng tng t nh vy, trong thuyt tng i, ngi ta c th http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
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dng ta thi gian mi l thi gian c (tnh bng giy) cng vi khong cch (tnh bng giy - nh sng) theo hng bc ca Piccadilly. Mt cch rt hu ch suy ngh v bn ta ca mt s kin l ch v tr ca n trong mt khng gian 4 chiu, c gi l khng -thi gian. Chng ta khng th tng tng ni mt khng gian 4 chiu. Ring bn thn ti hnh dung mt khng gian 3 chiu cng vt v lm ri. Tuy nhin v mt s v khng gian 2 chiu th li kh d dng, chng hn nh v b mt ca tri t (B mt ca tri t l hai chiu v v tr ca mt im trn c th c ghi bng hai ta , kinh v v ). Ti s thng s dng nhng gin trong thi gian tng theo phng thng ng hng ln trn, cn mt trong nhng chiu khng gian c v theo phng nm ngang. Hai chiu khng gian cn li s b qua, hoc i khi mt trong hai chiu c v theo phi cnh. (Nhng gin ny c gi l gin khng-thi gian, ging nh hnh 2.1). V d, trong hnh 2.2 thi gian c t hng ln trn vi n v l nm, cn khong cch nm dc theo ng thng ni mt tri vi sao Anpha ca chm sao Nhn m c t nm ngang vi n v l dm. Nhng con ng ca mt tri v sao Alpha qua khng - thi gian l nhng con ng thng ng bn tri v bn phi ca gin . Tia sng t mt tri i theo ng cho v phi mt 4 nm mi ti c sao Alpha.
Hnh 2.2: Tia sng t mt tri i theo ng cho v phi mt 4 nm mi ti c sao Alpha.
Nh chng ta thy, cc phng trnh Maxwell tin on rng vn tc ca nh sng s l nh nhau bt k vn tc ca ngun sng bng bao nhiu, v iu ny c khng nh bng nhiu php o chnh xc. iu ny suy ra t s kin l nu mt xung nh sng c pht ra mt thi im c bit, ti mt im c bit trong khng gian, th sau vi thi gian n s lan ra nh mt mt cu nh sng vi kch thc v v tr khng ph thuc vo vn tc ca ngun sng. Sau mt phn triu giy, nh sng s lan truyn, to thnh mt mt cu c bn knh 300 mt, sau hai phn triu giy, bn knh l 600 mt, v c nh vy mi. iu ny cng ging nh nhng gn sng truyn trn mt nc khi c hn nm xung h.
Hnh 2.3: vng trn ln dn ca cc gn sng s to thnh mt nn c nh nm ng ti ch v ti thi im hn chm vo mt nc.
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Nhng gn sng truyn nh mt vng trn c ln dn mi theo thi gian. Nu ta ngh v mt m hnh ba chiu gm b mt hai chiu ca h v mt chiu thi gian th vng trn ln dn ca cc gn sng s to thnh mt nn c nh nm ng ti ch v ti thi im hn chm vo mt nc (hnh 2.3). Tng t, nh sng lan truyn t mt s kin s to nn mt mt nn ba chiu trong khng-thi gian 4 chiu. Mt nn Hnh 2.4: Mt nn nh sng qu kh l tp hp cc s c gi l mt nn nh sng tng lai ca s kin kin m t chng mt xung nh sng c th ti c s ang xt. Cng bng cch nh vy ta c th dng mt kin ang xt. mt nn khc, gi l mt nn nh sng qu kh - l tp hp cc s kin m t chng mt xung nh sng c th ti c s kin ang xt ( hnh 2.4). Nhng mt nn nh sng qu kh v tng lai ca mt s kin P chia khng gian thnh ba min (hnh 2.5.). Tng lai tuyt i ca s kin l vng nm trong mt nn nh sng tng lai ca P. y l tp hp ca tt c cc s kin c th chu nh hng ca nhng iu xy ra P. Nhng tn hiu t P khng th ti c nhng s kin nm Hnh 2.5: Nhng ngoi nn nh sng ca P bi v khng g c th chuyn ng mt nn nh sng qu kh v tng nhanh hn nh sng. Do vy m cc s kin khng chu lai ca mt s kin khng gian nh hng nhng g xy ra P. Qu kh tuyt i ca P l P chiaba min. thnh vng nm trong nn nh sng qu kh. y l tp hp cc s kin m t nhng tn hiu truyn vi vn tc bng hoc nh hn vn tc ca nh sng c th ti c P. Do , tp hp nhng s kin ny c th nh hng ti nhng g xy ra P. Nu bit c mt thi im c bit no nhng g xy ra mi ni trong vng khng gian nm trong nn nh sng qu kh ca P th ngi ta c th tin on nhng g s xy ra P. Phn cn li l vng khng - thi gian khng nm trong nn nh sng tng lai hoc qu kh ca P. Cc s kin trong phn cn li ny khng th nh hng hoc chu nh hng bi nhng s kin P. V d, nu mt tri ngng chiu sng chnh thi im ny, th n s khng nh hng ti cc s kin trn tri t ngay thi im bi v chng nm ngoi nn nh sng ca nh sng khi mt tri tt (hnh 2.6). Chng ta s bit v
Hnh 2.6: Nn nh sng khi mt tri tt.
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s kin ch sau 8 pht - l thi gian nh sng i t mt tri n tri t. V ch khi ny nhng s kin trn tri t mi nm trong nn nh sng tng lai ca s kin mt tri tt. Tng t nh vy, thi im hin nay chng ta khng th bit nhng g ang xy ra nhng ni xa xi trong v tr, bi v nh sng m chng ta thy t nhng thin h xa xi ri chng t hng triu nm trc. Nh vy, khi chng ta quan st v tr th thc ra l chng ta ang thy n trong qa kh. Nu ngi ta b qua nhng hiu ng hp dn, nh Einstein v Poincar lm nm 1905, th ta c thuyt tng i c gi l thuyt tng i hp. i vi mi s kin trong khng-thi gian ta u c th dng mt nn nh sng (l tp hp mi con ng kh d ca nh sng trong khng-thi gian c pht ra s kin ), v v vn tc nh sng l nh nhau mi s Hnh 2.7: Nn nh sng ca kin v theo mi hng, nn tt c cc nn nh sng l cc s kin trn ng i ca vt th trong khng gian. nh nhau v cng hng theo mt hng. L thuyt ny cng ni vi chng ta rng khng g c th chuyn ng nhanh hn nh sng. iu c ngha l ng i ca mi vt qua khng-thi gian cn phi c biu din bng mt ng nm trong nn nh sng mi mt s kin trn n (hnh 2.7.).
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Phn 7
[...] i vi ngi trn cao mi chuyn pha di xy ra chm chp hn. iu tin on ny c kim chng vo nm 1962 bng cch dng hai ng h rt chnh xc: mt t nh v mt t chn mt thp nc. ng h chn thp, gn tri t hn, chy chm hn - hon ton ph hp vi thuyt tng i rng. [...]
L thuyt tng i hp rt thnh cng trong vic gii thch s nh nhau ca vn tc nh sng i vi mi ngi quan st (nh th nghim Michelson Morley chng t) v trong s m t nhng iu xy ra khi cc vt chuyn ng vi vn tc gn vi vn tc nh sng. Tuy nhin, l thuyt ny li khng ha hp vi thuyt hp dn ca Newton ni rng cc vt ht nhau vi mt lc ph thuc vo khong cch gia chng. iu ny c ngha l, nu lm cho mt vt chuyn ng th lc tc dng ln cc vt khc s thay i ngay lp tc. Hay ni mt cch khc, cc tc dng hp dn truyn vi vn tc v hn, thay v n bng hoc nh hn vn tc nh sng nh thuyt tng i hp i hi. Trong khong thi gian t nm 1908 n nm 1914, Einstein nhiu ln th tm mt l thuyt hp dn ha hp c vi thuyt tng i hp, nhng khng thnh cng. Cui cng, vo nm 1915, ng a ra c mt l thuyt m ngy nay chng ta gi l thuyt tng i rng (hay thuyt tng i tng qut). ng a ra mt gi thit c tnh cht cch mng cho rng hp dn khng phi l mt lc ging nh nhng lc khc m n l kt qu ca s kin l: khng - thi gian khng phi phng nh trc kia ngi ta vn tng, m n cong hay vnh i do s phn b ca khi lng v nng lng trong n. Cc vt nh tri t khng phi c to ra chuyn ng trn cc qu o cong bi lc hp dn, m thay v th, chng chuyn ng theo ng rt gn vi ng thng trong khng gian cong m ngi ta gi l ng trc a. ng trc a l ng ngn nht (hoc di nht) gia hai im cnh nhau. V d, b mt tri t l mt khng gian cong hai chiu.
Stephen Hawking
Hnh 2.8: ng trc a trn mt tri t chnh l vng trn ln v n l ng ngn nht gia hai im trn mt t.
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ng trc a trn mt tri t chnh l vng trn ln v n l ng ngn nht gia hai im trn mt t (H.2.8). V ng trc a l ng ngn nht gia hai sn bay, nn n l ng m nhng ngi dn ng hng khng hng cc phi cng bay theo. Trong l thuyt tng i rng, cc vt lun lun chuyn ng theo cc ng thng trong khng-thi gian 4 chiu, nhng i vi chng ta, chng c v chuyn ng theo nhng ng cong trong khng gian 3 chiu. (iu ny rt ging vi vic quan st chic my bay trn mt vng i g. Mc d n bay theo ng thng trong khng gian 3 chiu, nhng ci bng ca n li chuyn ng theo mt ng cong trn mt t hai chiu). Khi lng ca mt tri lm cong khng-thi gian theo cch sao cho mc d tri t chuyn ng theo ng thng trong khng-thi gian 4 chiu, nhng n li th hin i vi chng ta l chuyn ng theo qu o trn trong khng gian ba chiu. V thc t, qu o ca cc hnh tinh c tin on bi l thuyt tng i rng cng chnh xc nh c tin on bi l thuyt hp dn ca Newton. Tuy nhin, trong trng hp i vi sao Thy, hnh tinh gn mt tri nht, do cm thy hiu ng hp dn mnh nht v c qu o thun di hn, th thuyt tng i rng tin on rng trc di ca elip qu o quay quanh mt tri vi vn tc 1 trong 10 ngn nm. Mc d hiu ng l rt nh, nhng n c ghi nhn t trc nm 1915 v c dng nh mt bng chng u tin khng nh l thuyt ca Einstein. Trong nhng nm gn y, nhng lch thm ch cn nh hn na ca qu o cc hnh tinh khc so vi nhng tin on ca l thuyt Newton cng c o bng rada v cho thy chng ph hp vi nhng tin on ca thuyt tng i rng. Nhng tia sng cng cn phi i theo nhng ng trc a trong khng-thi gian. Cng li do khng gian b cong nn nh sng khng cn th hin l truyn theo ng thng trong khng gian na. Nh vy thuyt tng i rng tin on rng anh sng c th b b cong bi cc trng hp dn. V d, l thuyt ny tin on rng nn nh sng ca nhng im gn mt tri s hi b un hng vo pha trong do tc dng ca khi lng mt tri. iu ny c ngha l nh sng t mt ngi sao xa khi i qua gn mt tri c th b lch i mt gc nh, khin cho i vi nhng ngi quan st trn mt t, ngi
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Hnh 2.9: iu ny c ngha l nh sng t mt ngi sao xa khi i qua gn mt tri c th b lch i mt gc nh.
sao dng nh mt v tr khc (H.2.9). Tt nhin, nu nh sng t ngi sao lun lun i qua gn mt tri, th chng ta khng th ni tia sng c b lch hay khng hoc thay v th ngi sao c thc s nm ng ch chng ta nhn thy n hay khng. Tuy nhin, v tri t quay quanh mt tri nn nhng ngi sao khc nhau c lc dng nh i qua pha sau mt tri v nh sng ca chng b lch. V th nhng ngi sao ny thay i v tr biu kin ca chng i vi cc ngi sao khc.
Thng th rt kh quan st hiu ng ny, bi v nh sng ca mt tri lm cho ta khng th quan st c nhng ngi sao c v tr biu kin gn mt tri trn bu tri. Tuy nhin, iu ny c th lm c trong thi gian c nht thc, khi m nh sng mt tri b mt trng chn mt. Nhng tin on ca Einstein khng c kim chng ngay lp tc trong nm 1915 v cuc chin tranh th gii ln th nht lc ang lan rng, v phi ti tn nm 1919 mt on thm him Anh khi quan st nht thc Ty Phi chng t c rng nh sng thc s b lch do mt tri ng nh l thuyt d on. S chng minh l thuyt ca mt ngi c bi cc nh khoa hc Anh c nhit lit hoan nghnh nh mt hnh ng ha gii v i gia hai nc sau chin tranh. Do , tht l tr tru khi kim tra li sau nhng bc nh m on thm him chp, ngi ta pht hin ra rng sai s cng ln c hiu ng m h nh o. Php o ca h hon ton ch l may mn hoc mt trng hp bit trc kt qu m h mun nhn c - mt iu cng thng xy ra trong khoa hc. Tuy nhin, s lch ca tia sng c khng nh hon ton chnh xc bi nhiu quan st sau ny. Mt tin on khc ca thuyt tng i rng l thi gian dng nh chy chm hn khi gn nhng vt c khi lng ln nh tri t. l bi v mt mi lin h gia nng lng ca nh sng v tn s ca n (tn s l sng nh sng trong mt giy): nng lng cng ln th tn s cng cao. Khi nh sng truyn hng ln trong trng hp dn ca tri t, n s mt nng lng v v th tn s ca n gim. (iu ny c ngha l khong thi gian gia hai nh sng lin tip tng ln). i vi ngi trn cao mi chuyn pha di xy ra chm chp hn. iu tin on ny c kim chng vo nm 1962 bng cch dng hai ng h rt chnh xc: mt t nh v mt t chn mt thp nc. ng h chn thp, gn tri t hn, chy chm hn - hon ton ph hp vi thuyt tng i rng. S khc bit ca tc ng h nhng cao khc nhau trn mt t c mt tm quan trng c bit trong thc tin hin nay khi ngi ta s dng nhng h http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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thng o hng chnh xc da trn nhng tn hiu t v tinh. Nu khi ny ngi ta b qua nhng tin on ca thuyt tng i rng, th v tr tnh ton c c th sai khc ti vi ba dm! Nhng nh lut v chuyn ng ca Newton t du chm ht cho nim v v tr tuyt i trong khng gian. Thuyt tng i vt b khi nim thi gian tuyt i. Ta hy xt hai a tr sinh i. Gi s rng mt a c a ln sng trn nh ni v mt a sng ngang mc nc bin. a th nht s gi nhanh hn a th hai. Nh vy, nu gp li nhau mt a s gi hn a kia. Trong trng hp ny s khc nhau v tui tc s rt nh, nhng n s ln hn rt nhiu nu mt a thc hin chuyn du hnh di trong con tu v tr chuyn ng vi vn tc gn vn tc nh sng. Khi tr v n s tr hn rt nhiu so vi a li tri t. iu ny c gi l nghch l hai a tr sinh i, nhng n l nghch l ch nu nim v thi gian tuyt i vn cn ln qut trong u c chng ta. Trong l thuyt tng i khng c mt thi gian tuyt i duy nht, m thay v th mi c nhn c mt o thi gian ring ca mnh v o ph thuc vo ni h ang v h chuyn ng nh th no. Trc nm 1915, khng gian v thi gian c xem l mt sn khu c nh ni din ra mi s kin v khng chu nh hng bi nhng iu xy ra trong n. iu ny ng thm ch c vi thuyt tng i hp. Cc vt chuyn ng, cc lc ht v y, nhng khng gian v thi gian vn lin tc v khng b nh hng g. V ngh cho rng khng gian v thi gian c tip tc nh th mi mi cng l chuyn t nhin. Tuy nhin, tnh hnh hon ton khc trong thuyt tng i rng. By gi khng gian v thi gian l nhng i lng ng lc: khi mt vt chuyn ng, hoc mt lc tc dng, chng u nh hng ti cong ca khng gian v thi gian v p li, cu trc ca khng - thi gian s nh hng ti cch thc m cc vt chuyn ng v cc lc tc dng. Khng gian v thi gian khng ch c tc ng m cn b tc ng bi mi iu xy ra trong v tr. Chnh v ngi ta khng th ni v cc s kin trong v tr m khng c khi nim v khng gian v thi gian, nn trong thuyt tng i rng s tr nn v ngha nu ni v khng gian v thi gian ngoi gii hn ca v tr. Trong nhng thp k tip sau, s nhn thc mi ny v khng gian v thi gian lm cch mng quan nim ca chng ta v v tr. tng xa c cho rng mt v tr cn bn khng thay i c th tn ti v c th cn tip tc tn ti vnh vin c thay th bng khi nim mt v tr ng, ang gin n, mt v tr dng nh bt u mt thi im http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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hu hn trong qu kh v c th chm dt mt thi im hu hn trong tng lai. Cuc cch mng ny l ti ca chng tip sau. V nhng nm sau n cng l im xut pht cho hot ng ca ti trong lnh vc vt l l thuyt. Roger Penrose v ti chng t c rng chnh thuyt tng i rng ng v tr cn phi c im bt u v c th c im kt thc na.
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Phn 8
[...] Bc tranh hin i v v tr khi u ch mi vo nm 1924, khi nh thin vn ngi M Edwin Hubble chng t c rng thin h ca chng ta khng phi l thin h duy nht. Thc t cn c nhiu thin h khc v gia chng l nhng khong khng gian trng rng rng ln. [...]
Chng 3: V tr gin n Nu ta nhn ln bu tri vo nhng m quang ng, khng trng, nhng vt sng nht m chng ta nhn thy c l l cc hnh tinh: sao Kim, sao Ha, sao Mc v sao Th. Cng c rt nhiu cc ngi sao tng t nh mt tri ca chng ta nhng rt xa. Mt s nhng ngi sao c nh , thc t, li dng nh thay i - d l rt t - v tr tng i ca chng vi nhau khi tri t quay xung quanh mt tri: chng hon ton khng phi l c nh! S d c iu ny l do chng tng i gn chng ta. Khi tri t quanh xung quanh mt tri, t nhng v tr khc nhau chng ta thy chng trn nn ca nhng ngi sao xa hn. l mt iu may mn, v n cho php chng ta o c mt cch trc tip khong cch t nhng ngi sao n chng ta: chng cng gn th cng c v di chuyn nhiu hn. Ngi sao gn chng ta nht l sao Proxima ca chm sao Nhn M c tm thy cch chng ta khong 4 nm nh sng (ngha l nh sng t n phi mt 4 nm mi ti c tri t), hay khong hai mi ba triu triu dm. a s cc ngi sao khc thy c bng mt thng nm cch chng ta trong khong vi trm nm nh sng. so snh, bn cn bit rng mt tri ch cch chng ta c 8 pht nh sng! Nhng ngi sao thy c dng nh nm ri rc trn ton b bu tri m, nhng chng c bit tp trung trong mt di m ngi ta gi l di Ngn h (Milky Way). Rt lu v trc, vo khong nm 1750, a s cc nh thin vn cho rng s xut hin ca di Ngn h c th gii thch c nu phn ln cc sao nhn thy nm trong mt cu hnh a duy nht - mt v d v ci m hin nay chng ta gi l thin h xon c. Phi my chc nm sau, nh thin vn William Herschel mi khng nh c tng ca mnh bng cch cn mn lp mt b su tp v v tr v khong cch ca mt s rt ln cc ngi sao. Thm ch nh th, nhng tng ny ch c chp nhn hon ton vo u th k ny. http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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Bc tranh hin i v v tr khi u ch mi vo nm 1924, khi nh thin vn ngi M Edwin Hubble chng t c rng thin h ca chng ta khng phi l thin h duy nht. Thc t cn c nhiu thin h khc v gia chng l nhng khong khng gian trng rng rng ln. chng minh iu ny, ng phi xc nh khong cch n cc thin h khc . Nhng thin h ny qu xa chng ta, nn khng ging nhng ngi sao gn, chng dng nh thc s c nh. Do Hubble buc phi s dng cc phng php gin tip o khong cch. Ngi ta bit rng chi biu kin ca cc ngi sao ph thuc vo hai yu t: nh sng n pht ra bao nhiu (tc trng ca n) v n xa chng ta ti mc no. i vi nhng ngi sao gn, chng ta c th o c c chi biu kin ln khong cch ca chng v nh vy chng ta c th tnh c c trng ca chng. Ngc li nu chng ta bit c trng ca cc ngi sao cc thin h khc chng ta c th tnh c khong cch bng cch o chi bin kin ca chng. Hubble thy rng c mt s loi sao lun lun c cng trng khi chng gn ta c th o c, do ng rt ra kt lun rng nu ta tm thy nhng ngi sao loi cc thin h khc th chng ta c th xem rng chng cng c cng trng - v nh vy c th tnh c khong cch n thin h . Nu chng ta c th lm iu cho nhiu ngi sao trong cng mt thin h m kt qu tnh ton u cho mt khong cch nh nhau th hon ton c th tin c vo nh gi ca chng ta. Theo cch Edwin Hubble xc nh c khong cch n 9 thin h khc nhau. By gi th chng ta bit rng thin h ca chng ta ch l mt trong s vi trm ngn triu thin h c th nhn thy c bng cc knh thin vn hin i, mi mt thin h li gm khong vi trm ngn triu ngi sao. Hnh 3.1. l nh ca mt thin h xon c m chng ta ngh Hnh 3.1: nh ca rng thin h ca chng ta s c nhn ging nh th di mt thin h xon c. con mt ca ngi sng mt thin h khc. Chng ta sng trong mt thin h c b ngang rng chng mt trm ngn nm nh sng v quay chm; cc ngi sao nm trong cc nhnh xon ca thin h quay xung quanh tm ca n vi vn tc gc mt vng trong hai trm triu nm. Mt tri ca chng ta cng ch l mt ngi sao bnh thng mu vng, c kch thc trung bnh v nm mp trong ca mt nhnh xon c. K t thi Aristotle v Ptolemy, thi m chng ta ngh rng tri t l trung tm ca v tr, cho ti ngy nay, - qu tht chng ta i c mt chng ng rt di.
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Nhng ngi sao xa chng ta n ni, i vi chng ta, chng ch l nhng chm sng nht nht. Chng ta khng th thy c kch thc cng nh hnh dng ca chng. Vy th bng cch no ta c th ni v cc loi sao ring bit khc nhau? i vi i a s cc ngi sao, ch c mt nt c trng m chng ta quan st c - l mu nh sng ca chng. Newton pht hin ra rng nu nh sng mt tri i qua mt lng knh n s tch thnh cc mu thnh phn (cn gi l quang ph ca n) nh mu ca cu vng. Bng cch hng knh thin vn vo mt ngi sao ring l hay mt thin h ngi ta c th quan st mt cch tng t quang ph ca nh sng t ngi sao hay thin h . Nhng ngi sao khc nhau c quang ph khc nhau, nhng chi tng i ca cc mu khc nhau lun lun chnh xc ht nh ngi ta mong i tm thy trong nh sng ca nhng vt pht sng nng . (Thc t, nh sng c pht ra bi mt vt khng trong sut nng c ph c trng ch ph thuc vo nhit ca n - quang ph nhit. iu ny c ngha l chng ta c th bit nhit ca ngi sao t quang ph nh sng ca n). Hn na, chng ta cn tm thy rng mt s mu rt xc nh khng c mt trong quang ph ca ngi sao, v nhng mu vng mt khc nhau i vi nhng ngi sao khc nhau. V chng ta bit rng mi nguyn t ha hc hp th mt tp hp c trng nhng mu rt xc nh, nn bng cch i chiu nhng mu ny vi nhng mu vng mt trong quang ph ca mt ngi sao, chng ta c th xc nh c chnh xc nhng nguyn t no c mt trong kh quyn ca ngi sao . Trong nhng nm 1920, khi cc nh thin vn bt u quan st quang ph ca cc ngi sao thuc nhng thin h khc, h tm thy mt iu rt c bit: c nhng tp hp c trng cc mu vng mt ging ht nh i vi nhng ngi sao trong thin h chng ta, nhng chng b dch i cng mt lng tng i v pha ca quang ph. hiu c ngha ca iu ny, chng ta trc ht cn phi tm hiu v hiu ng Doppler. Nh chng ta thy, nh sng thy c gm nhng thng ging, hay nhng sng, trong trng in t. Tn s (hay s sng trong mt giy) ca nh sng l rt cao, tri di t bn n by trm triu triu sng trong mt giy. Cc tn s khc nhau ca nh sng c mt ngi nhn thy nh nhng mu khc nhau. Nhng nh sng c tn s thp nht nm pha ca quang ph v nhng nh sng c tn s cao nht nm pha tm ca n. By gi chng ta hy hnh dung mt ngun sng cch chng ta mt khong khng i, t nh mt ngi sao, v pht sng nh sng c tn s khng i. R rng l tn s ca cc sng m chng ta nhn c cng chnh l tn s m chng c ngun pht ra. (Trng hp dn ca thin h cha mnh gy ra hiu ng ng k). By gi gi th rng ngun sng bt u chuyn ng hng http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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v pha chng ta. Khi ngun pht mt nh sng tip theo th n gn chng ta hn, v vy thi gian nh sng ti c chng ta s t hn so vi khi ngun sng ng yn. iu ny c ngha l thi gian gia hai nh sng ti chng ta l nh hn v do s sng m chng ta nhn c trong mt giy (tc l tn s) s ln hn so vi khi ngun sng ng im. Tng ng, nu ngun sng i ra xa chng ta th tn s m chng ta nhn c s thp hn. Do , trong trng hp nh sng iu ny c ngha l nhng ngi sao chuyn ng ra xa chng ta s c quang ph dch v pha ca quang ph (hin tng dch v pha ) v nhng ngi sao chuyn ng v pha chng ta s c quang ph dch v pha tm. Mi quan h ny gia tn s v vn tc - c gi l hiu ng Doppler - l mt kinh nghim hng ngy. Hy lng nghe mt chic xe t chy trn ng: khi chic xe tin li gn, ting ng c ca n nghe bng hn (tc l tn s sng m cao hn), cn khi n i ra xa m ca n nghe trm hn. i vi cc sng v tuyn cng tng t nh vy. Thc t cnh st dng hiu ng Doppler xc nh vn tc ca cc xe t bng cch o tn s ca cc xung sng v tuyn phn x t cc xe .
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Phn 9
[...] Thm ch ngay c Einstein, khi xy dng thuyt tng i rng vo nm 1915, cng inh ninh rng v tr cn phi l tnh. V th ng phi sa i l thuyt ca mnh iu c th xy ra, bng cch a vo nhng phng trnh ca mnh ci c gi l "hng s v tr". [...]
Sau khi chng minh c s tn ti ca cc thin h khc, trong nhng nm tip sau, Hubble dnh nhiu thi gian lp mt kho d liu v khong cch gia cc thin h v quan st quang ph ca cc thin h . Vo thi gian y, nhiu ngi nh rng cc thin h chuyn ng hon ton ngu nhin, cho nn h ch i tm thy nhng quang ph dch v pha tm cng nhiu nh nhng quang ph dch v pha . Do , ngi ta ht sc ngc nhin khi pht hin ra rng a s cc thin h u c quang ph dch v pha : ngha l gn nh tt c chng ang chuyn ng ra xa chng ta! iu cn ngc nhin hn na l pht hin m Hubble cng b nm 1929: thm ch dch v pha ca thin h cng khng phi l ngu nhin, m n t l thun vi khong cch gia thin h v chng ta. Hoc ni mt cch khc, thin h cng xa th n chuyn ng ra xa cng nhanh! C ngha l v tr khng phi l tnh nh trc kia ngi ta vn tng, m n thc t ang gin n, khong cch gia cc thin h ngy cng tng ln theo thi gian. Pht minh v tr ang gin n l mt trong nhng cuc cch mng tr tu v i ca th k 20. Vi nhn thc mun mng, th vic ch ngc nhin m t hi ti sao trc kia khng ai ngh ti iu l chuyn qu d dng. Newton v nhng ngi khc l ra phi thy rng v tr tnh sm hay mun ri cng s co li di nh hng ca hp dn. Nhng by gi, ta hy c gi th rng v tr ang gin n. Nu n gin n chm, th lc hp dn s lm cho n cui cng s ngng gin n v sau s bt u co li. Tuy nhin, nu v tr gin n vi vn tc nhanh hn mt vn tc gii hn no , th lc hp dn s khng bao gi mnh lm dng n li v v tr s tip tc gin n mi mi. iu ny cng hi ging nh khi ngi ta phng mt tn la ln khng trung t mt t. Nu n c vn tc nh th lc hp dn cui cng s lm n dng li v bt u ri xung. Ngc li, nu tn la c vn tc ln hn mt vn tc ti hn no (khong by dm
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trong mt giy), th lc hp dn s khng cn mnh ko n li na, v n s tip tc ri xa tri t mi mi. Tnh cht ca v tr l ra c th hon ton c tin on t l thuyt hp dn ca Newton bt k thi im no ca th k 19, 18, thm ch cui th k 16. Nhng v nim tin vo v tr tnh qu mnh ti mc n vn cn dai dng cho ti u th k 20. Thm ch ngay c Einstein, khi xy dng thuyt tng i rng vo nm 1915, cng inh ninh rng v tr cn phi l tnh. V th ng phi sa i l thuyt ca mnh iu c th xy ra, bng cch a vo nhng phng trnh ca mnh ci c gi l "hng s v tr". Einstein a vo mt lc phn hp dn mi, m khng ging nh nhng lc khc, n khng c xut x t mt ngun c bit no, m c to dng ngay trong cu trc ca khng-thi gian. ng t ra yu cu l khng-thi gian c xu hng ni ti l n ra, v iu l cn bng chnh xc vi lc ht ca ton b vt cht trong v tr, sao cho kt qu thu c l mt v tr tnh. Dng nh ch c mt ngi mun chp nhn thuyt tng i rng dng ban u ca n, l nh vt l v ton hc ngi Nga Alexander Friedmann. V trong khi Einstein v cc nh vt l khc tm mi cch lng trnh s tin on v mt v tr khng tnh, th Friedmann chp nhn v bt tay vo gii thch n. Friedmann a ra hai gi thit rt n gin v v tr: l v tr ng nht theo mi hng m chng ta quan st, v iu ny cng ng vi bt k v tr quan st no. Ch t hai tng , Friedmann chng t c rng chng ta khng th ch i v tr ch l tnh. Thc t, vo nm 1922, t nm trc pht minh ca Hubble, Friedmann tin on chnh xc iu m Hubble tm ra! Gi thit cho rng v tr nhn y ht nhau theo mi hng r rng l khng ng vi thc t. V d, nh chng ta thy, nhng ngi sao khc trong thin h chng ta to nn mt di sng ni bt trn nn tri m, tc l di Ngn h. Nhng nu chng ta quan st nhng thin h xa th s lng ca chng tng i ging nhau. Nh vy, v i th th v tr c th xem l nh nhau theo mi hng, vi iu kin l ta phi nhn n qui m ln so vi kch thc gia cc thin h, v b qua nhng sai khc qui m nh. Trong mt thi gian di, iu ny bin minh cho gi thit ca Friedmann nh mt php gn ng th i vi v tr thc. Nhng gn y hn, mt s tnh c may mn ch ra rng gi thit ca Friedmann thc t l s m t kh chnh xc v tr ca chng ta. http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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Nm 1965, hai nh vt l M lm vic phng th nghim ca hng Bell Telephone New Jersey l Arno Penzias v Robert Wilson ang tin hnh trc nghim mt my d sng cc ngn rt nhy. (Sng cc ngn cng ging nh nh sng nhng vi tn s ch c 10 ngn triu sng trong 1 giy). Penzias v Wilson rt bn khon khi h pht hin ra rng my d ca h ghi c qu nhiu ting n hn mc cn thit. Ting n ny dng nh khng n theo mt phng c bit no. u tin h pht hin c phn chim trong my, sau h kim tra mi kh nng c th hng hc, nhng tt c u b loi tr. H cng bit rng mi loi ting n bn trong bu kh quyn s mnh hn khi my d khng hng theo phng thng ng, bi v cc tia sng truyn trong kh quyn s thu c gn ng chn tri nhiu hn l trn nh u. Nhng ting n thi qu y li nh nhau theo mi phng m h hng u d ti v nh vy n phi ti t bn ngoi kh quyn. Ting n ny cng nh nhau c ngy ln m trong sut c nm bt k tri t vn quay quanh trc ca n v quay quanh mt tri. iu ny chng t bc x phi ti t bn ngoi h mt tri, thm ch t ngoi c thin h chng ta, v nu khng n s thay i khi chuyn ng ca tri t lm cho my d hng theo nhng hng khc nhau. Thc t, chng ta bit rng bc x ti c chng ta phi i qua phn ln vng v tr quan st c v v n nh nhau theo cc phng khc nhau nn v tr cng cn phi nh nhau theo mi phng, nu ch xt trn qui m ln. By gi th chng ta bit rng bt k nhn theo phng no, th ting n cng ch bin thin khng bao gi vt qu mt phn vn. Nh vy, Penzias v Wilson hon ton tnh c pht hin c mt bng chng kh chnh xc khng nh gi thit th nht ca Friedmann. Gn khong thi gian , hai nh vt l M gn i hc Princeton l Bod Dicke v Jim Peebles cng ang quan tm ti cc sng cc ngn. H ang lm vic theo mt xut ca George Gamow (ngi mt thi l sinh vin ca Alexander Friedmann) cho rng v tr thi k u phi rt nng v c, ng thi pht sng nng, trng. Dicke v Peebles l lun rng chng ta hin nay vn cn c th thy c nh sng chi li ca v tr thi k u, bi v nh sng t nhng phn rt xa ca v tr ch by gi mi n c ch chng ta. Tuy nhin, s gin n ca v tr c ngha l nh sng phi dch rt mnh v pha khin cho by gi chng ta thy n di dng bc x viba (sng cc ngn). Dicke v Peebles ang chun b tm kim bc x th Penzias v Wilson nghe ni v cng trnh ca h v hai ng hiu ngay rng mnh pht hin c chnh bc x . V th m Penzias v Wilson c trao gii thng Nobel v vt l nm 1978 (mt iu hi chua cht i vi Dicke v Peebles, y l cha ni ti Gamow!). http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
LC S THI GIAN
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Gi y thot nhn th ton b bng chng - bng chng xc nhn rng v tr nhn nh nhau theo bt k hng no m chng ta quan st - c th dn n ngh cho rng c mt ci g c bit v v tr ca chng ta trong v tr. c bit, c th ngh rng nu chng ta quan st thy tt c cc thin h khc ang chuyn ng ra xa chng ta, th chng ta cn phi trung tm ca v tr. Tuy nhin, cng c mt cch gii thch khc: v tr cng phi nh nhau theo mi hng khi n c quan st t bt k mt thin h no khc. Nhng, nh chng ta thy, chnh l gi thit th hai ca Friedmann. Hin chng ta cha c bng chng khoa hc khng nh hay bc b gi thit . Chng ta tin n ch trn c s ca s khim tn: s l qu ni bt nu v tr l nh nhau theo mi phng xung quanh chng ta, nhng li khng nh th xung quanh cc im khc trong v tr. Trong m hnh ca Friedmann tt c cc thin h u chuyn ng ra xa nhau. Tnh hung ny kh ging mt qu bng bay, trn mt c v nhiu chm mu, ang c thi cng ln t t. Khi qu bng cng ln, khong cch gia cc chm mu tng ln, nhng khng th ni chm mu no l trung tm ca s gin n . Hn na cc chm cng xa nhau th chng chuyn ng ra xa nhau cng nhanh. Tng t nh vy, trong m hnh ca Friedmann vn tc m hai thin h chuyn ng ra xa nhau t l vi nhng khong cch gia chng. Nh vy, m hnh ny tin on rng mi s dch v pha ca mt thin h t l thun vi khong cch t n n chng ta, ng nh Hubble pht hin. Mc d thnh cng ca m hnh v tin on ca n v nhng quan st ca Hubble, nhng cng trnh ca Friedmann t c bit ti, cho ti khi nhng m hnh tng t c pht minh bi nh vt l M Howard Robertson v nh ton hc Anh Arthur Walker, gii thch pht hin ca Hubble v s gin n u ca v tr.
Stephen Hawking
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Phn 10
[...] Nhiu ngi khng thch tng xem rng thi gian c im bt u, c l bi v n dy da vi s can thip ca thn thnh. (Nh th Thin Cha gio, tri li, nm ngay ly m hnh v n ln v vo nm 1951, v chnh thc tuyn b n hon ton ph hp vi Kinh thnh). [...]
Mc d Friedmann ch tm ra mt, nhng thc t c ti ba loi m hnh khc nhau cng tun theo hai gi thit c bn ca Friedmann. Trong loi u tin (loi m Friedmann pht hin) v tr gin n chm lc ht hp dn gia cc thin h khc nhau, lm cho s gin n chm li, v cui cng th dng hn. Sau cc thin h bt u chuyn ng li gn nhau, v v tr co li. Hnh 3.2 cho thy, khong cch gia hai thin h ln cn thay i t 0, tng ti cc i ri li gim dn xung 0. Trong loi th hai, v tr gin n nhanh ti mc lc ht hp dn khng bao gi c th lm qu trnh
Hnh 3.2: Khong cch gia hai thin h ln cn thay i t 0, tng ti cc i ri li gim dn xung 0.
dng li, mc d n c th chm li i cht. Hnh 3.3 cho thy c s tch xa ca hai thin h cnh nhau trong m hnh ny. N bt u t 0, v n mt lc no , cc thin h chuyn ng ra xa nhau vi tc u. Cui cng l kh nng th ba: v tr gin n va nhanh trnh c qu trnh co v trng thi ban
Hnh 3.3: Hai thin h ngy cng tch xa nhau.
u. Trong trng hp , s tch bit - nh c thy trn hnh 3.4 - cng bt u t 0 ri tng ln mi mi. Tuy nhin, vn tc m cc thin h chuyn ng ra xa nhau ngy cng nh, mc d khng bao gi t ti 0.
Hnh 3.4: S tch bit gia hai thin h cng bt u t 0 v tng ln mi mi.
Mt c im ni bt ca m hnh u tin ca Friedmann l v tr khng phi l v hn trong khng gian, nhng khng gian li khng c bin. Lc hp dn mnh ti mc khng gian b cun trn li v lm cho n na n nh b mt ca tri t. Nu ngi ta ch i theo mt hng trn b mt ca tri t, ngi ra s khng bao gi gp mt ro chn khng th qua c
LC S THI GIAN
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hoc ri xung qua mt mp vc, m cui cng s quay v ch xut pht. Trong m hnh u tin ca Friedmann khng gian ng nh th, ch c khc l n c ba chiu ch khng phi hai chiu nh b mt tri t. Chiu th t - thi gian - cng hu hn, nhng n ging nh ng thng c hai u, hay ni cch khc l hai bin: bt u v kt thc. Sau ny chng ta s thy rng khi ngi ta kt hp thuyt tng i rng vi nguyn l bt nh ca c hc lng t th c khng gian ln thi gian u c th hu hn m khng c mp hoc bin. tng cho rng ngi ta c th chu du vng quanh v tr v kt thc chnh ch xut pht s lm nn mt cu chuyn vin tng khoa hc hay, nhng khng c nhiu ngha thc tin, v ngi ta c th chng t c rng v tr s co li tr v kch thc zero trc khi ngi ta i ht mt vng quanh n. Bn cn phi i nhanh hn nh sng mi kp v ch xut pht trc khi v tr co chung, nhng iu li khng c php. Trong loi m hnh u tin ca Friedmann, v tr n ra ri co li, khng gian b un trn li ging nh b mt tri t. Do , n l hu hn. Trong loi m hnh th hai - v tr n ra mi mi - khng gian b un theo cch khc, n ging nh hnh mt chic yn nga. Nh vy, trong trng hp ny khng gian l v hn. Cui cng trong m hnh th ba, vi tc gin n ti hn, khng gian l phng (v do cng v hn). Nhng m hnh no ca Friedmann m t ng v tr ca chng ta? Liu v tr cui cng c ngng gin n v bt u co li hay s gin n mi mi? tr li cu hi cn phi bit tc gin n hin nay ca v tr v mt trung bnh hin nay ca n. Nu mt nh hn mt gi tr ti hn no c xc nh bi tc gin n, th lc ht hp dn s qu yu lm dng qu trnh gin n. Nu mt ln hn gi tr ti hn, lc hp dn s lm dng qu trnh gin n mt thi im no trong tng lai v s lm cho v tr co li. Chng ta c th xc nh c tc gin n hin thi bng cch dng hiu ng Doppler o vn tc m cc thin h chuyn ng ra xa chng ta. iu ny c th thc hin c mt cch rt chnh xc. Tuy nhin, khong cch gia cc thin h li c bit khng chnh xc lm, do chng ta o chng ch bng phng php gin tip thi. V vy, hin nay chng ta ch bit c l v tr ang gin n 5% n 10% trong mi khong thi gian l ngn triu nm. Tuy nhin, s bt nh v mt trung bnh hin nay ca v tr thm ch cn ln hn na. Nu chng ta cng khi lng ca tt c http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
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cc ngi sao nhn thy trong thin h ca chng ta v cc thin h khc li, th tng s cn nh hn mt phn trm khi lng cn thit hm s gin n ca v tr li, thm ch c trong trng hp nh gi thp nht tc gin n. Tuy nhin, thin h ca chng ta v cc thin h khc cn cn phi cha mt lng ln vt cht ti m chng ta khng th thy c trc tip, nhng chng ta bit n phi c v nh hng sc ht hp dn ca n ln qu o ca cc ngi sao trong cc thin h. Hn na, a s cc thin h c tm thy nm thnh tng cm, v tng t nh trn, chng ta c th suy ra s c mt ca mt lng vt cht ti cn ln hn na trong khong gia cc thin h thuc mt cm bi tc ng ca n ln chuyn ng ca cc thin h. Khi cng tt c lng vt cht ti li, chng ta cng ch mi nhn c khong mt phn mi khi lng cn thit hm s gin n li. Tuy nhin, chng ta khng th loi tr kh nng c th c mt dng vt cht khc c phn b ng u trong ton v tr m chng ta cn cha pht hin c v n c th s nng mt trung bnh ca v tr ln ti gi tr ti hn hm s gin n li. Do vy, bng chng m hin nay chng ta c gi rng v tr c l s gin n vnh vin, nhng iu m chng ta thc s tin chc, l nu thm ch cui cng v tr c co li i na, th iu cng cha xy ra t nht trong vng mi ngn triu nm na, bi v n vn cn gin n t nht cng tng y thi gian. iu ny chc khng khin chng ta phi lo lng: ti thi gian nu chng ta khng nh c c ngoi h mt tri, th loi ngi cng dit vong t lu cng vi mt tri ca chng ta! Tt c cc m hnh ca Friedmann u c mt c im l mt thi im no trong qu kh (khong gia mi v hai mi ngn triu nm trc) khong cch gia hai thin h ln cn phi bng 0. thi im - thi im m chng ta gi l v n ln (Big Bang) - mt ca v tr v cong ca khng-thi gian l ln v hn. V cc nh ton hc khng th thc s thao tc vi cc s v hn, nn iu ny c ngha l thuyt tng i rng (m cc m hnh ca Friedmann da trn ) tin on rng c mt im trong v tr m ti chnh bn thn l thuyt cng khng dng c na. Mt im nh vy l mt v d v ci m cc nh ton hc gi l im k d. Thc t mi l thuyt khoa hc ca chng ta u c pht biu trn gi thuyt cho rng khng - thi gian l trn v gn nh phng, v vy chng s khng cn dng c im k d v n ln v cong ca khngthi gian l v hn. iu ny c ngha l thm ch nu c nhng s kin xy ra trc v n ln, th ngi ta cng khng th dng chng xc nh nhng g xy ra sau , bi v tnh tin on c cng s khng cn na ti v n ln. Tng ng, nu ch bit nhng g t sau v n ln - chnh l http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
LC S THI GIAN
49
trng hp ca chng ta - th chng ta cng khng th xc nh c nhng g xy ra trc . i vi chng ta, th nhng s kin xy ra trc v n ln c th khng c hu qu g, v vy chng khng to thnh mt b phn trong m hnh khoa hc v v tr. Do , chng ta s ct b chng khi m hnh v ni rng thi gian bt u t v n ln. Nhiu ngi khng thch tng xem rng thi gian c im bt u, c l bi v n dy da vi s can thip ca thn thnh. (Nh th Thin Cha gio, tri li, nm ngay ly m hnh v n ln v vo nm 1951, v chnh thc tuyn b n hon ton ph hp vi Kinh thnh). Do c nhiu n lc nhm trnh kt lun cho rng c v n ln. Mt xut c ng h rng ri nht gi l l thuyt trng thi bn vng. N c a ra vo nm 1948, bi hai ngi t nn chy khi nc o ang b bn pht xt chim ng, l Hermann Bondi v Thamas Gold cng vi Fred Hoyle - ngi cng h nghin cu pht trin radar trong thi k chin tranh. tng ca h nh sau: Khi cc thin h chuyn ng ra xa nhau, th khong trng gia chng, cc thin h mi lin tc c to thnh t vt cht mi. Do , v i th, v tr s nhn nh nhau mi thi im cng nh mi im ca khng gian. L thuyt trng thi bn vng yu cu phi sa i thuyt tng i rng cho php lin tc to ra vt cht, nhng tc ca qu trnh chm ti mc (c mt ht trn mt kilomt khi trong mt nm) n khng mu thun vi thc nghim. L thuyt ny l mt l thuyt khoa hc tt theo ngha c m t chng 1: n n gin v a ra c nhng tin on xc nh c th kim chng c bng quan st. Mt trong s nhng tin on ca n cho rng s thin h hoc cc i tng tng t trong mt th tch khng gian cho trc s l nh nhau bt k u v bt k khi no chng ta quan st v tr. Vo cui nhng nm 50 v u nhng nm 60, vic lp mt bn cc ngun sng v tuyn t ngoi khng gian v tr c tin hnh bi mt nhm cc nh thin vn Cambridge do Martin Ryle ng u (ng cng tng lm vic vi Bondi, Gold v Hoyle v radar trong thi k chin tranh). Nhm Cambridge ch ra rng a s cc ngun sng v tuyn ny phi nm ngoi thin h ca chng ta (thc t nhiu trong s c th ng nht vi cc thin h khc) v s ngun yu l do xa hn v cc ngun mnh l do gn hn. Khi ha ra s cc ngun nm trong mt n v th tch ca khng gian i vi cc ngun gn s t hn so vi cc ngun xa. iu c th c ngha l chng ta nm trung tm ca mt vng rng ln ca v tr trong c s cc ngun t hn cc ni khc. Hoc, cng c th c ngha l trong qu kh, thi im cc sng v tuyn xut pht i ti chng ta th s cc ngun nhiu hn so vi hin nay. C hai cch gii thch u mu thun vi tin http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
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on ca thuyt trng thi bn vng. Hn th na, s pht hin thy cc bc x cc ngn ca Penzias v Wilson vo nm 1965 cng ch ra rng v tr trong qu kh phi c hn rt nhiu. Do vy l thuyt trng thi bn vng cn phi vt b.
LC S THI GIAN
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Phn 11
[...] Kt qu l bi bo vit chung ca Penrose v ti cng b nm 1970; trong , cui cng chng ti chng minh c rng cn phi c im k d v n ln, nhng ch vi iu kin thuyt tng i rng l ng, v v tr cha mt lng vt cht nh chng ta quan st thy. [...]
Mt n lc khc nhm trnh kt lun cn phi c v n ln, v do c s bt u ca thi gian, c hai nh khoa hc Nga l Evgenii Lifshitz v Isaac Khalatnikov a ra nm 1963. H cho rng v n ln c th ch l mt c im ring c ca cc m hnh Friedmann; v xt cho cng, nhng m hnh ny cng ch l nhng m hnh gn ng ca v tr thc. C l, trong s tt c cc m hnh gn ging v tr thc th ch c nhng m hnh Friedmann l cha im k d v n ln. Trong cc m hnh Friedmann, tt c cc thin h u chuyn ng thng ra xa nhau, v v vy s khng c g ngc nhin nu mt thi im no trong qu kh, tt c chng u cng mt ch. Tuy nhin, trong v tr thc, cc thin h khng thc s chuyn ng thng ra xa nhau, m chng cn c c vn tc cnh, mc d l nh. Nh vy, trn thc t, cc thin h khng bao gi phi cng ng mt ch m ch cn rt st nhau thi. C l khi th v tr ang gin n hin nay c to thnh khng phi t im k d v n ln, m l t mt pha co li trc kia. Khi v tr co li, cc ht trong c th khng phi tt c u va chm vi nhau m ch bay qua ri sau chuyn ng ra xa nhau to nn s gin n hin nay ca v tr. Vy th lm sao chng ta c th ni c v tr thc c bt u t v n ln hay khng? iu m Lifshitz v Khalatnikov lm l nghin cu cc m hnh ca v tr gn ging vi cc m hnh ca Friedmann nhng c tnh n nhng im bt thng v vn tc ngu nhin ca cc thin h trong v tr. H ch ra rng nhng m hnh nh vy cng c th bt u t v n ln, thm ch mc d cc thin h khng phi lun lun chuyn ng thng ra xa nhau, nhng h li bin bch rng iu ny ch kh d trong mt s m hnh c bit trong cc thin h phi chuyn ng ng cch. H l lun rng v cc m hnh ging Friedmann khng c im k d v n ln nhiu v hn hn nhng m hnh c im k d , nn cn phi rt ra kt lun rng thc t khng c v n ln. Tuy nhin, sau ny h thy rng c mt lp cc m hnh ging Friedmann nhng tng qut hn nhiu u c cc im k d m trong
Stephen Hawking
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cc thin h khng cn phi chuyn ng theo mt cch c bit no. V do , h rt li kin vo nm 1970. Cng trnh ca Lifshitz v Khalatnikov c gi tr ch, n chng t c rng v tr c th c im k d, tc l v n ln, nu thuyt tng i rng l ng. Tuy nhin, iu cha gii quyt c vn cn bn: thuyt tng i rng c tin on rng v tr ca chng ta cn phi c v n ln, ngha l s bt u ca thi gian khng? Cu tr li xut pht t mt cch tip cn hon ton khc do nh vt l v ton hc ngi Anh Roger Penrose a ra vo nm 1965. S dng tnh cht ca cc nn nh sng trong thuyt tng i rng v s tht l lc hp dn lun lun l lc ht, ng chng t c rng mt ngi sao ang co li di tc dng ca lc hp dn ring ca mnh s b by vo mt vng m b mt ca n cui cng s co li kch thc 0. V v b mt ca vng co li ti 0, nn th tch ca n cng cn phi nh th. Nh vy ton b vt cht s c nn p vo mt vng c th tch 0, v do , mt ca vt cht v cong ca khng-thi gian s tr nn v hn. Ni mt cch khc, ta c mt k d nm trong vng khng-thi gian c gi l l en. Thot nhn, kt qu ca Penrose ch p dng c cho cc ngi sao, ch cha cho bit ton b v tr c mt im k d v n ln trong qu kh hay khng. Tuy nhin, vo thi gian Penrose a ra nh l ca ng th ti cn l mt nghin cu sinh ang trn tr tm vn hon tt lun n tin s. Hai nm trc , ti c chun on l mc bnh ALS, thng c gi l bnh Lou Gehrig hay l bnh v thn kinh chuyn ng, v ngi ta cho ti hiu rng ti ch cn sng c mt hai nm na. Trong nhng hon cnh nh vy, chng c tm tr u m lm lun n, v ti khng ngh l mnh sng c n khi hon tt n. Nhng ri hai nm tri qua v ti vn cha thy tnh trng sc khe ca mnh xu i nhiu. Thc t, mi chuyn din ra kh tt p i vi ti, v ti ha hn vi Jane Wilde, mt c gi tuyt vi. Nhng ci nng ti cn phi c vic lm, m mun c vic lm ti phi c bng tin s. Nm 1965 ti c c nh l ca Penrose ni rng bt c vt no co li di tc dng ca lc hp dn cui cng s phi to thnh mt im k d. Chng bao lu sau ti thy rng nu i chiu thi gian trong nh l ca Penrose, sao cho s co li tr thnh s gin n, th cc iu kin ca nh l vn cn ng vi iu kin v tr hin nay gn ging vi m hnh ca Friedmann trn qui m ln. nh l ca Penrose chng t rng bt k mt ngi sao ang co li no cng phi kt thc mt im k d, cn l lun http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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53
da trn s nghch o thi gian th ch ra rng mi v tr gin n ging nh Friedmann phi bt u t mt im k d. V nhng l do k thut, nh l Penrose i hi rng v tr l v hn trong khng gian. Nh vy, thc t, ti s dng nh l chng minh c rng s cn phi c im k d, ch nu v tr gin n nhanh n khng b co li mt ln na (v nhng m hnh Friedmann nh th mi l v hn trong khng gian). Trong t nm sau, ti pht trin nhng k thut ton hc mi cho php loi b nhng iu kin c tnh cht k thut ra khi nhng nh l chng minh rng nhng im k d cn phi xy ra. Kt qu l bi bo vit chung ca Penrose v ti cng b nm 1970; trong , cui cng chng ti chng minh c rng cn phi c im k d v n ln, nhng ch vi iu kin thuyt tng i rng l ng, v v tr cha mt lng vt cht nh chng ta quan st thy. C rt nhiu phn bc i vi cng trnh ca chng ti, mt phn t nhng ngi Nga do nim tin Mc-xt ca h vo quyt nh lun khoa hc, mt phn t nhng ngi cm thy rng ton b tng v cc k d l kh chu, v lm hng v p ca l thuyt Einstein. Tuy nhin ngi ta khng th thc s tranh ci vi cc nh l ton hc. V v vy, cui cng cng trnh ca chng ti ni chung c chp nhn, v hin nay, hu ht mi ngi u cho rng v tr bt u t im k d v n ln. Nhng c l tht l tr tru, hin nay ti thay i ngh ca mnh, v ang c gng thuyt phc cc nh vt l khc tin rng, thc t chng c im k d no thi im bt u ca v tr, v nh chng ta s thy sau ny, im k d s bin mt mt khi ta tnh n cc hiu ng lng t. Nh chng ta thy trong chng ny, ch cha y mt na th k m quan nim ca loi ngi v v tr c hnh thnh t hng nghn nm nay bin i nh th no. Pht minh ca Hubble v v tr gin n v nhn thc v s nh nhoi ca hnh tinh chng ta trong khong bao la ca v tr chnh l im xut pht. Khi m nhng bng chng thc nghim v l thuyt c khp li, th chng ta ngy cng thy r rng v tr cn phi c im bt u trong thi gian, v mi n tn nm 1970, iu ny cui cng c Penrose v ti chng minh trn c s thuyt tng i rng ca Einstein. Chng minh ny cn ch ra rng, thuyt tng i rng cng l mt l thuyt cha hon chnh: n cha th ni cho chng ta bit v tr khi pht nh th no, v n tin on rng mi l thuyt vt l, k c chnh bn thn n, u khng cn dng c thi im bt u ca v tr. Tuy nhin, l thuyt tng i rng ch l mt l thuyt ring phn, nn iu m cc nh l v im k d thc s ch ra, l c mt lc trong giai on rt sm ca v tr, khi n cn nh ti mc khng th b qua nhng hiu ng http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
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trn quy m nh ca mt l thuyt ring phn khc cng rt v i ca th k 20, l c hc lng t. Vo nhng nm u ca thp k 70, chng ti buc phi thay i hng nghin cu v tr t l thuyt ca chng ta v cc vt cc ln ti l thuyt ca chng ta v cc vt cc nh. L thuyt , tc c hc lng t, s c m t chng sau trc khi chng ta quay tr li vi nhng n lc kt hp hai l thuyt ring phn thnh mt l thuyt duy nht: l thuyt lng t ca hp dn.
LC S THI GIAN
55
Phn 12
[...] Chng ta vn cn c th cho rng c mt tp hp cc nh lut hon ton quyt nh cc s kin dnh ring cho mt ng siu nhin no , ngi c th quan st trng thi hin thi ca v tr m khng lm nhiu ng n. Tuy nhin, nhng m hnh nh th khng li lc bao nhiu i vi nhng ngi trn th chng ta. [...]
Chng 4: Nguyn l bt nh Thnh cng ca nhiu l thuyt khoa hc m c bit l l thuyt hp dn ca Newton a nh khoa hc Php, hu tc Laplace, vo th k 19 ti lp lun rng v tr l hon ton tt nh. ng cho rng c mt tp hp cc nh lut khoa hc cho php chng ta tin on c mi chuyn xy ra trong v tr, min l chng ta phi bit c trng thi y ca v tr mt thi im. V d, nu chng ta bit v tr v vn tc ca mt tri v cc hnh tinh mt thi im, th chng ta c th dng cc nh lut Newton tnh c trng thi ca h mt tri bt k thi im no khc. Quyt nh lun dng nh kh hin nhin trong trng hp ny, nhng Laplace cn i xa hn na, ng cho rng c nhng qui lut tng t iu khin mi th khc na, k c hnh vi ca con ngi. Hc thuyt v quyt nh lun khoa hc b chng i rt mnh bi nhiu ngi, nhng ngi cm thy rng n xm phm n s t do can thip ca Cha vo th gii ny, nhng n vn cn mt s mng vi tnh cch l tiu chun ca khoa hc cho ti tn u th k ny. Mt trong nhng ch dn u tin cho thy nim tin cn phi vt b l khi nhng tnh ton ca hai nh khoa hc Anh, hun tc Rayleigh v ngi James Jeans, cho kt qu l: mt i tng hay vt th nng, chng hn mt ngi sao, cn phi pht x nng lng vi tc v hn. Theo nhng nh lut m ngi ta tin l ng thi gian th mt vt th nng cn phi pht ra cc sng in t (nh sng v tuyn, nh sng thy c, hoc tia X) nh nhau mi tn s. V d, mt vt th nng cn phi pht x mt lng nng lng nh nhau trong cc sng c tn s nm gia mt v hai triu triu sng mt giy cng nh trong cc sng c tn s nm gia hai v ba triu triu sng mt giy. V v s sng trong mt giy l khng c gii hn, nn iu ny c ngha l tng nng lng pht ra l v hn.
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trnh ci kt qu r rng l v l ny, nh khoa hc ngi c Max Planck vo nm 1900 cho rng nh sng, tia X v cc sng khc khng th c pht x vi mt tc ty , m thnh tng phn nht nh m ng gi l lng t. Hn na, mi mt lng t li c mt lng nng lng nht nh, nng lng ny cng ln nu tn s ca sng cng cao, v vy tn s cao, s pht x ch mt lng t thi cng c th i hi mt nng lng ln hn nng lng vn c ca vt. Nh vy s pht x tn s cao phi c rt bt i, khi tc mt nng lng ca vt mi cn l hu hn. Gi thuyt lng t gii thch rt tt tc pht x ca cc vt nng, nhng nhng ng ca n i vi quyt nh lun th mi ti tn nm 1926, khi mt nh khoa hc c khc l Werner Heisenberg pht biu nguyn l bt nh ni ting ca mnh, th ngi ta mi nhn thc c. tin on v tr v vn tc trong tng lai ca mt ht, ngi ta cn phi o v tr v vn tc hin thi ca n mt cch chnh xc. Mt cch hin nhin lm vic ny l chiu nh sng ln ht. Mt s sng nh sng b tn x bi ht v iu s ch v tr ca n. Tuy nhin, ngi ta khng th xc nh v tr ca ht chnh xc hn khong cch gia hai nh sng ca nh sng, v vy ngi ta phi dng nh sng c bc sng ngn o chnh xc v tr ca ht. Nhng theo gi thuyt lng t ca Planck, ngi ta khng th dng mt lng nh sng nh ty c, m phi dng t nht mt lng t. Lng t ny s lm nhiu ng ht v lm thay i vn tc ca ht mt cch khng th tin on c. Hn na, cng o chnh xc v tr ca ht, th phi cn dng nh sng c bc cng ngn, ngha l nng lng ca mt lng t cng cao. V v th vn tc ca ht s b nhiu ng mt lng cng ln. Ni mt cch khc, bn cng c gng o v tr ca ht chnh xc bao nhiu th bn s o c vn tc ca n km chnh xc by nhiu, v ngc li. Heisenberg chng t c rng bt nh v v tr ca ht nhn vi bt nh v vn tc ca n nhn vi khi lng ca ht khng bao gi nh hn mt lng xc nh - lng l hng s Planck. Hn na, gii hn ny khng ph thuc vo cch o v tr v vn tc ca ht hoc vo loi ht: nguyn l bt nh ca Heisenberg l mt tnh cht cn bn khng th trnh khi ca th gii. Nguyn l bt nh c nhng ng su sc i vi cch m chng ta nhn nhn th gii. Thm ch sau hn 50 nm chng vn cha c nhiu nh trit hc nh gi y v vn cn l ti ca nhiu cuc tranh lun. Nguyn l bt nh pht tn hiu v s co chung cho gic m ca Laplace v mt l thuyt khoa hc, mt m hnh ca v tr hon ton c tnh http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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cht tt nh: ngi ta chc chn khng th tin on nhng s kin tng lai mt cch chnh xc nu nh ngi ta khng th d ch l o trng thi hin thi ca v tr mt cch chnh xc! Chng ta vn cn c th cho rng c mt tp hp cc nh lut hon ton quyt nh cc s kin dnh ring cho mt ng siu nhin no , ngi c th quan st trng thi hin thi ca v tr m khng lm nhiu ng n. Tuy nhin, nhng m hnh nh th khng li lc bao nhiu i vi nhng ngi trn th chng ta. Tt hn l hy s dng nguyn l tit kim c bit nh li dao co ca Occam v ct b i tt c nhng nt c bit ca l thuyt m ta khng th quan st c. Cch tip cn ny dn Heisenberg, Edwin Schrodinger v Paul Dirac vo nhng nm 20 xy dng li c hc trn c s ca nguyn l bt nh thnh mt l thuyt mi gi l c hc lng t. Trong l thuyt ny, cc ht khng c v tr, khng c vn tc tch bch v khng hon ton xc nh. Thay v th chng c mt trng thi lng t l t hp ca v tr v vn tc. Ni chung, c hc lng t khng tin on mt kt qu xc nh duy nht cho mt quan st. Thay v th, n tin on mt s kt cc kh d khc nhau v ni cho chng ta bit mi mt kt cc l nh th no. Ngha l, nu ta tin hnh cng mt php o trn mt s ln cc h tng t nhau, mi mt h u khi pht mt cch ht nh nhau, th ta s thy rng kt qu ca php o c th l A trong mt s trng hp, l B trong mt s trng hp khc...Ngi ta c th tin on c gn ng s ln xut hin A hoc B, nhng ngi ta khng th tin on mt kt qu c bit no ca ch mt php o. Do , c hc lng t a vo khoa hc mt yu t khng th trnh khi - l yu t khng th tin on hay yu t ngu nhin. Einstein kch lit phn i iu ny, mc d ng ng vai tr quan trng trong s pht trin nhng tng . Einstein c trao gii thng Nobel v nhng ng gp ca ng i vi thuyt lng t. Tuy nhin ng khng bao gi chp nhn rng v tr li c iu khin bi s may ri. Nhng tnh cm ca ng c c c trong cu ni ni ting sau: Cha khng chi tr xc xc. Tuy nhin, phn ln cc nh khoa hc khc li sn sng chp nhn c hc lng t v n ph hp tuyt vi vi thc nghim. Qu tht y l mt l thuyt thnh cng rc r v l c s cho hu ht cc khoa hc v cng ngh hin i. N iu khin hnh vi ca cc tranzito v cc mch tch hp - nhng thnh phn cn bn ca cc dng c in t nh my thu hnh v computer, ng thi cng l nn tng ca ha hc v sinh hc hin i. Lnh vc duy nht ca vt l m c hc lng t cn cha thm nhp vo mt cch thch ng l hp dn v cu trc ca v tr qui m ln.
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Mc d nh sng c to bi cc sng, nhng gi thuyt lng t ca Planck ni vi chng ta rng trong mt s phng din n x s nh l c to thnh t cc ht: n c th c pht x hoc hp th ch theo tng phn ring bit hay theo cc lng t. Cng nh vy, nguyn l bt nh Heisenberg li ng rng trn mt s phng din cc ht li x s nh cc sng: chng khng c v tr xc nh m b nho i vi mt phn b xc sut no . L thuyt c hc lng t c xy dng trn mt loi ton hc hon ton mi. N khng m t th gii thc bng cc sng v cc ht na v ch c nhng quan st th gii l c th c m t bng nhng khi nim . Nh vy l gia sng v ht trong c hc lng t c tnh hai mt: i vi mt s mc ch s rt li ch nu xem ht nh cc sng v i vi nhng mc ch khc th s tt hn nu xem sng nh cc ht. Mt h qu quan trng ca iu ny l ngi ta c th quan st c ci gi l hin tng giao thoa gia hai tp hp sng hoc ht. Tc l, cc nh ca tp hp sng ny c th trng vi cc hm ca tp hp kia. Hai tp hp sng khi s trit tiu ln nhau hn l cng li tr thnh mnh hn nh ngi ta ch i (H.4.1). Mt v d quen thuc ca hin tng giao thoa nh sng l cc mu thng thy trn cc bong bng x phng. Hin tng ny c gy bi s phn x nh sng hai mt bin ca mng mng nc to nn bong bng. nh sng Hnh 4.1: Nu nh ca tp hp sng ny trng vi hm ca tp hc sng trng gm cc sng nh sng c bc sng khc kia, th chng s trit tiu ln nhau ch khng cng li tr thnh mnh hn. nhau, tc l c mu sc khc nhau. i vi mt s bc sng, nh ca cc sng phn x t mt mt bin trng vi hm sng c phn x t mt bin kia. Cc mu tng ng vi cc bc sng ny s vng mt trong nh sng phn x v do nh sng ny ha ra c mu. S giao thoa cng c th xy ra i vi cc ht v tnh hai mt c a vo bi c hc lng t. Mt v d ni ting l ci c gi l th nghim hai - khe (H.4.2). Xt mt mn chn c hai khe hp song song nhau. mt pha ca mn chn, ngi ta t mt ngun sng c mu xc nh (tc l c bc sng xc nh). a s nh sng s p vo mn chn, ch c mt lng nh i qua hai khe thi. By gi gi s t mt mn hng pha bn kia ca mn chn sng. Mi im trn mn hng s u nhn c sng nh
Hnh 4.2: Ch c mt lng sng nh i qua khe.
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sng ti t hai khe. Tuy nhin, ni chung, l trnh m nh sng i t ngun ti mn hng qua khe s l khc nhau. iu ny c ngha l cc sng nh sng ti mn hng t hai khe s khng trng pha nhau: mt s ch cc sng s trit tiu nhau v mt s ch khc chng s tng cng nhau. Kt qu l ta s nhn c bc tranh c trng gm nhng vn ti v sng xen k nhau. iu ng lu l ngi ta cng nhn c bc tranh cc vn ht nh vy nu thay ngun sng bng ngun ht, chng hn nh cc electron c vn tc xc nh (ngha l sng tng ng c bc sng xc nh). iu nay xem ra ht sc l lng, bi v nu ch c hai khe thi th ta s khng nhn c h vn no ht m ch thu c mt phn b u n ca cc electron trn mn hng. Do ngi ta c th ngh rng vic m thm mt khe na s ch lm tng s electron p vo mi im trn mn hng, nhng do hin tng giao thoa, n li lm gim con s mt s ch. Nu cc electron c gi qua hai khe mi ln mt ht, th ngi ta ch i rng mi mt ht s i qua khe ny hoc khe kia v nh vy s x s ht nh khi ch c mt khe, ngha l s cho mt phn b u trn mn hng. Nhng thc t, thm ch c khi gi mi ln mt electron, cc vn giao thoa vn c xut hin. Do mi electron phi ng thi i qua c hai khe. Hin tng giao thoa gia cc ht l hin tng c tnh cht quyt nh i vi s tm hiu ca chng ta v cu trc nguyn t - phn t c bn ca ha hc, sinh hc v cc n nguyn to nn bn thn chng ta v cc vt xung quanh chng ta. u th k ny, ngi ta ngh rng nguyn t kh ging vi h mt tri, trong cc electron (mang in m) quay xung quanh mt ht nhn trung tm mang in dng, tng t nh cc hnh tinh quay xung quanh mt tri. Lc ht gia in m v in dng c xem l lc gi cc electron trn qu o ca chng ht nh lc ht hp dn gia mt tri v cc hnh tinh gi cho cc hnh tinh trn qu o ca chng. Nhng y c mt kh khn, l cc nh lut ca c hc v in hc (trc c hc lng t), li tin on rng cc electron s mt dn nng lng v v th s chuyn ng theo ng xoy trn c i vo cho ti khi ri vo ht nhn. iu c ngha l nguyn t, v thc t l ton b vt cht, s suy sp rt nhanh v trng thi c mt rt cao. Li gii mt phn ca bi ton ny c nh khoa hc an Mch Niels Bohr tm ra vo nm 1913. ng cho rng cc electron khng th chuyn ng theo nhng qu o cch ht nhn mt khong ty m ch theo nhng qu o c khong cch xc nh. V nu cn gi thit thm rng trn mt qu o nh th ch c th c mt hoc hai electron th bi ton v s suy sp ca nguyn http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
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t xem nh c gii quyt, bi v cc electron khng th chuyn ng xoy trn c i vo mi lp y cc qu o vi cc khong cch v nng lng nh hn. M hnh ny gii thch kh tt cu trc ca nguyn t n gin nht nguyn t hydro - ch c mt electron quay xung quanh ht nhn. Nhng ngi ta cn cha r phi m rng n nh th no cho cc nguyn t phc tp hn. Hn na, tng v mt tp hp hn ch cc qu o c php dng nh l kh ty tin. L thuyt mi - tc c hc lng t - gii quyt c kh khn ny. N pht hin ra rng cc electron quay xung quanh ht nhn c th xem nh mt sng c bc sng ph thuc vo vn tc ca n. i vi mt s qu o c chiu di tng ng vi mt s nguyn ln bc sng ca electron, nh sng lun lun nhng v tr nht nh sau mi ln quay, v vy cc sng c cng li: nhng qu o ny tng ng vi cc qu o c php ca Bohr. Tuy nhin i vi cc qu o c chiu di khng bng s nguyn ln bc sng, th mi nh sng cui cng s b trit tiu bi mt hm sng khi cc electron chuyn ng trn: nhng qu o ny l khng c php. Mt cch rt hay hnh dung lng tnh sng/ht l ci c gi l php ly tng theo cc lch s qu o do nh khoa hc ngi M Rirchard Feynman xut. Trong cch tip cn ny, ht c xem l khng c mt lch s hay mt qu o duy nht trong khng - thi gian. Thay v th, ngi ta xem n i t A n B theo mi qu o kh d. Mi mt qu o c gn lin vi hai con s: mt s biu din bin ca sng, cn s kia biu din v tr trong chu k (tc l nh sng hay hm sng). Xc sut ht i t A n B tm c bng cch cng cc sng cho tt c cc qu o. Ni chung, nu ngi ta so snh tp hp cc qu o ln cn nhau, th pha hay v tr trn chu k s khc nhau nhiu. iu ny c ngha l cc sng gn lin vi nhng qu o s gn nh hon ton trit tiu nhau. Tuy nhin, i vi mt s tp hp cc qu o ln cn nhau, pha khng thay i nhiu lm gia cc qu o. Nhng sng ca cc qu o ny s khng trit tiu nhau. Nhng qu o tng ng vi cc qu o c php ca Bohr.
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Phn 13
[...] Trong mt bi bo vit nm 1905, ch t tun trc bi bo ni ting v thuyt tng i hp, Einstein ch ra rng ci c gi l chuyn ng Brown - tc l chuyn ng khng u n, ngu nhin ca cc ht bi l lng trong mt cht lng - c th c gii thch nh l kt qu ca s va chm ca cc nguyn t cht lng vi cc ht bi. [...]
Vi nhng tng , v di mt dng ton hc c th, ngi ta c th tnh khng kh khn lm nhng qu o c php trong nhng nguyn t phc tp hn, thm ch trong c cc phn t c to thnh t nhiu nguyn t lin kt vi nhau bng cc electron chuyn ng trn nhng qu o vng quanh nhiu ht nhn. V cu trc ca phn t v cc phn ng ca chng vi nhau l c s ca ton b ha hc v sinh hc, nn c hc lng t, v nguyn tc, tin on c hu nh mi th xung quanh chng ta trong gii hn do nguyn l bt nh quy nh. (Tuy vy, trn thc t, nhng tnh ton ca cc h cha nhiu electron l qu phc tp v t chng ta khng th lm c). L thuyt tng i rng ca Einstein dng nh iu khin cu trc ca v tr trn quy m ln. N c gi l l thuyt c in, tc l n cha tnh n nguyn l bt nh ca c hc lng t. Nguyn nhn ti sao iu ny li khng dn n nhng bt ng vi quan st l v tt c nhng trng hp dn m chng ta thng gp u rt yu. Tuy nhin, nhng nh l v k d c tho lun trn ch ra rng trng hp dn s tr nn rt mnh t nht trong hai tnh hung: cc l en v v n ln. Trong cc trng hp dn mnh nh th, nhng hiu ng ca c hc lng t s tr nn quan trng. Theo ngha th thuyt tng i rng c in bng s tin on nhng mt v hn, tin on c s sp ca chnh mnh, cng ht nh c hc c in (tc l phi lng t) tin on s sp ca n bng cch cho rng cc nguyn t s suy sp v trng thi c mt v hn. Chng ta hin cn cha c mt l thuyt ha hp hon chnh thng nht thuyt tng i rng vi c hc lng t, nhng chng ta bit nhiu c im m l thuyt phi c. Cc h qu rt ra t nhng c im ny i vi l en v v n ln s c m t trong cc chng sau. Tuy nhin, by gi chng ta s chuyn sang nhng n lc mi y nhm tng kt s hiu bit ca chng ta v cc lc khc nhau trong t nhin thnh mt l thuyt lng t thng nht v duy nht.
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Chng 5: Cc ht c bn v cc lc trong t nhin Aristotle tin rng ton b vt cht trong v tr c to thnh t bn yu t c bn: t, khng kh, nc v la. Cc yu t ny c tc ng bi hai lc: lc hp dn c xu hng lm chm xung i vi t v nc v lc nng c xu hng lm nng ln i vi khng kh v la. S phn chia ni dung ca v tr thnh vt cht v cc lc nh th vn cn c dng cho n ngy nay. Aristotle cng tin rng vt cht l lin tc, tc l ngi ta c th phn chia mt mu vt cht ngy cng nh m khng c mt gii hn no: ngi ta khng bao gi i ti mt ht vt cht m khng th phn chia c na. Tuy nhin mt s t ngi Hy Lp, chng hn nh Democritus, li cho rng vt cht vn c dng ht v vn vt c to thnh t mt s ln cc loi nguyn t (atom) khc nhau (atom theo ting Hy Lp c ngha l khng th phn chia c na). Cuc tranh ci ko di hng th k m khng bn no c mt bng chng thc t no. Mi ti nm 1830, John Dalton - nh vt l v ha hc ngi Anh - ch ra rng vic cc hp cht ha hc lun lun c ha hp theo nhng t l nht nh c th c gii thch l do cc nguyn t cm li vi nhau to nn nhng n nguyn gi l phn t. Tuy nhin, cho ti tn nhng nm u th k ny, cuc tranh lun gia hai trng phi t tng mi ng ng vi phn thng thuc v nhng ngi theo nguyn t lun. Einstein l ngi a ra c mt bng chng vt l quan trng. Trong mt bi bo vit nm 1905, ch t tun trc bi bo ni ting v thuyt tng i hp, Einstein ch ra rng ci c gi l chuyn ng Brown - tc l chuyn ng khng u n, ngu nhin ca cc ht bi l lng trong mt cht lng - c th c gii thch nh l kt qu ca s va chm ca cc nguyn t cht lng vi cc ht bi. Vo thi gian cng c nhng nghi ng i vi gi thuyt cho rng cc nguyn t l khng th phn chia c. Vi nm trc , mt nghin cu sinh ca trng Trinity College, Cambridge, l J.J. Thomson chng minh c s tn ti ca mt ht vt cht m ng gi l electron. l mt ht c khi lng nh hn khi lng ca nguyn t nh nht khong mt ngn ln. ng dng mt dng c kh ging vi chic n hnh ca mt my thu hnh hin i: mt si kim loi nng pht ra cc ht electron v bi v cc ht ny mang in m nn c th dng mt in trng gia tc ca chng hng ti mt mn ph photpho. Khi cc ht ny p vo mn, chng http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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s gy ra nhng chp sng. Chng bao lu sau, ngi ta thy rng cc ht electron bn ra t chnh bn trong cc nguyn t v vo nm 1911, nh vt l ngi Anh Ernest Rutherford cui cng chng t c rng cc nguyn t vt cht c cu trc bn trong: chng to bi mt ht nhn cc k nh mang in dng v cc electron quay quanh ht nhn . ng rt ra iu ny t vic phn tch s lch hng ca cc ht alpha - ht mang in dng do cc nguyn t phng x pht ra - khi va chm vi cc nguyn t Thot u ngi ta ngh rng ht nhn nguyn t c to bi electron v mt s ht mang in dng gi l proton (theo ting Hy Lp proton c ngha l u tin, v ngi ta ngh rng n l n nguyn c bn to nn vt cht). Tuy nhin, vo nm 1932 mt ng nghip ca Rutherford Cambridge l James Chadwick pht hin ra rng ht nhn cn cha mt ht khc gi l neutron. l ht c khi lng gn nh proton nhng khng mang in. Chadwick c trao gii thng Nobel v pht minh ny v c bu lm hiu trng ca trng Gonville v Caius College, Cambridge (trng m hin ti l thnh vin ca ban gim hiu). Sau ny ng phi t chc hiu trng v bt ng vi cc thnh vin trong ban gim hiu. S bt ng trong trng cn gay gt hn khi nhm cc thnh vin lnh o tr tr v sau chin tranh b phiu loi cc thnh vin gi ra khi cc chc v ca nh trng m h gi qu lu. Chuyn ny xy ra trc thi ca ti.
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Phn 14
[...] By gi th chng ta u bit rng mi mt ht u c mt phn ht v ht vi phn ht ca n c th hy nhau. [...] Nh vy c th c c cc phn th gii, phn nhn loi c to thnh t cc phn ht. Tuy nhin, nu bn gp phn ca chnh bn th ch c bt tay y! V c hai s bin mt trong chp mt. [...]
Ti tn gn hai mi nm trc (tc l cui nhng nm 1960 - VnExpress) ngi ta vn cn ngh rng proton v neutron l cc ht c bn, nhng cc th nghim trong proton va chm vi cc proton khc hoc vi cc electron vn tc cao ch ra rng thc t chng c to thnh t cc ht nh hn. Cc ht ny c nh vt l Muray Gell-Mann Hc vin k thut California gi l cc ht quark. Chnh nh cng trnh v cc ht ny m ng c trao gii thng Nobel vo nm 1969. Ngun gc ca ci tn ny l mt cu trch dn y b n t mt cun tiu thuyt ca nh vn ni ting James Joyce: Ba quark cho Muster Mark. C nhiu loi quark khc nhau: t nht c ti 6 mi m ngi ta gi l u (up), d (down), s (strange), c (charmed), b (bottom), v t (top). Mi mt mi li c ba mu: , xanh v lc. (Cn phi nhn mnh rng cc quark c bc sng nh hn nh sng nhn thy rt nhiu v v vy khng c mu theo ngha thng thng. ch l v cc nh vt l hin i c t do tng tng hn trong vic t tn cc ht v cc hin tng mi, ch khng nh trc b b hp trong ting Hy Lp). Proton v neutron c to ra t ba quark, mi quark mt mu. Mt proton cha 2 quark u v 1 quark d, cn neutron cha 2 quark d v 1 quark u. Chng ta cng c th to ra cc ht t nhng quark khc (s, c, b, v t), nhng tt c chng u c khi lng ln hn nhiu v s phn r rt nhanh thnh proton v neutron. Nh vy, hin nay chng ta bit rng cc nguyn t cng nh cc proton v neutron u khng phi l khng phn chia c na. Thnh th mt cu hi c t ra: cc ht thc s l c bn, nhng vin gch to nn vn vt l g? V bc sng ca nh sng ln hn nhiu so vi kch thc ca nguyn t, nn chng ta khng th nhn cc thnh phn ca nguyn t theo cch thng thng c. Chng ta cn phi dng ci g c bc sng nh hn. Nh chng ta thy chng trc, c hc lng t ni vi chng ta rng thc t cc ht u l sng v nng lng ca ht cng cao th bc sng ca sng tng ng cng nh. Nh vy cu tr li tt nht cho http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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cu hi ca chng ta ty thuc vo nng lng ca ht c th t ti cao n mc no, bi v iu quyt nh chng ta c th nhn c thang chiu di nh ti mc no. Nng lng ny ca cc ht thng c o bng n v gi l electron-volt. (Trong cc th nghim ca Thomson vi cc electron, chng ta thy rng ng dng in trng gia tc cc ht ny. Nng lng m mt electron thu t in trng 1 volt chnh l mt electron-volt). th k 19, khi nhng nng lng ca ht m con ngi bit cch s dng l nng lng thp ch c my electron-volt c sinh ra t cc phn ng ha hc nh s chy chng hn, ngi ta ngh rng nguyn t l phn t nh nht. Trong th nghim ca Rutherford, nng lng ca ht alpha c hng triu electron-volt. V gn y hn na, chng ta bit cch dng cc trng in t lm cho nng lng ca ht lc u t ti hng triu, ri sau ti hng t electron-volt. V nh vy, chng ta bit c rng cc ht m 20 nm trc ngi ta ngh l c bn, th thc t li c to thnh t cc ht nh hn na. Vy th liu cc ht nh ny, n lt mnh, c c to thnh t nhng ht nh hn na khng? iu ny cng rt c th, nhng chng ta c nhng cn c l thuyt tin rng chng ta c, hoc rt gn ti c, s hiu bit v nhng vin gch cui cng ny ca t nhin. Dng lng tnh sng/ht c tho lun chng trc, vn vt trong v tr, k c nh sng v hp dn u c th m t thng qua cc ht. Cc ht ny c mt tnh cht c gi l spin. Mt cch d hnh dung v spin l chng ta hy tng tng cc ht nh nhng con quay quay xung quanh trc ca chng. Tuy iu ny c th dn n nhng hiu lm, v theo c hc lng t th cc ht khng c mt trc quay no tht xc nh c. iu m spin ca mt ht ni vi chng ta l ht nhn ging ci g t cc hng khc nhau. Mt ht c spin 0 ging nh mt chm trn: n nhn t mi hng u ging ht nhau. (Hnh 5.1a). Tri li, ht c spin 1 li ging nh mt mi tn: nhn t cc hng khc nhau s thy n khc nhau (Hnh 5.1b). Ch nu ngi ta quay n trn mt vng (360 ) th ht mi nhn ging nh trc. Ht c spin 2 ging nh mt mi tn c hai u (Hnh 5.1c): n nhn ging nh trc nu quay mt na vng (180 ). Tng t, cc ht c spin cao hn s nhn ging nh trc nu quay n mt phn nh hn ca mt vng trn vn. Ton b iu ny xem ra c v kh n gin, nhng mt iu ng ch l c nhng ht nhn li khng ging nh trc d c quay n trn
Hnh 5.1 a, b, c: Hnh minh ha v cc dng spin khc nhau ca ht.
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mt vng, mun nhn n ging nh trc phi quay trn ng hai vng. Nhng ht nh vy ngi ta ni l n c spin 1/2. Tt c nhng ht trong v tr m chng ta bit c chia lm hai nhm: cc ht c spin 1/2 to nn vt cht trong v tr v cc ht c spin 0, 1, 2, nh chng ta s thy, l nhng ht gy ra cc lc gia cc ht vt cht. Cc ht vt cht tun theo ci c gi l nguyn l loi tr Pauli. iu ny c pht hin vo nm 1925 bi nh vt l ngi o Wolfgang Pauli, v v th ng c trao gii thng Nobel vo nm 1945. ng l mt nh vt l l thuyt in hnh: ngi ta ni rng thm ch s c mt ca ng mt thnh ph no cng lm cho mi th nghim sai lc ht! Nguyn l loi tr Pauli pht biu rng hai ht ng nht khng th tn ti trong cng mt trng thi, tc l chng khng th va c cng v tr va c cng vn tc, trong gii hn c quy nh bi nguyn l bt nh. Nguyn l loi tr Pauli l cc k quan trng v n cho php gii thch ti sao cc ht vt cht khng co v trng thi c mt rt cao di nh hng ca cc lc to bi nhng ht c spin 0, 1 v 2: nu cc ht vt cht c v tr rt gn nhau, th chng li phi c vn tc khc nhau m iu ny c ngha l chng khng dng lu mt v tr. Nu th gii c to ra khng c nguyn l loi tr, th cc quark s khng to nn cc ht proton v neutron tch bit v hon ton xc nh. V cng vi cc electron chng cng s khng to nn cc nguyn t tch bit v hon ton xc nh. Khi tt c chng s suy sp to nn mt mn sp c v tng i ng u. S hiu bit ng n v electron v cc ht c spin 1/2 khc ch c vo nm 1928 khi Paul Dirac a ra mt l thuyt mi. Sau ny Dirac c bu lm gio s ton hc Cambridge (cng v trc kia ca Newton v ca ti hin nay). L thuyt ca Dirac l l thuyt u tin ha hp c c vi c hc lng t v thuyt tng i hp. N gii thch c bng ton hc ti sao electron li c spin 1/2, tc l ti sao n nhn khng ging nh trc nu chng ta quay n trn mt vng; v nhn ging nh trc nu chng ta quay n trn hai vng. L thuyt ca Dirac cn tin on rng electron c mt phn ht ca n: l anti-electron hay cn gi l positron. Vic pht hin c ht positron vo nm 1932 khng nh l thuyt ca Dirac v dn ti vic ng c trao gii thng Nobel v vt l vo nm 1933. By gi th chng ta u bit rng mi mt ht u c mt phn ht v ht vi phn ht ca n c th hy nhau. (Trong trng hp cc ht mang lc th phn ht ging ht nh chnh ht ). Nh vy c th c c cc phn th gii, phn nhn loi c to thnh t cc phn ht. Tuy nhin, nu bn gp phn ca chnh bn th ch c bt tay y! V c hai s bin mt trong chp http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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mt. Vn ti sao xung quanh chng ta s ht li nhiu hn cc phn ht rt nhiu l mt vn quan trng, v ti s tr li vn ny cui chng.
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Phn 15
[...] Cc ht truyn tng tc gia nhng ht vt cht c gi l cc ht o, bi v khng ging nh cc ht thc, chng khng th c pht hin trc tip bng mt my d ht no. Tuy nhin, chng ta bit chng tn ti, v chng gy ra hiu ng c th o c: l lc gia cc ht vt cht.[...]
Trong c hc lng t, ngi ta cho rng cc lc hoc tng tc gia cc ht vt cht c truyn bi cc ht c spin nguyn 0, 1 hoc 2. iu ny xy ra nh sau: Mt ht vt cht, v d mt electron hoc mt ht quark, pht ra mt ht truyn tng tc. S git li do vic pht ny lun lm thay i vn tc ca ht vt cht . Sau , ht truyn va chm vi mt ht vt cht khc v b ht ny hp th. Kt qu vn tc ca ht th hai cng b thay i ht nh c mt lc tc dng gia hai ht vt cht . Mt tnh cht quan trng ca cc ht truyn tng tc l chng khng tun theo nguyn l loi tr. iu ny c ngha l c mt s khng hn ch cc ht nh vy c trao i gia cc ht v v vy c th lm cho lc tr nn rt mnh. Tuy nhin, nu cc ht truyn tng tc c khi lng ln, th chng s kh c to ra v kh trao i trn khong cch ln. V vy, lc do cc ht mang s c tm tc dng ngn. Ngc li, nu cc ht truyn tng tc khng c khi lng th lc c tm tc dng di. Cc ht truyn tng tc gia nhng ht vt cht c gi l cc ht o, bi v khng ging nh cc ht thc, chng khng th c pht hin trc tip bng mt my d ht no. Tuy nhin, chng ta bit chng tn ti, v chng gy ra hiu ng c th o c: l lc gia cc ht vt cht. Cc ht c spin 0, 1 hoc 2 trong mt s trng hp c th tn ti nh nhng ht thc khi chng c th c pht hin trc tip. Khi i vi chng ta chng ging nh ci m cc nh vt l c in gi l cc sng nh sng nh sng hoc sng hp dn. Cc sng ny i khi c th c pht ra khi cc ht vt cht tng tc vi nhau bng cch trao i ht lc o. (V d, lc y tnh in gia hai electron l do s trao i cc photon o m ta khng bao gi pht hin c trc tip; nhng nu mt electron chuyn ng qua mt electron khc th cc photon thc c th c pht ra v chng ta pht hin c chng nh cc sng nh sng). Cc ht truyn tng tc c th nhm li thnh bn loi ty theo cng ca lc m chng mang v cc ht vt cht m chng tng tc. Cn nhn mnh rng s phn chia thnh bn loi ny c tnh cht http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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nhn to, n ch thun tin cho vic xy dng cc l thuyt ring phn m thi, ch khng tng ng vi mt iu g su sc hn. Xt n cng, phn ng cc nh vt l u hy vng tm c mt l thuyt thng nht c kh nng gii thch bn loi lc ni trn ch l nhng mt khc nhau ca mt lc duy nht. Thc t, nhiu ngi cn ni rng l mc tiu hng u ca vt l hc ngy nay. Mi y, ngi ta thnh cng trong vic thng nht c 3 trong s 4 loi lc trn v ti s cp n vn ny cui chng. Vn thng nht nt lc cn li l hp dn ta s cp n sau. Loi lc u tin l lc hp dn. Lc ny c tnh cht ph qut, tc l mi ht u cm thy n ty theo khi lng hoc nng lng ca ht. Trong s bn lc, th lc hp dn l yu nht, yu ti mc chng ta s khng th nhn thy n, nu n khng c hai tnh cht c bit sau: n c th tc dng trn khong cch ln v lun lun l lc ht. iu ny c ngha l nhng lc hp dn rt yu gia cc ht c th thuc hai vt th ln, chng hn nh tri t v mt tri, c th c cng gp li to nn mt lc ln. Ba loi lc cn li, hoc c tm tc dng ngn, hoc i khi l lc ht v i khi li l lc y, v vy chng c xu hng trit tiu nhau. Theo cch nhn nhn ca c hc lng t i vi lc hp dn, th lc gia hai ht vt cht c mang bi mt ht c spin 2, gi l ht graviton. Ht ny khng c khi lng ring v v vy c tm tc dng di. Lc hp dn gia tri t v mt tri chnh l do s trao i cc graviton gia cc ht to nn hai vt th . Mc d cc ht c trao i l o, nhng iu chc chn l chng to ra mt hiu ng o c - l lm cho tri t quay xung quanh mt tri. Cc graviton to nn ci m cc nh vt l c in gi l cc sng hp dn, chng rt yu v kh pht hin ti mc cho n nay vn cha quan st c. Loi lc tip sau l lc in t. y l lc tng tc gia cc ht mang in nh cc electron v cc quark, ch khng phi gia cc ht khng mang in nh graviton. Lc ny ln hn lc hp dn nhiu: lc in t gia hai electron khong triu triu triu triu triu triu triu (1 vi bn mi hai s 0 tip sau) ln ln hn lc hp dn gia chng. Tuy nhin, c hai loi in tch, in tch m v in tch dng. Lc gia hai in tch dng cng nh hai in tch m u l lc y, trong khi lc gia mt in tch dng v mt in tch m li l lc ht. Mt vt th ln nh tri t hoc mt tri cha cc in tch dng v m vi s lng gn nh nhau. V vy lc ht v lc y ca cc ht c th gn nh trit tiu nhau v lc in t tng cng cn li rt nh. Tuy nhin, quy m nh nh cc nguyn t v phn t lc in t li chim u th. Lc ht in t gia cc electron mang in m v cc proton mang in dng trong ht nhn lm cho cc electron quay xung http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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quanh ht nhn ca nguyn t, ht nh lc hp dn lm cho tri t quay xung quanh mt tri. Lc in t c hnh dung nh c gy bi s trao i mt s ln cc ht o khng khi lng, c spin 1 gi l cc photon. Cc photon c trao i l cc ht o. Tuy nhin, khi electron chuyn t mt qu o c php ny sang mt qu o c php khc gn ht nhn hn, nng lng s c gii phng v mt photon thc c pht ra - photon ny c th quan st c bng mt ngi nu n c bc sng ng vi nh sng nhn thy hoc bi mt mng nh phim nh, chng hn. Cng nh vy, nu mt photon thc va chm vi mt nguyn t n c th lm cho mt electron chuyn t qu o gn ht nhn hn sang qu o xa hn. Qu trnh ny s dng ht nng lng ca photon, v vy n b hp th. Loi lc th ba c gi l lc ht nhn yu. N gy ra s phng x v ch tc dng ln cc ht c spin 1/2 ch khng tc dng ln cc ht c spin 0, 1 hoc 2 nh photon v graviton. Lc ht nhn yu ch c hiu thu o t nm 1967, khi Abdus Salam trng Imperal College, London v Steven Weinberg i hc Harvard a ra cc l thuyt thng nht tng tc ny vi tng tc in t, ht nh Maxwell thng nht lc in vi lc t khong 100 nm trc. H a ra gi thuyt cho rng, ngoi photon, cn c ba ht spin 1 khc gi l cc ht boson mang lc yu. l cc ht W+, W- v Zo, mi ht c khi lng khong 100 GeV (GeV l giga electron-volt, bng mt t electron-volt). L thuyt Weinberg - Salam a ra mt tnh cht gi l s ph v i xng t pht. iu ny c ngha l mt s ht tng nh l hon ton khc nhau nng lng thp thc t li l cng mt loi ht, ch c iu trng thi khc nhau m thi. mc nng lng cao, tt c cc ht ny phn ng hon ton tng t nhau. Hiu ng ny kh ging vi hnh trng ca qu cu trong tr quay x s. mc nng lng cao (tc khi bnh xe quay nhanh), qu cu v cn bn phn ng theo mt cch, l quay trn, quay trn. Nhng khi bnh xe quay chm li, nng lng ca qu cu gim v cui cng qu cu s ri vo mt trong s 36 rnh trong bnh xe. Ni mt cch khc, mc nng lng thp, qu cu c th tn ti trong 36 trng thi khc nhau. Nu v mt nguyn nhn no , chng ta ch c th quan st c qu cu mc nng lng thp, ta c th ngh rng c 36 loi qu cu khc nhau. Trong l thuyt Weinberg - Salam, nhng mc nng lng ln hn 100 GeV nhiu, ba ht mi v photon phn ng mt cch hon ton tng t nhau. nhng mc nng lng thp hn, iu m ta hay gp trong nhng tnh hung bnh thng, th s i xng ny gia cc ht s b ph v. W+, W- v Zo khi s c khi lng ln, v lm cho cc lc m chng mang http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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c tm tc dng ngn. Vo thi Salam v Weinberg a ra l thuyt ca mnh, cn t ngi tin h v cc my gia tc ht cn cha mnh t ti nng lng 100 GeV - nng lng cn phi c to ra cc ht W+, W- v Zo thc. Tuy nhin, khong gn mi nm sau, nhng tin on khc ca l thuyt nng lng thp ph hp rt tt vi thc nghim, khin cho vo nm 1979 Salam v Weinberg c trao gii thng Nobel v vt l cng vi Sheldon Glashow, mt nh vt l cng i hc Harvard v cng a ra mt l thuyt tng t thng nht lc in t v lc ht nhn yu. y ban trao gii Nobel hon ton yn tm, khng s mc sai lm khi m vo nm 1983 ti CERN (Trung tm nghin cu ht nhn chu u) ngi ta pht hin c ba ht W+, W- v Zo vi khi lng v cc tnh cht khc ng nh l thuyt tin on. Carlo Rubbia, ngi lnh o mt nhm nghin cu gm khong vi trm nh vt l - tc gi ca pht minh - c trao gii thng Nobel vo nm 1984 cng vi Simon Van der Meer, mt k s CERN, ngi pht trin mt h thng tch ly phn vt cht c s dng trong pht minh trn. (Tht kh t mt du n trong vt l thc nghim nhng ngy ny nu bn khng nh cao!). Loi lc th t l lc ht nhn mnh. y l lc gi cho cc ht quark trong proton v neutron trong ht nhn nguyn t. Ngi ta tin rng lc ny c mang bi mt ht c spin 1 khc gi l gluon. Ht gluon ch tng tc vi chnh n v vi cc quark. Lc ht nhn mnh c mt tnh cht rt l gi l "s cm t": n lun lun lin kt cc ht ny li thnh nhng t hp khng c mu. Nh vy ta khng th c mt ht quark ring r t n v n s c mu (, xanh hoc lc). Thay v th, mt quark cn phi lin kt vi mt quark xanh v mt quark lc bng mt dy cc gluon ( + xanh + lc = trng). Mt tam tuyn nh th to nn mt proton hoc mt neutron. Mt kh nng khc l cp to bi mt quark v mt phn-quark ( + phn-, hoc xanh + phn-xanh, hoc lc + phn-lc = trng). Cc t hp nh vy to nn cc ht bit nh cc meson l nhng ht khng bn, v quark v phn-quark c th hy nhau to thnh cc electron v cc ht khc. Tng t, s cm t cng khng cho php c mt gluon ring l t n, v cc gluon cng c mu. Thay v th, ngi ta cn phi c mt tp hp cc gluon vi tng mu l trng. Mt tp hp nh th to nn mt ht khng bn gi l glueball. Vic "s cm t" khng cho php chng ta quan st c mt ht quark hoc mt gluon c lp dng nh lm cho ton b khi nim v cc quark v gluon nh cc ht tr nn hi c v siu hnh. Tuy nhin, lc ht nhn http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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mnh cn c mt tnh cht khc, gi l s t do tim cn, lm cho khi nim v cc ht quark v gluon tr nn hon ton xc nh. nhng mc nng lng bnh thng, lc ht nhn mnh thc t l rt mnh v n lin kt cc ht quark rt cht vi nhau. Tuy nhin, nhng thc nghim trn cc my gia tc ln cho thy, nhng mc nng lng cao, lc mnh tr nn yu hn nhiu v cc quark cng nh cc gluon x s gn nh cc ht t do.
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Phn 16
[...] Cc l thuyt thng nht ln khng bao hm lc hp dn. iu ny khng phi l qu nghim trng bi v hp dn l lc yu ti mc cc hiu ng ca n thng c th b qua khi cp ti cc ht c bn trong nguyn t. Tuy nhin, v n c tm tc dng di v li lun lun l lc ht nn cc hiu ng ca n u c cng li. [...]
Hnh 5.2 cho thy bc nh chp s va chm ca mt proton v mt phn-proton mc nng lng cao. Mt s ht quark gn nh t do c to ra v lm xut hin cc tia vt nhn r trn hnh v.
Hnh 5.2: nh chp s va chm ca mt proton v mt phn-proton mc nng lng cao. Ht quark sinh ra to ra cc tia trong hnh.
Thnh cng ca s thng nht cc lc in t v ht nhn yu dn ti nhiu c gng nh kt hp hai lc ny vi lc ht nhn mnh nhm xy dng mt l thuyt gi l l thuyt thng nht ln (vit tt l GUT - Grand Unified Theory). Ci tn ny c v hi cng iu, v cc l thuyt nh vy cha hon ton l ln v cng cha thng nht c hon ton, do chng khng bao gm c lc hp dn. Chng cng li cha phi l nhng l thuyt thc s hon chnh v cn cha nhiu tham s c gi tr khng th tin on c t l thuyt m li cn phi chn lm khp vi thc nghim. Tuy nhin, nhng l thuyt ny l mt bc tin ti mt l thuyt thng nht y v hon chnh. T tng c bn ca cc GUT l, nh ni trn, lc ht nhn mnh tr nn yu hn khi nng lng cao. Tri li, cc lc in t v ht nhn yu - vn khng c tnh t do tim cn - li mnh hn ln nhng mc nng lng . V vy, mt mc nng lng rt cao no - gi l nng lng thng nht ln - c ba lc ny s c cng nh nhau v nh vy c th ch l nhng mt khc nhau ca cng mt lc duy nht. Cc GUT cng tin on rng nng lng ny, cc ht vt cht khc nhau c spin 1/2, nh cc quark v electron, v cn bn cng s hon ton nh nhau v nh vy l t ti mt s thng nht na. Gi tr ca nng lng thng nht ln cn cha c bit mt cch chnh xc, nhng c l t nht cng phi c mt ngn triu triu GeV. Th h cc my gia tc ht hin nay c th lm cho cc ht va chm nng lng c 100 GeV v cc my gia tc d nh s xy dng c th nng con s ny ln
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ti c vi ngn GeV. Nhng mt my mnh gia tc cc ht ti nng lng thng nht ln phi c kch thc c gn bng c h mt tri, iu m bi cnh kinh t hin nay khng cho php. Nh vy ta khng th kim chng cc GUT mt cch trc tip trong phng th nghim c. Tuy nhin, cng nh i vi trng hp l thuyt thng nht lc in t v ht nhn yu, c nhng h qu ca l thuyt nng lng thp m chng ta c th kim chng c. L th nht trong s cc h qu ny l tin on cho rng cc proton tc l cc ht to nn phn ln khi lng ca vt cht thng thng c th t phn r thnh cc ht nh hn nh cc phn electron. S d iu ny c th l bi v nng lng thng nht ln khng c s khc nhau cn bn gia quark v phn electron. Ba quark trong proton thng khng c nng lng bin i thnh cc phn - electron, nhng rt him hoi, c th mt trong ba ht c nng lng thc hin bin i trn, bi v nguyn l bt nh ni rng nng lng ca cc quark trong proton khng th c nh mt cch chnh xc. V khi , proton c th phn r. Xc sut mt ht quark c nng lng l thp ti mc ngi ta cn phi ch i khong mt triu triu triu triu triu (1 v ba mi con s 0 tip sau) nm. Nh vy, ngi ta c th xem rng kh nng phn r t pht ca proton l khng th kim chng bng thc nghim c. Tuy nhin, ngi ta tng c may pht hin s phn r bng cch quan st mt s lng ln vt cht cha mt s rt ln proton. (V d, nu ngi ta quan st mt s lng proton c 1 v ba mi con s 0 tip sau trong sut mt nm, th theo GUT, n gin nht ngi ta c th hy vng quan st c hn mt vng phn r ca proton). Nhiu th nghim nh th c thc hin, nhng cha c mt th nghim no cho mt bng chng xc thc v s phn r ca proton hoc neutron. Mt th nghim dng ti 8.000 tn nc v c thc hin m mui Morton bang Ohio, Hoa K ( trnh nhng s kin khc do tia v tr gy ra ln ln vi s phn r ca proton). V khng c mt phn r t pht no ca proton quan st c trong qu trnh thc nghim, ngi ta c th c tnh c rng thi gian sng ca proton phi ln hn 10 triu triu triu triu triu (1 v ba mi con s 0 tip sau) nm. Con s ny cn ln hn c thi gian sng ca proton c tin on bi l thuyt thng nht ln n gin nht, nhng cng c nhng l thuyt tinh xo hn tin on thi gian sng cn lu hn. Nh vy cn phi c nhng th nghim nhy hn na dng nhng lng vt cht cn ln hn na kim chng nhng l thuyt . http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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Mc d rt kh m quan st c s phn r t pht ca proton nhng cng c th chnh s tn ti ca chng ta li l kt qu ca qu trnh ngc li, qu trnh to ra cc proton hay n gin hn l to ra cc quark t mt tnh hung ban u trong s quark khng nhiu hn s phn-quark (gi thuyt ny l cch t nhin nht hnh dung s khi pht ca v tr). Vt cht trn tri t ch yu c to bi cc proton v neutron, v n lt mnh cc ht ny c to bi cc quark. Hon ton khng c cc phn-proton v phn-neutron to bi cc phn-quark, tr mt s t do cc nh vt l to ra trong cc my gia tc ln. Chng ta c nhng bng chng t cc tia v tr cho thy iu ny cng ng i vi vt cht trn thin h chng ta: khng c cc phn-proton v phn-neutron tr mt s t c to ra nh cc cp ht/phn ht trong cc va chm nng lng cao. Nu c nhng vng ln phn vt cht trong thin h chng ta, th chng ta phi quan st thy mt lng ln bc x ti t vng ranh gii gia cc vng vt cht v phn vt cht, ni nhiu ht c th va chm vi cc phn ht ca chng, ri hy nhau to thnh cc bc x nng lng cao. Chng ta khng c bng chng trc tip cho thy vt cht cc thin h khc, bi cc proton v neutron, hay bi cc phn-proton v phn-neutron, nhng n phi ch l loi ny hoc loi kia: khng th c s hn hp trong mt thin h, bi v nu khng nh vy, chng ta li s phi quan st c mt lng ln ba x sinh ra do s hy. Do , chng ta tin rng tt c cc thin h u c to bi cc quark hn l cc phn-quark, cn kh nng mt s thin h l vt cht v mt s thin h khc l phn-vt cht thun ty l iu rt ng ng. Vy ti sao s lng cc quark li ln hn nhiu so vi s lng cc phnquark? Ti sao s lng mi loi li khng bng nhau? Cng may cho chng ta l s lng ca chng khng bng nhau, bi v nu khng th gn nh hu ht cc quark v phn-quark s hy nhau giai on u ca v tr v cho v tr ch cn cha y bc x, tr mt lng rt t vt cht. Khi s chng c cc thin h, chng c cc v sao v cng chng c cc hnh tinh ni i sng ca con ngi c th pht trin c. May mn thay, cc l thuyt thng nht ln a ra mt cch l gii ti sao v tr hin nay li cha mt s lng quark nhiu hn phn-quark, cho d lc ban u s lng mi loi c th bng nhau. Nh chng ta thy, cc GUT cho php cc quark bin i thnh cc electron nng lng cao. Chng cng cho php cc qu trnh ngc li, cc phn-quark bin thnh electron v cc electron v phn-electron bin thnh phn-quark v quark. C mt thi gian trong giai on rt sm ca v tr khi m v tr nng ti mc nng lng http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
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ca cc ht cao cho cc bin ha c th xy ra. Nhng ti sao xu hng bin thnh quark li nhiu hn to thnh phn-quark? Nguyn do l cc nh lut vt l khng hon ton nh nhau i vi ht v phn ht. Cho n tn nm 1956 ngi ta vn tin rng cc nh lut vt l u tun theo ba i xng c tn l C, P v T mt cch ring bit. i xng C c ngha l cc nh lut i vi ht v phn ht l nh nhau. i xng P c ngha l cc nh lut l nh nhau i vi mt tnh hung bt k v nh gng ca n (nh gng ca mt ht quay theo hng phi s l ht quay theo hng tri). Cn i xng T c ngha l nu ta o ngc chiu chuyn ng ca tt c cc ht v phn ht th h s tr li cc trng thi m n qua nhng thi im sm hn; ni mt cch khc, cc nh lut s khng thay i theo hng tin hoc li ca thi gian. Nm 1956 hai nh vt l M l Tsung-Dao Lee v Chen Ninh Yang a ra gi thuyt rng lc yu khng tun theo i xng P. Ni mt cch khc, lc yu lm cho v tr pht trin theo cch khc vi cch m nh gng ca v tr pht trin. Cng nm mt ng nghip ca h l Chien-Shiung Wu chng minh c rng tin on l ng n. B lm iu bng cch sp ht nhn ca cc nguyn t phng x trong t trng sao cho chng quay theo cng mt hng v chng t rng cc electron c pht ra theo mt hng nhiu hn theo hng khc. Nm sau Lee v Yang c trao gii thng Nobel cho tng ca h. Ngi ta cng thy rng lc yu khng tun theo i xng C. iu ny c ngha l lc yu lm cho v tr gm cc phn ht x s khc vi v tr ca chng ta. Tuy nhin, dng nh lc yu li tun theo i xng t hp CP. Ngha l v tr s pht trin theo cch ht nh nh gng ca n nu thm vo mi ht c thay bng phn ht ca n! Tuy nhin, vo nm 1964 hai ngi M na l J. W. Cronin v Val Fitch pht hin ra rng i xng CP khng c tun theo trong phn r ca nhng ht gi l K-Meson. Cronin v Fitch cui cng c trao gii thng Nobel cho cng trnh ca h vo nm 1980. (Kh nhiu gii thng c trao chng t rng v tr khng n gin nh chng ta ngh). C mt nh l ton hc ni rng mi thyt tun theo c hc lng t v thuyt tng i u phi lun lun tun theo i xng t hp CPT. Ni mt cch khc, v tr s x s nh trc nu ta thay ht bng phn ht. Ly nh gng v nghch o hng thi gian. Nhng Cronin v Fitch chng minh c rng nu ngi ta thay ht bng phn ht v ly nh gng nhng khng nghch o hng thi gian th v tr khng x s nh trc http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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na. Do cc nh lut vt l cn phi thay i nu ta i hng thi gian, ngha l chng khng tun theo i xng T. Chc chn l trong giai on u, v tr khng tun theo i xng T: v thi gian tri v pha trc theo hng v tr gin n (nu thi gian tri git li, v tr s co li). V do c nhng lc khng tun theo i xng T, suy ra rng v v tr gin n nn nhng lc ny c th lm cho cc phn electron bin thnh quark nhiu hn cc electron bin thnh phn - quark. Sau , v v tr gin n v lnh i, cc phn - quark s hy vi cc quark, nhng v c nhiu quark hn phn-quark nn mt s nh quark cn d li to nn vt cht m chng ta thy hm nay, trong c c bn thn chng ta. Nh vy chnh s tn ti ca chng ta c th c xem nh mt bng chng khng nh cc l thuyt thng nht ln, mc d mi ch l mt khng nh nh tnh m thi. Nhng bt nh cn nhiu ti mc ngi ta khng th tin on c s lng cc quark cn li sau qu trnh hy hoc thm ch cn cha tin on c cc ht cn li l quark hay phn-quark. (Tuy nhin, nu s ht d tha l phn-quark th chng ta n gin c th gi phn-quark l quark v quark l phn-quark). Cc l thuyt thng nht ln khng bao hm lc hp dn. iu ny khng phi l qu nghim trng bi v hp dn l lc yu ti mc cc hiu ng ca n thng c th b qua khi cp ti cc ht c bn trong nguyn t. Tuy nhin, v n c tm tc dng di v li lun lun l lc ht nn cc hiu ng ca n u c cng li. V vy i vi mt s lng ht vt cht ln lc hp dn c th s ln t tt c cc lc khc. iu ny gii thch ti sao hp dn chnh l lc quyt nh s tin ha ca v tr. Thm ch i vi cc vt th c kch thc nh mt ngi sao thi, lc hp dn cng c th thng tt c cc lc khc v lm cho ngi sao b co li. Cng trnh ca ti trong nhng nm 1980 tp trung vo cc l en - mt i tng c th l kt qu co li ca mt ngi sao - v lc hp dn xung quanh n. Chnh iu ny dn ti nhng gi u tin v vic phi kt hp c hc lng t vi thuyt tng i rng - mt hnh bng u tin v thuyt lng t ca hp dn trong tng lai.
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Phn 17
Thut ng l en cn rt mi. N c nh khoa hc ngi M John Wheeler a ra vo nm 1969 nhm m t mt cch hnh tng mt tng bt ngun t nht khong 200 nm trc, vo thi m cn c hai l thuyt v nh sng: mt l thuyt c Newton ng h cho rng nh sng c to thnh t cc ht, cn l thuyt kia cho rng n c to thnh t cc sng. Chng 6: L en
Thut ng l en cn rt mi. N c nh khoa hc ngi M John Wheeler a ra vo nm 1969 nhm m t mt cch hnh tng mt tng bt ngun t nht khong 200 nm trc, vo thi m cn c hai l thuyt v nh sng: mt l thuyt c Newton ng h cho rng nh sng c to thnh t cc ht, cn l thuyt kia cho rng n c to thnh t cc sng. Hin nay ta bit rng c hai l thuyt trn u ng. Theo quan im nh nguyn sng/ht ca c hc lng t, th nh sng c th xem nh va l sng va l ht. Theo l thuyt sng v nh sng th khng r n s phn ng th no i vi hp dn. Nhng nu nh sng c to thnh t cc ht th ngi ta c th ngh rng n s b tc ng bi hp dn ht nh cc vin n i bc, tn la v cc hnh tinh. Ban u ngi ta tng rng nh sng truyn vi vn tc ln v hn v nh th th hp dn khng th no lm cho n chm li c, nhng pht minh ca Roemer cho thy nh sng truyn vi vn tc hu hn, iu c ngha l hp dn c th c tc ng quan trng. Da trn gii thuyt , mt ging vin ca i hc Cambridge l John Michell vit mt bi bo in trn tp ch nhng vn kin trit hc ca Hi Hong gia London (Philosophical Transaction of the Royal Society of London) vo nm 1783, trong ng ch ra rng mt ngi sao nng v c c th c trng hp dn mnh ti mc khng cho nh sng thot ra c: bt k nh sng no pht ra t b mt ngi sao cng u b ko ngc tr li trc khi n kp truyn i rt xa. Michell cho rng c th c mt s rt ln nhng sao nh vy. Mc d chng ta khng th nhn thy nhng ngi sao bi v nh sng t nhng ngi sao khng n c chng ta, nhng chng ta vn cm thy c lc ht hp dn ca http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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chng. Nhng i tng l ci by gi chng ta gi l l en, bi v thc t chng l nhng khong en trong v tr. Mt gi thuyt tng t cng c mt nh khoa hc ngi Php l hu tc de Laplace a ra sau t nm, tt nhin l c lp vi Michell. Mt iu kh l th l Laplace ch a ra gi thuyt ny vo ln xut bn th nht v th hai ca cun sch H thng th gii, nhng ri li b i trong nhng ln xut bn sau, chc ng cho rng l mt tng in r. (Cng nh l thuyt ht ca nh sng khng c ng h trong sut th k 19, v dng nh mi chuyn u c th gii thch bng l thuyt sng, nhng theo l thuyt sng th hon ton khng r nh sng b hp dn tc ng nh th no). Thc t, xem nh sng nh nhng vin n i bc trong l thuyt hp dn ca Newton l hon ton khng thch hp bi v nh sng c vn tc c nh. (Mt vin n i bc khi bn ln t mt t s b lc hp dn lm cho chuyn ng chm li v cui cng s dng li v ri xung, trong khi ht photon vn phi tip tc bay ln vi vn tc khng i. Vy th lc hp dn ca Newton lm th no c th tc ng ti nh sng?). Phi mi cho ti khi Einstein a ra thuyt tng i rng vo nm 1915, ta mi c mt l thuyt nht qun cho bit hp dn tc ng nh th no n nh sng. V thm ch ngay c khi cng phi mt mt thi gian sau ngi ta mi hiu c nhng h qu ca l thuyt i vi cc sao nng. hiu mt l en c th c hnh thnh nh th no, trc ht chng ta phi hiu vng i ca mt ngi sao. Mt ngi sao c hnh thnh khi mt lng ln kh (m ch yu l hydro) bt u co li do lc ht hp dn ca chnh mnh. V v khi cc khi kh co li, nn cc nguyn t kh va chm nhau thng xuyn hn v ngy cng c vn tc ln hn dn ti khi kh nng ln. Cui cng, khi kh s nng ti mc khi cc nguyn t hydro va chm nhau chng s khng ri nhau ra na m lin kt vi nhau thnh nguyn t heli. Nhit gii phng ra t phn ng ny - ging nh v n ca bom khinh kh - s lm cho ngi sao pht sng. Lng nhit cng lm tng p sut ca khi kh cho ti khi cn bng vi lc ht hp dn v khi kh ngng co li. iu ny cng hi ging vi trng hp qu kh cu, trong c s cn bng gia p sut ca khng kh bn trong c xu hng lm cho qu kh cu phng ra v sc cng ca v cao su c xu hng lm cho n co li. Nhng ngi sao s cn n nh nh th mt thi gian di vi nhit t cc phn ng ht nhn ta ra cn bng vi lc ht hp dn. Tuy nhin, cui cng ri cc ngi sao cng s dng ht s kh hydro v cc nhin http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
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liu ht nhn ca n. Mt iu tht nghch l l cc ngi sao cng c nhiu nhin liu lc bt u th s ht cng sm. l bi v ngi sao cng nng th n phi cng nng cn bng vi lc ht hp dn. M n cng nng th s dng ht s nhin liu ca n cng nhanh. Mt tri ca chng ta c l cn nhin liu cho khong gn nm ngn triu nm na, nhng nhng ngi sao nng hn c th dng ht nhin liu ca chng ch trong khong mt trm triu nm, t hn tui ca v tr rt nhiu. Khi mt ngi sao ht nhin liu, n s lnh i v co li. Ch cui nhng nm 20, ngi ta mi hiu c iu g xy ra i vi n khi . Nm 1928 mt sinh vin n mi tt nghip i hc tn l Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar dong thuyn ti nc Anh theo hc nh thin vn ngi Arthur Eddington, mt chuyn gia v thuyt tng i rng Cambridge. (Theo mt s d lun, th mt nh bo vo u nhng nm 20 c ni vi Eddington, rng ng ta nghe ni c th gii ch c ba ngi hiu c thuyt tng i rng. Eddington im lng mt lt ri ni: Ti cn ang c ngh xem ngi th ba l ai). Trong sut chuyn chu du ca mnh t n , Chandrasekhar gii quyt c vn : mt ngi sao c th ln ti mc no khi s dng ht nhin liu vn chng chi c vi lc hp dn ring ca n. tng ca ng nh sau: khi mt ngi sao tr nn nh, cc ht vt cht s rt gn nhau, v v vy theo nguyn l loi tr Pauli, chng cn phi c vn tc khc nhau. iu ny lm cho chng chuyn ng ra xa nhau v v th c xu hng lm cho sao gin n ra. Do mt ngi sao c th t duy tr c mt bn knh khng i bng cch gi cn bng gia lc ht hp dn v lc y xut hin do nguyn l loi tr, ht nh giai on u trong cuc i ca n lc hp dn c cn bng bi nhit. Tuy nhin, Chandrasekhar thy rng lc y do nguyn l loi tr to ra c mt gii hn. L thuyt tng i rng t mt gii hn cho s khc bit cc i v vn tc ca cc ht vt cht trong cc ngi sao - l vn tc ca nh sng. iu ny c ngha l khi mt ngi sao c, lc y gy bi nguyn l loi tr s nh hn lc ht hp dn. Chandrasekhar tnh ra rng mt ngi sao lnh c khi lng ln hn khi lng mt tri chng 1,5 ln s khng th t chng chi ni vi lc hp dn ring ca n. (Khi lng ny hin nay c gi l gii hn Chandrasekhar). Pht minh tng t cng c nh khoa hc ngi Nga Lev Davidovich Landau a ra vo cng thi gian .
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iu ny c nhng h qu quan trng i vi s phn ti hu ca cc ngi sao nng. Nu khi lng ca mt ngi sao nh hn gii hn Chandrasekhar, th cui cng n cng c th ngng co li v yn phn trng thi cui cng kh d nh mt sao ln trng vi bn knh ch khong vi ngn dm v mt khong vi trm tn trong mt inch khi. Sao ln trng chng c vi lc ht hp dn l bi lc y do nguyn l loi tr sinh ra gia cc electron trong vt cht ca n. Chng ta quan st c mt s kh ln nhng sao ln trng ny. Mt trong nhng sao ln u tin quan st c l ngi sao quay xung quanh sao Thin Lang (Sirius) - ngi sao sng nht trn bu tri m. Landau ch ra rng cn c mt trng thi cui cng kh d na cho cc ngi sao c khi lng gii hn c 1 n 2 ln ln hn khi lng mt tri nhng c kch thc cn nh hn c cc sao ln trng nhiu. Cc sao ny chng chi c vi lc ht hp dn, bi lc y do nguyn l loi tr to ra gia cc neutron v proton ln hn l gia cc electron. Do chng c gi l cc sao neutron. Chng c bn knh ch c mi dm v c mt c vi trm triu tn trn mt inch khi. Khi sao neutron ln u tin c tin on, ngi ta khng c cch no quan st c chng v thc t mi rt lu v sau ngi ta cng khng pht hin c. Tri li, nhng ngi sao c khi lng ln hn gii hn Chandrasekhar li c vn rt ln t ra khi chng dng ht nhin liu. Trong mt s trng hp chng c th n hoc iu chnh rt bt i mt lng vt cht lm gim khi lng ca n xung di gii hn v nh vy s trnh c tai ha co li do hp dn. Tuy nhin, tht kh lng tin c rng iu ny lun lun xy ra bt k ngi sao ln ti mc no. V li, lm sao bit c n cn phi gim trng lng? V cho d mi ngi sao u bit iu chnh gim khi lng trnh c qu trnh co li th iu g s xy ra nu ta thm khi lng cho mt sao ln trng hoc sao neutron khi lng ca n ln hn khi lng gii hn? Liu n c co li ti mt v hn khng? Eddington b sc bi h qu v ng chi b khng tin kt qu ca Chandrasekhar. Eddington ngh rng n gin l khng th c mt ngi sao c th co li thnh mt im c. cng l quan im ca a s cc nh khoa hc. Chnh Einstein cng vit mt bi bo trong ng tuyn b rng mt ngi sao khng th co li ti kch thc bng 0 c! Trc s chng i ca cc nh khoa hc khc, m c bit l Eddington va l thy gio c va l ngi c uy tn hng u v cu trc cc sao, Chandrasekhar nh b phng hng nghin cu ca mnh v chuyn sang nghin cu nhng vn khc trong thin vn hc nh s chuyn ng http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
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ca cc cm sao. Tuy nhin, khi ng c trao gii thng Nobel vo nm 1938, th t nht cng mt phn l do cng trnh u tay ca ng v khi lng gii hn ca cc sao lnh. Chandrasekhar chng minh c rng nguyn l loi tr khng th ngn chn c s co li ca cc ngi sao c khi lng ln hn gii hn Chandrasekhar, nhng vn hiu c iu g s xy ra i vi nhng sao nh vy theo thuyt tng i rng th phi ti nm 1939 mi c nh khoa hc tr ngi M l Robert Oppenheimer gii quyt ln u tin. Tuy nhin, kt qu ca ng cho thy rng khng c mt h qu quan st no c th pht hin c bng cc knh thin vn thi . Ri chin tranh th gii th 2 xy ra, v chnh Oppenheimer li cun ht vo d n bom nguyn t. Sau chin tranh, vn s co li do hp dn b lng qun v a s cc nh khoa hc bt u lao vo cc hin tng xy ra trong quy m nguyn t v ht nhn ca n. Tuy nhin, vo nhng nm 60 s quan tm ti cc vn thang v m ca thin vn hc v v tr hc li sng dy v s lng cng nh tm quan st thin vn tng ln rt ln, do vic p dng nhng cng ngh hin i. Cng trnh ca Oppenheimer khi li c pht hin li v c m rng thm bi nhiu ngi khc.
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Phn 18
[...] K d lun lun nm tng lai ch khng bao gi nm qu kh ca anh ta. Gi thuyt kim duyt v tr mnh pht biu rng trong nghim hin thc th cc k d lun lun hoc hon ton nm trong tng lai (nh cc k d do qu trnh co li do hp dn) hoc hon ton nm trong qu kh (nh v n ln). [...]
Bc tranh m hin nay chng ta c t cng trnh ca Oppenheimer nh sau: trng hp dn ca ngi sao lm thay i ng truyn ca cc tia sng trong khng-thi gian. Cc nn nh sng - ch ng truyn trong khngthi gian ca cc chp sng c pht ra t nh ca nn - s hi b un vo pha trong, pha gn vi b mt ca sao. iu ny c th thy c theo qu o cong ca tia sng pht t nhng ngi sao xa trong qu trnh nht thc. V ngi sao nng ang co li, nn trng hp dn b mt ca n ngy cng mnh v nn nh sng cng b un cong vo pha trong. iu ny lm cho tia sng ngy cng kh thot khi ngi sao, v nh sng s ngy cng m i v hn i vi ngi quan st t xa. Cui cng, khi ngi sao co ti mt bn knh ti hn no , trng hp dn b mt ca n tr nn mnh ti mc nn nh sng b un vo pha trong nhiu n ni nh sng khng th thot ra c na (hnh 6.1). Theo thuyt tng i th khng c g c th chuyn ng nhanh hn nh sng. V vy, nu nh sng khng th thot ra c, th cng khng c g c th thot c ra; tt c u b trng hp dn ko li. Do , ta c mt tp cc s c, tc l mt vng trong khng-thi gian, m khng c g c th thot ra t n c vi ngi quan st t xa. Vng ny chnh l ci m ngi ta gi l l en. Bin ca vng ny c gi l chn tri s c, v n trng vi ng truyn ca cc tia sng va chm khng thot ra c khi l en.
Khi ngi sao co ti mt bn knh ti hn no , trng hp dn b mt ca n tr nn mnh ti mc nn nh sng b un vo pha trong nhiu n ni nh sng khng th thot ra c na.
hiu c iu m bn s thy nu bn ang quan st s co li ca mt ngi sao to thnh l en, th cn nh rng trong thuyt tng i khng c khi nim thi gian tuyt i. Mi mt ngi quan st c o thi gian ring ca mnh. Thi gian i vi ngi trn mt ngi sao s http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
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khc thi gian ca ngi xa, do c trng hp dn ca cc ngi sao. Gi s c mt nh du hnh v tr qu cm ngay trn b mt mt ngi sao ang co li vo pha trong ca n, c mi mt giy theo ng h ca anh ta li gi v con tu ang quay quanh ngi sao mt tn hiu. thi im no theo ng h ca anh ta, v d lc 11 gi, ngi sao co li di bn knh ti hn - kch thc m trng hp dn bt u mnh ti mc khng g c th thot c ra, - v nh vy, cc tn hiu ca nh du hnh khng ti c con tu na. Khi ti gn 11 gi, cc ng nghip ca nh du hnh quan st t con tu thy khong thi gian gia hai tn hiu lin tip do nh du hnh gi v ngy cng di hn, nhng trc 10 gi 59 pht 59 giy hiu ng rt nh. H ch phi i hn mt giy cht xu gia tn hiu m nh du hnh gi v lc 10 gi 59 pht 58 giy v tn hiu anh ta gi v lc ng h anh ta ch 10 gi 59 pht 59 giy, nhng h s phi i vnh vin vin tn hiu gi lc 11 gi. Cc sng nh sng c pht t b mt ngi sao trong khong thi gian gia 10 gi 59 pht 59 giy v 11 gi theo ng h ca nh du hnh s c truyn qua mt khong thi gian v hn, nu o t con tu. Khong thi gian gia hai sng nh sng lin tip ti con tu mi lc mt di hn, do nh sng t ngi sao mi lc mt v nht nht hn. Cui cng, ngi sao s m ti ti mc t con tu khng th nhn thy n na; tt c nhng ci cn li ch l mt l en trong khng gian. Tuy nhin, ngi sao vn tip tc tc dng mt lc hp dn nh trc ln con tu lm cho n vn tip tc quay xung quanh l en. Thc ra, kch bn ny khng phi hon ton l hin thc v vn sau: Lc hp dn cng yu khi bn cng xa ngi sao, v vy lc hp dn tc dng ln chn nh du hnh v tr qu cm ca chng ta s lun lun ln hn lc tc dng ln u ca anh ta. S khc bit v lc s ko di nh du hnh v tr ca chng ta ging nh mt si m hoc x t anh ta ra trc khi ngi sao co ti bn knh ti hn, ti chn tri s c c hnh thnh! Tuy nhin, chng ta tin rng trong v tr c nhng vt th ln hn rt nhiu, chng hn nh nhng vng trung tm ca cc thin h, cng c th co li do hp dn to thnh cc l en; mt nh du hnh v tr trn mt trong cc vt th s khng b x t trc khi l en c to thnh. Thc t, anh ta s chng cm thy g c bit khi t ti bn knh ti hn, v c th vt im-khng-ng-quay-li m khng nhn thy. Tuy nhin, ch mt t gi sau, khi vng tip tc co li, s khc bit v lc hp dn tc dng ln chn v u s li tr nn mnh ti mc n s x t ngi anh ta. Cng trnh m Roger Penrose v ti tin hnh gia nm 1965 v 1970 chng t, rng theo thuyt tng i rng, th cn phi c mt k d vi mt v http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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cong khng-thi gian v hn bn trong l en. iu ny kh ging vi v n ln im bt u, ch c iu y li l thi im cui ca mt vt th cng nh du hnh ang co li. k d ny, cc nh lut khoa hc v kh nng tin on tng lai u khng dng c na. Tuy nhin, mt ngi quan st cn ngoi l en s khng b nh hng bi s mt kh nng tin on v khng mt tn hiu no hoc tia sng no t im k d ti c anh ta. S kin ng ch dn Roger Penrose ti gi thuyt v s kim duyt v tr - mt gi thuyt c th pht biu di dng Cha cm ght s k d trn tri. Ni mt cch khc, nhng k d c to ra bi s co li do hp dn ch xy ra nhng ni ging nh l en - ni m chng c che giu kn o bi chn tri s c khng cho ngi ngoi nhn thy. Ni mt cch cht ch th y l mi l gi thuyt v s kim duyt v tr yu: n bo v cho nhng ngi quan st cn ngoi l en trnh c nhng hu qu do s mt kh nng tin on xy ra im k d, nhng n hon ton khng lm c g cho nh du hnh bt hnh b ri vo l en. C mt s nghim ca cc phng trnh ca thuyt tng i rng, trong n cho php nh du hnh ca chng ta c th nhn thy im k d trn tri: nh vy anh ta c th trnh khng ng vo n v thay v anh ta c th ri qua mt ci l su c v i ra mt vng khc ca v tr. iu ny to ra nhng kh nng to ln cho vic du hnh trong khng gian v thi gian, nhng tht khng may, nhng nghim li rt khng n nh; ch cn mt nhiu ng nh, v d nh s c mt ca nh du hnh, l c th lm cho chng thay i ti mc nh du hnh khng cn nhn thy k d na cho ti khi chm vo n v thi gian ca anh ta s chm ht. Ni cch khc, k d lun lun nm tng lai ch khng bao gi nm qu kh ca anh ta. Gi thuyt kim duyt v tr mnh pht biu rng trong nghim hin thc th cc k d lun lun hoc hon ton nm trong tng lai (nh cc k d do qu trnh co li do hp dn) hoc hon ton nm trong qu kh (nh v n ln). Ngi ta rt hy vng mt trong hai gi thuyt kim duyt l ng, bi v gn cc k d trn tri s c th chu du v qu kh. Trong khi iu ny tht tuyt vi i vi cc nh vit truyn khoa hc vin tng th n cng c ngha l cuc sng ca bt k ai u khng an ton: mt k no c th m v qu kh git cht b hoc m ca bn trc khi bn c u thai! Chn tri s c, bin ca vng khng - thi gian m t khng g thot ra c, c tc dng nh mt mng mt chiu bao quanh l en: cc vt, t nh nh du hnh khinh sut ca chng ta, c th ri vo l en qua chn tri http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
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s c, nhng khng g c th thot ra l en qua chn tri s c (cn nh rng chn tri s c l ng i trong khng-thi gian ca nh sng ang tm cch thot khi l en, v khng g c th chuyn ng nhanh hn nh sng). C th dng li ca thi s Dante ni v li vo a ngc ni v chn tri s c: Hi nhng ngi bc vo y hy vt b mi hy vng!. Bt k ci g hoc bt k ai, mt khi ri qua chn tri s c th s sm ti vng c mt v hn v, chm ht thi gian. Thuyt tng i rng tin on rng cc vt nng khi chuyn ng s pht ra sng hp dn - nhng np gn trong cong ca khng gian truyn vi vn tc ca nh sng. Nhng sng ny tng t nh cc sng nh sng, l nhng gn sng ca trng in t, nhng sng hp dn kh pht hin hn nhiu. Ging nh nh sng, sng hp dn cng mang nng lng ly t cc vt pht ra n. Do , h thng cc vt nng cui cng s an bi mt trng thi dng no bi v nng lng bt c dng vn ng no u c cc sng hp dn mang i. (iu ny gn tng t vi vic nm mt ci nt xung nc. Ban u, n dp dnh kh mnh, nhng ri v cc gn sng mang dn i ht nng lng ca n, cui cng n an bi mt trng thi dng). V d, chuyn ng ca tri t xung quanh mt tri to ra cc sng hp dn. Tc dng ca vic mt nng lng s lm thay i qu o tri t, lm cho n dn dn tin ti gn mt tri hn, ri cui cng chm mt tri v an bi mt trng thi dng. Tuy nhin, tc mt nng lng ca tri t v mt tri rt thp: ch c chy mt l si in nh. iu ny c ngha l phi mt gn mt ngn triu triu triu triu nm tri t mi m vo mt tri v v vy chng ta chng c l do g lo lng c! S thay i qu o ca tri t cng rt chm khin cho kh c th quan st c, nhng chnh hin tng ny c quan st thy t nm trc trong h thng c tn l PSR 1913+16 PSR l tn vit tt ca mt pulsar (pulsar l chun tinh: mt loi sao neutron c bit c kh nng pht u n cc xung sng radio). H thng ny gm hai sao neutron quay xung quanh nhau v s mt nng lng do pht sng hp dn lm cho chng chuyn ng theo ng xon c hng vo nhau Trong qu trnh co li do hp dn ca mt ngi sao to thnh mt l en, cc chuyn ng s nhanh hn nhiu v v vy tc nng lng c chuyn i cng cao hn nhiu. Do vy m thi gian t ti s an bi mt trng thi dng s khng qu lu. Vy ci giai on cui cng ny nhn s nh th no? Ngi ta cho rng, n s ph thuc vo tt c cc c tnh ca ngi sao. C ngha l, n khng ch ph thuc vo khi lng v tc quay, m cn ph thuc vo nhng mt khc nhau ca cc phn t khc http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
LC S THI GIAN
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nhau ca ngi sao v c nhng chuyn ng phc tp ca cc kh trong ngi sao na. V nu cc l en cng a dng nh nhng i tng co li v to nn chng th s rt kh a ra mt tin on no v cc l en ni chung. Tuy nhin, vo nm 1967, mt nh khoa hc Canada tn l Werner Israel (ng sinh Berlin, ln ln Nam Phi, v lm lun n tin s Ireland) to ra mt bc ngot trong vic nghin cu cc l en. Israel ch ra rng, theo thuyt tng i rng th cc l en khng quay l rt n gin; chng c dng cu l tng v c kch thc ch ph thuc vo khi lng ca chng; hai l en nh th c khi lng nh nhau l hon ton ng nht vi nhau. Thc t, nhng l en ny c th c m t bng mt nghim ring ca phng trnh Einstein c bit t nm 1917, do Karl Schwarzchild tm ra gn nh ngay sau khi tuyt tng i rng c pht minh. Thot u, nhiu ngi, thm ch ngay c Israel, l lun rng, v cc l en cn phi c dng cu l tng nn chng ch c th c to thnh t s co li ca i tng c dng cu l tng. M mt ngi sao chng bao gi c th c dng cu l tng c, nn n ch c th co li to thnh mt k d trn tri m thi. Tuy nhin, c mt cch gii thch khc cho kt qu ca Israel m Roger Penrose v c bit l John Wheeler rt ng h. H l lun rng, nhng chuyn ng nhanh trong qu trnh co li c ngha l cc sng hp dn do n pht ra s lm cho n c dng cu hn v vo thi im an bi trng thi dng n c dng chnh xc l cu. Theo quan im ny th mt ngi sao khng quay, bt k hnh dng v cu trc bn trong phc tp ca n, sau khi kt thc qu trnh co li do hp dn u l mt l en c dng cu l tng vi kch thc ch ph thuc vo khi lng ca n. Nhng tnh ton sau ny u cng c cho quan im ny v chng bao lu sau n c mi ngi chp nhn. Kt qu ca Israel ch cp trng hp cc l en c to thnh t cc vt th khng quay. Nm 1963 Roy Kerr ngi New Zealand tm ra mt tp hp nghim ca cc phng trnh ca thuyt tng i m t cc l en quay. Cc l en Kerr quay vi vn tc khng i, c kch thc v hnh dng ch ph thuc vo khi lng v tc quay ca chng. Nu tc quay bng khng, l en s l cu l tng v nghim ny s trng vi nghim Schwarzchild. Nu tc quay khc 0, l en s phnh ra pha ngoi http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
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gn xch o ca n (cng nh tri t v mt tri u phnh ra do s quay ca chng), v nu n quay cng nhanh th s phnh ra s cng mnh. Nh vy, m rng kt qu ca Israel cho bao hm c c cc vt th quay, ngi ta suy on rng mt vt th quay co li to thnh mt l en cui cng s an bi trng thi dng c m t bi nghim Kerr. Nm 1970, mt ng nghip v cng l nghin cu sinh ca ti, Brandon Carter i c bc u tin hng ti chng minh suy on trn. Anh chng t c rng vi iu kin l en quay dng c mt trc i xng, ging nh mt con quay, th n s c kch thc v hnh dng ch ph thuc vo khi lng v tc quay ca n. Sau vo nm 1971, ti chng minh c rng bt k mt l en quay dng no u cn phi c mt trc i xng nh vy. Cui cng, vo nm 1973, David Robinson trng Kings College, London dng kt qu ca Carter v ti chng minh c rng c on ni trn l ng. Nhng l en nh vy thc s l nghim Kerr. Nh vy, sau khi co li do hp dn, l en s an bi trong trng thi c th quay nhng khng xung ng. Hn na, kch thc hnh dng ca n ch ph thuc vo khi lng v tc quay ch khng ph thuc vo bn cht ca vt th b co li to nn n. Kt qu ny c bit di chm ngn: l en khng c tc. nh l khng c tc ny c mt tm quan trng thc tin to ln bi n hn ch rt mnh cc loi l en l thuyt. Do vy, ngi ta c th to ra nhng m hnh chi tit ca cc vt c kh nng cha l en v so snh nhng tin on ca m hnh vi quan st. iu ny cng c ngha l mt lng rt ln thng tin v vt th co li s phi mt i khi l en c to thnh, bi v sau y tt c nhng th m ta c th o c v vt th ch l khi lng v tc quay ca n. ngha ca iu ny s c thy r chng sau.
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Phn 19
Cc l en ch l mt trong s rt t cc trng hp trong lch s khoa hc, trong l thuyt c pht trin rt chi tit nh mt m hnh ton hc trc khi c nhng bng chng t quan st xc nhn n l ng n.
Thc t, iu ny c dng nh mt lun c ch yu ca nhng ngi phn i l en: lm sao ngi ta c th tin rng c nhng vt th m bng chng v s tn ti ca n ch l nhng tnh ton da trn l thuyt tng i rng, mt l thuyt vn ng ng? Tuy nhin, vo nm 1963, Maarten Schmidt, mt nh thin vn lm vic i thin vn Palomar, Caliornia, M, o c s chuyn dch v pha ca mt i tng m ta nh sao theo hng mt ngun pht sng radio c tn l 3C273 (tc l s ca ngun l 273 trong catalogue th 3 Cambridge). ng thy s chuyn dch ny l qu ln, nu xem n do trng hp dn gy ra: nu l s chuyn dch v pha do trng hp dn gy ra th i tng phi rt nng v gn chng ta ti mc n s lm nhiu ng qu o ca cc hnh tinh trong H mt tri. iu ny gi rng s chuyn dch v pha ny l do s gin n ca v tr v v vy i tng phi rt xa chng ta. thy c mt khong cch xa nh th vt th phi rt sng hay ni cch khc l phi pht ra mt nng lng cc ln. C ch duy nht m con ngi c th ngh ra miu t mt nng lng ln nh th, l s co li do hp dn khng phi ch ca mt ngi sao m ca c vng trung tm ca thin h. Nhiu i tng tng t sao (chun tinh), hay ni cch khc l cc quasar, cng c pht hin. Tt c u c chuyn dch ln v pha . Nhng tt c chng u qu xa, kh quan st cho mt bng chng quyt nh v cc l en. S c v tip theo cho s tn ti ca cc l en l pht minh ca Jocelyn Bell, mt nghin cu sinh Cambridge, v nhng thin th pht cc xung radio u n. Thot u, Bell v ngi hng dn ca ch l Antony Hewish, ngh rng c l h lin lc c vi mt nn vn minh l trong thin h! Thc t, trong bui seminar khi h thng bo pht minh ca h, ti nh l h gi bn ngun pht sng radio u tin l LGM 1-4 vi LGM l vit tt ca Little Green Men (nhng ngi xanh nh). Tuy nhin, cui cng h v mi ngi u i n mt kt lun t lng mn hn cho rng nhng i tng - c tn l pulsar - thc t l nhng sao neutron quay, c http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
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kh nng pht cc xung sng radio, do s tng tc phc tp gia cc t trng ca n vi vt cht xung quanh. y l mt tin khng my vui v i vi cc nh vn chuyn vit v cc chuyn phiu lu trong v tr, nhng li y hy vng i vi mt s t ngi tin vo s tn ti ca l en thi : y l bng chng xc thc u tin v s tn ti ca cc sao neutron. Sao neutron c bn knh chng mi dm, ch ln hn bn knh ti hn ngi sao tr thnh mt l en t ln. Nu mt sao c th co li ti mt kch thc nh nh vy th cng khng c l do g m nhng ngi sao khc khng th co li ti mt kch thc cn nh hn na tr thnh l en. Lm sao chng ta c th hy vng pht hin c l en, khi m theo chnh nh ngha ca n, n khng pht ra mt tia sng no? iu ny cng na n nh i tm con mo en trong mt kho than. May thay vn c mt cch. Nh John Michell ch ra trong bi bo tin phong ca ng vit nm 1983, l en vn tip tc tc dng lc hp dn ln cc vt xung quanh. Cc nh thin vn quan st c nhiu h thng, trong c hai sao quay xung quanh nhau v ht nhau bng lc hp dn. H cng quan st c nhng h thng, trong ch c mt sao thy c quay xung quanh sao ng hnh (khng thy c). Tt nhin, ngi ta khng th kt lun ngay rng sao ng hnh l mt l en, v n c th n gin ch l mt ngi sao pht sng qu yu nn ta khng thy c. Tuy nhin, c mt s trong cc h thng , chng hn nh h thng c tn l Cygnus X-1 (hnh 6.2) cng l nhng ngun pht tia X rt mnh. Cch gii thch tt nht cho hin tng ny l vt cht b bn ra khi b mt ca ngi sao nhn thy. V lng vt cht ny ri v pha ng hnh khng nhn thy, nn n pht trin thnh chuyn ng theo ng xon H thng Cygnus X-1 c ngun pht tia X mnh (mi c (kh ging nh nc chy ra khi bn tm) v tr tn trng). nn rt nng, pht ra tia X (hnh 6.3). Mun cho c ch ny hot ng, sao ng hnh khng nhn thy phi rt nh, ging nh sao ln trng, sao neutron hoc l en. T qu o quan st c ca ngi sao nhn thy, ngi ta c th xc nh c khi lng kh d thp nht ca ngi sao ng hnh khng nhn thy. Trong trng hp h thng Cygnus X1 sao c khi lng ln gp 6 ln mt tri. Theo kt qu ca Chandrasekhar th nh th l qu ln cho sao khng nhn thy l mt sao ln trng. N cng c khi lng qu ln l sao neutron. V vy, n dng nh phi l mt l en...
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Cng c nhng m hnh khc gii thch rng Cygnus X-1 khng bao gm l en, nhng tt c nhng m hnh u rt gng go. L en l cch gii thch thc s t nhin duy nht nhng quan trc . Mc d vy, ti nh cuc vi Kip Thorne Vin k thut California, rng thc t Cygnus X-1 khng cha l en! y chng qua ch l sch lc bo him cho ti. Ti tn bit bao cng sc cho nhng l en v tt c s tr nn v ch, nu ha ra l cc l en khng tn ti. Nhng khi ti s c an i l mnh thng cuc v iu s mang li cho ti bn nm lin tp ch Private Eye. Nu l en tn ti th Kip c 1 nm tp ch Penthouse. Khi chng ti nh cuc vo nm 1975 th chng ti chc ti 80% rng Cygnus l l en. V by gi ti c th ni rng chng ti bit chc ti 95%, nhng cuc nh cuc vn cha th xem l ng ng. Gi y chng ta cng c bng chng v mt s l en khc trong cc h thng ging nh Cygnus X-1 trong thin h ca chng ta v trong hai thin h ln cn c tn l Magellanic Clouds. Tuy nhin, s cc l en chc cn cao hn nhiu; trong lch s di dng dc ca v tr nhiu ngi sao chc t ht ton b nhin liu ht nhn ca mnh v phi co li. S cc l en c th ln hn nhiu so vi s nhng ngi sao nhn thy, m ch ring trong thin h ca chng ta thi s nhng ngi sao ti khong mt trm ngn triu. Lc ht hp dn ph thm ca mt s ln nh th cc l en c th gii thch c ti sao thin h ca chng ta li quay vi tc nh n hin c: khi lng ca cc sao thy c khng lm iu . Chng ta cng c mt s bng chng cho thy rng c mt l en ln hn nhiu trung tm thin h ca chng ta vi khi lng ln hn khi lng ca mt tri ti trm ngn ln. Cc ngi sao trong thin h ti gn l en s b x tan do s khc bit v hp dn pha gn v pha xa ca n. Tn tch ca nhng ngi sao v kh do cc sao khc tung ra u s ri v pha l en. Cng nh trong trng hp Cygnus X-1, kh s chuyn ng theo ng xon c i vo v nng ln mc d khng nhiu nh trong trng hp . N s khng nng pht ra cc tia X, nhng cng c th l cc ngun sng radio v tia hng ngoi rt m c m ngi ta quan st c tm thin h. Ngi ta cho rng nhng l en tng t hoc thm ch cn ln hn, vi khi lng khong trm triu ln ln hn khi lng mt tri c th gp tm cc quasar. Vt cht ri vo nhng l en siu nng nh vy s to ra mt ngun nng lng duy nht ln gii thch lng nng lng cc ln m cc vt th pht ra. V vt cht chuyn ng xoy c vo l en, n s lm cho l en quay cng chiu to cho n mt t trng kh ging http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
92
vi t trng ca tri t. Cc ht c nng lng rt cao cng s c sinh ra gn l en bi vt cht ri vo. T trng ny c th mnh ti mc hi t c cc ht thnh nhng tia phng ra ngoi dc theo trc quay ca l en, tc l theo hng cc cc bc v nam ca n. Cc tia nh vy thc t c quan st thy trong nhiu thin h v cc quasar. Ngi ta cng c th xt ti kh nng c nhng l en vi khi lng nh hn nhiu so vi khi lng mt tri. Nhng l en nh th khng th c to thnh bi s co li do hp dn, v khi lng ca chng thp hn gii hn Chandrasekhar: Cc sao c khi lng thp t n c th chng chi c vi lc hp dn thm ch c khi chng ht sch nhin liu ht nhn. Do vy, nhng l en khi lng thp ch c th c to thnh nu vt cht ca n c nn n mt cc ln bi mt p lc rt cao t bn ngoi. iu kin nh th c th xy ra trong mt qu bom khinh kh rt ln: nh vt l John Wheeler mt ln tnh ra rng nu ta ly ton b nc nng trong tt c cc i dng th ta c th ch to c qu bom khinh kh c th nn c vt cht tm mnh ti mc c th to nn mt l en. (Tt nhin s chng cn ai sng st m quan st iu !). Mt kh nng khc thc tin hn l cc l en c khi lng thp c th c to thnh di nhit v p sut cao giai on rt sm ca v tr. Mt khc nhng l en ch c th to thnh nu v tr giai on rt sm khng trn tru v u n mt cch l tng, bi v ch cn mt vng nh c mt ln hn mt trung bnh l c th b nn theo cch to thnh l en. Nhng chng ta bit rng nht thit phi c mt s bt thng nh vy, bi v nu khng vt cht trong v tr cho ti nay vn s cn phn b u mt cch l tng thay v kt li thnh khi trong cc ngi sao v thin h. Nhng bt thng i hi phi c to ra cc ngi sao v thin h c dn ti s to thnh mt s ng k l en nguyn thy hay khng cn ph thuc vo chi tit ca nhng iu kin giai on u ca v tr. V vy, nu hin nay chng ta c th xc nh c c bao nhiu l en nguyn thy th chng ta s bit c nhiu iu v nhng giai on rt sm ca v tr. Cc l en nguyn thy vi khi lng ln hn ngn triu tn (bng khi lng ca mt qu ni ln) c th c pht hin ch thng qua nh hng hp dn ca chng ln cc vt th khc l vt cht thy c hoc nh hng ti s gin n ca v tr. Tuy nhin, nh chng ta s bit chng sau, cc l en xt cho cng cng khng phi qu en: chng pht sng nh nhng vt nng, v cc l en cng nh th chng pht sng cng mnh. V nh vy mt iu tht nghch l l cc l en cng nh th cng d pht hin hn cc l en ln. http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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Phn 20
[...] Thng 9 nm 1973, trong thi gian n thm Matxcva, ti tho lun v cc l en vi hai chuyn gia hng u ca Lin X l Yakov Zedovich v Alexander Starobinsky. H khng nh vi ti rng, theo nguyn l bt ng ca c hc lng t th cc l en quay cn phi sinh v pht ra cc ht. Ti tin c s vt l trong l l ca h, nhng... [...]
Chng 7: L en khng qu en Trc nm 1970, nghin cu ca ti v thuyt tng i rng ch yu tp trung vo vn c tn ti hay khng k d v n ln. Tuy nhin, vo mt bui ti thng 11 nm , ngay sau khi con gi ti, chu Lucy, ra i, ti bt u suy ngh v nhng l en khi ti trn ng v phng ng. V s tn tt ca mnh, ti di chuyn rt chm, nn c thi gian suy ngh. Vo thi cn cha c mt nh ngha chnh xc cho bit nhng im no ca khng-thi gian l nm trong, v nhng im no l nm ngoi l en. Ti tho lun vi Roger Penrose tng nh ngha l en nh mt tp hp m cc s c khng th thot ra khi n n nhng khong cch ln, v by gi n tr thnh mt nh ngha c mi ngi chp nhn. iu ny c ngha l bin gii ca l en, cng gi l chn tri s c, c to bi ng i trong khng-thi gian ca cc tia sng va chm khng thot ra c khi l en, v vnh vin chi vi mp ca n (hnh 7.1). N cng gn ging nh tr chi chy trn cnh st, ch hi vt trc c mt bc nhng cn cha th bt ra c.
Hnh 7.1: Chn tri s c c to ra bi ng i trong khng-thi gian ca cc tia sng va chm khng thot ra c khi l en, v vnh vin chi vi mp ca n.
Bt cht ti nhn ra rng ng i ca cc tia sng y khng bao gi c th tin ti gn nhau. V nu khng th, cui cng chng cng s phi chp vo nhau. iu ny cng ging nh n gp mt ngi bn ang phi chy trn cnh st pha ngc li - rt cuc c hai s u b bt! (Hay trong trng hp ca chng ta c hai tia sng s u b ri vo l en). Nhng nu c hai tia sng u b nut bi l en, th chng khng th bin gii ca l en c. Nh vy ng i ca cc tia sng trong chn tri
Stephen Hawking
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s c phi lun lun song song hoc i ra xa nhau. Mt cch khc thy iu ny l chn tri s c - bin gii ca l en - ging nh mp ca mt ci bng - bng ca s phn treo l lng. Nu bn nhn ci bng to bi mt ngun sng rt xa, chng hn nh mt tri, bn s thy rng cc tia sng mp ca n khng h tin ti gn nhau. Nu cc tia sng to nn chn tri s c - bin gii ca l en - khng bao gi c th tin ti gn nhau, th din tch ca chn tri s c c th gi nguyn khng i hoc tng theo thi gian ch khng bao gi gim, v nu khng, t nht s c mt s tia sng trn bin phi tin gn ti nhau. Thc t th din tch s tng bt c khi no c vt cht hoc bc x ri vo l en (hnh7.2). Hoc nu c hai l en va chm ri xm nhp vo nhau to thnh mt l en duy nht, th din tch chn tri s c ca l en to thnh s ln hn hoc bng tng din tch chn ri s c ca hai l en ring l ban u (hnh 7.3). Tnh khng gim ca din tch chn tri s c t mt hn ch quan trng i vi hnh vi kh d ca cc l en. Ti xc ng v pht minh ca mnh ti mc - Hnh 7.2 (tri): Din tch m ti khng sao chp mt c. Ngay hm sau ti tng khi vt cht ri vo l en. gi in cho Roger Penrose. ng ng vi ti. - Hnh 7.3 (phi): Din tch ca chn tri s c ca l Thc t, ti ngh rng chnh ng cng thc c en mi to thnh s ln hn hoc bng tng din tch ca tnh cht ca din tch chn tri s c. Tuy nhin, hai h en ring l ban u. ng dng mt nh ngha hi khc ca l en. ng khng thy c rng bin gii ca cc l en theo hai nh ngha thc cht l nh nhau, v do , din tch ca chng cng nh nhau vi iu kin l en an bi trng thi khng thay i theo thi gian. Tnh cht khng gim ca din tch l en rt ging vi tnh cht ca mt i lng vt l c tn l entropy - i lng l thc o mc mt trt t ca mt h thng. Kinh nghim hng ngy cng cho chng ta bit rng nu cc vt t do th mc mt trt t s c xu hng tng. (Ch cn ngng sa cha xung quanh l bn s thy iu ngay!). Ngi ta c th to ra trt t t s mt trt t (v d nh bn c th qut sn li nh), nhng iu yu cu phi tn sc lc hoc nng lng, v nh vy c ngha l s lm gim lng nng lng ca trt t sn c. Pht biu chnh xc tng ny chnh l nh lut II ca nhit ng hc. nh lut pht biu rng: entropy ca mt h c lp lun lun tng, v http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
LC S THI GIAN
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rng khi hai h hp li vi nhau lm mt th entropy ca h hp thnh s ln hn tng entropy ca hai h ring r. V d, xt mt h phn t kh ng trong mt ci hp. C th xem nhng phn t nh nhng qu cu billard nh, lin tc va chm vi nhau v vi thnh hp. Nhit ca kh cng cao th cc phn t chuyn ng cng nhanh, v chng va chm cng thng xuyn v cng mnh vi thnh hp, v p sut chng ln thnh hp cng ln. Gi s rng ban u tt c cc phn t b giam na tri ca hp bng mt vch ngn. Nu b vch ngn i, cc phn t s c xu hng trn ra chim c hai na ca hp. mt thi im no sau y, do may ri, c th tt c cc phn t s dn c sang na phi hoc tr li na tri ca hp, nhng kh nng chc chn hn rt nhiu l chng c s lng gn bng nhau c hai na hp. Mt trng thi km trt t hn, hay ni cch khc l mt trt t hn, trng thi ban u m trong mi phn t ch trong mt na hp. Do , ngi ta ni rng entropy ca kh tng ln. Tng t, gi s rng ta bt u vi hai hp, mt hp cha cc phn t xy v mt hp cha cc phn t nit. Nu ngi ta ghp hai hp vi nhau v b vch ngn i th cc phn t xy v nit s bt u trn ln vo nhau. mt thi im no sau y, trng thi c xc sut ln nht s l s trn kh u cc phn t xy v nit trong c hai hp. Trng thi l km trt t hn trng thi ban u ca hai hp ring r. nh lut th hai ca nhit dng hc c v tr hi khc so vi cc nh lut khoa hc khc, chng hn nh nh lut hp dn ca Newton, bi v n khng phi lun lun ng, m ch ng trong i a s cc trng hp m thi. Xc sut tt c cc phn t trong hp u tin ca chng ta dn c v mt na ca hp thi im sau khi b vch ngn ch bng mt phn nhiu triu triu, nhng n vn c th xy ra. Tuy nhin, nu c mt l en cnh th nh lut dng nh s b vi phm kh d dng: ch cn nm mt s vt cht c lng entropy ln, nh mt hp kh chng hn, vo l en. Khi tng s entropy ca vt cht ngoi l en s gim. Tt nhin, ngi ta vn cn c th vin l rng entropy tng cng, k c entropy trong l en s khng gim, nhng v khng c cch g nhn vo l en, nn chng ta khng th thy c vt cht trong cha bao nhiu entropy. Khi ny s tht l tuyt vi nu c mt c tnh no ca l en, m qua n, ngi quan st bn ngoi c th bit v entropy ca l en, v c tnh ny li tng bt c khi no c mt lng vt cht mang entropy ri vo l en. S pht hin va m t trn cho thy rng din tch ca chn tri s c s tng bt c khi no c mt lng vt cht ri vo l en. Mt nghin cu sinh Princeton tn l Jacod Bekenstein a ra gi thuyt rng din tch ca chn tri s c chnh l thc o entropy ca l en. Khi vt cht mang http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
96
entropy ri vo l en, din tch ca chn tri s c tng, nn tng entropy ca vt cht ngoi l en v din tch chn tri s c s khng khi no gim. Gi thuyt ny dng nh trnh cho nh lut th hai nhit ng hc khng b vi phm trong hu ht mi tnh hung. Tuy nhin, vn cn mt khe h tai hi. Nu l en c entropy th n cng s phi c nhit . Nhng mt vt c nhit th s phi pht x vi tc no . Kinh nghim hng ngy cng cho thy rng nu ngi ta nung nng mt que ci trong la th n s nng v bc x, nhng nhng vt nhit thp cng bc x, ch c iu lng bc x kh nh nn ngi ta thng khng nhn thy m thi. Bc x ny i hi phi c trnh cho nh lut th hai khi b vi phm. Nh vy, cc l en cng cn phi bc x. Nhng theo chnh nh ngha ca n th l en l vt c xem l khng pht ra g ht. V do , dng nh din tch ca chn tri s c khng th xem nh entropy ca l en. Nm 1972 cng vi Bradon Carte v mt ng nghip M Jim Bardeen, ti vit mt bi bo trong ch ra rng mc d c nhiu im tng t gia din tch ca chn tri s c v entropy nhng vn cn kh khn y tai hi . Ti cng phi th nhn rng khi vit bi bo ti b thc y mt phn bi s bc tc i vi Bekenstein, ngi m ti cm thy lm dng pht hin ca ti v din tch ca chn tri s c. Tuy nhin, cui cng ha ra anh ta v cn bn li l ng, mc d mt mc m chnh anh ta cng khng ng. Thng 9 nm 1973, trong thi gian n thm Matxcva, ti tho lun v cc l en vi hai chuyn gia hng u ca Lin X l Yakov Zedovich v Alexander Starobinsky. H khng nh vi ti rng theo nguyn l bt ng ca c hc lng t th cc l en quay cn phi sinh v pht ra cc ht. Ti tin c s vt l trong l l ca h, nhng ti khng thch phng php ton hc m h s dng tnh ton s pht x ht. Do , ti bt tay vo tm ti mt cch x l ton hc tt hn m ti trnh by ti seminar thng bo Oxford vo cui thng 11 nm 1973. Vo thi gian , ti cn cha tin hnh tnh ton tm ra s pht x l bao nhiu. Ti ch i ngi ta s pht hin c chnh bc x t cc l en quay m Zedovich v Starobinsky tin on. Tuy nhin, khi tnh song ti v cng ngc nhin v bn khon thy rng thm ch c cc l en khng quay dng nh cng sinh v pht ra cc ht vi tc u. Thot tin, ti ngh rng l du hiu cho bit mt trong nhng php gn ng m ti s dng l khng tha ng. Ti ngi rng nu Bekenstein pht hin ra iu , anh ta s dng n nh mt l l na cng c tng ca anh ta v entropy ca cc l en, iu m ti vn cn khng thch. Tuy nhin, cng suy ngh ti cng thy http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
LC S THI GIAN
97
nhng php gn ng thc s l ng n. Nhng iu thuyt phc hn c ti rng s pht x l c thc l: ph ca cc ht bc x ging ht nh ph pht x ca vt nng, v cc l en pht ra cc ht vi tc chnh xc khng vi phm nh lut th hai. Sau , nhng tnh ton c lp i lp li di nhiu dng khc nhau v bi nhng ngi khc. Tt c h u khng nh rng l en cn phi pht ra cc ht v bc x ht nh n l mt vt nng vi nhit ch ph thuc vo khi lng ca n: khi lng cng ln th nhit cng thp. Nhng lm sao cc l en li c th pht ra cc ht trong khi chng ta bit c rng khng c vt g t pha trong c th thot ra khi chn tri s c? Cu tr li m c hc lng t ni vi chng ta l: cc ht khng pht ra t bn trong l en m l t khng gian trng rng ngay bn ngoi chn tri s c ca l en! Chng ta c th hiu iu ny nh sau: ci m chng ta quen ngh l khng gian trng rng li khng th hon ton l trng rng, bi v iu c ngha l tt c cc trng nh trng hp dn v trng in t s cn phi chnh xc bng 0. Tuy nhin, gi tr ca trng v tc thay i ca n theo thi gian cng ging nh v tr v vn tc ca ht: nguyn l bt nh buc rng nu ngi ta bit mt trong hai i lng cng chnh xc th c th bit v i lng kia cng km chnh xc! V vy trong khng gian trng rng, trng khng c nh gi tr chnh xc bng 0, bi v nu tri li th trng s c c gi tr chnh xc (bng 0) v tc thay i cng tr chnh xc (bng 0). Cn phi c mt lng bt nh ti thiu no , hay ngi ta ni rng, c nhng thng ging lng t trong gi tr ca trng. Ngi ta c th xem nhng thng ging nh mt cp ht nh sng hoc hp dn cng xut hin mt thi im no , i ra xa nhau ri li gp li v hy nhau. Nhng ht ny l nhng ht o ging nh cc ht mang lc hp dn ca mt tri: khng ging cc ht thc, chng khng th quan st c mt cch trc tip bng my d ht. Tuy nhin, nhng hiu ng gin tip ca chng, chng hn nhng thay i nh v nng lng ca cc qu o electron trong nguyn t, u c th o c v ph hp vi nhng tnh ton l thuyt vi mt mc chnh xc rt cao. Nguyn l bt nh cng tin on rng, c c nhng cp ht vt cht nh electron hoc quark l o. Tuy nhin, trong trng hp ny mt thnh vin ca cp l ht, cn thnh vin kia l phn ht (cc phn ht ca nh sng v hp dn ging ht nh ht). V nng lng khng th sinh ra t h v, nn mt trong cc thnh vin ca cp ht/phn ht s c nng lng dng v thnh vin kia s c nng lng m. Thnh vin c nng lng m buc phi l ht o c thi gian sng http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
98
ngn, v cc ht thc lun lun c nng lng dng trong cc tnh hung thng thng. Do ht o ny phi i tm thnh vin cng cp hy cng vi n. Tuy nhin, mt ht thc gn mt vt nng s c nng lng nh hn so vi khi n xa, bi v khi a n ra xa cn phi tn nng lng chng li lc ht hp dn ca vt . Thng thng, nng lng ca ht vn cn l dng, nhng trng hp hp dn trong l en mnh ti mc thm ch mt ht thc cng c nng lng m. Do , khi c mt l en, ht o vi nng lng m khi ri vo l en cng c th tr thnh ht thc hoc phn ht thc. Trong trng hp , n khng cn cn phi hy vi bn cng cp ca n na. Ngi bn b b ri ny cng c th ri vo l en, hoc khi c nng lng dng, n cng c th thot ra ngoi vng ln cn ca l en nh mt ht thc hoc phn ht thc (hnh 7.4). i vi ngi quan st xa th dng nh n c pht ra t l en. L en cng nh th khong cch m ht c nng lng m cn phi i trc khi tr thnh ht thc s cng ngn v v vy tc pht x v nhit biu kin ca l en cng ln.
Hnh 7.4: Ht o cng c th ri vo l en nh mt ht thc hoc phn ht thc.
Nng lng dng ca bc x i ra s c cn bng bi dng ht nng lng m i vo l en. Theo phng trnh Einstein E = mc2 ( y E l nng lng, m l khi lng v c l vn tc sng), nng lng t l vi khi lng. Do , dng nng lng m i vo l en s gim gim khi lng ca n. V l en mt khi lng nn din tch chn tri s c s nh i, nhng s gim ca entropy c b li cn nhiu hn bi entropy ca bc x pht ra, v vy nh lut th hai s khng khi no b vi phm. Hn na, khi lng ca l en cng nh th nhit ca n cng cao. Nh vy, v l en mt khi lng nn nhit v tc bc x ca n tng, dn ti n mt khi lng cn nhanh hn na. iu g s xy ra khi khi lng ca l en cui cng cng tr nn cc k nh hin vn cn cha r, nhng s rt c l khi chng ta phng on rng n s hon ton bin mt trong s bng n bc x khng l cui cng, tng ng vi s bng n ca hng triu qu bom H.
LC S THI GIAN
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Phn 21
[...] tng v bc x pht t cc l en l mt v d u tin v s tin on ph thuc mt cch cn bn vo c hai l thuyt ln ca th k chng ta: thuyt tng i rng v c hc lng t. N gp nhiu kin phn i lc u v n o ln quan im hin thi lm sao l en li pht ra ci g ?" [...]
L en c khi lng ln hn khi lng ca mt tri mt t ln s c nhit ch khong mt phn mi triu trn khng tuyt i. N nh hn nhiu so vi nhit ca cc bc x sng cc ngn chon y v tr (khong 2,7 K), v th nhng l en ny pht x thm ch cn t hn hp th. Nu v tr c an bi l s gin n mi mi, th nhit ca cc bc x sng cc ngn cui cng s gim ti mc nh hn nhit ca l en v l en khi s bt u mt khi lng. Nhng ngay c khi th nhit ca n vn thp n mc cn khong 1 triu triu triu triu triu triu triu triu triu triu triu (1 vi su mi su s khng ng sau) nm l en bay hi hon ton. Con s ln hn nhiu tui ca v tr bng 1 hoc 2 v 10 con s khng ng sau (tc khong 10 hoc 20 ngn triu nm). Mt khc nh ni Chng 6 c th nhng l en nguyn thy c to thnh bi s co li ca nhng bt thng trong giai on rt sm ca v tr. Nhng l en nguyn thy vi khi lng ban u c ngn triu tn s c thi gian sng xp x tui ca v tr. Nhng l en nguyn thy vi khi lng nh hn con s chc l bc hi hon ton, nhng nhng l en vi khi lng hi ln hn s vn cn ang tip tc pht x di dng tia X hoc tia gamma. Cc tia X v tia gamma ny ging nh nh sng ch c iu bc sng ca chng ngn hn nhiu. Nhng l nh th kh m gn cho ci nhn l en: chng thc s nng trng v pht nng lng vi tc khong mi ngn mega oat. Mt l en nh vy c th cung cp nng lng cho mi nh my in ln, nu chng ta bit cch khai thc n. Tuy nhin vic ny chng phi d dng g: l en c khi lng bng c mt qu ni b nn li ti kch thc nh hn mt phn triu triu ca inch, ngha l c kch thc ca ht nhn nguyn t! Nu bn c mt l en nh th trn mt t, bn s khng c cch no gi cho n khi ri xuyn qua sn nh xung ti tm tri t. N s dao ng xuyn qua tri t cho ti khi cui cng u li tm. Nh vy ch duy nht t c mt l en nh vy c th khai http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
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thc nng lng do n bc x ra l trn mt qu o quay xung quanh tri t v cch duy nht c th a n ln qu o y l ht n ti bng cch ko mt khi lng ln pha trc n ht nh dng c c rt nh con la. iu ny xem ra khng phi l mt ngh thc t lm, t nht cng l trong tng lai gn. Nhng thm ch nu chng ta khng th khai thc c s pht x t cc l en nguyn thy th liu chng ta c c may quan st c chng khng? Chng ta c th tm kim cc tia gamma m cc l en nguyn thy pht ra trong hu ht thi gian sng ca chng. Mc d pht x t phn ln cc l en u m nht v chng qu xa, nhng tng s ca chng th c th pht hin c. Chng ta hy quan st k mt nn tia gamma nh vy: Hnh 7.5 cho thy cng quan st c khc nhau nhng tn s khc nhau. Tuy nhin, nn tia gamma ny c th v chc l c sinh ra bi nhng qu trnh khc hn l bi cc l en nguyn thy. ng chm chm trn Hnh 7.5 cho thy cng phi bin thin th no theo tn s i vi cc tia gamma do l en nguyn thy gy ra nu trung bnh c 300 l en nh th trong mt nm - nh sng khi. Do ngi ta c th ni Hnh 7.5: ng chm chm rng nhng quan st nn tia gamma khng cho mt cho thy cng phi bin thin th no theo tn s i bng chng khng nh no v cc l en nguyn thy, vi cc tia gamma do l en nguyn thy gy ra nu trung nhng chng cho chng ta bit trong v tr v trung bnh c 300 l en nh th bnh khng th c hn 300 l en nh th trong mt trong mt nm - nh sng nm - nh sng khi. Gii hn c ngha l cc l en khi. nguyn thy c th to nn nhiu nht l mt phn triu s vt cht ca v tr. Vi cc l en nguyn thy phn b tha tht nh vy kh m c kh nng mt l en nh th gn chng ta c th quan st n nh mt ngun tia gamma ring r. Nhng v lc hp dn s ko l en nguyn thy ti gn vt cht nn chng s thng gp nhiu hn trong hay gn cc thin h. Nh vy, mc d nn tia gamma cho chng ta bit rng trung bnh khng th c hn 300 l en nh th trong mt nm - nh sng khi nhng n li chng cho chng ta bit g v tn sut gp chng trong thin h ca chng ta. Chng hn nu nh chng mt triu ln thng gp hn con s trung bnh th l en gn chng ta nht chc cng phi cch chng ta chng mt ngn triu km, tc l xa nh sao Dim vng, hnh tinh xa nht m chng ta bit. khong cch vn cn rt kh pht hin bc x u ca mt l en ngay http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
LC S THI GIAN
101
c khi n l mi ngn mega ot. quan st c mt l en nguyn thy ngi ta phi pht hin c mt vi lng t gamma ti t chnh hng trong mt khong thi gian hp l, chng hn nh mt tun l. Nu khng, chng ch l mt phn ca phng. Nhng nguyn l lng t ca Planck cho chng ta bit rng mi mt lng t gamma c nng lng rt cao, v tia gamma c tn s rt cao, nu thm ch n c pht x vi cng sut 10 ngn mega ot th cng khng phi c nhiu lng t. V quan st c mt s lng t, li ti t khong cch rt xa nh sao Dim vng, i hi phi c mt my d ln hn bt c my d no c ch to cho ti nay. Hn na my d ny li phi t trong khng gian v tr v cc tia gamma khng th thm nhp qua bu kh quyn. Tt nhin nu mt l en cch xa nh sao Dim vng n ngy tn s v bng n th s d dng pht hin c s bng n bc x ca n. Nhng nu l en lin tc bc x trong khong 10 hoc 20 ngn triu nm tr li y th xc sut n tn s trong vng t nm ti thc s l rt nh! V vy, c mt c may hp l nhn thy v n ca l en trc khi tin tr cp nghin cu ca bn tiu ht th bn phi tm cch pht hin nhng v n trong khong cch mt nm nh sng. Bn vn phi gii quyt vn c mt my d tia gamma ln c th pht hin c mt vi lng t gamma ti t v n . Tuy nhin, trong trng hp ny s khng cn phi xc nh rng tt c cc lng t ti cng mt hng: ch cn quan st thy tt c chng u ti trong mt khong thi gian ngn l c th tin c rng chng ti t cng mt v bng n. Mt my d tia gamma c kh nng pht hin ra cc l en nguyn thy chnh l ton b bu kh quyn ca tri t. (Trong mi trng hp chng ta khng th ch to c mt my d ln hn). Khi mt lng t gamma nng lng cao p vo cc nguyn t trong kh quyn, n s to ra cp electron v positron (tc l phn - electron). Khi cc ht ny p vo cc nguyn t khc, n lt mnh, chng s to ra cc cp electron v positron na, v nh vy ngi ta s thu c ci gi l ma electron. Kt qu l mt dng nh sng c tn l bc x Cherenkov. Do , ngi ta c th pht hin ra s bng n tia gamma bng cch tm cc chp sng trong bu tri m. Tt nhin c nhiu hin tng khc nh chp hoc s phn x nh sng t cc v tinh ri xung hoc cc mnh v trn qu o cng c th to ra cc chp sng trn bu tri. Ngi ta c th phn bit s bng n tia gamma vi cc hin tng bng cch quan st cc chp sng ng thi hai hoc nhiu v tr cch rt xa nhau. Mt th nghim nh th c hai nh khoa hc Dublin l Neil Porter v Trevor Wecks thc hin khi dng cc knh http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
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thin vn Arizona. H tm thy nhiu chp sng nhng khng c ci no c th gn mt cch chc chn cho s bng n tia gamma t cc l en nguyn thy. Ngay c khi nu vic tm kim cc l en nguyn thy khng c kt qu, v iu ny vn c th xy ra, th n vn cho chng ta nhng thng tin quan trng v nhng giai on rt sm ca v tr. Nu v tr giai on rt sm l hn lon v bt thng hoc nu p sut vt cht l thp th ngi ta c th ngh rng n to ra nhiu l en nguyn thy hn l gii hn c xc lp da trn nhng quan st v phng tia gamma. Ch nu giai on rt sm, v tr l rt trn tru v u n vi p sut cao th ngi ta mi c th gii thch c ti sao li khng c nhiu l en nguyn thy. tng v bc x pht t cc l en l mt v d u tin v s tin on ph thuc mt cch cn bn vo c hai l thuyt ln ca th k chng ta: thuyt tng i rng v c hc lng t. N gp nhiu kin phn i lc u v n o ln quan im hin thi lm sao l en li pht ra ci g ?. Khi ln u tin ti cng b cc kt qu tnh ton ca ti ti mt hi ngh Phng th nghim Rurtherford - Appleton gn Oxford, ti c cho n bng s hoi nghi ca hu ht mi ngi. Vo lc kt thc bn bo co ca ti, v ch ta phin hp, ng John Taylor ca trng Kings College, London ng dy tuyn b rng tt c nhng th l v ngha. Thm ch ng cn vit mt bi bo v vn ny. Tuy nhin, ri cui cng, hu ht mi ngi, k c ng John Taylo cng i n kt lun rng cc l en cn phi pht bc x nh cc vt nng, nu nhng quan nim khc ca chng ta v thuyt tng i rng v c hc lng t l ng n. Nh vy, mc d ngay c khi chng ta cn cha tm thy mt l en nguyn thy no vn c mt s kh nht tr cho rng nu chng ta pht hin ra l en th n s phi pht ra mt lng ln tia X v tia gamma. S tn ti ca bc x pht ra t l en cng cn ng rng s co li do hp dn khng phi l chm ht v khng th o ngc c nh mt thi chng ta ngh. Nu mt nh du hnh ri vo mt l en th khi lng ca n s tng, nhng cui cng nng lng tng ng vi khi lng gia tng s c tr li cho v tr di dng bc x. Nh vy theo mt ngha no nh du hnh v tr ca chng ta c lun hi. Tuy nhin, l mt s phn bt t ng thng, v quan nim c nhn v thi gian ca nh du hnh chc cng s chm ht khi anh ta b x ra tng mnh trong l en! Ngay c cc loi ht cui cng c pht ra t l http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
LC S THI GIAN
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en ni chung cng s khc vi nhng ht to nn nh du hnh: c im duy nht cn li ca anh ta ch l khi lng v nng lng. Nhng php gn ng m ti s dng tnh ra s pht x t l en vn cn hiu lc tt khi l en c khi lng ch ln hn mt phn ca gam. Tuy nhin chng s khng cn dng c na im cui i ca l en, khi m khi lng ca n tr nn cc nh. Kt cc c nhiu kh nng nht l l en s bin mt, t nht l khi vng v tr ca chng ta mang theo c nh du hnh v k d c th c bn trong n. y l ch dn u tin cho thy c hc lng t c th kh cc k d c tin on bi thuyt tng i rng. Tuy nhin cc phng php m ti v nhng ngi khc s dng vo nm 1974 cha th tr li c cho nhng cu hi, v d nh liu nhng k d c xut hin trong l thuyt lng t hp dn hay khng? Do t nm 1975 tr i ti bt u pht trin mt cch tip cn mnh hn i vi hp dn lng t da trn tng ca Richard Feynman v php ly tng theo nhng lch s. Cu tr li m cch tip cn ny a ra cho ngun gc v s phn ca v tr v nhng th cha bn trong n, chng hn nh nh du hnh, s c m t hai chng sau. Chng ta s thy rng mc d nguyn l bt nh t nhng hn ch v chnh xc cho tt c cc tin on ca chng ta, nhng ng thi n li loi b c tnh khng th tin on - mt tnh cht rt c bn xy ra im k d ca khng - thi gian.
Stephen Hawking
104
Phn 22
[...] Mt s nguyn t nng hnh thnh cui i mt sao s b bn tr li vo m kh ca thin h v s l nguyn liu cho th h tip theo ca cc sao. Mt tri ca chng ta cha khong 2% cc nguyn t nng v thuc th h sao th hai hoc th ba...[...]
Chng 8: Ngun gc v s phn ca v tr L thuyt tng i rng ca Einstein, tin on rng khng gian, thi gian bt u t k d ca v n ln, s kt thc hoc ti mt k d cui cng (trng hp ton v tr co li) hoc ti mt k d nm bn trong mt l en (trng hp mt vng nh x, v d mt sao co li). Mi vt cht ri vo l en, s b ph hy ti im k d, ch cn li hiu ng hp dn ca khi lng l cn c cm nhn t pha bn ngoi. Mt khc, khi cc hiu ng lng t c tnh n th dng nh khi lng v nng lng ca vt cht cui cng s tr v vi phn cn li ca v tr, v l en cng vi mi k d bn trong s bay hi v bin mt. Liu c hc lng t c gy mt hiu ng bi kch nh th i vi v n ln v k d chung cuc hay khng? iu g thc t v s xy ra vo cc giai on rt sm v mun hn ca v tr, khi cc trng hp hp dn mnh n mc m cc hiu ng lng t khng th no b qua c? Thc t v tr c mt im bt u v mt im kt thc hay khng? V nu c, th phi hnh dung chng ra sao? Trong sut nhng nm 70 ti tp trung nghin cu cc l en, nhng vo nm 1981, ti li lu tm n cc vn xung quanh ngun gc v s phn ca v tr khi ti tham gia mt hi tho v v tr hc t chc bi cc tu s dng Jesuit ti Vatican. Nh th Thin cha gio phm mt sai lm i vi Galileo khi h ph nh mt nh lut khoa hc v tuyn b rng mt tri phi quay quanh qu t. By gi sau nhiu th k, h quyt nh mi nhiu nh khoa hc lm c vn v v tr hc. Cui hi ngh cc nh khoa hc c tip kin Gio hong. ng ni rng nghin cu s tin trin ca v tr sau v n ln l ng song Nh th khng tm hiu v bn thn v n ln v l thi im ca Sng to, nn thuc cng vic ca Cha. Ti rt vui mng v c Gio hong khng bit n bi pht biu ca ti ti hi tho: kh nng khng - thi gian l hu hn song khng c bin, iu c ngha l khng c ci ban u, khng c thi im ca Sng to. Ti khng c mun chu cng s phn ca Galileo, ngi m ti c mt cm gic http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
LC S THI GIAN
105
mnh m v s ng nht vi ti, mt phn v s trng hp gia ngy sinh ca ti ng trn 300 nm sau ngy cht ca ng. gii thch cc tng ca ti v nhng ngi khc v iu c hc lng t c th tc ng ln ngun gc v s phn ca v tr, trc ht cn phi hiu v lch s ca v tr theo quan im c nhiu ngi chp nhn, da trn m hnh c bit di m hnh nng ca v n ln. M hnh ny gi nh rng v tr c miu t bi mt m hnh Friedmann, ngc theo thi gian mi tn lc c v n ln. Trong nhng m hnh nh vy ngi ta thy rng lc v tr n, mi vt cht v bc x s lnh dn. (Khi v tr t kch thc gp i th nhit ca v tr gim xung mt na). V nhit l s o nng lng trung bnh - hay vn tc - ca cc ht, qu trnh lnh dn ny s gy mt hiu ng ln i vi vt cht trong v tr. nhit rt cao, cc ht chuyn ng nhanh n mc c th thot ra khi mi trng ht gia chng vi nhau do lc ht nhn, hoc in t to nn, song khi chng tr nn lnh th chng ht nhau v kt dnh vi nhau. Ngoi ra, cc loi ht tn ti trong v tr cng ph thuc vo nhit . nhit cao, cc ht c nng lng ln v khi chm nhau, nhiu cp ht/phn ht c th sinh ra v mc d nhiu ht sau khi sinh ra c th b hy lc chm cc phn ht, chng vn c sinh ra nhanh hn b hy i. nhit thp hn, khi cc ht va chm nhau c nng lng nh hn, cc cp ht/phn ht sinh ra vi tc chm hn v nh vy qu trnh hy ca chng nhanh hn qu trnh sinh. Ti v n ln, kch thc ca v tr c xem nh l bng khng, v vy nhit l v cng ln. Song trong qu trnh gin n, nhit ca bc x s gim xung. Mt giy sau v n ln, nhit gim xung cn khong 10 ngn triu . Nhit ny c ngn ln nhit tm mt tri v c nhit t c lc bom H (tc bom khinh kh) n. Vo thi im v tr cha phn ln l cc photon, electron v neutron (l nhng ht nh ch tham gia tng tc yu v hp dn) v cc phn ht ca chng, cng vi mt s proton v neutron. Lc v tr tip tc gin n v nhit h xung th cc cp electron/phn electron sinh ra chm hn l b hy. V th phn ln cc electron v phn electron hy vi nhau to thnh nhiu photon v st li mt s electron. Song cc ht neutrino v phn - neutrino t hy nhau v cc ht ny tng tc vi nhau v vi cc ht khc rt yu. Cho nn hin nay chng cn tn ti trong v tr. Nu ta c th quan st c chng th ta c mt bng http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
106
chng chc chn v bc tranh ca giai on nng u tin ca v tr. Tic thay, nng lng ca chng ngy nay qu nh ta c th quan st c chng mt cch trc tip. Nhng nu neutrino c mt khi lng nh, theo kt qu mt th nghim cha c kim nghim li do nhng ngi Nga thc hin nm 1981, th ta c th ghi o c chng mt cch gin tip: chng phi to thnh mt vt cht ti, nh ni trc y, vt cht s sinh ra mt lc hp dn hm ng s gin n ca v tr v buc v tr co tr li. Khong mt trm giy sau v n ln, nhit xung cn mt ngn triu , bng nhit trong cc sao nng nht. nhit proton v neutron khng cn nng lng thot khi sc ht ca lc ht nhn v kt hp vi nhau to thnh ht nhn ca nguyn t teri (hydro nng), gm mt proton v mt neutron. Cc ht nhn ca teri li kt hp thm vi cc proton v neutron to thnh ht nhn heli, gm hai proton v hai neutron v mt s ht nhn nng hn l liti v berili. Ngi ta c th tnh ra rng trong m hnh nng ca v n ln, khong mt phn t cc proton v neutron bin thnh ht nhn heli, cng mt s nh hydro nng v cc ht nhn khc. S neutron cn li phn hy thnh proton vn l ht nhn ca nguyn t hydro. Bc tranh v giai on nng trc y ca v tr ln u tin c phc ha bi George Gamow trong cng trnh ni ting nm 1948, thc hin chung vi mt sinh vin ca ng l Ralph Alpher. Gamow l mt ngi giu tnh hm hnh, ng thuyt phc nh vt l ht nhn Hans Bethe in thm tn vo cng trnh vi mun lm cho danh sch tc gi Alpher, Bethe, Gamow c ln nghe gn nh m ca ba ch ci u tin ca bng vn Hy Lp l alpha, beta, gamma: tht l thch hp cho mt cng trnh ni v giai on u ca v tr! Trong cng trnh ny, cc tc gi tin on mt cch c sc rng bc x (di dng cc photon) t nhng giai on nng tin s ca v tr s tn d li trong giai on hin nay, song vi nhit h xung ch cn vi trn khng tuyt i (- 273 C). Bc x ny c Penzias v Wilson pht hin nm 1965. Vo thi gian khi Alpher, Bethe, Gamow vit cng trnh trn, ngi ta cha bit nhiu v cc phn ng ht nhn gia proton v neutron. Cc tnh ton d bo v t s cc nguyn t trong tin s ca v tr v l trn khng c chnh xc lm, song nhng tnh ton c thc hin li trn c s nhng kin thc hin i v cho nhng kt qu trng hp tt vi cc quan trc thc nghim. Kh m ct ngha theo mt cch no khc v sao trong v http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
LC S THI GIAN
107
tr nhiu heli nh vy. Do chng ta c th tin tng rng chng ta c mt bc tranh ng n, t nht ngc li theo thi gian n thi im khong 1 giy sau v n ln. Trong vng mt vi gi sau v n ln, s sinh ra heli v cc nguyn t khc dng li. Sau trong vng triu nm tip theo, v tr tip tc gin n v khng c iu g c bit xy ra. Cui cng lc nhit h xung cn khong vi ngn , v electron cng cc ht nhn khng cn nng lng thot khi lc ht in t gia chng, th chng kt hp vi nhau to thnh cc nguyn t. V tr trong Hon cc tip tc gin n v lnh dn, song trong cc vng m mt cao hn trung bnh, qu trnh gin n c chm hn do lc hp dn y ln hn. iu ny c th dn n s dng hn qu trnh gin n ca mt s vng no v bt u qu trnh co li. Khi cc vng ny co li, lc ht hp dn ca vt cht chung quanh bn ngoi s lm cho cc vng bt u quay. V cc vng ny tip tc co nh li nn chng quay nhanh hn, hon ton tng t nh vn ng vin trt bng ang quay trn bng s quay nhanh hn khi h co tay st s th. Cui cng khi vng ang xt tr nn nh, th n quay nhanh hn cn bng vi lc hp dn v nhng thin h quay dng hnh a c hnh thnh theo cch . Cc vng khc, nu khng thu c mt chuyn ng quay th s c dng hnh bu dc v s c gi l nhng thin h elliptic. Cc thin h ny s dng co li v nhiu b phn ring l ca chng s chuyn ng trn nhng qu o n nh quanh tm thin h, song v ton cc th thin h khng c chuyn ng quay. Cng vi thi gian, cc khi kh hydro v heli trong cc thin h s phn r thnh cc m kh nh hn v nhng m kh ny s co li di sc hp dn ca chng. Khi chng co li th cc nguyn t trong s va chm nhau v nhit ca kh s tng ln, c th n mc cao xy ra phn ng nhit hch. Lc ny hydro kt thnh heli, nhit lng thot ra lm tng p sut v cc m my khng co li thm na. Chng n nh trong trng thi rt lu nh cc sao ging mt tri, t chy hydro thnh heli v bc x pht sinh di dng nhit v nh sng. Nhng sao c khi lng ln hn cn c nhit cao hn cn bng lc ht hp dn ln hn ca chng, v cc phn ng nhit hch xy ra nhanh hn, cho nn chng s tiu hy hydro trong vng chng mt trm triu nm. Chng s co li, nng ln v bt u bin heli thnh nhng nguyn t nng hn nh cacbon hoc oxy. Song chng khng thot nhiu nng lng hn, v vy mt trng thi ti hn s xy ra nh miu t chng ni v cc l en.
Stephen Hawking
108
iu g s xy ra sau khng hon ton r lm song hnh nh cc vng tm sao s co li n mt trng thi mt cao nh mt sao neutron hoc l en. Cc vng bn ngoi i khi c th b bn ra trong mt v n gi l v n siu sao, pht ra nh sng mnh hn mi sao khc trong thin h. Mt s nguyn t nng hnh thnh cui i mt sao s b bn tr li vo m kh ca thin h v s l nguyn liu cho th h tip theo ca cc sao. Mt tri ca chng ta cha khong 2% cc nguyn t nng v thuc th h sao th hai hoc th ba, hnh thnh chng nm ngn triu nm v trc t mt m my quay cha cc mnh vn ca cc siu sao th h trc. Phn ln kh trong cc m my s cu thnh mt tri hoc b bn xa, cn mt khi lng nh cc nguyn t nng s kt vi nhau thnh cc thin th hin ang chuyn ng trn cc qu o quanh mt tri nh tri t.
LC S THI GIAN
109
Phn 23
[...] Nu v tr v cng trong khng gian, hoc nu tn ti v s v tr, th phi tn ti u nhiu vng ln tr nn ng nht. Tnh hung ny ging nh lc c mt n kh rt ng g my ch - phn ln nhng iu chng g ra v ngha nhng cng khng loi tr c xc sut l chng thu c mt bi th ngn ca Shakespear..[...]
Lc ban u qu t rt nng v khng c kh quyn. Theo thi gian qu t lnh dn v c c bu kh quyn hnh thnh nh s khuch tn cc cht kh t khong cht. Bu kh quyn trong qu kh khng phi l bu kh quyn thch hp vi cuc sng. Bu kh quyn ny khng cha xy m ch cha mt s cht kh khc l c t cho cuc sng nh sunfua hydro (l cc cht kh gy ra mi trng thi). Song c nhng dng sng s khai c th pht trin trong nhng iu kin nh vy. Ngi ta cho rng s sng bt u trong nhng i dng, rt c th l kt qu ngu nhin ca s phc hp cc nguyn t thnh nhng cu trc ln, gi l i phn t, nhng i phn t ny c kh nng tp hp nhiu nguyn t khc trong i dng thnh nhng cu trc tng t. Nh th chng c th t to v sinh sn. Trong mt s trng hp c th xy ra cc sai lm trong qu trnh sinh sn. Phn ln cc sai lm dn n nhng i phn t mi khng c kh nng t to v do tn li dn. Song cng c nhng sai lm dn n nhng i phn t li c kh nng t to. Cc i phn t ny hon ho hn v s thay th dn cc i phn t trc. Bng cch hnh thnh mt qu trnh tin ha dn n s pht trin nhng c th phc tp hn, c kh nng t to. Nhng dng sng s ng lc u tiu th nhiu nguyn liu khc nhau nh sunfua hydro v xy thot sinh. Qu trnh ny dn dn bin i thnh phn ca kh quyn n hin trng v do to iu kin thun li cho cc dng sng cao cp hn nh c, b st, loi c v, v cui cng l con ngi. Bc tranh phc ha trn y ca v tr t trng thi rt nng v lnh dn trong qu trnh gin n ca v tr ph hp vi nhng quan trc c c. Tuy nhin, bc tranh cng t ra nhiu cu hi quan trng cha c cu tr li: (1) Ti v sao v tr nng n nh vy cc giai on u tin?
Stephen Hawking
110
(2) V sao v tr ng nht nh vy kch thc ln? Ti sao v tr ging nhau mi im v theo mi hng? Ni ring v sao nhit ca bc x phng c tr s bng nhau theo mi hng? Tnh hung tng t nh khi ta hi nhiu sinh vin mt cu hi thi, nu chng tr li ging nhau th ta c th tin rng chng trao i vi nhau. Cn trong m hnh m t trn y, t v n ln nh sng khng thi gian i t mt vng qu xa xi n mt vng khc, mc d cc vng ny vn k nhau trong giai on sm ca v tr. Theo thuyt tng i, nu nh sng khng th i t mt vng ny n mt vng khc, th khng c thng tin no c trao i. Nh vy cc vng khc nhau khng th c cng mt nhit , tr khi chng c cng mt nhit lc ban u v mt l do no cha gii thch c. (3) V sao v tr bt u gin n vi vn tc ti hn l vn tc ranh gii gia m hnh co li v m hnh gin n, v ngay trong thi gian hin ti, mi ngn triu nm sau vn cn gin n vi vn tc ti hn ? Nu nh vn tc gin n ti thi im mt giy sau v n ln ch nh hn mt phn trm ngn triu triu th v tr co li trc khi bt u t kch thc hin nay. (4) Mc du v tr ng nht xt kch thc ln, v tr vn cha nhng vng nh x c nng vt cht cao hn nh cc sao v thin h. Ngi ta cho rng cc sao v thin h c hnh thnh do s khc nhau v mt ca cc vng ngay trong cc giai on sm ca v tr. Vy ngun gc ca cc thng ging mt l u? L thuyt tng i, xt c lp, khng th gii thch c cc im trn v a ra cc cu tr li cho nhng cu hi va t ra v l thuyt tng i on nhn rng v tr sinh ra t mt k d vi mt v cng ca v n ln. Ti im k d , l thuyt tng i v cc nh lut vt l khc khng cn ng na: ngi ta khng th bit iu g s xy ra vi mt im k d . Nh gii thch trc y, iu c ngha rng ta c th tch ri v n ln v cc s kin trc n ra khi l thuyt v chng khng th tc ng ln nhng g chng ta quan st c. Khng - thi gian cn phi c bin - l im bt u t v n ln. Khoa hc hy vng tm ra cc nh lut cho php trong cc gii hn xc nh bi h thc bt nh, tin on c s pht trin ca v tr nu ta bit c trng thi ca n ti mt thi im. Nhng nh lut c th l do Cha ban hnh, nhng hnh nh sau Cha cho v tr t pht trin v khng bun can thip vo na. Nhng Cha chn iu kin ban u hoc
LC S THI GIAN
111
cu hnh v tr nh th no? iu kin bin ti im bt u ca thi gian l iu kin g? Mt cu tr li kh d l cho rng Cha chn mt cu hnh u tin theo nhng l l m chng ta khng c hy vng hiu c. iu hon ton trong quyn lc ca mt ng siu nhn, song nu ng ta bt u theo mt kiu kh hiu nh vy, th ti sao ng ta li cho v tr pht trin theo nhng quy lut m chng ta c th hiu c? Ton b lch s khoa hc l mt qu trnh tim cn n nhn thc c rng cc s kin khng pht trin mt cch ngu nhin, m chng phn nh mt trt t tim n no c hoc khng c ngun gc thn thnh. Ta c th gi nh mt cch t nhin rng trt t khng nhng c p dng vo cc nh lut m c vo cc iu kin ban u ca khng - thi gian. C th c rt nhiu m hnh v tr vi cc iu kin bin ban u khc nhau. Chng ta phi a ra c mt nguyn tc no chn c mt trng thi ban u, do chn c mt m hnh m t v tr. Mt kh nng l chn ci gi l iu kin hn n (chaotic) ban u. iu kin ny gi nh hoc v tr v cng trong khng gian hoc tn ti v s trong v tr. Theo iu kin gi l hn n ban u, xc sut tm thy mt vng khng gian bt k trong mt cu hnh cho trc bt k sau v n ln l bng nhau: trng thi ban u ca v tr l hon ton mang tnh ngu nhin. iu c ngha l v tr trc y c nhiu xc sut l v trt t v rng i vi v tr tn ti nhiu cu hnh hn n v v trt t hn l cc cu hnh u n v trt t. (Nu mi cu hnh c xc sut bng nhau th v tr phi xut pht t mt trng thi hn n, v trt t v mt l do n gin l tn ti qu nhiu trng thi nh vy). Rt kh hnh dung c v sao nhng trng thi hn n ban u li c th dn n mt v tr u n, trt t kch thc ln nh v tr hin nay. Ngi ta cng bt buc phi ngh rng nhng thng ging mt trong mt m hnh nh th nht nh phi dn n s hnh thnh mt s lng l en nguyn thy ln hn cn trn thu c t cc quan trc phng tia gamma. Nu v tr v cng trong khng gian, hoc nu tn ti v s v tr, th phi tn ti u nhiu vng ln tr nn ng nht. Tnh hung ny ging nh lc c mt n kh rt ng g my ch - phn ln nhng iu chng g ra v ngha nhng cng khng loi tr c xc sut l chng thu c mt bi th ngn ca Shakespear. Tng t nh vy trong trng hp v tr, cng c th chng ta ngu nhin sng trong mt vng ng nht nh th? Thot ngh c th iu c qu t xc sut v http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
112
nhng vng hn n v v trt t l qu nhiu so vi nhng vng ng nht. Song hy gi nh rng ch trong nhng vng ng nht mi tn ti nhng thin h v cc sao, y c nhng iu kin thun li cho s pht trin ca nhng sinh vt phc tp c kh nng sinh sn nh con ngi c kh nng t cu nghi vn: Ti sao v tr li ng nht nh th? y l mt v d ng dng ci gi l nguyn l v nhn (anthropic) c pht biu nh sau: Chng ta nhn thy v tr nh vy bi v chng ta tn ti. C hai cch din dch nguyn l v nhn: Nguyn l yu v nguyn l mnh. Nguyn l v nhn yu khng nh rng trong v tr v cng trong khng gian v hoc trong thi gian, iu kin thun li cho s ny sinh mt dng sng c tr tu ch xut hin mt s vng nht nh hu hn trong khng gian v thi gian. Nhng sinh vt c tr tu trong nhng vng s khng ngc nhin nu chng nhn thy rng a phng ca chng trong v tr tha mn cc iu kin cn thit cho s sng ca chng. Tnh hung tng t nh lc mt ngi giu c sng trong mi trng nhung la khng thy c cnh bn cng chung quanh. Mt v d ng dng nguyn l v nhn yu l gii thch v sao v n ln xy ra gn mi ngn triu nm v trc th cng cn gn y thi gian cho s tin ha ca sinh vt c tr tu. Nh trc y ni, u tin mt th h sm cc sao c hnh thnh. Cc sao ny bin mt s hydro v heli nguyn thy thnh cacbon v oxy vn l cc thnh phn c th ca chng ta. Cc sao ny li n thnh cc siu sao, v cc mnh v tn d li hp thnh cc sao v hnh tinh khc, trong s ny c thi dng h ca chng ta tn ti khong nm ngn triu nm. Trong mt hoc hai ngn triu nm u tin ca tri t, nhit qu cao v th cc cu trc phc tp khng hnh thnh c. Trong ba ngn triu nm cn li th mt qu trnh tin ha chm sinh hc ny sinh dn n s hnh thnh t nhng c th n gin n cc sinh vt c kh nng t duy i ngc theo thi gian v v n ln. Nhiu ngi t nghi vn v s ng n v ch li ca nguyn l v nhn yu. Ngoi ra mt s ngi i xa hn v ngh nguyn l v nhn mnh. Theo nguyn l ny, tn ti hoc nhiu v tr khc nhau hoc nhiu vng khc nhau ca mt v tr duy nht, mi i tng c cu hnh ban u ring v c th c t hp ring cc nh lut khoa hc. Trong a s cc v tr , iu kin khng thun li cho s pht trin ca nhng c th phc tp; ch c mt vi v tr nh v tr ca chng ta l c iu kin cho s pht trin ca nhng sinh vt c tr tu kh nng t ra cu hi: v sao v tr phi http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
LC S THI GIAN
113
ging nh ta quan st c? Cu tr li by gi s tr nn n gin. Nu v tr khc i th chng ta s khng th tn ti y c!
Stephen Hawking
114
Phn 24
[...] Vi tm mt m hnh ca v tr, trong nhiu cu hnh khc nhau ban u c th tin trin n mt v tr nh hin ti, mt nh khoa hc cng tc ti Vin cng ngh Massachusetts l Alan Guth a ra gi trong cc giai on sm v tr tri qua mt thi k gin n cc nhanh. Thi k gin n cc nhanh ny c gi l thi k lm pht...[...]
Cc nh lut khoa hc, trong dng m chng ta nhn thc nh hin nay cha nhiu hng s c bn v d in tch ca electron v t s khi lng ca proton v ca electron. Chng ta khng th, t nht l trong iu kin hin nay, tnh c gi tr ca nhng hng s t l thuyt - chng ta ch thu c cc tr s bng thc nghim. C l mt ngy no chng ta s tm c mt l thuyt thng nht hon chnh c kh nng tnh c mi hng s, song cng rt c th rng mt s hoc tt c hng s li bin thin t v tr ny sang v tr khc hoc ngay trong mt v tr. iu ng ch l tr s ca nhng hng s dng nh c iu chnh mt cch tinh t sao cho cuc sng c th ny sinh v pht trin c. V d nu in tch electron ch khc i mt t th cc sao hoc khng th t chy hydro v heli hoc khc i chng khng th n thnh siu sao. L d nhin c th tn ti nhng dng sng khc, m thm ch cc nh vn vin tng cng khng sng to ni, nhng dng sng khng cn n c nh sng ca cc sao nh mt tri hoc cc nguyn t ha hc nng hn c to thnh trong cc sao v b bn vo khng gian khi sao n. C l cng d hiu l min xc nh ca cc hng s khng th rng c nu cc hng s phi ph hp vi s pht trin ca cuc sng tr tu. a s cc tp gi tr ca cc hng s dn n s hnh thnh nhng v tr mc du rt p, song khng ph hp cho s pht trin sinh vt c kh nng chim ngng v p . Chng ta c th on nhn hoc iu l s chng minh cho mc ch thing ling ca Cha trong s sng to v s la chn cc nh lut khoa hc hoc iu l s chng minh cho nguyn l v nhn mnh. C mt s kin ngi ta c th a ra phn i kin cho rng nguyn l v nhn mnh c th gii thch trng thi quan st c ca v tr. Th nht, ta phi hiu s tn ti ca nhiu v tr khc nh th no y? Nu qu thc chng tch ring xa nhau, th nhng iu xy ra trong http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
LC S THI GIAN
115
mt v tr khc s khng gy mt h qu no quan st c trong v tr chng ta. V vy chng ta phi s dng nguyn l tit kim ct b chng khi l thuyt ca chng ta. Nu, mt khc, tn ti nhiu vng khc nhau ca cng mt v tr, th cc nh lut khoa hc phi l chung cho tt c cc vng, v tri li th chng ta khng th chuyn ng lin tc t mt vng ny sang vng khc. Trong trng hp th s khc bit gia cc vng quy v s khc bit ca cc cu hnh ban u v nh th nguyn l v nhn mnh li quy v nguyn l v nhn yu. kin phn i th hai cho l nguyn l ny i ngc li dng chy ca lch s khoa hc. Chng ta i t m hnh v tr xem qu t l trung tm ca Ptolemy v cc tin bi, qua m hnh mt tri l trung tm ca Copernicus v Galileo, n m hnh hin i trong qu t ch l hnh tinh kch thc va phi quay quanh mt sao trung bnh trong vng bin ca mt thin h xon c bnh thng vn ch l mt trong triu triu thin h ca v tr quan st c. Nguyn l v nhn mnh li c tham vng cho rng ton b kin trc khng l tn ti ch v con ngi. iu qu tht l kh tin. Chc chn rng thi dng h l mt tin cho cuc sng ca chng ta, v chng ta cng c th ngoi suy ngh cho ton thin h ca chng ta cho php s tn ti cc th h sao trc to nn nhng nguyn t nng hn. Song dng nh khng c mt s cn thit no buc cc thin h khc v cho v tr phi ng nht v ging nhau theo mi phng hng kch thc ln. Chng ta s cm thy yn tm hn vi nguyn l v nhn, t nht phng n yu, nu chng ta c th chng minh rng nhiu cu hnh ban u khc nhau ca v tr s tin trin to mt v tr ging nh v tr ang quan st c. Nu qu nh vy, th mt v tr thot thai t nhng iu kin hn n ban u s cha mt vng ng nht, u n thch hp cho s ny sinh cuc sng tr tu. Mt khc, nu trng thi ban u c chn tuyt i cn thn c mt v tr m chng ta thy chung quanh, th v tr chc c t xc sut cha mt vng no trong s sng c th xut hin. Trong m hnh nng ca v n ln m t trc y, chng ta thy giai on sm ca v tr, nhit lng khng thi gian chy t vng ny sang vng khc. iu c ngha rng trng thi ban u ca v tr phi c cng mt nhit mi ni, c nh th th ta mi quan st c hin tng bc x phng c cng mt nhit mi ni theo mi hng. Tc gin n ban u cng phi c chn rt chnh xc th tc gin n hin nay mi tip tc xp x tc ti hn cn thit trnh qu trnh co li. iu c ngha rng trng thi ban u ca v tr phi c chn rt cn thn nu http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
116
m hnh nng ca v n ln l ng ngc mi tn ti im ban u ca thi gian. Rt kh gii thch v sao v tr c bt u nh vy, tr khi cho rng y l hnh ng ca Cha mun to nn nhng sinh vt nh chng ta. Vi tm mt m hnh ca v tr, trong nhiu cu hnh khc nhau ban u c th tin trin n mt v tr nh hin ti, mt nh khoa hc cng tc ti Vin cng ngh Massachusetts l Alan Guth a ra gi trong cc giai on sm v tr tri qua mt thi k gin n cc nhanh. Thi k gin n cc nhanh ny c gi l thi k lm pht, vi ngha rng trong thi k v tr gin n vi tc tng dn ch khng phi gim dn nh hin ti. Theo Guth, bn knh ca v tr tng vt ln triu triu triu triu triu (1 vi ba mi con s khng) ln trong ch mt phn rt nh ca giy. Guth gi rng v tr bt u t mt v n ln, t mt trng thi rt nng, nhng rt hn n. Cc nhit cao ny lm cho cc ht trong v tr chuyn ng rt nhanh v c nng lng rt ln. Nh ni trn nhng nhit cao nh vy cc lc tng tc mnh, yu v in t hp nht thnh mt lc duy nht. Trong qu trnh gin n, v tr lnh dn, nng lng cc ht gim i. C th xy ra qu trnh gi l chuyn pha v i xng gia cc lc b ph v: lc tng tc mnh tr nn khc bit vi cc lc tng tc yu v in t. Mt v d thng thng ca qu trnh chuyn pha l qu trnh nc ng bng khi nhit h thp. Nc lng c i xng ging nhau mi im v theo mi hng. Song cc tinh th bng hnh thnh, chng s chim nhng v tr nht nh v xp thnh hng theo mt hng no . iu ny ph v i xng ca nc trng thi lng. Trong trng hp nc, nu cn thn chng ta c th lm siu lnh nc, iu c ngha l chng ta c th a nhit xung di nhit ng bng 0 C m bng vn cha xut hin. Guth gi rng iu c th xy ra cho v tr: nhit gim xung di tr s gii hn m i xng gia cc lc vn cha b ph v. Nu iu xy ra, v tr s ri vo mt trng thi n nh, vi nng lng ln hn nng lng ng vi lc i xng b ph v. C th chng minh rng nng lng di ny s gy ra hiu ng phn hp dn: n s c tc ng nh hng s v tr m Einstein a vo l thuyt tng i rng khi ng mun xy dng mt m hnh tnh ca v tr. V v tr gin n ging nh trong m hnh nng ca v n ln, cho nn hiu ng y ca hng s v tr ny lm cho v tr gin n vi vn tc lun http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
LC S THI GIAN
117
tng. Ngay c trong nhng vng vi mt ht ln hn trung bnh, hiu ng phn hp dn gy ra bi hng s v tr cng vt qu hp dn. Do cc vng ny phi gin n theo quy lut gia tng lm pht. Trong qu trnh gin n, cc vng v cc ht vt cht s i xa nhau v ta c c mt v tr gin n vi mt ht nh v hin nm trong trng thi siu lnh. Mi im bt thng trong v tr s b l u v qu trnh gin n, tng t nh nhng np nhn ca mt qu bng bin dn khi ta thi khng kh vo. Nh vy trng thi ng nht v u n hin nay ca v tr c th t c trong qu trnh tin trin t nhiu trng thi khng ng nht khc nhau. Trong mt v tr nh th, qu trnh gin n c gia tc bi hng s v tr v khng b hm dn bi lc hp dn ca vt cht, nh sng c thi gian thc hin hnh trnh t vng ny sang vng khc trong cc giai on sm ca v tr. Tnh hung ny c th a ra li gii cho bi ton nu ra trc y: v sao cc vng khc nhau ca v tr c cng nhng tnh cht ging nhau. Ngoi ra, vn tc n ca v tr s t ng tr nn xp x vn tc gii hn xc nh bi mt trong v tr. iu ny c th gii thch cu hi v sao vn tc gin n ca v tr vn gn vn tc gii hn, m khng cn gi nh rng vn tc gin n ban u ca v tr c la chn mt cch cn thn.
Stephen Hawking
118
Phn 25
[...] V tr hin nay khng gin n theo quy lut lm pht. Nh th phi tn ti mt c ch c kh nng loi b hng s v tr hiu dng qu ln v nh vy bin vn tc gin n t qu trnh gia tc v qu trnh chm dn v hp dn nh chng ta hin nay. [...]
nim v lm pht cng gip ta gii thch c v sao c nhiu vt cht nh vy trong v tr. C chng mi triu triu triu triu triu triu triu triu triu triu triu triu triu triu (1 vi tm mi s khng) ht trong vng khng gian m chng ta c th quan st c. Chng t u n? Theo thuyt lng t cc ht c sinh ra t nng lng trong cp ht/phn ht. Song by gi li n cu hi, nng lng t u ra? Cu tr li l nng lng ton phn ca v tr chnh xc bng khng. Vt cht trong v tr c cu to t nng lng dng. Song vt cht li ht nhau v hp dn. Hai lng vt cht gn nhau c t nng lng hn l khi chng xa nhau, bi v chng phi sn ra nng lng ko chng ra xa chng li hp dn ang ko chng li gn nhau. Nh th trong mt ngha nht nh, trng hp dn c nng lng m. Trong trng hp ca mt v tr gn ng nht trong khng gian, ngi ta c th chng minh c rng nng lng hp dn m ny s trit tiu nng lng dng ca vt cht. Nh th nng lng ton phn ca v tr bng khng. Hai ln khng vn l khng. Cho nn v tr c th tng gp i nng lng dng ca vt cht v ng thi tng gp i nng lng m ca hp dn m vn khng vi phm nh lut bo ton nng lng. iu ny khng th xy ra trong mt qu trnh gin n bnh thng ca v tr, trong mt nng lng vt cht gim i khi v tr tr nn ln hn. Song iu c th xy ra trong mt qu trnh gin n lm pht bi v mt nng lng ca trng thi siu lnh vn khng thay i khi v tr gin n: Khi kch thc v tr tng gp i, nng lng dng ca vt cht v nng lng m ca hp dn cng tng gp i do nng lng ton phn vn bng khng. Trong pha lm pht, kch thc ca v tr tng ln rt nhiu. Nh th ton phn nng lng hin hu to nn cc ht u tr nn rt ln. Nh Guth nhn xt: C th ni y l mt ba tic khng mt tin. V v tr l ba tic khng mt tin ti hu.
LC S THI GIAN
119
V tr hin nay khng gin n theo quy lut lm pht. Nh th phi tn ti mt c ch c kh nng loi b hng s v tr hiu dng qu ln v nh vy bin vn tc gin n t qu trnh gia tc v qu trnh chm dn v hp dn nh chng ta hin nay. Trong giai on lm pht c th i xng gia cc lc b ph v, tng t nc siu lnh ri cui cng cng phi ng li. Nng lng di ra ca i xng b ph v thot ra v hm nng v tr n mt nhit va ng di nhit ti hn ng vi i xng gia cc lc. V tr tip tc gin n v lnh dn ng nh m hnh nng ca v n ln, song by gi ta li cn gii thch ti sao v tr gin n vi vn tc ti hn v v sao cc vng khc nhau c cng mt nhit . Trong l thuyt ban u ca Guth, qu trnh chuyn pha c gi nh l xy ra t ngt, tng t nh cc tinh th bng trong nc tht lnh. C th ngh rng cc bong bng ca pha mi ca i xng b ph v c hnh thnh trong pha c, tng t nh cc bong bng hi c bao bc bi nc ang si. Cc bong bng c gi nh l gin n v gp nhau cho n khi ton b v tr ri vo pha mi. Mt kh khn, m ti v nhiu ngi khc ch ra l v tr gin n qu nhanh cho du rng cc bong bng ln ln bng tc nh sng, chng cng s chuyn ng xa nhau ra v khng kp gp ni nhau. Nh vy v tr ri vo trng thi khng ng nht, vi mt s vng vn cn c i xng gia cc lc. Mt bc tranh nh th khng tng ng vi nhng iu ta quan st c. Thng 10 nm 1981, ti n Matxcva tham d hi tho v hp dn lng t. Sau hi tho, ti c lm mt seminar v mu lm pht v cc vn ca mu ti Vin thin vn Sternberg. Trc y ti thng nh mt ngi khc c bo co thay ti v a s khng hiu c ging ni ca ti. Nhng lc ny ti khng cn th gi chun b nn ti t c, v ch nh nghin cu sinh ca ti pht li nhng li ti ni. Phng thc ny kh c kt qu v to c mi tip xc vi thnh gi. Trong bui seminar c mt ngi Nga cn tr l Andrei Linde lm vic Vin Lebedev ti Matxcva. Linde cho rng c th trnh c kh khn gn lin vi iu cc bong bng khng ni vi nhau, nu ta cho rng cc bong bng ln ti mc m vng v tr ca ta nm trn trong mt bong bng. gi thuyt c hp l th s ph v i xng phi xy ra rt chm trong bong bng v iu ny l hon ton kh d trn l thuyt thng nht ln. tng ca Linde v mt qu trnh ph v i xng chm l rt hp dn, song sau ny ti hiu rng nhng bong bng ca Linde phi ln hn kch thc v tr vo lc . Ti chng minh rng i xng b http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
120
ph v khp mi ni ch khng phi trong lng cc bong bng. iu ny s dn n mt v tr ng nht, ng nh ta quan st. Ti rt tm c vi tng ny v cng bn lun vi mt sinh vin ca ti l Ian Moss. Vi t cch l mt ngi bn ca Linde, ti hi bi ri khi sau ny nhn c bi bo ca Linde do mt tp ch khoa hc gi n hi liu bi bo c th cng b hay khng. Ti tr li rng cn im yu v cc bong bng ln hn v tr, song tng c bn v qu trnh ph v i xng chm l rt hay. Ti c khuyn ngh cho ng bi bo v ti ngh rng nu khng Linde s mt rt nhiu thng sa cha li, bi v mi ti liu m ng gi sang phng Ty phi c thng bo qua kim duyt ca Lin X (c), vn khng am hiu lm v cng khng mau mn g i vi nhng bi bo khoa hc. Ti c vit cng vi Ian Moss mt bi bo ngn gi ng cng s bo, trong chng ti t li vn cc bong bng v ch ra cch gii quyt vn . Va t Matxcva tr v, hm sau ti bay ti Philadenphia nhn huy chng ca Vin Franklin. C th k ca ti l Judy Fella s dng sc p duyn dng ca mnh thuyt phc hng British Airways cp cho c ta v ti hai v my bay khng mt tin xem nh mt hp ng qung co cho hng. Tic rng ti n sn bay chm v ma to v l chuyn my bay. Nhng ri ti cng n c Philadenphia nhn huy chng dnh cho ti. Ngi ta yu cu ti lm mt seminar v mu lm pht ca v tr ti Trng i hc Drexel Philadenphia. V ti bo co v cc vn n lm pht ca v tr, tng t nh Matxcva. Mt tng gn ging ca Linde cng c pht trin c lp sau vi thng bi Paul Steinhardt v Andreas Albrecht ti trng i hc Pensylvania. By gi h cng vi Linde c vinh d chung v a ra m hnh lm pht mi, da trn tng v mt qu trnh i xng chm. (M hnh lm pht c da trn tng ban u ca Guth v mt qu trnh ph v i xng nhanh km theo s hnh thnh cc bong bng). M hnh lm pht mi l mt m hnh tt c kh nng gii thch v sao v tr li c dng nh hin nay. Song, nhiu ngi khc v ti chng minh rng m hnh , t nht l trong phng n ban u, dn n nhng thay i v nhit ca bc x phng ln hn nhiu so vi cc quan trc thu c. Cc phng n sau cng gy ra mi nghi ng liu c tn ti mt qu trnh chuyn pha kiu nh vy giai on rt sm ca v tr hay khng. Theo kin ca ring ti, th m hnh lm pht mi ny by gi cng http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
LC S THI GIAN
121
cht nh mt l thuyt khoa hc, mc du cng cn mt s ngi dng nh cha nghe bit v vn tip tc vit v m hnh .
Stephen Hawking
122
Phn 26
[...] Cc nghin cu v nhng m hnh lm pht ch ra rng hin trng ca v tr c thot thai t mt s rt ln cc cu hnh ban u. iu ny quan trng v cho ta thy rng, trng thi ban u ca phn v tr trong ta sinh sng khng cn c chn mt cch qu xc nh. [...]
Mt m hnh hay hn c tn l m hnh lm pht hn n c pht trin cng bi Linde vo nm 1983, trong m hnh ny, khng tn ti qu trnh chuyn pha hoc trng thi siu lnh. Thay vo , c mt trng spin 0, trng ny c th c nhng tr s ln mt vi vng ca v tr giai on sm, do s tn ti ca thng ging lng t. Nng lng ca trng ny trong nhng trng ng vai tr nh mt hng s v tr. Nng lng ny gy ra tc dng y v lm cho cc vng gin n mt cch lm pht. Trong qu trnh gin n, nng lng ca trng cc vng gim chm cho n khi qu trnh gin n lm pht tr thnh mt qu trnh gin n tng t nh trong m hnh nng ca v n ln. Mt trong nhng vng s tr thnh v tr m hin nay chng ta quan st c. M hnh ny c mi u im ca cc m hnh lm pht c, song khng ph thuc vo mt qu trnh chuyn pha ng ng, m li cho nhng thng ging nhit ca bc x viba phng hp l v ph hp vi cc quan trc. Cc nghin cu v nhng m hnh lm pht ch ra rng hin trng ca v tr c thot thai t mt s rt ln cc cu hnh ban u. iu ny quan trng v cho ta thy rng, trng thi ban u ca phn v tr trong ta sinh sng khng cn c chn mt cch qu xc nh. V vy chng ta c th, nu mun, s dng nguyn l v nhn yu gii thch v sao v tr li c dng nh ngy nay. Song cng khng phi mi cu hnh ban u u s dn n v tr ging nh v tr ta quan st. Ta c th chng minh iu bng cch xt mt trng thi rt khc v tr ngy nay, v d, mt trng thi rt khng ng nht. Ta c th s dng cc nh lut khoa hc i ngc li thi gian tm cc cu hnh sm trc y ca v tr. Theo cc nh l v k d ca l thuyt tng i rng, th tn ti mt k d ca v n ln. Nu ta li cho v tr tin trin v pha trc theo thi gian th chng ta s thu c mt v tr khng ng nht m t chng ta xut pht. Nh th tn ti nhng cu hnh ban u c kh nng dn n mt v tr khng ging v tr ta quan st hin nay. Nh th, m hnh lm pht cng http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
LC S THI GIAN
123
khng ni c ti sao cc cu hnh ban u li khng l nhng cu hnh c kh nng dn n nhng v tr rt khc vi v tr quan st c hin nay. Ta phi cu cu n nguyn l v nhn gii thch iu hay sao? C phi y ng l mt ngu nhin may mn? iu ny c v nh l mt li tuyt vng, mt ph nh mi hy vng ca chng ta v kh nng hiu c ci trt t su kn ca v tr chng ta. hiu c v tr bt u nh th no, chng ta cn nhng nh lut ng n im xut pht ca thi gian. Nu qu thuyt tng i rng c in ng n, th cc nh l v k d m Roger Penrose v ti thit lp ch rng xut pht im ca thi gian l mt im vi mt v cong khng - thi gian v cng ln. V mi nh lut bit ca khoa hc u khng cn tc dng ti mt im nh vy. Ngi ta c th gi nh rng tn ti nhng nh lut mi, ng n ti cc im k d, song rt kh m pht biu ra nhng nh lut nh th ti cc im c dng iu k d nh vy, v chng ta cng khng c mt s hng dn no t cc quan trc kh d gip ta hnh dung c cc nh lut . Song cc nh l v k d thc t ch c rng trng hp dn tr nn mnh n ni cc hiu ng lng t tr thnh quan trng: l thuyt c in khng cn kh nng m t v tr c na. Vy chng ta phi s dng l thuyt hp dn lng t khi bn lun n cc giai on sm ca v tr. Nh chng ta s thy, trong l thuyt lng t, cc nh lut khoa hc thng thng li tr nn ng n mi ni k c ti xut pht im ca thi gian: khng cn thit phi pht biu nhng nh lut mi i vi cc im k d, bi v rng khng cn c cc im k d trong l thuyt lng t. Hin nay chng ta cha c mt l thuyt hon chnh v tng hp tng hp c hc lng t v hp dn. Song chng ta c th chc chn v mt vi yu t m mt thuyt thng nht nh vy phi c. Mt trong nhng yu t l s cn thit a vo tng ca Feynman trnh by l thuyt lng t di dng cc tch phn theo lch s qu o. Trong cch tip cn , mt ht khng c mt lch s n chic nh trong l thuyt c in. Thay v, ht c th chuyn ng theo mi qu o kh d trong khng - thi gian, v ng vi mi lch s chuyn ng ta c mt cp s, trong s th nht m t bin ca sng cn s th hai m t v tr trong chu k tc l pha. Xc sut ht, v d, i qua mt im nht nh no , s thu c bng cch cng tt c cc sng ng vi mi lch s kh d i qua im .
Stephen Hawking
124
Khi chng ta tm cch thc hin php cng , chng ta gp phi nhiu vn k thut. Mt th thut gii quyt l dng phng thc sau: cng cc sng lch s khng phi trong thi gian thc trong chng ta sng m trong ci gi l thi gian o. Thi gian o mi nghe tng nh l chuyn khoa hc vin tng nhng thc t thi gian o l mt khi nim ton hc xc nh. Nu chng ta ly mt s thc v nhn cho chnh n th kt qu l mt s dng (v d, 2 nhn vi 2 l 4, cng nh -2 nhn vi -2 l 4). Song ngoi s thc, tn ti nhng s c bit (gi l s o) khi nhn vi chnh n, kt qu s l mt s m (S o i khi nhn vi chnh n s cho ta -1, s o 2i khi nhn vi chnh n s cho ta -4, v v.v...). trnh cc kh khn v k thut tnh ton lc cng cc lch s theo Faynman, ngi ta s dng thi gian o. Ni r hn, v mc ch tnh ton ngi ta phi o thi gian bng cc s o, ch khng bng nhng s thc. Th thut ny dn n mt h qu l th: s khc bit gia khng gian v thi gian s bin mt hon ton. Mt khng - thi gian trong cc tr s u c tr s o trn ta thi gian gi l khng gian Euclide, theo tn ca nh ton hc Hy Lp, ngi sng lp hnh hc cc mt hai chiu. Khng thi gian m chng ta gi l Euclide l mt khng gian tng t ch c khc l khng - thi gian c bn chiu ch khng phi l hai. Trong khng - thi gian Euclide khng c s khc bit gia chiu thi gian v cc chiu khng gian. Cn trong khng - thi gian thc, trong mi s c c nh du bi nhng tri s thc theo trc thi gian, th d dng ch ra s khc bit gia khng v thi gian - chiu thi gian ti mi im nm trong nn nh sng v cc chiu khng gian th nm ngoi. Trong mi trng hp khi xt c hc lng t, chng ta xem vic s dng thi gian o v khng - thi gian Euclide nh mt th thut ton hc tm cc cu tr li cho khng thi gian thc. Mt yu t th hai, m chng ti cho phi l thnh phn trong l thuyt ti hu, l tng ca Einstein cho rng trng hp dn phi c biu din bi khng thi gian cong: cc ht s chn qu o ngn nht, tc mt qu o thng trong khng gian cong, song khng - thi gian khng phng cho nn qu o ca cc ht s b cong, ging nh chu tc ng ca trng hp dn. Khi chng ta p dng phng php cng theo cc lch s qu o ca Feynman vo quan im ca Einstein v hp dn, th lch s ca mt ht by gi tng ng l mt khng thi - gian cong m t lch s ca ton v tr. trnh cc kh khn v k thut trong lc thc hin php cng theo cc lch s, cc khng - thi gian cong phi l Euclide. Nh trn ni, iu c ngha l thi gian phi l o v khng khc bit vi khng gian. http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
LC S THI GIAN
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tnh xc sut tm thy mt khng - thi gian thc vi mt tnh cht xc nh no , v d ng nht mi im v theo mi hng, th ta cn cng cc sng gn lin vi tt c cc lch s vn c tnh cht . Trong l thuyt tng i rng c in, tn ti rt nhiu khng - thi gian cong khc nhau kh d, mi khng - thi gian ng vi mt trng thi ban u ca v tr. Nu chng ta bit c trng thi ban u ca v tr, chng ta s bit c ton b lch s ca n. Tng t nh vy, trong l thuyt hp dn lng t, tn ti rt nhiu trng thi lng t khc nhau kh d cho v tr. V nu chng ta bit c dng iu cc khng thi gian cong Euclide trong tng theo lch s vo nhng giai on sm ca v tr, th chng ta cng s bit c trng thi lng t ca v tr. Trong l thuyt hp dn c in, vn da trn khng - thi gian thc, ch c hai kh nng cho dng iu ca v tr: hoc v tr tn ti v cng trong thi gian, hoc v tr bt u mt im k d v ti mt thi im hu hn no trong qu kh. Trong l thuyt hp dn lng t, cn c mt kh nng th ba. Bi v chng ta ang s dng khng - thi gian Euclide, trong khng c s khc bit gia hng thi gian v cc hng khng gian, cho nn khng - thi gian c th l hu hn v khng c im k d to nn bin. Khng - thi gian s c dng tng t nh mt qu t, song c thm hai chiu na. Mt qu t l hu hn song khng c bin: nu ta trng bum i v pha mt tri ln, ta khng ri vo mt bin hoc mt im k d no (ti bit nh th, bi v ti i vng quanh th gii!)
Stephen Hawking
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Phn 27
[...]... Trong thi gian thc, v tr c mt im ban u v mt im cui ti cc k d l bin ca khng - thi gian, ti bin cc nh lut khoa hc khng cn ng na. Song trong thi gian o th khng cn k d, khng cn bin. Nh th rt c th l ci m ta gi l thi gian o th thc t l c bn hn, v ci m ta gi l thi gian thc th chng qua l mt nim ta by dt ra m t ci m ta tng l v tr...[...]
Nu khng - thi gian Euclide ko di ngc v tn theo thi gian o hoc xut pht t mt im k d trong thi gian o, th chng ta s i din vi bi ton tng t nh trong l thuyt c in l phi xc nh trng thi ban u ca v tr: Cha c th bit v tr bt u nh th no, song chng ta th khng c mt l do c bit no ngh rng v tr bt u nh th ny ch khng phi nh th khc. Mt khc, l thuyt hp dn lng t m ra mt kh nng mi, theo khng - thi gian khng c bin v do khng cn thit xc nh dng iu ti bin. Khng c im k d ti cc nh lut khoa hc khng cn ng, cng khng c im mt ca khng thi gian, ti chng ta phi cu cu n Cha hoc n mt nh lut mi no xc nh bin ca khng - thi gian. Ta c th ni: iu kin bin ca v tr l khng c bin. V tr l mt h t thn v khng b nh hng ca bt c iu g bn ngoi v tr. V tr khng sinh khng dit. V tr lun tn ti. Ti cuc hi tho Vantican m trc y ti nhc n, ti a ra tng gi khng - thi gian cu thnh mt mt hu hn v kch thc v khng c bin, khng c im mt. Bi bo ca ti mang tnh ton hc, song cng r l ph nhn vai tr ca Cha trong vic sng to ra v tr v iu khng c ng o chp nhn thi gian . Trong thi gian hi tho ti khng c cch no s dng tng khng c bin a ra nhng on nhn v v tr. Ma h nm sau ti lu li trng i hc California Santa Barbara. y ti c mt ngi bn va l ng nghip l Jim Hartle, chng ti cng phn tch xem nu khng - thi gian khng c bin th phi c nhng iu kin g cho v tr. Khi tr v Cambridge, ti tip tc cng trnh vi hai nghin cu sinh l Julian Luttrel v Jonathan Halliwell. Ti mun nhn mnh rng tng v khng - thi gian hu hn v khng c bin ch l mt gi thit: gi thit ny khng th suy ra c t mt nguyn l khc. Cng tng t nh mi l thuyt khoa hc khc, ta phi a http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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ra mt gi thit ban u no hoc v l do thm m hoc v l do siu hnh, v s ng n ca n ch c th kim nghim c bng thc t theo nhng h qu m gi thit dn n. Song i vi trng hp hp dn lng t c kh khn v hai l do. Th nht, nh s c gii thch chng sau, chng ta cha bit chc chn v mt l thuyt c kh nng tng hp mt cch c hiu qu l thuyt tng i rng v c hc lng t mc du chng ta hnh dung c nhng nt chnh ca mt l thuyt nh vy. Th hai, mi m hnh m t ton b v tr v chi tit phi rt phc tp v mt ton hc, do chng ta kh lng tnh ton c chnh xc kt qu. V vy chng ta phi a ra nhng hn ch n gin ha s v nhng php tnh gn ng - thm ch sau nhng php bi ton chit ra nhng kt qu s vn cn l mt bi ton rt kh khn. Mi lch s trong tng cc lch s s m t khng ch khng - thi gian m phi m t mi chi tit, trong bao gm c nhng c th phc tp nh con ngi l sinh vt c kh nng quan st lch s ca v tr. iu ny c th cung cp l do bin minh cho nguyn l v nhn, v nu mi lch s u kh d, th chng ta c th s dng nguyn l v nhn mt khi chng ta cng tn ti trong mt trong cc lch s . Cn ngha ca nhng lch s kh d khc, trong chng ta khng tn ti, th qu l chng ta khng r c. Quan im ny ca l thuyt hp dn lng t s mang tnh cht thuyt phc hn nu chng ta c th chng minh rng khi ly tng theo cc lch s, th v tr ca chng ta khng phi ch l mt trong s cc lch s kh d m cn l mt trong s cc lch s c xc sut ln nht. lm iu , chng ta phi ly tng theo cc lch s i vi mi khng - thi gian Euclide kh d v khng c bin. Di gi thit khng c bin, ta cho rng kh nng m v tr tin trin theo phn ln cc lch s kh d l nh khng ng k, v tn ti mt lp lch s c xc sut ln hn cc lch s khc. Cc lch s ny c th c minh ha nh mt qu t, trn mt khong cch t cc Bc biu din thi gian o, cn ng trn cch u cc Bc biu din Hnh 8.1: Trong thi gian o, khi chng ta chuyn kch thc ca v tr. V tr bt u t cc Bc nh l ng v pha Nam, cc ng trn v tuyn vn mt im n. Khi chng ta chuyn ng v pha Nam, cch u cc Bc s ln dn iu ny cc ng trn v tuyn vn cch u cc Bc s ln dn ng ln, qu trnh tng vi n ca ln, iu ny tng ng vi qu trnh n ca v tr trong v tr. thi gian o (Hnh 8.1). V tr t kch thc cc i ti ng xch o v s co li theo thi gian o v mt im n ti cc Nam. Mc d v tr c kch thc bng khng ti hai cc Nam v Bc, nhng http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
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im ny khng phi l nhng im k d, cc im khc u l nhng im bnh thng. Cc nh lut khoa hc u ng tt c cc im, k c cc Bc v cc Nam. Song lch s ca v tr theo thi gian thc s khc. Vo thi im mi hoc hai mi ngn triu nm v trc, v tr c kch thc nh nht bng bn knh cc i trong lch s theo thi gian o. cc thi im mun hn, v tr gin n theo m hnh lm pht hn n ca Linde (song gi y chng ta khng cn phi gi nh t mt trng thi ng n no c). V tr s gin n n mt kch thc rt ln v c th co li v mt im k d trong thi gian thc. Nh th, trong mt ngha no , chng ta vn cn cha ht trch nhim, du c trnh xa cc l en. Ch khi no chng ta c th m t v tr bng thi gian o th mi ht cc im k d. Nu v tr thc t trong mt trng thi lng t nh th, th s khng c k d trong lch s ca v tr theo thi gian o. Do ti ngh rng, cng trnh gn y ca ti khng tnh n ht cc kt qu ca cng trnh trc y ca ti v k d. Song nh ni trc y, s quan trng thc tin ca cc nh l v k d l ch chng minh c rng trng hp dn phi ln n ni cc hiu ng lng t khng th no b qua c. iu ny li dn n tng cho rng v tr phi hu hn trong thi gian o song khng c bin v im k d. Song khi chng ta i ngc thi gian thc trong chng ta sng th li xut hin cc k d. Nh du hnh v tr ng thng nu ri vo mt l en s i n mt kt cc bi thm; ch lc nh du hnh sng trong thi gian o th mi khng gp phi nhng k d m thi. Tnh hung trn c th gi rng ci gi l thi gian o thc t l thi gian thc, cn ci gi l thi gian thc th li l sn phm ca tr tng tng ca chng ta. Trong thi gian thc, v tr c mt im ban u v mt im cui ti cc k d l bin ca khng - thi gian, ti bin cc nh lut khoa hc khng cn ng na. Song trong thi gian o th khng cn k d, khng cn bin. Nh th rt c th l ci m ta gi l thi gian o th thc t l c bn hn, v ci m ta gi l thi gian thc th chng qua l mt nim ta by dt ra m t ci m ta tng l v tr. Theo cch tip cn ti trnh by Chng 1, th mt l thuyt khoa hc chnh l m hnh ton hc ta sng to ra m t cc iu quan st: m hnh ch tn ti trong tr c ta m thi. V vy tht l v ngha khi nu ra cu hi: Thi gian thc v thi gian o, ci no thc hn? Vn l ch thi gian no c ch hn cho vic m t v tr. http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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Chng ta c th s dng tng cc lch s kt hp vi gi thit khng c iu kin bin tm ra nhng tnh cht no ca v tr c nhiu xc sut cng xy ra. V d chng ta c th tnh xc sut v tr gin n gn cng mt tc trong mi hng lc m mt trong v tr c tr s hin nay. Trong cc m hnh c n gin ha m chng ta xt n y, xc sut ny l ln; iu c ngha l iu kin khng c bin dn n h qu l c xc sut ln tc gin n hin ti l gn nh nhau theo mi hng. iu ny ph hp vi cc quan trc v bc x vi - ba phng, nhng quan trc ny chng t rng bc x c cng mt cng theo bt c hng no. Nu v tr gin n nhanh hn theo mt s hng no , th cng bc x theo cc hng phi gim i do mt s dch ph v pha .
Stephen Hawking
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Phn 28
[...] Ngi ta thng gii thch hin tng v sao cc v di sn khng th tr thnh cc lnh trn bn bng nh lut th hai ca nhit ng hc. nh lut ni rng trong mt h thng kn th v trt t hay entropi, lun tng vi thi gian. Ni cch khc, y l mt dng ca nh lut Murphy: mi vt lun tin trin theo chiu xu i! [...]
Nhng h qu khc ca gi thit khng c iu kin bin hin nay ang c nghin cu. Mt vn c bit l th l tr s ca nhng lch nh khi mt ng nht ca v tr vo nhng giai on sm, chnh nhng lch nh sau ny s cu thnh trc ht l cc thin h, sau l cc sao v cui cng l bn thn chng ta. Nguyn l bt nh buc rng v tr vo cc giai on sm khng th tuyt i ng nht bi v tn ti nhng bt nh hay nhng thng ging ca v tr v vn tc ca cc ht. S dng iu kin khng c bin, chng ta thy rng v tr trong thc t phi xut pht t s khng ng nht trong phm vi cho php bi nguyn l bt nh. V tr phi tri qua mt thi k gin n nhanh nh trong cc m hnh lm pht. Sut thi k , nhng ch khng ng nht ban u s c phng i ln n khi ln cho php chng ta gii thch c ngun gc ca nhng cu trc quan st c trong v tr. Trong mt v tr gin n, trong mt vt cht thay i khng nhiu t ch ny sang ch khc, th hp dn lm cho nhng vng c mt cao hn gin n chm v bt u co li. iu ny dn n s hnh thnh cc thin h, cc sao v sau l c th ca chng ta. Nh vy mi cu trc phc tp m chng ta quan st c trong v tr u c th gii thch c bi gi thit khng c bin ca v tr cng vi nguyn l bt nh ca c hc lng t. tng cho rng khng v thi gian c th lm thnh mt mt ng khng c bin cng a ra nhng iu rng buc su sc i vi vai tr ca Cha trong cc cng vic trong v tr. Vi tin b ca cc l thuyt khoa hc c kh nng m t nhiu hin tng, a s tin rng Cha cho php vu tr tin ha theo nhng quy lut nht nh v khng can thip vi phm cc nh lut . Song cc nh lut ny khng ni ln c v tr thot thai t trng thi no - ln dy ct ng h v chn xem v tr bt u nh th no vn l phn ca Cha. Nu m v tr c mt im xut pht, chng ta buc lng phi gi nh c mt ng sng to. Nhng nu v tr l hon ton t thn, khng bin khng mt th v tr cng khng c bt http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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u, khng c kt cuc: v tr ch tn ti. Vy th ng sng to gi v tr g y? Chng 9 Mi tn ca thi gian Nhn thc ca chng ta v bn cht ca thi gian thay i theo nm thng. Mi n u th k ny ngi ta vn tin vo mt thi gian tuyt i. iu c ngha l mi s c c th nh du n tr bng mt con s gi l thi gian v tt c cc ng h chnh xc phi cho cng mt qung thi gian gia hai s c. Song v s pht hin tc nh sng l nh nhau i vi mi quan st vin, khng ph thuc vo chuyn ng ca h, dn n l thuyt tng i buc ngi ta phi hy b tng v mt thi gian tuyt i duy nht. Thay v, mi quan st vin c s o thi gian ring theo ng h h mang theo: nhng ng h ca cc quan st vin khc nhau khng nht thit ph hp nhau. Nh th thi gian tr thnh mt nhn thc c nhn gn lin vi quan st vin thc hin php o. Khi ngi ta tm cch thng nht hp dn vi c hc lng t, ngi ta phi a vo khi nim thi gian o. Thi gian o nh nhau i vi mi hng khng gian. Nu ta c th i v hng Bc th ta cng c th quay ngi v i v pha Nam; tng t nu ta c th i trong thi gian o th ta cng c kh nng quay ngi v i lui. iu c ngha l khng c s khc bit quan trng no gia hng trc v hng sau ca thi gian o, mt khc khi ta xt thi gian thc th c mt s khc bit rt ln gia cc hng trc v sau, nh chng ta u bit. T u ra s khc bit gia qu kh v tng lai? Ti sao chng ta ch nh qu kh m khng nh tng lai? Cc nh lut khoa hc khng phn bit qu kh vi tng lai. Ni chnh xc hn, cc nh lut khoa hc khng thay i di t hp cc ton t (hay l cc php i xng) c bit di cc k hiu C, P v T (C bin i ht thnh phn ht, P l php i xng qua gng, do tri v phi thay ch nhau, cn T l php o hng chuyn ng ca ht: kt qu l ht chuyn ng li). Cc nh lut khoa hc iu khin tin trnh ca vt cht trong mi tnh hung bnh thng l khng thay i di tc ng ca t hp hai ton t C v P. Ni cch khc, s sng vn s l nh th i vi ngi hnh tinh khc nu h l phn chiu gng ca chng ta v c cu to bng phn vt cht ch khng phi bng vt cht.
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Nu cc nh lut khoa hc khng thay i di t hp cc ton t C v P v c di t hp C, P v T th chng ta cng phi khng thay i di tc ng ca mt mnh ton t T. Song c mt s khc bit ln gia hng trc v hng sau ca thi gian trong i sng thng ngy. Hy tng tng mt cc thy tinh ri t bn v v tan di sn. Nu ta nhn phim ghi li hin tng , ta c th d dng ni rng phim ang b quay ti hay quay lui. Nu phim b quay lui th ta s thy cc mnh v bng nhin tp kt li vi nhau, ri khi sn v ri nhy ln bn thnh ci cc nguyn vn. S d ta ni c l phim ang quay lui l v trong mt tin trnh nh vy khng bao gi c th quan st c trong cuc sng thng ngy. V ngc li cc nh my thy tinh b ph sn. Ngi ta thng gii thch hin tng v sao cc v di sn khng th tr thnh cc lnh trn bn bng nh lut th hai ca nhit ng hc. nh lut ni rng trong mt h thng kn th v trt t hay entropi, lun tng vi thi gian. Ni cch khc, y l mt dng ca nh lut Murphy: mi vt lun tin trin theo chiu xu i! Mt cc lnh trn bn l mt trng thi vi trt t cao cn mt cc v di sn nh l mt trng thi v trt t. Ngi ta c th i d dng t ci cc trn bn n ci cc v di sn trong tng lai. Song khng th i ngc li. S tng v trt t hay entropi vi thi gian l mt th d v ci gi l mi tn ca thi gian, mt khi nim phn bit qu kh vi hin ti, mt khi nim xc nh hng ca thi gian. t nht c ti ba mi tn khc nhau ca thi gian. Th nht l mi tn nhit ng hc ca thi gian, ch hng ca thi gian theo v trt t hay entropi tng ln. Tip n l mi tn tm l hc ca thi gian. l hng theo chng ta cm nhn c thi gian ang chy, theo chng ta ch nh qu kh m khng c th c bt c mt lu nim no ca tng lai. Cui cng l mi tn v tr hc ca thi gian. l hng ca thi gian, theo v tr n ra ch khng co li. Trong chng ny ti s chng minh rng iu kin khng c bin ca v tr kt hp vi nguyn l v nhn yu c th gii thch c v sao phi tn ti mt mi tn thi gian c hng xc nh. Ti s chng minh rng mi tn tm l hc c xc nh bi mi tn nhit ng hc v hai mi tn nht thit phi lun lun ch cng hng. Nu ta gi nh iu kin khng c bin cho v tr, ta s thy tn ti cc mi tn nhit ng hc v v tr hc ca thi gian, song chng khng ch v cng mt hng trong sut lch s ca v tr. Nhng ti s chng minh rng ch trong trng hp khi chng ch v cng mt hng th mi c nhng iu kin thun li cho http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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s pht trin nhng sinh vt tr tu c kh nng t ra cu hi: v sao v trt t tng theo hng thi gian, theo v tr n ra? Ti s bn trc tin n mi tn nhit ng hc ca thi gian. nh lut th hai ca nhit ng hc c suy ra t d kin: lun lun c nhiu trng thi v trt t hn trng thi c trt t. V d, hy xt nhng ming lp hnh trong mt tr chi. C mt v ch c mt cch xp nhng ming lp hnh ny thnh mt hnh cho trc. Mt khc c v s cch xp trong c nhng ming lp hnh v trt t v khng to thnh mt hnh no c. Gi s mt h xut pht t mt trong s t i cc trng thi trt t. Cng vi thi gian, h s tin trin theo cc nh lut khoa hc v trng thi ca h thay i. mt thi im sau, c nhiu xc sut h ri vo mt trng thi v trt t hn l mt trng thi trt t bi v c nhiu trng thi v trt t hn. Nh th v trt t s c chiu hng tng ln vi thi gian nu h lc ban u c mt trt t cao. Gi s cc ming lp hnh lc ban u nm trong hp tr chi theo mt cch xp trt t v to thnh mt hnh. Nu ta lc hp, cc ming lp hnh s c xp li theo cch khc. s l mt cch xp v trt t, trong cc mnh khng to thnh mt hnh no, v mt l do n gin l c nhiu cch xp v trt t hn. Mt s nhm cc mnh c th vn cn to thnh mt s b phn ca hnh ban u, song cng lc hp th cng c nhiu xc sut l cc nhm cng tan v v cc mnh s ri vo trng thi hon ton v trt t, trong cc mnh khng cn to nn mt hnh dng no c. Nh th v trt t ca cc mnh s c nhiu xc sut tng ln vi thi gian nu ban u chng trng thi c trt t cao. Song by gi gi s rng Cha quyt nh l v tr phi kt thc bng mt trng thi c trt t cao bt k trng thi ban u l nh th no. Nh vy nhng giai on sm v tr c nhiu xc sut vo trng thi v trt t. iu c ngha l v trt t s gim theo thi gian v ta s thy cc v tp kt li thnh cc lnh v nhy ln bn. Nhng con ngi quan st c ci cc s phi sng trong mt v tr y v trt t gim vi thi gian. Ti s chng minh rng nhng con ngi nh th s c mi tn tm l hc ca thi gian hng v pha sau. Ngha l h s nh cc s kin trong tng lai m khng nh cc s kin trong qu kh. Khi cc v, h s nh n lc trn bn, h s khng nh lc n di sn.
Stephen Hawking
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Rt kh ni v tr nh ca con ngi bi v chng ta khng bit b no hot ng chi tit nh th no. Song c l chng ta bit r cch hot ng ca b nh cc my tnh in t. V vy ti s bn v mi tn tm l hc ca thi gian vi my tnh in t. Ti cho rng ta c l khi gi nh rng mi tn i vi my tnh in t trng vi mi tn i vi con ngi. Nu khng chng ta c th trng to ti th trng chng khon bng cch s dng mt my tnh in t c kh nng nh gi c ca ngy mai.
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Phn 29
[...] Ti hiu rng ti nhm: iu kin khng c bin ng rng v trt t thc t vn tip tc tng trong qu trnh co li. Cc mi tn nhit ng hc v tm l hc ca thi gian s khng o hng c trong l en, ln khi v tr bt u co li. [...]
B nh ca my tnh in t c bn l mt thit b cha nhng yu t c th nm mt trong hai trng thi. Mt v d n gin l ci bn tnh. Trong dng n gin nht, bn tnh gm mt s dy kim loi, trn mi dy su mt ht, ht c th mt trong hai v tr. Trc khi mt thng tin c ghi vo b nh ca my tnh, b nh trong mt trng thi v trt t, vi xc sut bng nhau cho cc cp trng thi kh d (cc ht ca bn tnh phn b ngu nhin trn cc dy). Sau khi b nh tng tc vi h cn nh, b nh s vo mt trng thi nht nh ng vi trng thi ca h. (Mi ht trn bn tnh s hoc bn tri hoc bn phi ca dy). Nh th b nh chuyn t mt trng thi v trt t sang mt trng thi trt t. Song, thc hin s chuyn trng thi , cn phi tiu tn mt nng lng ( chuyn ng cc ht ca bn tnh hoc cung cp in nng cho my tnh in t). Nng lng ny s khuch tn thnh nhit nng v lm tng v trt t ca v tr. Ngi ta c th chng minh rng gia tng v trt t ny lun lun ln hn gia tng trt t ca bn thn b nh. Nh th lng nhit xua i bi ci qut lm mt my tnh l bng chng ni rng khi my tnh ghi mt thng tin vo b nh th tng v trt t trong v tr tng ln. Hng i ca thi gian theo mt my tnh ghi li qu kh trong b nh l cng hng vi s gia tng v trt t. Nh th s cm nhn ch quan ca chng ta v hng i ca thi gian, tc mi tn tm l hc ca thi gian, c xc nh trong b no bi mi tn nhit ng hc ca thi gian. Tng t nh my tnh in t, chng ta phi nh s vic theo th t m entropi tng. iu ny lm cho nh lut th hai ca nhit ng hc tr thnh hu nh hin nhin. V trt t tng vi thi gian v chng ta o thi gian theo hng tng ca v trt t. Bn khng th c mt cch nh cuc no khc chc n hn!. Nhng v sao ni chung li tn ti mt mi tn nhit ng hc ca thi gian? Hay ni cch khc, v sao v tr phi trong mt trng thi trt t cao u kia ca thi gian, u m ngi ta gi l qu kh? Ti sao v tr khng nm http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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trong mt trng thi v trt t mi thi gian? Ni cho cng, iu ny c v nh nhiu xc sut hn. V ti sao hng i ca thi gian theo v trt t tng li trng khp vi hng theo v tr n ra? Trong l thuyt tng i rng c in ngi ta khng th tin on c v tr bt u nh th no bi v mi nh lut khoa hc bit u khng ng ti im k d ca v n ln. V tr c th bt u t mt trng thi rt ng nht v trt t, iu ny s dn n mi tn nhit ng hc v v tr hc xc nh ca thi gian nh chng ta quan st. Song v tr c th hon ton bt u t mt trng thi rt khng ng nht v v trt t. Trong trng hp ny v v tr trong trng thi rt v trt t ri, cho nn v trt t khng th tng theo thi gian na. V trt t hoc khng thay i, lc ny khng tn ti mi tn nhit ng hc xc nh ca thi gian, hoc gim i, lc ny mi tn nhit ng hc ca thi gian ch hng ngc li ca mi tn v tr hc. Cc kh nng ny khng ph hp vi iu ta quan st c. Song y l thuyt tng i rng c in t tin on s sp ca mnh. Khi cong ca khng - thi gian tr nn ln, cc hiu ng hp dn lng t tr nn quan trng v l thuyt c in khng cn m t tt v tr c na. hiu c v tr bt u nh th no, ta phi s dng mt l thuyt hp dn lng t. Trong mt l thuyt hp dn lng t mun xc nh trng thi ca v tr chng ta cn phi bit cch din bin ca mi lch s kh d ca v tr bin khng - thi gian trong qu kh. Ta c th trnh vic m t nhng g m ta khng bit v khng th bit c nu cho rng cc lch s tha mn iu kin khng c bin: chng hu hn song khng c bin, khng c k d. Trong trng hp , khi im thi gian l mt im khng k d ca khng - thi gian v v tr bt u qu trnh gin n t mt trng thi ng nht v trt t. Song v tr khng th tuyt i ng nht v nh th n s vi phm nguyn l bt nh ca l thuyt lng t. Phi tn ti nhng thng ging nh v mt v vn tc cc ht. Mt khc iu kin khng c bin buc rng cc thng ging phi nh, nhng trong mc cho php ca nguyn l bt nh. V tr c th bt u bng mt giai on gin n hm m hay gin n lm pht, trong giai on ny v tr gia tng kch thc nhiu ln. Trong qu trnh gin n ny, cc thng ging mt lc u c th nh, song sau th bt u ln ln. Nhng vng vi mt ln hn trung bnh mt t gin n chm hn v lc ht hp dn ca khi lng tha. Nhng vng nh th c th ngng gin n v co li hnh thnh nhng thin h, cc sao v c http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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nhng sinh vt nh chng ta. V tr c th bt u t mt trng thi ng nht v trt t, v dn dn tr thnh khng ng nht v v trt t. iu ny c th gii thch mi tn nhit ng hc ca thi gian. Song iu g s xy ra nu v tr ngng gin n v bt u co li? Mi tn nhit ng hc c i hng khng v v trt t c gim i vi thi gian khng? S o ngc ny s dn n nhng tnh hung khoa hc vin tng cho nhng ngi sng st sau thi im chuyn pha t qu trnh co li sang qu trnh co li ca v tr. Nhng ngi ny s thy nhng mnh v tp kt li t di sn thnh cc lnh v nhy ln bn chng? H s nh c gi c ca ngy mai v trng to trn th trng chng khon chng? Ni lo lng iu g s xy ra khi v tr co tr li t nhiu mang tnh cht kinh vin v l rng v tr c co li cng t nht cng vi chc t nm na. Song c mt cch nhanh chng hn bit iu g s xy ra lc l nhy vo mt l en. Qu trnh co li ca mt sao hnh thnh mt l en rt ging nhng giai on cui ca qu trnh co li ca ton b v tr. Nh th nu v trt t gim trong pha co li ca v tr th v trt t cng phi gim trong lng mt l en. Nh th c th ngi du hnh v tr khi ri vo mt l en s trng to trn bn bi quay bng cch nh li bi ri vo u trc khi anh ta t cc (song tic thay anh ta khng thi gian chi lu trc khi bin thnh si m ng. Anh ta cng khng th thng bo cho chng ta bit v s o hng ca mi tn nhit ng hc, thm ch cng khng a kp tin thng cc ca mnh vo ngn hng v anh ta b cun mt sau chn tri s c ca l en). Lc u ti nhng tng rng v trt t s gim khi v tr co li. Ti tng th v ti cho l v tr s quay v trng thi ng nht v trt t khi n tr thnh nh. iu ny c ngha l pha co li l nghch o theo thi gian ca pha gin n. Mi ngi sng trong pha co li s sng cuc i chy li: h s cht trc lc sinh ra v cng ngy cng tr ra lc v tr co nh li. tng trn rt hp dn v thit lp c mt i xng p gia hai pha gin n v co li. Song chng ta khng th chp nhn tng ny mt cch t thn, c lp vi nhng tng khc v v tr. Cu hi ny sinh l: tng ny tng thch hay mu thun vi iu kin khng c bin? Nh ni trn ti ngh lc u rng iu kin khng c bin t i hi rng v trt t s gim i trong pha co li. y ti nhm mt phn v lin tng n mt qu t. Nu ta ly cc Bc lm im bt u tng ng ca v tr, th im kt thc ca v tr s tng t nh im ban u, hon ton ging nh cc Nam tng t vi cc Bc. Song cc Bc v cc http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
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Nam ch tng ng vi im bt u v kt thc ca v tr trong thi gian o m thi. im bt u v im kt thc ca v tr c th rt khc nhau trong thi gian thc. Ti nhm phn khc v mt cng trnh ti lm trc da trn mt m hnh n gin ca v tr trong pha co li l nghch o theo thi gian ca pha gin n. Nhng mt bn ng nghip ca ti, Don Page i hc quc gia Pennsylvania ch ra rng iu kin khng c bin khng i hi pha co li nht thit phi l nghch o theo thi gian ca pha gin n. Sau mt sinh vin ca ti, Raymond Laflamme pht hin rng trong mt m hnh phc tp hn mt cht th s co li ca v tr khc xa s gin n. Ti hiu rng ti nhm: iu kin khng c bin ng rng v trt t thc t vn tip tc tng trong qu trnh co li. Cc mi tn nhit ng hc v tm l hc ca thi gian s khng o hng c trong l en, ln khi v tr bt u co li.
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Phn 30
[...] Tin b ca loi ngi trong qu trnh nhn thc thit lp nn mt gc nh trt t trong ci v trt t ngy cng tng ca v tr. Nu bn nh mi ch trong quyn sch ny, tr nh ca bn ghi nhn khong hai triu n v thng tin: trt t trong b no ca bn tng ln chng hai triu n v. [...]
Bn phi lm g khi nhn ra mnh nhm nh th? Mt s ngi chng bao gi chp nhn mnh sai v tip tc tm ra nhng l l mi, thng mu thun vi nhau bo v quan im ca mnh nh trng hp Eddington lm chng li thuyt cc l en. Mt s ngi khc ph nhn rng thc t bo v quan im sai lm, hoc nu c bo v th cng ch v mun vch ra sai lm ca quan im . Theo ti tt hn c l cng b trn bo quan im sai lm ca mnh. Mt v d p l trng hp Einstein khi cho rng hng s v tr m ng a vo l thuyt thit lp m hnh tnh ca v tr l sai lm ln nht ca i mnh. Quay tr li mi tn ca thi gian, cn li cu hi: v sao ta quan st thy cc mi tn ca nhit ng hc v v tr hc l ng hng? Hay ni cch khc, v sao v trt t tng ln theo hng ca thi gian theo v tr gin n? Nu ta tin tng rng v tr gin n ri sau s co li, iu ny dng nh tim n trong iu kin khng c bin, th cu hi trn tr thnh cu hi v sao chng ta phi vo pha gin n ch khng phi pha co li? Chng ta c th tr li cu hi ny trn c s ca nguyn l v nhn yu. Cc iu kin trong pha co li khng cho php s tn ti cc sinh vt c tr tu m c kh nng t ra cu hi: V sao v trt t tng theo hng ca thi gian theo v tr gin n? S gin n lm pht trong nhng giai on sm ca v tr, tin on bi gi thit khng c bin, c ngha l v tr phi gin n gn tc ti hn, vi tc v tr va vn trnh c qu trnh co li, v nh th s khng co li trong mt thi gian rt di. n lc cc sao s chy v cc proton v neutron trong cc sao s phn r thnh bc x v cc ht nh. V tr s vo trng thi gn nh v trt t hon ton. Mi tn nhit ng hc ca thi gian s khng xc nh. V trt t khng th tng hn v v tr ri vo trng thi gn v trt t hon ton. Song, mt mi tn nhit ng hc xc nh l cn thit cho s sng c tr tu. sng, con ngi cn thc n vn dng trt t ca nng lng, bin http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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i thc n thnh nhit nng l dng v trt t ca nng lng. Nh vy sc sng c tr tu khng th tn ti trong pha co li ca v tr iu ny gii thch v sao ta quan st thy cc mi tn nhit ng hc v v tr hc ca thi gian u ch v mt hng. Khng phi s gin n ca v tr lm cho v trt t tng ln. ng hn l iu kin khng c bin lm cho v trt t tng ln v cc iu kin tr nn thch hp cho s sng tr tu ch trong pha gin n ca v tr. Tm li, cc nh lut khoa hc khng phn bit hng ti v hng lui ca thi gian. Song t nht c ba mi tn thi gian lm phn bit qu kh vi tng lai. l mi tn nhit ng hc ch hng theo thi gian theo v trt t tng ln; mi tn tm l hc ch hng theo thi gian theo chng ta ch nh qu kh m khng nh tng lai v mi tn v tr hc ch hng theo thi gian theo v tr gin n ch khng co li. Ti chng minh rng mi tn tm l hc v mi tn nhit ng hc thc cht l mt, v chng ch cng hng. Gi thit khng c bin cho v tr dn n s tn ti ca mt mi tn nhit ng hc xc nh ca thi gian v v tr phi xut pht t mt trng thi thng nht v trt t. V l do lm sao ta quan st mi tn nhit ng hc cng hng vi mi tn v tr hc l cc sinh vt c tr tu ch c th tn ti trong pha gin n. Pha co li ca v tr khng thch hp cho s sng c tr tu v trong pha ny khng tn ti mi tn nhit ng hc nh hng r rng. Tin b ca loi ngi trong qu trnh nhn thc thit lp nn mt gc nh trt t trong ci v trt t ngy cng tng ca v tr. Nu bn nh mi ch trong quyn sch ny, tr nh ca bn ghi nhn khong hai triu n v thng tin: trt t trong b no ca bn tng ln chng hai triu n v. Song khi bn ng quyn sch ny bn bin t nht hai ngn calo nng lng trt t dng thc n thnh nng lng v trt t dng nhit m bn mt i vo mi trng xung quanh do i lu v bay hi m hi. iu ny s lm tng v trt t ca v tr khong 20 triu triu triu triu n v hay khong mi triu triu triu ln s gia tng trt t trong b no ca bn, nu bn nh mi th trong quyn sch ny.
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Phn 31
[...] Kh khn ch yu trong qu trnh tm kim mt l thuyt c kh nng thng nht hp dn vi cc tng tc khc l l thuyt tng i rng - mt l thuyt c in, c ngha l l thuyt ny khng cha ng nguyn l bt nh ca c hc lng t. Mt khc, cc l thuyt ring phn khc li ph thuc thit yu vo c hc lng t. [...]
Chng 10 - L thuyt thng nht ca vt l hc Chng ta u bit xy dng mt l thuyt thng nht hon chnh ca vn vt trong v tr l mt vic v cng kh khn. Song thay v, chng ta t nhiu tin b trong vic xy dng nhiu l thuyt ring phn c kh nng m t mt tp hp gii hn nhiu hin tng bng cch b qua cc hiu ng khc hoc xp x chng bng mt s i lng. (V d, ha hc cho php chng ta tnh tng tc ca cc nguyn t m khng cn bit cu trc ni ti ca ht nhn nguyn t). Nhng cui cng m ni, ngi ta lun hy vng tm ra mt l thuyt thng nht hon chnh ng n bao trm ln tt c cc l thuyt ring phn nh nhng php gn ng v khng cn iu chnh cho ph hp vi thc nghim bng cch chn la gi tr ca mt s i lng ty tin trong l thuyt. S tm kim mt l thuyt nh th c gi l s tm kim l thuyt thng nht ca vt l. Einstein phn ln nhng nm cui i tm mt l thuyt thng nht, nhng v vng v thi im cha chn mi: lc by gi ngi ta c l thuyt ring phn ca hp dn, ca in t nhng ngi ta bit rt t v lc ht nhn. Hn na Einstein li ph nhn thc ti ca c hc lng t, mc du ng ng vai tr quan trng trong s pht trin ca c hc lng t. M nguyn l bt nh chc chn li l mt c th c bn ca v tr ta ang sng. V vy mt l thuyt thng nht thnh cng phi cha ng nguyn l ny. Nh ti s trnh by, hin nay trin vng tm ra mt l thuyt nh th rt sng sa bi v chng ta bit v v tr kh nhiu. Song cng phi cnh gic v mt nim qu t tin - chng ta trc y cng tng c nhiu ln bt cht nhng tia sng gi to nh vy. V d vo u th k ny, chng ta ngh rng mi vic c th gii thch nh cc tnh cht ca mi trng lin tc nh tnh n hi, tnh dn nhit. S pht hin cu trc nguyn t v nguyn l bt nh kt liu dng t tng ny. http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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Sau li mt ln na, nm 1928 nh vt l ot gii Nobel Max Born pht biu vi mt nhm n tham quan trng i hc Gottingen: Vt l, nh chng ta quan nim, s kt thc trong vng 6 thng. Nim tin ca Max Born da trn c s s pht hin bi Dirac phng trnh m t chuyn ng ca electron. Ngi ta ngh rng mt phng trnh tng t cng s m t chuyn ng ca proton, vn l mt ht khc duy nht c bit vo lc by gi, v iu c ngha l vt l l thuyt co chung. Nhng s pht hin neutron v lc ht nhn lm thay i tt c. Du ni ln iu ny, ti vn tin rng c nhiu c s cho mt nim lc quan thn trng rng chng ta hin nay ang gn giai on cui trn qu trnh tm ra nhng nh lut c bn ca thin nhin. Trc y ti m t l thuyt tng i rng vn l thuyt ring phn v hp dn v nhng l thuyt ring phn khc v cc tng tc yu, mnh v in t. Ba tng tc sau c th tng hp li thnh l thuyt thng nht ln (GUT), l thuyt ny khng hon chnh v n khng bao hm hp dn v v n cha mt s i lng, nh khi lng tng i ca nhiu ht khc nhau, m chng ta khng tin on c t l thuyt m phi chn c c kt qu ph hp vi thc nghim. Kh khn ch yu trong qu trnh tm kim mt l thuyt c kh nng thng nht hp dn vi cc tng tc khc l l thuyt tng i rng - mt l thuyt c in, c ngha l l thuyt ny khng cha ng nguyn l bt nh ca c hc lng t. Mt khc, cc l thuyt ring phn khc li ph thuc thit yu vo c hc lng t. V vy bc u tin cn thit l kt hp l thuyt tng i rng vi nguyn l bt nh. Nguyn l bt nh a n kt qu l chn khng cng cha y cc cp o ht v phn ht. Nhng cp ny c mt nng lng v cng ln v v vy chng c mt khi lng ln v cng theo phng trnh ni ting ca Einstein E = mc2. Lc ht hp dn ca chng s un cong v tr vo mt kch thc v cng b. Tng t nh th, nhng i lng v cng ln v ngha cng xut hin trong cc l thuyt ring phn khc, song trong tt c cc trng hp, nhng i lng ny u c th loi b nh qu trnh ti chun ha. Qu trnh ny loi b nhng i lng v cng ln bng cch a vo nhng i lng khc cng ln v cng. Mc du k thut ng ng v mt ton hc nhng t ra hu hiu v mt thc hnh v c s dng trong cc l thuyt a ra cc tin on l thuyt ph hp vi thc nghim vi mt chnh xc k diu. Song php ti chun ha cha mt khim khuyt nghim trng http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
LC S THI GIAN
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xt t quan im i tm mt l thuyt hon chnh, bi v rng theo php ny th gi tr ca cc khi lng v cng cc tng tc khng th tin on t l thuyt m phi c chn sao cho ph hp vi thc nghim. a nguyn l bt nh vo l thuyt tng i rng, chng ta ch c hai i lng cn hiu chnh: hng s hp dn v hng s v tr. Song iu chnh chng cng cha loi tr tt c cc i lng v cng ln. Nh vy ngi ta i n mt l thuyt trong mt s i lng, nh cong ca khng - thi gian, qu l ln v cng, song chng ta phi quan st v o c chng nh nhng i lng hu hn hon ton! Vn kt hp l thuyt tng i rng vi nguyn l bt nh b nghi ng trong mt thi gian nhng cui cng c xc nhn nh nhng tnh ton chi tit vo nm 1972. Bn nm sau, mt li gii, gi l siu hp dn c a ra. tng ca siu hp dn l kt hp ht spin 2 gi l graviton, lng t truyn lc hp dn, vi nhng ht mi khc c spin 3/2, 1, 1/2 v 0. Trong mt ngha nht nh tt c nhng ht ny c th c xem l nhng trng thi khc nhau ca cng mt siu ht, nh th ta thng nht c nhng ht vt cht c spin 1/2 v 3/2 vi nhng ht truyn tng tc c spin 0, 1 v 2. Cp o ht/phn ht c spin 1/2 v 3/2 s c nng lng m, v nh th s trit tiu nng lng ca cc cp o ht c spin 2, 1 v 0. iu ny loi c nhiu i lng ln v cng, song mt s i lng nh th c th cn st li. Nhng nhng php tnh cn thit chng minh rng c cn st li mt s i lng nh th hay khng l qu kh v qu di n ni khng ai sn sng thc hin chng. Ngay c vi my tnh, ngi ta c lng cng phi cn t nht 4 nm, v xc sut phm mt php tnh sai hoc c th nhiu hn, l rt ln. V vy ngi ta dm tin rng mnh tnh ng ch khi no c mt ngi no khc lp li nhng php tnh v cng thu c mt kt qu tng t, v iu ny xem chng kh xy ra.
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Phn 32
[...]... a s cc nh vt l tin tng rng siu hp dn c nhiu xc sut l cu tr li ng n cho bi ton l thuyt thng nht ca vt l. Hnh nh y l con ng tt nht thng nht hp dn vi cc tng tc khc. Song n nm 1984 th kin thay i nghing v ci gi l nhng l thuyt dy.[...]
Du c nhng kh nng v thc t cc ht trong cc l thuyt siu hp dn xem chng khng tng thch vi cc ht quan st c, a s cc nh vt l tin tng rng siu hp dn c nhiu xc sut l cu tr li ng n cho bi ton l thuyt thng nht ca vt l. Hnh nh y l con ng tt nht thng nht hp dn vi cc tng tc khc. Song n nm 1984 th kin thay i nghing v ci gi l nhng l thuyt dy. Trong l thuyt dy, nhng i tng c bn khng phi l cc ht, vn ch chim mt im khng gian, m l mt thc th c di v khng c chiu no khc, ging nh mt si dy v cng mnh. Nhng si dy ny c th c mt (gi l dy h) hoc chng c cc mt trng nhau to thnh mt vng (gi l dy kn) (xem cc Hnh 10.1 v 10.2).
Hnh 10.1
Mi ht chim mt im khng gian ti mi im thi gian. Nh th lch s ca n c th biu din c bi mt ng trong khng - thi gian ( l ng v tr). Cn mt dy th chim mt ng trong khng gian ti mi thi im. V vy lch s ca n l mt mt hai chiu gi l mt v tr (mi im trn mt v tr nh th c m t bi hai s: mt s xc Hnh 10.2 nh thi gian cn s kia xc nh v tr ca im trn dy). Mt v tr ca mt dy h l mt gii; hai ng bin l mt qu o cc mt trong khng - thi gian (H. 10.1). Mt v tr ca mt dy kn l mt ng hnh tr (H.10.2) vi mt ct l mt ng cong kn m t v tr ca dy ti mt thi im.
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Hai dy c th ni vi nhau thnh mt dy; trong trng hp dy h chng ni nhau ti im mt (H.10.3), trong trng hp dy kn th chng ni nhau nh hai ng may li vi nhau trong mt ci qun (H.10.4). Tng t nh vy, mt dy c th phn thnh hai dy. Trong l thuyt dy, thc t trc y c xem nh l ht th gi y c biu din nh nhng sng chy dc theo dy, ging nh nhng sng trn mt dy
Hnh 10.3
n rung. Qu trnh bc x hoc hp th mt ht bi mt ht khc ng vi qu trnh phn r hoc tng hp ca cc dy. V d, lc hp dn ca mt tri ln tri t c biu din trong l thuyt ht nh pht sinh trong qu trnh bc x graviton bi mt ht ca mt tri v hp th bi mt ht ca tri t (H.10.5). Cn trong l thuyt dy, qu trnh ny ng vi mt Hnh 10.4 ng c dng hnh ch H (H.10.6). Hai ng ng ca ch H ng vi cc ht ca mt tri v ca tri t, cn ng ngang ng vi ht graviton chuyn ng gia cc ht trn. L thuyt dy c mt lc s l th. u tin cui nhng nm 60, l thuyt dy c xy dng m t tng tc mnh. T tng xut pht l cc ht nh proton v neutron c th xem nh sng ca mt dy. Lc tng tc gia cc ht s c m t bi nhng on ni gia cc dy nh trong mt mng nhn. l thuyt ny cho nhng tr s quan st c ca tng tc mnh gia cc ht, cc dy ny Hnh 10.5 phi ging nh nhng dy cao su vi lc ko khong mi tn. Nm 1974, Joel Scherk Paris v John Schwarz Vin cng ngh California cng b mt bi bo ch rng l thuyt dy c th m t lc hp dn nu lc cng ca dy ln hn nhiu, khong nghn triu triu triu triu triu triu triu (1 vi 39 s khng) tn. Nhng tin on ca l thuyt dy trng vi nhng tin on ca thuyt tng i rng cc di bnh thng, song khc nhau cc khong cch cc b, nh hn mt phn nghn triu triu triu triu triu centimet (1centimet Hnh 10.6 chia cho 1 vi 33 s khng). Song cng trnh ca hai tc gi trn khng nhn c s ch c bit, bi v vo ng khong thi gian a s t b l thuyt dy ca tng tc mnh theo ui l thuyt quark v http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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gluon v l thuyt sau c v ph hp vi quan st thc nghim. Scherk cht trong hon cnh bi thm (ng b bnh i ng ri vo trng thi hn m khi khng c mt ai bn cnh chch cho ng mt mi insulin). Nh th ch cn li Schwarz l ngi duy nht bnh vc cho l thuyt dy, nhng by gi vi mt tr s gi nh cao hn nhiu ca lc cng. Nm 1984 s quan tm n l thuyt dy t ngt c ti sinh, v hai l do. L do th nht l thc t ngi ta khng thu c tin b g nhiu trong vic chng minh rng siu hp dn l hu hn hoc siu hp dn c kh nng gii thch cc loi ht m chng ta quan st c. L do th hai l s ra i bi bo ca John Schwarz v Mike Green i hc N hong Mary, London chng minh rng l thuyt dy c th gii thch s tn ti cc ht xon tri ni ti c quan st. Du l do th no i na, mt s ng vo l thuyt dy, v mt phng n mi c pht trin, ci gi l dy hn hp (heterotic), phng n ny dng nh gii thch c cc loi ht quan st. L thuyt dy cng dn n nhng v hn, song ngi ta ngh rng chng s b loi tr trong nhng phng n nh dy hn hp (mc du hin nay iu cha chc chn). L thuyt dy cng c vn : cc l thuyt ny ch ng nu khng - thi gian c hoc mi hoc hai mi su chiu, ch khng phi l bn. Cc chiu khng gian ph s l c s cho khoa hc vin tng: Thc vy, cc chiu c khi l cn thit, nu khng c chng th chc chn phi c mt thi gian rt ln i n c cc sao v thin h v thuyt tng i buc rng chng ta khng th chuyn ng nhanh hn nh sng. tng khoa hc vin tng l hy vng chng ta c th tm c mt qu o tt theo mt chiu ph. Ta c th hnh dung c iu ny nh sau. Hy tng tng rng khng - thi gian chng ta sng ch c hai chiu v cong nh mt mt hnh xuyn (H.10.7). Nu bn im A v mun i n Hnh 10.7 im B th bn phi i theo ng AMB (ng m nt) trn mt xuyn. Song nu c chiu th ba th bn c th du hnh theo chiu dc ng AEB (ng gch) nhiu ln ngn hn AMB. Ti sao chng ta khng cm nhn c cc chiu ph , nu qu tht chng tn ti? Ti sao chng ta ch thy c ba chiu khng gian v mt chiu thi gian? Mt gi gii thch iu l cc chiu ph b un cong thnh mt khng gian c kch thc rt nh, c mt phn triu http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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triu triu triu triu inch. Khng gian ny qu nh nn chng ta khng thy c: chng ta ch thy thi gian mt chiu v khng gian ba chiu, trong khng - thi gian gn nh phng. iu ny ging nh mt mt qu cam: nu nh bn nhn gn st bn s thy nhng ch cong v nhn nheo, song nu bn nhn t khong cch xa, bn s khng thy nhng ch li lm v mt qu cam gn nh trn tru. i vi khng thi gian cng vy: mt kch thc rt b ta c mt khng gian mi chiu, c cong ln, song nhng kch thc ln hn bn s thy cong hoc cc chiu ph. Nu bc tranh l ng th c kh khn cho nhng ngi mun du hnh vo v tr: cc chiu ph qu b con tu v tr c th lt qua. Ti sao ch c mt s chiu, ch khng phi tt c, b un cong trong mt qu cu nh? C th on chng rng trong nhng giai on sm ca v tr, tt c cc chiu u b un cong rt nhiu. Ti sao ch mt chiu thi gian v ba chiu khng gian m phng ra, cn cc chiu khc th vn trong trng thi b un cong? Mt cu tr li l nguyn l v nhn. Mt khng gian hai chiu khng cho php hnh thnh nhng sinh vt phc tp nh con ngi. V d, nhng sinh vt hai chiu sng trn mt khng gian mt chiu phi tro qua nhau vt nhau. Nu mt sinh vt hai chiu n mt vt g th vt khng th tiu ha Hnh 10.8. hon ton c, sinh vt phi a phn khng tiu ha c ra ng mm bi v nu c mt ng tiu ha xuyn qua c th th ng ny s phn c th sinh vt thnh hai na ring bit: v sinh vt hai chiu s phi r thnh hai mnh (H.10.8). Tng t nh vy tht kh m hnh dung c bt k mt h tun hon mu no trong c th sinh vt hai chiu.
Stephen Hawking
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Phn 33
[...] Nhiu vn s ny sinh vi mt khng gian c nhiu chiu hn ba chiu. Lc hp dn gia hai vt s gim nhanh vi khong cch hn l trong khng gian ba chiu... S gim nhanh dn n qu o ca cc hnh tinh...s khng n nh: mt nhiu lon nh khi qu o trn... s lm cho qu t chuyn ng xon v ri vo hoc xa dn mt tri. Chng ta s b thiu chy hoc cht cng...[...]
Nhiu vn s ny sinh vi mt khng gian c nhiu chiu hn ba chiu. Lc hp dn gia hai vt s gim nhanh vi khong cch hn l trong khng gian ba chiu. (Trong khng gian ba chiu lc hp dn gim 1/4 ln nu khong cch tng ln gp i. Trong khng gian bn chiu, n gim 1/8 ln, trong khng gian nm chiu, 1/16 ln v c nh vy). S gim nhanh dn n qu o ca cc hnh tinh, nh qu t, xung quanh mt tri s khng n nh: mt nhiu lon nh khi qu o trn (nhiu lon gy ra bi lc ht hp dn ca cc hnh tinh khc) s lm cho qu t chuyn ng xon v ri vo hoc xa dn mt tri. Chng ta s b thiu chy hoc cht cng. Trong mt khng gian c s chiu ln hn ba, dng iu ca hp dn theo khong cch khng cho php mt tri tn ti trong mt trng thi n nh vi p sut cn bng hp dn. Mt tri hoc s r ra hoc co li thnh mt l en. Trong tt c cc trng hp trn, mt tri s khng cn l ngun nhit v nh sng vn cn thit cho s sng trn tri t. mt kch thc nh hn, cc lc in buc rng cc electron phi quay quanh ht nhn nguyn t theo cch qu t quay quanh mt tri. Nh vy hoc cc electron cng thot khi nguyn t hoc ri xon vo ht nhn. Do chng ta khng th c cc nguyn t m chng ta quan st c. Vy r rng cuc sng, nh chng ta nhn thc, ch c th tn ti trong nhng vng ca khng - thi gian mt chiu thi gian v ba chiu khng gian khng b un cong nh li. iu ny c ngha l chng ta cn phi cu cu n nguyn l v nhn yu, min l chng ta chng minh c rng l thuyt dy t nht cho php s tn ti ca nhng vng nh th trong v tr - v hnh nh l thuyt dy cho php. C th tn ti nhng vng khc ca v tr, hoc nhng v tr khc (theo bt c ngha no), trong tt c cc chiu u b un cong nh li hoc trong c nhiu hn bn chiu gn http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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nh phng, song tic thay y khng th tn ti mt sinh vt c tr t no quan st nhng iu c tht . Ngoi vn s chiu ca khng gian, l thuyt dy cn t ra nhiu vn khc cn gii quyt trc khi l thuyt ny c cng nhn l l thuyt ti hu ca vt l hc. Chng ta cn cha bit rng c phi mi i lng v hn s trit tiu nhau v cng cha bit lm th no ni lin mt cch chnh xc cc sng trn dy vi cc ht quan st c. Tuy nhin, c l nhng cu tr li cho cc cu hi s c tm ra trong vi nm ti v n cui th k ny chng ta s r liu l thuyt dy c qu thc l l thuyt thng nht ca vt l t lu mong i chng. Mt khc, c thc tn ti mt l thuyt nh th hay khng? Hay l chng ta ch ang sn ui mt o nh? C th c ba kh nng: 1. Qu thc tn ti mt l thuyt thng nht hon chnh, m chng ta mt ngy no s pht minh ra nu chng ta c ti nng. 2. Khng tn ti mt l thuyt ti hu ca v tr, ch tn ti mt chui v cng cc l thuyt m t v tr ngy cng chnh xc. 3. Khng tn ti mt l thuyt no v v tr; cc s c khng th tin on vt qu mt gii hn no , chng xy ra mt cch ngu nhin v ty tin. Vi s ra i ca c hc lng t, chng ta phi tha nhn rng cc s c khng th c tin on vi chnh xc hon ton m lun tn ti mt bt nh. Nu mun, ngi ta c th gn s ngu nhin cho s can thip ca Cha, song y qu l mt loi can thip k l: khng c mt chng c g cho thy can thip c nh hng n bt k mt mc ch no. Thc vy, nu c mt mc ch, th khng cn l ngu nhin na. Trong thi i hin nay, chng ta loi b hu hiu kh nng th ba bng cch nh ngha li mc ch ca khoa hc: mc tiu ca khoa hc l xy dng mt b nh lut c kh nng cho php chng ta tin on cc s c ch trong gii hn xc nh bi nguyn l bt nh. Kh nng th hai, kh nng tn ti mt chui v cng nhng l thuyt ngy cng tinh t, rt ph hp vi kinh nghim ca chng ta. Nhiu ln chng ta tng nhy cc php o v thc hin nhiu loi th nghim mi ch vi mc ch pht hin nhng hin tng mi khng tin on c bi l thuyt hin c v m t nhng hin tng chng ta phi pht trin mt l thuyt tin tin hn. V vy khng c g ng ngc nhiu nu th h hin http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
150
ti cc l thuyt thng nht phm sai lm khi khng nh rng khng c iu g cn bn mi xy ra gia nng lng c 100 GeV ca l thuyt thng nht yu in t v nng lng c ngn triu triu GeV ca l thuyt thng nht ln. ng l chng ta phi hy vng tm ra nhiu tng cu trc mi c bn hn quark v electron hin nay c xem nh l nhng ht c bn. Song dng nh hp dn c th cung cp mt gii hn cho chui cc hp trong hp . Nu ta c mt ht vi nng lng ln hn ci gi l nng lng Planck, mi triu triu triu GeV (1 theo sau l 19 s khng), th khi lng ca n c mt tp trung n mc m n t c lp tch khi phn v tr cn li v bin thnh mt l en nh. Nh vy dng nh chui cc l thuyt ngy cng tinh t phi c mt gii hn khi chng ta tip cn vi nhng nng lng ngy cng cao, v t phi c mt l thuyt ti hu v v tr. L d nhin, nng lng Planck l mt qung ng di k t nhng nng lng c nghn GeV m hin nay l nng lng ln nht chng ta c kh nng to ra trong phng th nghim. Chng ta cha vt qua c h ngn cch trong mt tng lai gn nh nhng my gia tc! Nhng nhng giai on s sinh ca v tr tng chng kin nhng nng lng nh vy. Ti ngh rng c nhiu xc sut may mn l s nghin cu nhng giai on sm ca v tr kt hp vi nhng i hi cht ch ca ton hc s dn chng ta n mt l thuyt thng nht hon chnh trong gii hn cuc i ca nhiu ngi chng ta. Nu chng ta thc s tm ra c mt l thuyt ti hu v v tr, th iu c ngha nh th no? Chng ta khng bao gi c th chc chn hon ton rng qu chng ta tm ra c mt l thuyt hon chnh. Song nu l thuyt cht ch v mt ton hc v lun a ra c nhng tin on ph hp vi quan st, th chng ta c th tin mt cch hp l rng l mt l thuyt ng n. N s kt thc mt chng di v vinh quang trong lch s u tranh tr tu ca con ngi tm hiu v tr. ng thi n cng cch mng ha s hiu bit cc nh lut v tr ca con ngi bnh thng. Thi Newton mt ngi c gio dc rt c th nm c ton b kin thc ca nhn loi, t nht l trong nhng nt c bn. Song sau nhp pht trin ca khoa hc lm cho kh nng trn khng cn na. V rng cc l thuyt lun thay i ph hp vi nhng quan st mi, chng khng th n gin ha c mt ngi bnh thng c th hiu thu. Bn phi l mt chuyn gia, v du l mt chuyn gia bn cng ch hy vng nm bt c mt phn cc l thuyt khoa hc. Ngoi ra, khoa hc tin nhanh ti mc m nhng kin thc thu nhn c hc ng cng lun http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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lun bt cp vi thi i. Ch mt s t ngi theo kp c ranh gii tin tiu ca kin thc v s ngi cng phi dng ton b s thi gian lm vic v chuyn su vo mt lnh vc nh. S ng cn li t c khi nim v nhng thnh tu tin tin ca khoa hc v nhng vn l th ny sinh t . By mi nm v trc, nu tin li Eddington, th ch c hai ngi hiu c l tuyt tng i rng. Ngy nay hng vn sinh vin i hc hiu c l thuyt v hng triu ngi t nht lm quen vi l thuyt tng i rng. Nu mt l thuyt thng nht hon chnh c pht minh, th ch cn l vn thi gian cho l thuyt c thu trit ri n gin ha v ging dy trong nh trng t nht l nhng nt c bn. V mi ngi chng ta s kh nng c c mt kin thc nht nh v nhng nh lut tr v v tr v iu hnh cuc sng ca chng ta. Ngay nu chng ta tm c ra mt l thuyt thng nht hon chnh, iu cng khng c ngha rng chng ta c kh nng tin on mi s c ni chung, v hai l. Th nht do gii hn m nguyn l bt nh ca c hc lng t p t ln mi quyn lc tin on ca chng ta. Chng ta khng th lm g c vt gii hn . Song trong thc tin gii hn th nht cn t rng buc hn gii hn sau y. Vn l ch chng ta khng th gii c cc phng trnh ca l thuyt mt cch tuyt i chnh xc, tr vi trng hp rt n gin. (Chng ta khng th gii chnh xc ngay c chuyn ng ba vt trong l thuyt hp dn ca Newton, v kh khn s tng ln vi s vt tham gia chuyn ng v mc phc tp ca l thuyt). Chng ta bit nhiu nh lut iu hnh vt cht di mi iu kin cc oan nht. Ni ring, chng ta bit nhng nh lut c bn iu khin mi i tng ca ha hc v sinh hc. Nhng chc chn ta khng quy cc i tng v thc trng ca nhng bi ton gii c; n nay chng ta t c qu t tin b trong vic tin on cch x s ca con ngi t nhng phng trnh ton hc! V vy ngay lc chng ta tm ra c mt b hon chnh cc nh lut c bn, cng cn nhiu nm trong tng lai thch tr tu con ngi tm ra nhng phng php xp x hu hiu hn c th a ra nhng tin on c ch v nhng h qu kh d trong nhng tnh hung thc tin v phc tp. Mt l thuyt thng nht cht ch v hon chnh, ch mi l bc u: mc tiu ca chng ta l mt s hiu bit hon chnh v mi s c chung quanh v v bn thn s tn ti ca chng ta.
Stephen Hawking
152
Phn 34
[...] Chng ta trong mt th gii ang lm chng ta phi trm t suy ngh. Chng ta mun gn cho mi vt xung quanh chng ta mt ngha no v t hi bn cht ca v tr l g? Chng ta ng vai tr g trong v tr v chng ta t u ti? Ti sao v tr li nh th ny? [...]
Chng 11 -Kt lun Chng ta trong mt th gii ang lm chng ta phi trm t suy ngh. Chng ta mun gn cho mi vt xung quanh chng ta mt ngha no v t hi bn cht ca v tr l g? Chng ta ng vai tr g trong v tr v chng ta t u ti? Ti sao v tr li nh th ny? tr li nhng cu hi chng ta hy chn mt bc tranh ca v tr. Mt bc tranh l hnh nh ca v s con ra ch trn lng mt mt t phng, cn bc tranh khc c th l l thuyt siu dy. C hai u l nhng l thuyt v v tr, song l thuyt th hai ton hc hn v chnh xc hn. C hai l thuyt u thiu c s thc nghim: cha ai thy con ra khng l mang mt t trn lng v cng cha ai thy c mt siu dy. Song l thuyt ra khng th ng vng nh mt l thuyt khoa hc v theo thuyt ny th chng ta c th ri t vng bin ca th gii. iu ny khng ph hp vi thc nghim, nu khng ha ra li l cch gii thch cho hin tng nhiu ngi c gi nh l bin mt trong tam gic Bermuda! Nhiu l thuyt trc y nhm m t v gii thch v tr gn lin vi tng cho rng cc s c v hin tng thin nhin u iu hnh bi thn linh, do mang sc thi cm tnh v khng c kh nng tin on. Cc thn linh sng gia nhng vt th nh sng, ni, k c cc tinh cu nh mt trng, mt tri. Con ngi phi cm t v cu xin thn linh t ai c ph nhiu, ma gi thun ha. Song dn dn, ngi ta nhn thy c mt s quy lut: mt tri lun mc phng ng v ln phng Ty bt k l ngi ta c dng vt hy sinh cho thn mt tri hay khng. Hn na, mt tri, mt trng v cc hnh tinh khc lun chuyn ng theo nhng qu o nht nh m ngi ta c th tnh ton c trc vi mt chnh xc rt cao. Mt tri v mt trng c th vn l nhng thn linh, song nhng thn linh http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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ny lun tun th nhng inh lut rt nghim ngt, khng ngoi l, nu ngi ta tin vo nhng truyn thuyt nh mt tri dng li cho Joshua. Ban u nhng hin tng bnh thng v nhng quy lut nh th ch quan st c trong mt s lnh vc nh thin vn hc v trong mt s tnh hung khc. Song lc vn minh loi ngi cng tin ha v c bit trong 300 nm gn y, nhiu nh lut c pht hin. S thnh cng trong vic ng dng nhng nh lut dn Laplace u th k 19 thit lp thuyt quyt nh lun, vi ni dung khng nh rng da trn cc nh lut chng ta c th xc nh c s tin trin ca v tr mt cch chnh xc khi bit cu hnh ca v tr ti mt thi im. Quyt nh lun ca Laplace khng hon chnh hai im. Lun thuyt cha ni r phi chn cc nh lut nh th no v khng xc nh c cu hnh ban u ca v tr. Cc im thuc phn ca Cha. Cha s chn v tr bt u nh th no, nhng nh lut no m v tr phi tun theo, nhng Cha khng can thip vo v tr na, mt khi v tr bt u. Thc ra, Cha ch gii hn vo nhng lnh vc m khoa hc th k 19 cha hiu c. Hin nay th chng ta bit cc nim hy vng v mt quyt nh lun ca Laplace khng th l hin thc c, t nht l theo nhng quan im ca ng. Nguyn l bt nh ca c hc lng t buc rng mt s cp cc i lng lin hp, nh v tr v vn tc ca mt ht, khng th tin on ng thi c. C hc lng t gii quyt tnh hung ny thng qua l thuyt lng t trong ht khng th ng thi c v tr v vn tc xc nh, y ht c biu din bi mt sng, nhng l thuyt lng t l tt nh vi ngha rng chng a ra nhng nh lut xc nh s tin trin ca sng theo thi gian. Nh th khi bit sng ti mt thi im th ngi ta c th tnh sng bt c thi im no. iu khng tin on c v mang tnh xc sut ch xut hin khi ta mun on nhn sng bit v tr v vn tc ca ht. Nhng c l y l mt sai lm ca chng ta: rt c th khng tn ti v tr, vn tc ca ht m ch tn ti cc sng. Chng qua l chng ta mun lm ng sng vi cc tin nim ca chng ta v v tr v vn tc. Cho nn s kh khn trong vic on nhn ni trn l nguyn nhn ca tnh khng th tin on biu kin ca l thuyt lng t.
Stephen Hawking
154
Qu vy, chng ta nh ngha li nhim v ca khoa hc l pht kin nhng nh lut cho php chng ta tin on cc s kin vi chnh xc quyt nh bi nguyn l bt nh. Nhng cu hi cn li l: cc nh lut v trng thi ban u ca v tr c chn nh th no v v sao? Trong quyn sch ny, ti ch trng c bit n cc nh lut iu hnh hp dn, bi v chnh hp dn quyt nh hnh dng cc cu trc v m ca v tr, mc du hp dn l tng tc yu nht trong bn loi tng tc. Cc nh lut hp dn khng tng thch vi quan nim ph bin n mi gn y l v tr khng thay i theo thi gian: Lc hp dn l lc ht, iu ny buc v tr hoc gin n hoc co li. Theo l thuyt tng i rng, tn ti mt trng thi vi mt v cng trong qu kh, v n ln l im bt u ca thi gian. Tng t nh vy, nu ton b v tr co li, phi tn ti mt trng thi khc cng vi mt v cng trong tng lai, v n ln s l chung cuc ca thi gian. Ngay c trong trng hp ton v tr khng co li, th cng tn ti nhng k d trong nhng vng a phng dn n s co li thnh nhng l en. Cc k d ny s l im kt thc ca thi gian i vi ai ri vo l en. Ti v n ln hoc cc im k d khc, mi nh lut khoa hc khng cn ng na, v Cha ton quyn chn cho v tr phi bt u nh th no. Khi chng ta tng hp c hc lng t vi l thuyt tng i rng, hnh nh tn ti mt kh nng mi, cha xut hin trc y: khng gian v thi gian c th lm thnh mt khng gian hu hn bn chiu khng k d, khng bin ta nh mt t song vi s chiu ln hn. Dng nh tng c th gii thch c nhiu iu trong v tr, v nh s ng nht thang v m cng nh nhng ni lch khi s ng nht nh thin h, cc sao v thm ch c c th nh chng ta. Cng phi tnh n chiu ca mi tn thi gian m chng ta quan st c. Nu v tr l hon ton t thn, khng k d, khng bin v c th m t hon ton c bi mt l thuyt thng nht, th iu ny s a ra nhng rng buc su sc cho vai tr ca Cha nh l ng sng to. Einstein mt ln nu ra cu hi: Cha c bao nhiu phng n khi xy dng v tr?. Nu qu gi thit khng c bin l ng, th Cha khng cn t do chn cc iu kin ban u na. L d nhin Cha cn c th chn cc nh lut m v tr phi tun theo. Song s la chn cng khng c nhiu lm, c th ch mt, hai hoc mt s t cc l thuyt thng nht hon chnh, nh thuyt dy hn hp, l khng cha mu thun v cho php s tn http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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ti nhng cu trc phc tp nh con ngi l nhng sinh vt c kh nng nghin cu cc nh lut ca v tr v t ra cu hi v bn cht ca Cha. Cho du ch c mt l thuyt thng nht l kh d, th l thuyt cng gm c mt tp hp nhng quy lut v phng trnh. iu g thi sc sng vo nhng phng trnh v to ra v tr chng c th m t c? Cch tip cn ca khoa hc xy dng mt m hnh ton hc khng th cung cp cu tr li v sao tn ti mt v tr c th m t. V sao v tr phi chu tri qua mi s phin h ca cuc sng? L thuyt thng nht c phi v qu hp dn m phi tn ti khng? Hoc v tr cn mt ng sng to, v nu qu nh vy, ng sng to c tc dng g khc i vi v tr? V ai sng to ra ng sng to? n thi im ny, a s cc nh khoa hc qu bn rn vo vic pht trin nhng l thuyt tr li cu hi nh th no v cha bn tm ti cu hi v sao? Mt khc, nhng trit gia l nhng ngi m cng vic l t ra cu hi v sao, li khng iu kin thng tu c cc l thuyt hin i. th k th 18, cc nh trit hc xem ton b kin thc ca loi ngi trong c khoa hc t nhin l thuc lnh vc ca h v nu ra nhng cu hi nh: v tr c im ban u khng? Song n cc th k 19 v 20, khoa hc tr nn qu k thut v ton hc ha i vi nhng nh trit hc ni ring v ni chung l i vi nhiu ngi tr mt s chuyn rt su. Cc trit gia gii hn cc cu hi n mc m Wittgenstein, nh trit hc danh ting nht ca th k ny tht ln: Nhim v duy nht cn li ca trit hc l phn tch ngn ng. Tht l mt thoi tro ln khi truyn thng ln lao ca trit hc t Aristotle n Kant. Song nu chng ta pht kin c mt l thuyt y , th l thuyt cng khng c hiu ngay bi a s, ngoi tr mt s chuyn gia. Nhng sau , tt c chng ta, cc nh khoa hc, cc trit gia v c mi ngi bnh thng s hiu c v tham gia tho lun cu hi v sao v tr v chng ta tn ti. Nu chng ta tm c cu tr li, th l s thng li cui cng ca tr tu con ngi - chng ta s bit c ca Cha.
Stephen Hawking
156
Phn 35
[...] Trong sut cuc i, cc hot ng cho chnh sch ha bnh ca Einstein t t kt qu v c l cng khng gy c nhiu tnh cm trong bn b. Song cc hot ng cho phong tro Zionnism (phc quc Do Thi) ca ng c n p mt cch xng ng nm 1952, khi ng c c tng thng Israel [...]
ALBERT EINSTEIN Einstein c lin quan n chnh sch bom nguyn t, iu c nhiu ngi bit: Einstein vit mt bc th ni ting thuyt phc Tng thng Franklin Roosevelt cn nghim tc nghin cu vn bom nguyn t, sau chin tranh Einstein li hot ng chng chin tranh ht nhn. Nhng nhng hot ng khng phi l nhng hot ng c lp ca mt nh khoa hc b li cun vo th gii chnh tr. Cuc i Einstein theo cch pht biu ca ng c chia i gia chnh tr v cc phng trnh. Einstein bt u nhng hot ng chnh tr rt sm, vo thi gian Chin tranh th gii ln th nht, khi ng cn l gio s Berlin. au kh v s phn nhiu ngi b cht, ng tham gia vo nhiu cuc biu tnh chng chin tranh. ng bnh vc s chng i ca cng lun v h ho qun chng khng tng qun, nhng iu ny lm ng mt cm tnh ca nhiu ng nghip. Sau trong thi k chin tranh, ng hot ng nhm ci thin cc mi quan h quc t. iu ny cng vy, lm cho ng b nhiu th lc cm ght, v chnh kin ca ng sm gy cho ng nhiu kh khn trong vic sang M, thm ch ch c bi ging. Hot ng chnh tr ln th hai ca Einstein l ch ngha phc quc Do thi (Zionism). Mc du thuc dng h Do thi, Einstein ph nhn cc tng kinh thnh ca Cha. Song trc nhng hnh ng bi Do thi ngy cng pht trin trc v trong Chin tranh th gii ln th nht, Einstein dn dn ha nhp vi cng ng Do thi v tr thnh mt ngi pht ngn xut sc ca phong tro Zionism. B nhiu k chng i, Einstein vn khng ngng ni ln quan im ca mnh. Cc l thuyt ca ng b cng kch, thm ch c mt t chc chng Einstein cng c thnh lp. Mt k b truy t v h ho k khc git Einstein (v ch b pht 6 la). Nhng Einstein lun bnh tnh: khi mt cun sch c tn 100 tc gi chng Einstein c cng b, Einstein tr li: Nu ti sai lm th ch cn mt cng ri. http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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Nm 1933, Hitle ln cm quyn. Lc Einstein M tuyn b s khng v c. Khi bn quc x t ph nh ca ng v tch thu ti khon nh bng ca ng, mt tp ch Berlin ng tt m Nhng tin tc tt lnh t Einstein...ng ta khng tr v na. Trc s e da ca bn quc x, Einstein t b chnh sch ha bnh v s cc nh khoa hc c s lm mt qu bom nguyn t, ng ngh M phi lm bom nguyn t. Song ngay trc lc qu bom nguyn t u tin n, ng cng khai bo ng v mi him ha ca mt cuc chin tranh ht nhn v ngh thit lp s kim sot quc t i vi v kh ht nhn. Trong sut cuc i, cc hot ng cho chnh sch ha bnh ca Einstein t t kt qu v c l cng khng gy c nhiu tnh cm trong bn b. Song cc hot ng cho phong tro Zionnism ca ng c n p mt cch xng ng nm 1952, khi ng c c tng thng Israel. ng t chi vi l do l ngy th v chnh tr. Song l do chnh li l khc: theo li ca ng l: phng trnh quan trng hn i vi ti, v chnh tr l cho hin ti, cn phng trnh l cho vnh cu.
Stephen Hawking
158
Phn 36
[...] C l Galileo hn ai c l ngi c cng ln trong s ra i ca khoa hc hin i. ng chng li Nh th Thin cha gio, s chng i ny l im trung tm trit hc ca ng. Galileo l mt trong nhng ngi khng nh rng con ngi c th hy vng hiu c v tr hot ng nh th no... [...]
GALILEO GALILEI C l Galileo hn ai c l ngi c cng ln trong s ra i ca khoa hc hin i. ng chng li Nh th Thin cha gio, s chng i ny l im trung tm trit hc ca ng. Galileo l mt trong nhng ngi khng nh rng con ngi c th hy vng hiu c v tr hot ng nh th no, v ngoi ra, chng ta c th lm c iu bng cch quan st v tr thc ti. Galileo tin vo l thuyt Copecnicus (cho rng cc hnh tinh quay xung quanh mt tri) t lu, nhng ch khi tm ra c nhng iu hin nhin chng minh cho l thuyt th ng mi pht biu cng khai. Galileo vit v l thuyt ca Copecnicus bng ting Italy (khng phi bng ting Latinh hm lm), v quan im ca ng c ng h rng ri ngoi cc trng i hc. iu ny lm cc gio s phi Aristotle gin d, h lin minh chng li Galileo v thuyt phc nh th Thin cha trit b l thuyt Copecnicus. Galileo bn n Rome yt kin chnh quyn tn gio. ng l lun rng Kinh thnh khng nhm mc ch ni vi chng ta mi iu v cc l thuyt khoa hc, v phi gi nh rng, nhng on m Kinh thnh tri vi lng tri ch l nhng on c tnh cht phng d, biu tng m thi. Nhng Nh th, lo s n mt v b bi c th lm tht bi cuc u tranh chng o Tin lnh, nn s dng nhng bin php n p. Nh th tuyn b lun thuyt Copecnicus l gi di v sai lm vo nm 1616 v yu cu Galileo ng bao gi bo v v gi quan im l thuyt . Galileo phc tng. Nm 1623, mt ngi bn c tri ca Galileo ln gi chc Gio hong. Lp tc Galileo tm cch hot ng Nh th th tiu sc lnh nm 1616. ng tht bi, tuy vy cng c php vit mt cun sch bn lun v hai thuyt Aristotle v Copecnicus di hai iu kin: khng c ng v phi no v phi kt lun rng con ngi khng bao gi xc nh c v tr http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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hot ng nh th no bi v Cha c kh nng to ra nhng h qu bng cch con ngi khng hnh dung c, con ngi khng th p t gii hn cho quyn lc v bin ca Cha. Cun sch i thoi ca hai h thng ch yu ca th gii c hon thnh v xut bn nm 1632. Vi s gip trit ca kim duyt, cun sch ngay lp tc c hoan nghnh khp chu u nh l mt kit tc v vn chng v trit hc. Lin sau , Gio hong hiu ngay rng c gi thy r cun sch l mt tc phm y thuyt phc ca l thuyt Copecnicus v hi tic v cho php xut bn. Gio hong l lun rng mc du cun sch c kim duyt, nhng Galileo vn vi phm sc lnh nm 1616. Gio hong a Galileo ra trc Ta n d gio, ta n ny tuyn n qun thc Galileo ti gia sut i v buc ng cng khai tuyn b t b thuyt Copecnicus. Ln th hai, Galileo phc tng. Galileo vn l mt ngi Thin cha gio ngoan o, song s tin tng ca ng vo tnh c lp ca khoa hc khng bao gi b lay chuyn. Bn nm trc khi cht, nm 1642, trong khi ng vn b qun thc, mt bn tho ca cun sch kit tc th hai ca ng lt n mt nh xut bn H Lan. l cun Hai khoa hc mi, cun sch ny khng ch l s ng h Copecnicus, m cn l s hnh thnh ca vt l hin i.
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Phn 37
[...] Isaac Newton khng phi l mt ngi d chu. Nhng mi quan h ca ng vi cc hc gi khc rt tai ting, phn ln cc giai on sau ca cuc i ng quyn lin vi nhng tranh lun gay gt [...]
ISAAC NEWTON Isaac Newton khng phi l mt ngi d chu. Nhng mi quan h ca ng vi cc hc gi khc rt tai ting, phn ln cc giai on sau ca cuc i ng quyn lin vi nhng tranh lun gay gt. Sau khi cun sch Principia Mathematica, cun sch uy tn nht trong vt l c xut bn, Newton nhanh chng chim c lng ngng m ca cng chng. ng c ch nh lm Ch tch Hi Hong gia v tr thnh nh khoa hc u tin c phong tc hu. Newton mu thun vi nh thin vn Hong gia, John Flamsteed, ngi trc y cung cp cho Newton nhiu d liu cn thit cho cun Principia Mathematica nhng gi y t chi khng cung cp cc thng tin m Newton cn. Newton khng ly s b tay lm cu tr li, ng t b nhim mnh vo ban gim c i thin vn Hong gia v tm cch buc phi cng b ngay lp tc cc d liu. ng cn b tr thu gi cng trnh ca Flamsteed v giao cho Edmond Halley, k t th ca Flamsteed, chun b xut bn cng trnh . Flamsteed a v ny ra ta v kp thi t c lnh ta n ngn khng cho xut bn ti liu b nh cp. Newton tc gin v tr th bng cch xa b mi ti liu dn v Flamsteed trong cc ln ti bn ca Principia. Mt cuc tranh lun nghim tc hn xy ra vi nh trit hc c, Gottfried Leibniz. C Leibniz ln Newton pht trin, c lp nhau ngnh ton hc gi l Calculus (Gii tch) vn s l c s cho vt l hin i. Mc du hin nay chng ta u bit Newton pht hin Calculus nhiu nm trc Leibniz, song ng cng b cc cng trnh ca mnh mun hn Leibniz. Ny sinh cuc tranh ci om sm chung quanh vic ai l ngi u tin tm ra Calculus gia cc nh khoa hc ng h hai pha. Mt iu ng ch , l s ln cc bi bo ng h Newton li c chnh ng vit ra v cng b di tn cc bn ng! Khi cuc ci v c quy m ln, Leibniz mc http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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sai lm ln l ku gi Hi Hong gia gii quyt, Newton vn l Ch tch Hi hong gia, ch nh mt hi ng khng thin v tra xt vn , hi ng ny tnh c li gm ton nhng ngi bn ca Newton! Song cha ht: Newton ln hi ng mt bn bo co v Hi Hong gia cng b bn bo co ny, trong Newton cng khai buc ti Leibniz nh cp cng trnh. Cha tha mn, Newton cn vit mt bi bo nc danh im li bn bo co ni trn v ng vo tp ch ring ca Hi Hong gia. Sau khi Leibniz cht, ngi ta cn k li rng Newton tuyn b ng v cng tha d khi lm v qu tim ca Leibniz. Trong thi k hai cuc tranh lun, Newton ri Cambridge v trng i hc. ng l ngi tch cc tham gia phong tro chnh tr chng Thin cha gio Cambridge v sau ny ti Ngh vin v c b nhim vo chc v rt hi l Thng c S c tin Hong gia. cng v ny Newton s dng ti nng ca mnh gian di v cay c theo cch d c x hi chp nhn hn, ng cng thnh cng trong mt chin dch ln chng lm bc gi v thm ch cng a nhiu k ln gi treo c.
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Phn 38
[...]... Bc x viba phng hay nn (Microwave background radiation): Bc x t lc v tr cn nng, hin nay dch v pha nhiu n mc khng cn l nh sng na m l di dng viba (tc sng radio vi bc sng khong vi cm)... [...]
Thut ng 1. Bo ton nng lng (Conservation of energy): nh lut khng nh rng nng lng (c th tnh tng ng qua khi lng) khng sinh khng dit. 2. Bc x viba phng hay nn (Microwave background radiation): Bc x t lc v tr cn nng, hin nay dch v pha nhiu n mc khng cn l nh sng na m l di dng viba (tc sng radio vi bc sng khong vi cm). 3. Bc sng (Wave length): Khong cch gia hai nh hoc hai hm sng k nhau. 4. Chn tri s c (Event horizon): Bin ca l en. 5. Chiu ca khng gian (Spatial dimension): mt trong ba chiu ca khng gian, cc chiu ny ng dng khng gian khc vi chiu thi gian. 6. Chuyn dch (Red shift): S chuyn dch v pha ca nh sng pht ra t mt sao ang chuyn ng xa dn bi hiu ng Doppler. 7. C hc lng t (Quantum Mechanics): L thuyt pht trin t nguyn l lng t ca Planck v nguyn l bt nh ca Heisenberg. 8. in tch (Electric charge): Mt tnh cht ca ht y (hoc ht) mt ht khc c cng (hoc khc) du in tch. 9. iu kin khng c bin (No boundary condition): tng cho rng v tr l hu hn song khng c bin (trong thi gian o).
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10. nh l k d (Singulaitry theorem): Mt nh l chng minh rng di nhng iu kin no k d phi tn ti v ni ring v tr phi xut pht t mt k d. 11. ng trc a (Geodesic): ng ngn nht (hoc di nht) gia hai im. 12. Electron (Electron): Ht mang in tch m quay chung quanh ht nhn nguyn t. 13. Gia tc (Acceleration): Tc thay i ca vn tc. 14. Giy nh sng (nm nh sng) (Light second (light year): Khong cch nh sng i trong mt giy (mt nm). 15. Gii hn Chandrasekhar (Chandrasekhar limit): Khi lng ti a kh d cho mt sao lnh bn, ln hn khi lng th sao co li thnh l en. 16. Ht o (Virtual particle): Trong c hc lng t, l mt ht ta khng ghi nhn c trc tip nhng s tn ti ca n gy ra nhng h qu o c. 17. Ht nhn (Nucleus): Hch trung tm ca nguyn t, gm neutron v proton lin kt vi nhau bi tng tc mnh. 18. Hng s v tr (Cosmological Constant): Mt hng s Einstein a vo l thuyt lm cho khng - thi gian c th gin n. 19. Khi lng (Mass): Lng vt cht trong mt vt th; qun tnh i vi gia tc. 20. Khng - thi gian (Space - time): Mt khng gian bn chiu, mi im tng ng vi mt s c. 21. Khng tuyt i (Absolute zero): Nhit thp nht, ti vt cht khng cn nhit nng. 22. K d (Singularity): Mt im ca khng gian ti cong ca khng thi gian tr nn v cng.
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23. K d trn tri (Naked Singularyty): Mt im k d ca khng - thi gian khng bao quanh bi l en. 24. L en (Black hole): Vng ca khng - thi gian t khng g thot ra khi c, k c nh sng v hp dn qu mnh. 25. L en nguyn thy (Primordial hole): L en sinh ra cc giai on sm ca v tr. 26. Lc in t (Electromagnetic force): Lc tng tc gia cc ht c in tch, y l loi lc mnh th hai trong bn loi lc tng tc. 27. Lc tng tc mnh (Strong force): Lc tng tc mnh nht trong bn loi lc tng tc, c bn knh tc dng ngn nht. Lc ny cm gi cc ht quark trong proton v neutron, v lin kt proton v neutron lm thnh ht nhn. 28. Lc tng tc yu (Weak force): Lc tng tc yu th hai trong bn loi tng tc c bn vi bn knh tc dng rt ngn. Lc ny tc dng ln cc ht vt cht nhng khng tc dng ln cc ht truyn tng tc. 29. Lng t (Quantum): n v khng phn chia c trong bc x v hp th ca cc sng. 30. My gia tc ht (Particle Accelerator): Thit b s dng cc nam chm in, c kh nng lm chuyn ng ca cc ht c in tch, do chng thu c nng lng ln hn. 31. Nng lng thng nht in t yu (Electroweak unification energy): Nng lng c 100 GeV, cao hn tr s th khng cn s khc bit gia cc tng tc in t v yu. 32. Nng lng thng nht ln (Grand unification energy): Nng lng m trn , tng tc in t, yu v mnh khng cn khc bit nhau. 33. Nguyn l bt nh (Uncertainty principle): Ta khng bao gi o c chnh xc cng mt lc vn tc v v tr ca ht; cng bit chnh xc i lng ny th cng bit t chnh xc v i lng kia.
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34. Nguyn l loi tr (Exclusion principle): Hai ht ng nht c spin bng 1/2 khng th c cng mt v tr v vn tc (trong gii hn xc nh bi nguyn l bt nh). 35. Nguyn l lng t ca Planck (Plancks quantum principle): tng cho rng nh sng (hoc bt k mt sng c in no khc) c th hp th theo tng lng nh ri rc, gi l lng t, c nng lng t l vi tn s. 36. Nguyn l v nhn (Anthropic principle): Ta thy v tr nh th ny bi v nu v tr khc i th ta khng th tn ti c m quan st n. 37. Nguyn t (Atom): n v c s ca vt cht, gm ht nhn (cu thnh bi proton v neutron) c cc electron chuyn ng chung quanh. 38. Nh nguyn sng/ht (Wave/particle duality): Mt khi nim trong c hc lng t ni rng khng c s khc bit gia sng v ht: mt ht i khi c dng iu ca sng v ngc li. 39. Nn nh sng (Light cone): Mt mt trong khng - thi gian gii hn cc hng kh d cho nhng tia nh sng i qua mt s kin. 40. Neutrino: Mt ht c bn rt nh (rt c th l khng c khi lng) ch tham gia vo cc tng tc yu v hp dn. 41. Neutron: Mt ht khng c in tch, nhiu tnh cht rt ging proton, chim xp x mt na s trong cc ht cu thnh ht nhn nguyn t. 42. Pha (Phase): i vi sng, v tr ca n trong chu k ti mt thi im: y l s o xem sng ang nh, hm hoc mt im no khc gia nh v hm. 43. Phn ht (Antiparticle): Mi loi ht c mt phn ht tng ng. Mi ht chm vi phn ht th chng hy nhau v cho thot ra nng lng. 44. Phng x (Radioactivity): Qu trnh chuyn bin t pht ca mt ht nhn nguyn t ny thnh mt ht nhn khc 45. Ph (Spectrum): S tch, v d, ca sng in t ra cc tn s thnh phn. 46. Photon (Photon): Lng t ca nh sng. http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking 47. Positron (Positron): Phn ht ca electron, mang in tch dng.
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48. Proton (Proton): Ht mang in tch dng, chim xp x mt na s trong cc ht cu thnh ht nhn nguyn t. 49. Quark (Quark) : Ht (c in tch) tham gia tng tc mnh. Mi proton v neutron c cu thnh bi ba ht quark. 50. Radar (Radar): Mt h thng pht sng v tuyn nh v mt vt th bng cch o thi gian sng n v phn x li t vt . 51. Sao neutron (Neutron star): Mt sao lnh tn ti nh lc y pht sinh v nguyn l loi tr gia cc neutron. 52. Saoln trng (White dwarf): Sao lnh bn tn ti nh lc y pht sinh v nguyn l loi tr gia cc electron. 53. Spin (Spin): Mt thuc tnh ni ti ca cc ht c bn, gn lin, song khng ng nht vi khi nim quay thng thng. 54. S c, s kin (Event): Mt im trong khng - thi gian, xc nh bi thi im v v tr ca n. 55. Tn s (Frequency): i vi nh sng, s chu k trong mt giy. 56. Thi gian o (Imaginary time): Thi gian o bng s o. 57. Thuyt thng nht ln (Grand unified theory - GUT): L thuyt thng nht cc tng tc in t, mnh v yu. 58. Thuyt tng i hp (Special relativity): Thuyt ca Einstein da trn tng cho rng cc nh lut khoa hc phi l nh nhau i vi mi quan st vin chuyn ng t do, vi vn tc bt k. 59. Thuyt tng i rng hay tng qut (General relativity): L thuyt ca Einstein da trn tng cho rng cc nh lut khoa hc phi l nh nhau i vi mi quan st bt k h chuyn ng nh th no. L thuyt ny gii thch lc hp dn bng cong ca khng - thi gian 4 chiu. 60. Tia Gamma (Gamma ray): Sng in t vi bc sng rt ngn, pht sinh trong qu trnh phn r phng x, hoc va chm ca cc ht c bn. http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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61. Ta (Coordinates): Cc s dng xc nh v tr ca mt im trong khng gian v thi gian. 62. Tng hp ht nhn (Nuclear fusion): Qu trnh trong hai ht nhn chm nhau, tng hp thnh mt ht nhn duy nht nng hn. 63. Trng thi dng (Stationary State): Trng thi khng thay i vi thi gian: Mt qu cu quay vi vn tc khng thay i l vo mt trng thi dng bi v trng thi l nh nhau mi thi im, mc d khng l mt trng thi tnh. 64. Trng lc (Weight): Lc tng tc ca trng hp dn ln mt vt, lc ny t l vi khi lng. 65. Trng (Field): Mt thc th tn ti rng trong khng - thi gian, ngc li vi ht ch vn tn ti mt im v mt lc. 66. T trng (Magnetic Field): Trng ca cc lc t, hin nay c thng nht vi in trng thnh in - t trng. 67. T l (Proportional): X c gi l t l vi Y nu khi nhn Y vi mt s no , th X cng b nhn vi s . X c gi l t l nghch vi Y nu khi nhn Y vi mt s no , th X b chia cho s . 68. V co ln (Big crunch): im k d chung cuc ca v tr. 69. V n ln (Big bang): im k d ban u ca v tr. 70. V tr hc (Cosmology): Mn hc v ton b v tr.
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Phn 39
[...] Tuy vy, d trnh c cc din dch ton hc, mt s tng vt l vn cn xa l v rt kh trnh by. Ti ng trc hai con ng: hoc l ti th gii thch chng vi nguy c lm c gi ri tr, hoc l ti trnh cc ch kh khn [...]
Lc s v mt lc s Ti hy cn kinh ngc vi s n nhn cun sch ca ti: Lc s thi gian. N danh mc sch bn chy nht ca New York Times trong ba mi by tun v ca t Sunday Times trong hai mi tm tun (cun sch c xut bn Bi ny in ln u tin vo thng Anh chm hn M). V n c dch ra hai Chp nm 1988 trn t mi th ting (hai mi mt, nu bn xem Independent. Trn thc t, lc s gian ting M khc vi ting Anh). iu vt thi chy trong danh mc sch bn nht ca t New York s mong c ca ti d nh ln u tin vo Times trong 53 tun, ti nc Anh, nm 1982 vit mt cun sch v V tr cho n thng Ging nm 1993, n c gi rng ri. Mt trong cc nh ca ti trong danh mc sch bn chy l kim tin tr hc ph cho con gi. (Trn nht ca t Sunday Times trong thc t, khi cun sch cui cng ri cng ra 205 tun. n nay c 33 bn c, con gi ti ang hc nm cht). Nhng dch khng k bn ting Vit. ng c ch yu ca ti mun gii thch s hiu bit ca chng ta v v tr tin ln c bao nhiu v c l chng ta gn ti mc no trong vic tm kim mt l thuyt hon chnh m t v tr v tt c mi th trong . Nu ti phi dnh thi gian v sc lc vit mt cun sch, ti mun n c th n vi mt s ngi cng ng cng tt. Cc tc phm khoa hc m ti vit cho ti lc u do Cambridge University Press xut bn. H lm cng vic rt tt, nhng c v khng thnh tho vi th trng c gi rng ri m ti nhm vo. Ti tip xc vi mt ngi mi gii vn hc, Al Zuckerman, vn l anh em r ca mt ng s. Ti a cho anh ta bn nhp chng u tin v gii thch rng ti mun vit mt cun sch c th bn ti cc quy sch ca cc sn bay. Anh ta tr li l iu khng th c: mt cun sch nh th c th bn chy cho gii i hc v sinh vin, nhng khng c c hi no cnh tranh vi Stephen King (mt tiu thuyt gia). http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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Ti a bn nhp u tin ca cun sch cho Zuckerman vo nm 1984. Anh ta gi n cho my nh xut bn v khuyn ti nn nhn ngh ca Norton, nh xut bn M hi kn chn. Ti quyt nh chn Bantam, khng chuyn mn ha cht no trong vic xut bn nhng tc phm khoa hc, nhng sch ca h c pht hnh rng ri ti cc quy sch sn bay. Nu h chp nhn sch ca ti th chc l do mi quan tm ca mt trong cc c vn bin tp ca h, Peter Gujjardi. ng ny vn rt nghim tc trong cng vic v bt ti vit li cun sch sao cho nhng ngi ngoi o nh ng ta cng hiu c. C mi ln ti gi cho ng ta mt chng c sot li v sa cha th ng ta gi li cho ti mt bn lit k di cc nhn xt v cc cu hi m ng mun ti lm sng t. Thnh thong ti ngh rng qu trnh ny chc khng c kt thc. Nhng ng ta c l: rt cuc cun sch tr nn hay hn nhiu. t lu sau khi nhn c ngh ca Bantam, ti b sng phi. Ti phi chu phu thut m kh qun lm cho mt ging. Trong mt thi gian, ti ch c th giao tip bng cch nhn lng my khi ai ch ng ch ph hp trn mt l bi. Nu khng c chng trnh my tnh ngi ta tng th ti hon ton khng th vit xong cun sch. Vit nh vy hi chm, nhng ti ngh ngi cng chm, do vy rt ph hp vi ti. Nh chng trnh m ti hon ton vit li bn nhp u tin p li s c v ca Gujjardi. Trong vic sa cha ny ti c s tr gip ca mt trong cc sinh vin ca ti, Brian Whitt. Ti c n tng rt mnh i vi b phim truyn hnh nhiu tp ca Jacob Bronowski c tn gi l S thng tin ca n ng.(Mt tn gi phn bit gii tnh nh vy ngy nay s khng c php). B phim gii thiu tt c nhng g m loi ngi t c t nhng ngi d man nguyn thy cch y vn ri nm n chng ta ngy nay. Ti cng mun gii thiu nhng tin b m chng ta t c khi tin n mt s thng hiu hon ton cc quy lut chi phi v tr. Ti tin chc rng hu ht mi ngi u mun bit v tr vn hnh nh th no. Nhng a s h khng kh nng theo di cc phng trnh ton hc - v li ngay ti cng chng yu mn lm cc phng trnh. iu mt phn l ti vit rt kh khn, nhng ch yu l do ti khng c s nhy cm trc gic i vi cc phng trnh. Ti suy ngh bng hnh nh v mc ch ca ti l m t bng ch cc hnh tng trong u qua nhng so snh tng t quen thuc v bng vi th. Ti hy vng bng cch c th chia s vi s ng ngi s phn khi v tnh cm ca ti vi cc tin b ni bt m mn vt l t c trong hai mi lm nm gn y. http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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Tuy vy, d trnh c cc din dch ton hc, mt s tng vt l vn cn xa l v rt kh trnh by. Ti ng trc hai con ng: hoc l ti th gii thch chng vi nguy c lm c gi ri tr, hoc l ti trnh cc ch kh khn? Mt s khi nim l lng, nh vic nhng nh quan st di chuyn vi tc khc nhau o c nhng khong cch thi gian khc nhau i vi cng mt cp hin tng, khng thc cn thit cho bc tranh m ti mun v ra. Hnh nh ti c th bng lng vi vic k chng ra m khng i vo chi tit. Mt khc, mt vi tng kh hiu nhng li rt c bn khin ti phi gii thch. c bit c hai khi nim m ti buc phi a vo. Mt khi nim m ngi ta gi l tng ha v cc lch s. tng ni rng khng tn ti ch mt lch s duy nht ca v tr, m l tp hp ca tt c cc lch s c th c ca v tr, v rng tt c cc lch s u c thc nh nhau (cho d nh vy c ngha g). tng khc cn thit rt ra ngha ton hc ca tng ha ca cc lch s, l tng v thi gian o. Ngc li qu kh, ngy nay ti c cm gic rng ti cn b nhiu cng sc hn na gii thch hai khi nim rt kh , c v chng t ra nhiu vn nht cho cc c gi cun sch ca ti. Tuy vy, cng khng thc s cn thit phi hiu chnh xc thi gian o l g, ch cn bit n khc bit nh th no vi ci m chng ta gi l thi gian thc. Khi thi hn pht hnh n gn, mt nh khoa hc nhn c nhiu trang bnh lun trn t Thin nhin ngc nhin v s lng cc sai st trong , c bit v v tr v ch gii ca cc minh ha. ng in cho Bantam, h cng rt ngc nhin nh vy v quyt nh thu hi tt c cc bn in sa cha. Sau ba tun l sa cha v kim tra ct lc, cun sch ri cng c t ln quy cc hiu sch ng thi hn pht hnh thng bo. Vo lc , t Time dnh cho ti mt bi bo di. Cc nh xut bn tuy vy cng ngc nhin v s lng yu cu. Cun sch c ti bn mi by ln M, v mi ln Anh. Ti sao nhiu ngi mua n? Ti kh m khch quan c, vy xin nhng li cho cc kin bn ngoi. Ti thy a s cc bi bnh duyt tuy thun li nhng khng c sng t cho lm. Cc bi c khuynh hng i theo cc cng thc sau y: Stephen Hawking mc bnh Lou Gehrig (i vi ngi M) hoc bnh v cc nron vn ng (i vi ngi Anh). Anh ta b gn cht vo mt chic gh di ng, khng ni c v ch c th ng ngy mt s x ngn tay (x bin thin t 1 n 3, ty theo bi bo khng chnh xc m ngi bnh duyt c v ti). Tuy vy anh ta vit mt cun sch v vn c bn trong cc vn l chng ta t u ti v chng ta i u? Cu tr li m Hawking ngh l v tr khng c sng to ra http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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cng nh mt i: n gin l n tn ti. pht biu tng , Hawking a ra khi nim thi gian o m ti (ngi bnh duyt) thy hi kh theo di. D sao nu Hawking c l v nu chng ta i ti mt l thuyt hon ton thng nht, chng ta s bit c t tng ca Cha. (Khi sa cha cc bn nhp, ti nh gch cu cui cng ni rng chng ta s bit n t tng ca Cha. Nu ti lm vy, s sch bn c c th gim i mt na). Sng sut hn mt cht (theo ti) l bi bo ca The Indipendent ni rng ngay mt cun sch khoa hc nghim tc nh lc s thi gian cng c th tr thnh cun sch kch ng. V ti (cui nm 1995 cc bo loan tin S. Hawking ly d vi b Jane c vi ng ba mt con v ly ngi h l vn chm sc ng) th kinh hi nhng ti hi khoi v thy cun sch ca mnh c so snh vi cun Lun v thin v vic bo dng xe my. Ti hy vng rng, cng nh cun Lun, n cho mi ngi cm gic rng h khng b tch ri mt cch nh mnh khi cc vn ln v t duy v trit hc. Khng nghi ng g l kha cnh con ngi, lin quan n vic tuy b tn tt nhng ti vn tr thnh mt nh vt l l thuyt, pht huy tc dng. Nhng nhng ai v quan tm n iu y m mua cun sch c th tht vng, v cun sch ch c i ch him hoi ng n tnh trng sc khe ca ti; y l cun sch v lch s ca v tr, khng phi ca ti. iu khng gip cho Bantam khi b buc ti rng khai thc th bo bnh tt ca ti, v ti th hp tc bng cch cho in nh ca mnh ln trang ba. Trn thc t th theo hp ng ti khng c quyn g i vi t ba. Tuy th ti cng thuyt phc c Bantam dng mt tm nh tt hn cho t ba cun sch xut bn Anh, thay cho hnh nh thm hi v c dng trang tr cho cun xut bn M. Nhng h vn khng thay i t ba cho cun sch xut bn M v h ni vi ti rng c gi M by gi ng nht tm nh y vi cun sch. Ngi ta cng m ch rng mi ngi mua sch v h c cc bi bnh duyt, hoc v cun sch c lit vo danh mc cc sch bn chy nht, ch h khng c n; h ch n thun c n trong t sch hay t n trn bn xa lng c ting l s hu n, m khng cn b cng tm hiu. Ti tin rng iu y cng xy ra, nhng ti khng bit c phi cng l trng hp ca cc sch nghim tc khc, bao gm c Thnh kinh v Shakespeare. Tri li, ti bit rng mt s ngi t ra cng c n, v hng ngy ti nhn c mt chng th v cun sch ca mnh; nhiu th c nhng cu hi hay nhng bnh lun chi tit, chng t ngi vit c cun sch, d rng h khng phi lun lun hiu c tt c. Cng c nhng http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
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ngi l n gp ti trn ng ph ni rng cun sch lm h hi lng n mc no. Hin nhin ti d nhn ra v khc bit nhiu, ch khng phi c cng nhn nhiu so vi a s cc tc gi khc. Nhng tn s ca nhng khen ngi cng cng (lm a con trai 9 tui ca ti bi ri). Hnh nh chng t rng t ra c mt t l nhng ngi mua sch c n. Nhiu ngi hi ti rng hin nay ti nh tip tc lm g. Ti kh m vit c phn tip theo cun sch Lc s thi gian. Ti s gi n l g? Mt lch s di hn ca thi gian? Bn kia s kt thc ca thi gian? a con ca thi gian? Ngi mi gii gi nn quay mt cun phim v cuc i ca ti! Nhng c ti v gia nh ti s khng c c s tn trng c nhn nu chng ti cho cc din vin ng vai ca mnh. Cng s l nh vy, trong chng mc t hn, nu ti cho php ai vit tiu s ca mnh. D nhin, ti khng th ngn cm ai t vit tiu s ca ti, min l khng bi nh ti, nhng ti s c lm nn lng nhng ngi c d nh y bng cch ni rng ti ngh n vic t vit tiu s cho mnh. C th lm nh vy, nhng ti khng vi. Ti ang d tnh nhiu nghin cu chng l u tin i vi ti.
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Phn 40
[...] Lu i v tr kin trc xinh p nh ni trn vn cn nguyn vn cho ti khi xut hin tro lu Phc hng, mt tro lu v i v s bng tnh tr thc chu u. Ph hy lu i kin thc y l cng ln ca Nicolaus Copernicus... [...]
V TR TUN HON Nicolaus Copernicus: v tc phm De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium Ngay t thi tin s, con ngi b m hoc bi quang cnh bu tri hng v: Mt tri, mt trng, cc hnh tinh, cc ngi sao v s tun hon khng lc no ngng ca cc v tinh t y. Mt tri mc ri ln, mt trng trn ri khuyt, bn ma thay i, cc hnh tinh xut hin ri bin i khng nhng ch l nhng s kin c th quan st c m trn nhiu phng din cn nh hng n i sng hng ngy ca nhn loi. V vy, khng l g c hng vn chuyn hoang ng v ngay c v s tn ngng, tn gio pht sinh t nhng hin tng ca bu tri y. Khi trnh vn minh tin b, cc trit gia tm cch gii thch chuyn ng tun hon ca bu tri bng nhng danh t hp l. Cc nh khoa hc v t tng tin b hn ht v khoa thin vn thi xa l ngi Hy Lp, bt u vi Pythagoras vo th k th nm v Aristotle vo th k th t trc Cng nguyn. Mt ngi Ai Cp, Claudius Ptolemy sinh sng Alexandria khong nm 150 sau Cng nguyn h thng li nhng hiu bit ca mnh v ca cc i trc thnh mt s nhng l thuyt d hiu. Trong khong t 1.500 thuyt ca Ptolemy, nh c trnh by trong quyn The Almagest ch ng tr c con ngi v c cng nhn nh l quan nim chnh xc v v tr. Thuyt ca Ptolemy c to dng trn nim: Qu t l mt khi ng yn, bt ng, nm gia trung tm v tr v tt c cc thin th gm mt tri v cc nh tinh u quay xung quanh n. Hi ngi ta tin tng qu t l trung tm ca h thng cc tinh cu. Cc hnh tinh c kt cng vo h thng . Cc ngi sao th c ct cht vo mt qu cu khc bc bn ngoi h thng , v tt c u quay mi vng trong hai mi bn gi. S chuyn ng phc tp ca cc nh tinh c gii thch http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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l c nh vo cc vng ngoi (picycles), cn cc vng nh cc hnh tinh nm trong (planetary spheres) th quay ngc chiu vi vng hnh cu ca cc v sao (sphere of stars) nhng li b li cun theo bi mt lc mnh hn. Sao Th c coi l hnh tinh xa tm im nht v gn vm hnh cu ca cc v sao hn ht, do n quay mt vng phi mt mt khong thi gian lu hn c. Mt trng gn tm im nht nn xoay xong mt vng vi thi gian t nht. Rosen m t quan nim ca Ptolemy nh sau: L thuyt thng thng lc by gi ch trng rng cc hnh tinh thng di chuyn v hng ng, ng thi chm dn li cho ti khi ngng hn, ri t o ngc mt ln th hai tip tc cuc hnh trnh v pha ng, v c tip tc nh th mi mi. V tr do c coi nh mt khong c gii hn bi mt ci bao hnh cu bc li. Bn ngoi v tr khng cn g na. Ngi ta d dng chp nhn thuyt ca Ptolemy v hai yu t m hai yu t chnh l phn nh bn tnh ca con ngi: Yu t th nht l v thuyt c v ph hp vi nhng iu m ngi no ngu nhin quan st cng thy. Yu t th hai l v n nui dng ci ch quan ca con ngi. Sung sng bao nhiu khi ngi ta tin rng qu t l tm im ca v tr, mi hnh vi v nh tinh u quay xung quanh mnh. C v tr hnh nh ch c Cha Tri to dng phc v con ngi. Lu i v tr kin trc xinh p nh ni trn vn cn nguyn vn cho ti khi xut hin tro lu Phc hng, mt tro lu v i v s bng tnh tr thc chu u. Ph hy lu i kin thc y l cng ln ca Nicolaus Copernicus, mt gio s, va l ha s, thi s, vt l gia, chin s v va l nh khoa hc..., mt trong nhng nhn vt uyn bc ton din lm cho thi Phc hng c mun i ca tng. By mi tui i ca Copernicus t nm 1473 n nm 1543 l giai on ho hng nht v cng nhiu s kin nht ca lch s chu u: Columbus tm ra chu M; Magellan i vng quanh tri t; Vasco de Gama ln u tin vt bin sang n ; Martin Luther khi xng o Tin Lnh ci cch; Michel Angelo xy dng mt th gii ngh thut mi; Paracelsus v Vesalius t nn mng cho khoa y hc hin i; v Leonardo da Vinci, mt thin ti ton din, ni ting l ha s, nh iu khc, k s, nh kin trc, nh vt l, nh sinh vt hc v trit gia. qu l mt thi i thun li bit http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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bao mt thin ti khc, Copernicus cng hin cho nhn loi mt v tr quan mi. Nicolaus Copernicus sinh ti Torun, mt th trn trn b sng Vistula ca Ba Lan, mt th trn trc kia nm trong Hip hi nhng thnh ph t do Ph. V hng nghip ng sm b nh hng su rng ca ngi cu l Lucas Watzelrode sau ny lm Tng Gim mc Ermeland. ng c hp th mt nn gio dc lu di v phc tp, trc Trng s cp Torun, sau nm 1491, ti Trng i hc Krakow. Trng i hc ny cun ht ng v ni ting l trung tm lnh o chu u v ton hc v thin vn hc. Nm nm sau Copernicus du lch sang Italia, tip tc hc Bologna, mt trong nhng trng i hc c xa nht v ni ting nht chu u. ng b ht th gi vo vic hc Gio lut v thin vn hc. Sau ng n sng Rome mt nm, va dy ton va dy thin vn. Sau cng, nm nm hc Y khoa v Gio lut Padua v Ferrara, hon tt chng trnh hc vn ca ng. Vn bng Tin s Gio lut c cp cho ng nm 1503 Ferrara. Trong khi , do nh hng ca ngi cu, Copernicus c phong linh mc Vng cung Thnh ng thnh Frauenburg v l ni ng sng 37 nm cn li i mnh sau khi t Italia tr v vo nm 1506. Nhim v linh mc ca Copernicus rt phc tp: ng chm sc thuc men cho cc tu s v gio dn; gip vic phng th qun ca ng v qun s trong cuc chin tranh ti pht gia Ba Lan, Ph v cc chin binh ngi c; tham d hi ngh ha bnh c triu tp sau khi chin tranh kt thc; gp ci t vn c tin v lu hnh tin t, cai qun nhng h o xa xi thuc a phn ng; v gii tr, ng v v dch cc tc phm thi ca Hy Lp sang ting Latinh. Nghin cu thin vn ch l mt trong nhng hot ng ca Copernicus, con ngi c tri thc ton din. Nhng dn dn mn khoa hc tr thnh mi quan tm ln nht ca ng, khi ng thy pht sinh nhng nhn nh v cc hin tng thin vn, nhng nim ny hnh nh ny n trong tm tr ng t trc v c tng ln qua s hc hi cc trng i hc Krakow v Italia. Copernicus m thm v n c tip tc tm kim, khng mt ai gip v gp . c mt trm quan st thin vn, ng dng mt thp canh trn bc tng bao quanh thnh ng. Cc dng c thin vn ca Copernicus rt th thin. Cng trnh ca ng c thc hin gn mt th k trc khi knh vin vng c pht minh.
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o lng, ng c mt ci ng h dng bng mt tri; mt ci thc o chiu cao (mt dng c th s bng g c ba mt) t ng ch ra tnh cao ca cc v sao v cc hnh tinh, mt ci knh trc tinh, mt hnh cu trong c nhng vng dc ngang. Hn na kh hu gy tr ngi cho vic quan st thin vn: bin Baltic v nhng con sng gn thng xuyn to ra my v sng m. Him c nhng ngy v m bu tri hon ton trong sng. Tuy nhin, ht nm ny qua nm khc, mi khi c c hi l Copernicus li vi u vo cc tnh ton.
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Phn 41
[...] L thuyt ca Copernicus i khi l: tri t khng ng yn m quay trn, ta nh trn mt trc, mi ngy mt vng. Mt quan nim nh vy vo th k 16 qu l qu k d, n ni Copernicus khng dm cng b sm, trc khi ng tin chc rng nhng iu ng a ra khng th chi ci c...[...]
L thuyt mang tnh cch mng m Copernicus c gng bin minh ng hay sai qua nhng nghin cu lu di ngc hn vi thuyt ca Ptolemy m by lu nay vn c tn sng. L thuyt ca Copernicus i khi l: tri t khng ng yn m quay trn, ta nh trn mt trc, mi ngy mt vng. Mt quan nim nh vy vo th k 16 qu l qu k d, n ni Copernicus khng dm cng b sm, trc khi ng tin chc rng nhng iu ng a ra khng th chi ci c. l l do khin Copernicus phi ch i 30 nm, mi quyt nh cng b l thuyt ca mnh cho th gii. Trc , c vi nh thin vn Hy Lp cho rng trung tm ca v tr l mt tri ch khng phi l tri t. Nhng Aristarchus, Copernicus ca thi thng c, vo khong th k th ba trc Cng nguyn gii thch vic mt tri mc v ln mi ngy bng cch a ra gi thuyt rng tri t quay trn trn chnh mnh n mi ngy mt vng. Tuy nhin, gi thuyt ny cng vi cc gi thuyt tng t ca cc nh thin vn khc b Aristotle v Ptolemy bc b v ch bnh vc gi thuyt tri t l trung tm ca v tr. Nh c nhng ng vn c in, Copernicus bit nhng gi thuyt c xa y v rt c th nhng gi thuyt ny thc y ng ti ch xt li vn . Theo Copernicus hnh nh t 1800 nm trc Arstarchus a ra mt li gii thch v chuyn ng ca bu tri n gin hn thuyt ca Ptolemy nhiu. C l ngay t nm 1951 Copernicus vit mt bn tm tt v l thuyt mi ca ng. Nhan l Commentariolus (hay l Tiu lun). Quyn khng c n hnh trong khi tc gi cn sng nhng c mt s bn vit tay c lu hnh trong gii sinh vin khoa thin vn hc. Trong s nhng bn vit tay , nay cn li hai bn. Trong quyn Commentariolus Copernicus cho thy s d ng bt u kho cu v ng thy cc l thuyt ca Ptolemy v v tr va qu phc tp va qu v l, li khng a ra c nhng gii thch tha ng v cc hin tng ca bu tri. Kt qu chnh yu m Copernicus http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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pht hin thy l: qu t khng phi l trung tm ca thi dng h m ch l trung tm ca qu o mt trng, v cc hnh tinh khc u quay xung quanh Mt tri. Quyn Tiu lun th hin mt giai on dt khot trong s pht huy t tng ca nh a thin vn. Ai c th ng rng tc phm kit xut m Copernicus dng cng xy dng, ba mi nm tri vn cha c in thnh sch? Do tc phm rt c th b tht lc nu khng c nhng c gng ca mt hc gi tr tui ngi c. Ma h nm 1539, mt gio s 25 tui dy ton trng i hc Wittenberg ti Frauenburg thm Copernicus. l George Joachim Rheticus. Danh ting ang ln ca Copernicus cun ht Rheticus v ng ny tm n ct d xt xem danh ting kia c xc ng khng. ng tnh ch li vi tun l nhng ng c Copernicus n tip nng hu khin ng hn hai nm. Rheticus nhn thy ngay rng ch nh l mt thin ti vo bc nht. Trong ba thng ng nghin cu v bn ci v cc ti liu do Copernicus ghi chp. Sau Rheticus vit mt bn tm tt v t tng Copernicus v gi cho ng thy c ca mnh l Johann Schoner di hnh thc bc th. Bc th c in Dantzig nm 1540. Bi Narratio prima hay l Bn tm tt th nht ca Rheticus l bn vn u tin trnh by l thuyt lm rung chuyn a cu ca nh thin vn Ba Lan. Thc ra quyn sch nh y ch trnh by chi tit mt phn trong ton b l thuyt ca Copernicus: l s kho st v chuyn ng ca qu t. Tip theo Bn tm tt th nht Rheticus cn tnh cho ra thm nhng bn tm tt khc, nhng nhng bn tm tt sau u khng cn thit. Nim thn phc ca Rheticus i vi Copernicus bin thnh gn nh s tn sng v bc l ra trong vic ng tng Copernicus danh hiu Tin s Qun Th (Dominus Doctor) trong vn bn ca ng. Cho ti Copernicus vn kin quyt khng chu cho n hnh ton b cng trnh ca ng. ng vn cu ton v cho rng mi iu quan st thy u phi c thm tra nhiu ln. Nguyn bn vit tay tm thy c Praha vo gia th k 19 sau khi b tht lc 300 nm chng t rng bn vn c sa li t trn xung di su ln. Thm vo nhng ngn ngi ni trn, Copernicus c th cn b cn tr v Gio hi Thin Cha lc ngm ngm phn i. Cuc ci cch tn gio ca gio phi Tin lnh, s bng tnh tri thc ca thi Phc hng lm cho cc gii tn gio nghi ngi cc l thuyt c tnh cht http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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cch mng cng nh nhng t tng c th a ngi ta xa ri cc gio l chnh thng. Copernicus, mt gio s tin o mnh lit, tt nhin khng mun tr thnh k phn o cng khng mun hy sinh v mt l thuyt. Tuy nhin, cun Narratio prima (Bn tm tt th nht), c tip nhn nng hu. Rheticus v nhiu ngi khc yu cu n hnh ton vn tc phm. Cui cng Copernicus phi nhng b. Bn tho vit tay c giao ph cho Rheticus ng ny em v Nuemberg v trng nom vic n lot. Trc khi cng vic n hnh hon tt th Rheticus c ch nh lm gio s ti trng i hc Leibzig, v Andreas Osiander mt mc s Tin lnh c ch nh trng coi vic n lot. Hnh nh Osiander lo ngi trc nhng kin cp tin ca Copernicus. Khng xin php v m thm, ng t b phn gii thiu ca quyn mt. Thay vo ng vit bi ta ni rng: Quyn sch ch gm nhng gi thuyt c li cho cc nh thin vn; vic tri t quay khng phi l iu nht thit ng hay c th ng. Ni cch khc i, nhng iu vit trong quyn sch khng c g bo m chnh xc. Chc Osiander mun n trnh nhng li ch trch ca phe i lp, v nh Mizwa nhn mnh: C th l v tnh m Osiander gp phn ln lao vo vic bo ton cng trnh v i ny hn ng tng. V bi ta gi di v n ha v hi ca ng kho lo np di tn ca tc gi (gi cho ngi c nh c thuyt nu ra trong sch), nn Gio hi Thin Cha khng quan tm n tnh cht cch mng ca quyn De Revolutionibus (v s chuyn ng). Phi ti nm 1616 h mi kp nhn ra v ghi n vo bng sch cm. Trc khi vic n lot hon tt, Copernicus b bnh nng. Mt cu chuyn ng tin cy k li trong on bi thm nht rng, mt s gi ti Frauenburg, mang t Nuremberg bn in u tin cun sch kit tc ca Copernicus v ch kp t vo tay ng vi gi trc khi ng cht. Hm l ngy 24 thng 5 nm 1543. Quyn sch l De Revolutionibus Orbium Celestium ngha l v s vn ng ca cc thin th. Cng nh cc tc phm gio khoa hi , quyn sch c vit bng ting Latinh.
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Phn 42
[...] Va v khn ngoan va v x giao, Copernicus tng tc phm cho Gio hong Paul III. Qua li tng y, r rng Copernicus tin on mt s kh khn s gp phi [...]
Va v khn ngoan va v x giao, Copernicus tng tc phm cho Gio hong Paul III. Qua li tng y, r rng Copernicus tin on mt s kh khn s gp phi. Tu c Thnh Cha, con c th tin chc rng mt s ngi khi nghe ni n s xoay vn ca a cu trong nhng cun sch ny lp tc tuyn b y l nhng kin cn phi loi b. Lc ny, nhng gi thuyt ca chnh con cng cha lm cho con hon ton tha mn n khng quan tm n nhng li ngi khc c th ch trch. Khi con bt u ngh n d lun ca nhng ngi cng nhn qu t ng yn (nh quan nim ph bin t bao th k nay) i vi thuyt qu t quay ca con, con lng l rt lu khng bit c nn cng b nhng iu con vit chng minh s xoay vn ca qu t khng, hay tt hn l nn theo gng cc trit gia thuc nhm Pythagore ch bc li cc iu huyn b ca trit hc cho b con v bn b bng ni ming thi. Sau khi suy ngh k, con gn nh b thc y n ch xp li ton b tc phm vit, v con nhn thy trc s khinh b ca ngi i i vi tnh cht mi l v c v phi l ca n. Tuy nhin, cc bn b khuyn con b nh v bo con phi n hnh quyn sch con giu kn trong nh khng phi chn nm m ti bn ln ci chn nm . Khng thiu nhng nhn vt danh ting v c hc thc yu cu con n hnh quyn sch. H bo rng khng c g ng lo ngi m phi tr hon cng hin cng trnh ca con cho ch li chung ca ton hc... Con tin chc rng nhng ngi thng minh v hc rng s ng vi con nu h thnh tht c thin ch tm hiu v cn nhc cc bng chng con a ra trong quyn sch. Nhng c ngi thc gi ln ngi thng dn c th thy rng con khng s s ph phn ca ngi i, con mun tng quyn sch ny, kt qu nhng m di vt v ca con, cho c Thnh Cha hn l bt c ai. D l mt ngi trong mt x xa xi ca a cu, con vn coi c Thnh Cha l ngi v i nht v a v v tha thit nht vi khoa hc v ton hc. Do vy c Thnh Cha nh a v v nhn xt ca ngi, http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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c th loi b d dng li l ca nhng ngi xu ming, mc du tc ng c cu rng khng c thuc g cha c vt cn ca k ni xu. Cng c th c trng hp nhng bn c thi quen gim pha, li bing, dt ton s i quyn ch trch cng trnh ca con bng cch vin dn mt vi on trong Thnh Kinh m h vo trn bp mo theo h. Nu c k no dm liu lnh ch trch v t than phin v ch trng ca con, con s khng quan tm n, v con coi nhng phn on ca h l khng chn chn v ng khinh. Copernicus tm tt v tr quan ca ng my li sau y: Xa hn ht l vm hnh cu ca cc nh tinh n cha ng th v chnh v l do , khng chuyn ng. Thc ra l ci khung ca v tr m s chuyn ng v v tr ca cc v sao phi quy chiu vo. Tuy mt s ngi ngh rng n c th chuyn ng theo li no , chng ti vn gn mt l do khc cho iu ti sao n li xut hin nh vy trong thuyt ca chng ta v s chuyn ng ca tri t. Trong s cc hnh tinh, trc ht phi k sao Th, i trong ba mi nm mi ht mt vng. Sau l sao Mc vn chuyn mi hai nm mt vng. Th t trong s l hnh tinh quay mt nm mt vng m chng ti ni, l tri t vi qu o mt trng (lunar orbit) nh l mt vng ngoi. Th nm n sao Kim quay mt vng n chn thng. Sao Thy ng hng su i mt vng ht tm mi ngy. gia cc hnh tinh l mt tri. Tht ra gia ngi n p hn ht thy y, ai t c mt b uc vo bt c ch no khc hn l ni, t n c th soi sng ton th v cng mt lc?... Cho nn chng ti thy bn di s xp t c trt t y mt s cn i huyn diu trong v tr, v mt lin h r rt trong s chuyn ng v tm vc v i ca cc tinh cu. S cn i y v mi lin h n khp y thuc loi chng ta khng th c c bng bt c mt phng php no khc. My nt i qut v ni dung quyn De Revolutionibus cho ta thy phng php trnh by ca tc gi. Tip theo li tng Gio Hong Paul III v bi ta nh lc hng ca Osiander, tc phm c chia lm su quyn hay su phn chnh. Mi phn chia ra nhiu chng. Phn mt gm v tr quan ca Copernicus, nhng lp lun ng a ra bnh vc thuyt mt tri l trung tm ca Thi dng h, nim qu t quay quanh mt tri nh cc hnh tinh khc v s khc nhau gia cc ma trong nm. Nhiu chng cui phn ny trnh by v lng gic v nhng nguyn tc lng gic ny c Copernicus dng trong nhng phn sau. http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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Phn II bn v s chuyn ng ca cc thin th c o lng mt cch chnh xc v kt thc bng bng lit k cc tinh t, xc nh v tr chng trong bu tri. Bng lit k phn ln mn ca Ptolemy tuy c sa i i cht nh. Bn phn sau m t chi tit s chuyn ng ca tri t, mt trng v cc hnh tinh khc. Trong mi trng hp sau, phn gii thch s chuyn ng u km theo hnh v ng i ca hnh tinh y trn bu tri theo nhng tnh ton ca Copernicus. Mt trong nhng l l chnh yu chng li thuyt tri t xoay vn trc c Ptolemy a ra: tri t phi yn, nu khng th, bt c vt g bay trn khng gian nh, my tri, chim chc s b b li ng sau v mt vt tung vo trong khng gian khi ri xung s phi chch v pha ty rt xa. Nguy hi hn ht l nu a cu quay mt cch mau chng, kinh khng nh vy th n s sm tan thnh mun mnh v bay vo khng gian. Trc khi Galileo tm ra c hc v Newton tm ra lut hp dn th nhng lp lun ca Ptolemy qu l kh m ph nh. Copernicus tr li bng cch a ra kin rng khng kh quanh mt t b tri t li theo trong khi quay, v quan nim rng tri t quay ch khng phi c v tr quay nghe vn thun l, hn v nu tri t khng quay th bu tri phi quay c ngy v m. Nhng l l bo cha li cng thm mnh nh nhng suy lun mang tnh trit l: thin nhin khng t dit v Thng khng to dng nn v tr ri n li t dit n.
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Phn 43
[...] Gi thuyt mi m lt nho c tiu chun trit hc, nim tin tn gio ca thi tn ngng. Nu thuyt ca Copernicus m ng th con ngi s khng cn l trung tm v tr na; con ngi b x khi i danh vng v qu t ca loi ngi s ch cn l mt trong s nhng hnh tinh [...]
Vi Copernicus, mt tri ng yn mt ch v th ng gia cc tinh cu xung quanh, ging nh vai tr ca tri t theo quan nim ca Ptolemy. Vai tr ca mt tri ch l cung cp nh sng v sc nng. V tr c gii hn nht nh. Bn ngoi vm hnh cu ca cc v sao, theo Ptolemy, khng gian khng cn na. Quan nim v s v tn ca khng gian c l cng khng c Copernicus bit ti nh trng hp Ptolemy 1400 nm trc. Copernicus cng khng ra ngoi h thng vng ngoi ca Ptolemy. C mt tm im khc cho mi qu o v mt tri khng c t vo trung tm chnh xc ca bt c qu o hnh tinh no. l nhng im cha ng thuc h thng ca Copernicus, m cc nh thin vn lp sau phi sa cha li. Thuyt ca Copernicus c gii khoa hc ln qung i qun chng chp nhn chm chp. Tr vi trng hp ngoi l, d lun ng thi ni chung t ra chng i mnh lit. Theo mt chuyn k li th xng in n hnh quyn De Revolutionibus b m sinh vin i hc p ph: h ph hy bn in v c bn vit tay ca tc gi. Th nh in phi lm ro cn trc ca c th hon tt cng vic. Mt v hi kch ch diu Copernicus c gnh rong Elbing t ra. V kch m t nh thin vn tng bn linh hn cho qu Satan. Tuy nhin nguy him hn chnh l phn ng y uy quyn ca cc t chc thuc Gio hi. Gi thuyt mi m lt nho c tiu chun trit hc, nim tin tn gio ca thi tn ngng. Nu thuyt ca Copernicus m ng th con ngi s khng cn l trung tm v tr na; con ngi b x khi i danh vng v qu t ca loi ngi s ch cn l mt trong s nhng hnh tinh.
Stephen Hawking
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Nhng v Gio hi cn bn lo nhiu chuyn khc v c l mt phn v bi ta nhm nh lc hng ngi c ca Osiander, Gio hi Cng gio khng c thi ngay vi quyn sch ca Copernicus. Nng ny hn c l cc lnh t thuc phe Tin lnh - Martin Luther - trong nhiu trng hp gay gt cng kch Copernicus. ng nhc ti Copernicus nh mt nh thin vn mi m, mun chng minh rng qu t quay trn ch khng phi bu tri, mt tri v mt trng; ng y nh mt ngi ngi trn mt toa xe hay mt con tu ang di ng li tng rng y ang ngi yn v qu t v cy c ang chuyn ng vt qua mt y. M chnh l chuyn hm nay y. K no mun t ra ta y thng minh cn phi sn xut ra mt ci g ca chnh mnh, m sn phm y li b buc phi l ci tt p hn ht v y to ra n! Thng khng y s o ln tt c khoa thin vn. Nhng, nh Thnh Kinh dy: chnh mt tri ch khng phi l qu t m Joshua ra lch ngng li. Melanchthon, mn trung kin ca Luther, ch diu Copernicus th ny: Y chn mt tri ng li ri cho qu t quay. John Calvin cng hng hn buc ti Copernicus, nhc li bi thnh ca 93: Qu t c nh v, n khng th di chuyn i c v ng gin d hi: Ai dm c gan t uy quyn ca Copernicus trn Cha v Thnh Thn?. Mi ti nm 1615, Gio hi Cng gio mi c thi nghim khc chng li quyn De Revolutionibus. V hnh ng ca Gio hi lc l chng li nhng ngi bnh vc thuyt ca Copernicus nh trong v n Galileo v Bruno. Nhng l thuyt ca Copernicus c loi b nh sau: iu th nht cho rng mt tri l trung tm v khng quay quanh qu t l in r, l phi l, l sai lm i vi khoa thn hc, l phn o v r rng tri vi Kinh Thnh. iu th hai cho rng qu t quay chung quanh mt tri v khng l trung tm v tr l phi l, tri vi trit hc v theo quan im thn hc th tri vi c Tin chn chnh. Nm sau, nm 1616, tc phm ca Copernicus b lit vo hng sch cm cho n khi c quyt nh khc. Cng lc , mi sch v qu quyt rng qu t quay u b kt n. Cho ti hai th k sau; tn tui Copernicus vn cn nm trong bng cm. V bn n ch c hy b vo nm 1835. S phn ca Galileo v Bruno lm s hi nhng ai dm theo thuyt Copernicus. Giordano Bruno, mt ngi nhit thnh tin theo Copernicus i xa hn c ng ny bng cch nu thuyt khng gian v tn, v mt tri vi cc hnh tinh ca n ch l mt h trong nhiu tinh h tng
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t. Bruno cn i xa hn na vi kin l c th nhiu th gii khc cng c ngi, v h l nhng sinh vt vn minh bng hay cao hn chng ta. V nhng li l phm thng y, Bruno b a ra Ta n Tn gio, kt n v b a ln gin ha thiu vo thng 2 nm 1600. Ch c cch x vi Galileo, mt nh i thin vn ngi Italia, l bt quyt lit hn. Nm 1633 v Ta n Tn gio e da tra tn v x t, ng phi qu gi tuyn th t b mi tin tng vo cc thuyt ca Copernicus, v sau ng b t chung thn. Cc nh thn hc Cng gio v Tin lnh cng nh cc trit gia v nh khoa hc u nghi ngi, khng chp nhn thuyt ca Copernicus. Nh Francis Bacon, mt trong nhng ng t ca phng php khoa hc hin i chng li quan nim qu t quay trn mt ci trc v cn chy xung quanh mt tri v thnh mt qu o. Mt thi gian di sau khi cun De Revolutionibus i, a v ca Aristotle v Ptolemy trong cc trng i hc chu u vn khng . Hin nay, nh Stebbins nhn mnh S chm chp trong vic chp nhn thuyt Copernicus l iu c bit trong mi quc gia. M, thuyt ca Ptolemy v ca Copernicus c em ra dy song song ti Harvard v c ti Yale.
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Phn 44
[...] Vic n hnh kit tc ca Copernicus nh du bc ngot v cng quan trng ca t tng nhn loi, to ra mt trng hp in hnh v chn l ca khoa hc trong cng cuc gii phng s hiu bit ca nhn loi, v lm sng t s nhn nh v vic chin thng s ngu dt v lng chp n trong tng lai [...]
Tuy nhin, dn dn v tng bc mt, thuyt ca Copernicus c chp nhn. S tip tc tm ti ca cc nh khoa hc ni danh nh Giordano Bruno, Tycho Brahe, Johann Kepler, Galileo Galilei v Isaac Newton hng my chc nm sau tm ra nhng bng chng ln lao v khng th chi ci. Nhng li lm trong thuyt ca Copernicus c cc v hay cc nh kho cu xa b, nh h c nhng dng c quan st hon ho hn v cng v mi ngi u c th da vo kinh nghim ngi i trc. Nh thin vn v i tip lin Copernicus l mt ngi an Mch, ng Tycho Brahe. Tycho khng cng nhn thuyt qu t quay chung quanh mt tri, nhng vi nhng dng c tuyt ho do nh vua an Mch tng, ng c th quan st v tnh ton v thin vn chnh xc hn Copernicus rt nhiu. Da vo cc d kin , vin ph t ngi c ca ng l Jahann Kepler sau khi Tycho cht, c th nu ln ba nh lut ni ting. a. Cc hnh tinh chy theo hnh bu dc, ch khng theo hnh trn, vi mt tri lm tiu im. b. Tri t v cc hnh tinh khc quanh xung quanh mt tri theo qu o hnh bu dc nhng tc khng quay u nhau, m hnh tinh no gn mt tri hn th quay mau hn. c. Khong cch gia mt hnh tinh v mt tri t l vi khong thi gian chuyn ng ca n quanh mt tri. Galileo l nh quan st u tin s dng knh vin vng trong ngnh thin vn, v nhng khm ph qua knh vin vng ca ng lm cho thuyt ca Copernicus thm vng chc. Galileo to dng nn mng cho mt khoa hc mi khi a ra nhng nguyn tc c bn v ng lc, khoa hc ca chuyn http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
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ng. Bng chng cui cng khng nh gi tr thuyt ca Copernicus do Isaac Newton a ra vi s pht minh ca ng v lut hp dn v s hnh thnh nhng lut v s chuyn ng ca cc hnh tinh. V mt vi b mt cn li ca v tr c Einstein khm ph vo th k 20 thuyt tng i. Da vo v s nhng iu chnh do cc nh khoa hc thuc v th k sau mang li, mt cu hi thng c t ra mt cch hp l: Thuyt ca Copernicus c ng khng? Khng th chi ci l thuyt ca Copernicus cn thiu st v sai lm trn nhiu phng din. Quan nim ca ng cho rng cc thin th chuyn ng theo hnh trn l sai; ngc li chng chuyn ng theo hnh bu dc. Quan nim ca Copernicus cho rng v tr c ranh gii nht nh i ngc li vi thuyt hin i v s lng v bin ca cc thi dng h. Trong nhiu chi tit khc, nhng nguyn tc do Copernicus nu ln bn th k trc cng khng hon ton ph hp vi s hiu bit hin nay ca con ngi. Nhng trong nhng nt chnh nh vic coi mt tri l trung tm ca h thng hnh tinh, Copernicus khm ph ra chn l c bn v c cng t nn mng cho khoa thin vn hin i. Sau ht, a v ca Copernicus trong lch s khoa hc c khng nh. nh hng ca ng i vi ngi ng thi v cc th h tr thc v sau lm cho vai tr ca ng ni bt nh Goethe vit: Trong tt c cc pht kin cng nh cc quan nim, khng ci no nh hng ln lao n tinh thn nhn loi bng thuyt ca Copernicus. Ngi ta kh lng m cho rng qu t trn v t n quay trn mnh n, khi b i hi phi t b c quyn v i coi n l trung tm ca v tr. C l khng bao gi nhn loi phi chp nhn mt i hi ln lao hn th, v cng nhn nh th tc l tiu hy bit bao thc ti thnh tro bi! Ri cn thin ng ca chng ta, ci th gii ca hn nhin, o c v ca thi ca, tnh cch hin nhin ca gic quan; lng tin tng mt tn ngng th mng, tt c nhng iu s ra sao? Khng c g l nu ngi ng thi khng mun cho thuyt c ph bin v khng l g khi h a ra mi lp lun chng li thuyt , mt thuyt v tnh cch mng ca n, khng nh v i hi mt nht nh khong t, mt t tng cao thm ngoi sc tng tng ca chng ta.
Stephen Hawking
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Sau cng xin ni n li ph phn ca ba nh khoa hc ni danh Hoa K hin cn sng. ng Vannevar Bush vit: Vic n hnh kit tc ca Copernicus nh du bc ngot v cng quan trng ca t tng nhn loi, to ra mt trng hp in hnh v chn l ca khoa hc trong cng cuc gii phng s hiu bit ca nhn loi, v lm sng t s nhn nh v vic chin thng s ngu dt v lng chp n trong tng lai. ng Harold C. Urey, ngi tng ot gii Nobel, qu quyt: Tt c nhng danh t v i u khng m t gi tr cng trnh ca Nicolaus Copernicus. ng dt khot t b mt quan nim v h thng mt tri ng vng c ngn nm a ra mt quan nim hon ton mi v tng quan gia cc hnh tinh vi mt tri. Lm nh th ng m u cho ton b phng php hin i v khoa hc v sa i li suy t ca ta trong mi giai on ca i sng con ngi. Sau cng, y l kin ca Harlan True Steson, mt nh thin vn ni ting: Tht l lng tng khi phi kim li bn danh sch di v cc chn l tng gp phn vo s tin b ca khoa hc trong lch s th gii, la ra mt thiu s chn l ni bt nht. Tuy nhin, nu bt buc phi la chn ba tn tui th ti khng ngn ngi ni ngay: Copernicus, Newton v Darwin. Ba tn tui c nhng c tnh chung khng th tch ri khi s chin thng ca tin b khoa hc. Nhng c tnh l tr tng tng, lng can m ca thin ti v mt nt c o biu l kh nng phi thng ca tr thng minh. Trong ba ngi, sau khi cn nhc cn thn, ti tin rng vinh quang ln nht phi thuc v Copernicus, ngi v i nht, v chnh ng t nn mng cho khoa thin vn hin i. Khng c nhng nn mng , Newton khng th xy dng nh lut v trng lc. Copernicus m u cho mt cuc cch mng v t duy, thch thc li t duy chnh thng tng thng tr trc khi thuyt tin ha to c th ng trong thc h ca chng ta.
LC S THI GIAN
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Phn 45
[...] Trong s nhng cun sch gy nh hng su rng n cuc sng, c l him c cun no ni ting nhng li c t c gi bng tp Nguyn tc ton hc trong vn vt hc (Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica) ca Isaac Newton... [...]
V tr h Isaac Newton v tc phm nguyn tc ton hc Trong s nhng cun sch gy nh hng su rng n cuc sng, c l him c cun no ni ting nhng li c t c gi bng tp Nguyn tc ton hc trong vn vt hc (Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica) ca Isaac Newton. Sch vit bng c ng Latinh, km thm nhng hnh k h chng cht, Newton c tnh vit n tht kh hiu, dng ton nhng li l chuyn mn tru tng. Ch nhng bc hc trong cc ngnh thin vn, ton v vt l rt thng thi mi c th c ni sch ca ng. Mt nh vit s Newton k li rng: Khi cun sch Nguyn tc ton hc xut bn vo cui th k 17, ch c ba hay bn ngi ng thi c th hiu ni. Mt nh vit tiu s khc nng con s ln mi hay mi hai ngi l cng. Newton cng nhn nhn sch ca ng rt kh c; c iu l ng mun vy, nhng ngi c trnh ton hc tht cao mi c th hiu c sch ca ng. Tuy nhin, cc nh khoa hc ni ting u coi Newton l mt nh bc hc v i ca mi thi i. Laplace nh thin vn hc tr danh Php gi Nguyn tc ton hc vt ln trn mi tc phm khc ca thin ti nhn loi. Lagrange, nh ton hc lng danh nhn nhn Newton l mt thin ti v i cha tng thy. Boltzann, nh khai sng ra khoa hc vt l ton hc hin i gi cun sch Nguyn tc ton hc l tc phm u tin v v i nht v mn vt l l thuyt. Nh thin vn li lc M W.W. Campbell nhn xt: i vi ti, khng nhng Isaac Newton l mt v nhn ca khoa vt l hc m cn l ngi c nht khai ph ra khoa vt l thin vn hc. Vit v Newton, nhng nh khoa hc c phch trong gn ba th k va qua u ng : Newton l nh khoa hc siu vit bc nht, nhng ngi khng thuc gii khoa hc ch c th bit c kt qu c th do hc thuyt Newton, v tin tng nhng li nhn xt trn.
Stephen Hawking
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Newton ra i gn ng mt th k sau khi Copernicus t th, v ng vo nhng nm Galileo t trn. Hai bc v nhn trong khoa thin vn hc cng vi Johannes Kepler t nn mng sau ny Newton tip tc xy dng s nghip. Newton l nh ton hc thin ti, sinh trong thi i c nhiu nh ton hc ni ting. Marvin nhn nh rng: Th k 17 l th k ton hc tr hoa, cng nh th k 18 l th k ca ho hc, th k 19, sinh vt hc. Khoa hc trong na sau th k 17 tin c nhng bc di hn mi thi k khc. Newton bao qut c cc ngnh chnh ca khoa vt l nh: ton hc, ha hc, vt l hc v thin vn hc, v trong th k 17, ngha l trc khi khoa hc chia ra nhiu ngnh chuyn mn, mt nh khoa hc c th cng mt lc bao qut nhiu ngnh khoa hc. Newton sinh ng ngy l Ging sinh nm 1642. Thiu thi ng c chng kin s thng trm ca Chnh ph lin hip Oliver Cromwell, trn ha hon tn ph hu ht thnh ph London v nn dch hch st hi mt phn ba dn s thnh ph ny. Sau 18 nm sng trong mt xm nh Woolsthorpe, Newton c gi theo hc trng i hc Cambridge. y Newton may mn c theo hc mt gio s ton hc c ti tn l Isaac Barrow, ngi c gi l cha tinh thn ca Newton, Barrow bit l khuyn khch thin ti Newton. V ngay khi cn trng, Newton khm ph ra nh l nh thc. Trng i hc Cambridge phi ng ca nm 1665 v nn dch hch, Newton li tr v qu. Trong hai nm lin sng cch bit hn vi th gii bn ngoi, Newton dnh ht th gi suy t v nghin cu khoa hc. Kt qu tht l siu phm: cha y 25 tui, Newton thc hin c ba pht minh khin ng nghim nhin tr nn ngang hng vi cc thin ti khoa hc ca mi thi i. Trc ht Newton pht minh ra khoa ton hc vi phn dng tnh nhng s lng chuyn bin nh s vn ng ca cc vt th, ca ln sng v gii nhng bi ton vt l c lin quan ti mi s chuyn ng Ton hc vi phn c th ni m c ca kho tng bu vt ton hc, t th gii ton hc di chn Newton v cc hc tr ca ng. Khm ph quan trng th hai ca Newton l nh lut v thnh phn nh sng v t ng phn tch c bn cht ca mu sc v bn cht ca nh sng trng. Newton chng minh rng: nh sng trng ca mt tri gm c nhng tia sng mu m ta thng thy cu vng. Nh vy mu sc l bn http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
LC S THI GIAN
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cht ca nh sng, v nh sng trng - nhng th nghim bng lng knh ca Newton chng minh - l do s trn ln tt c cc mu sc ca quang ph. T khm ph ny, Newton tin n vic ch to kiu vin knh phn chiu u tin, c th em ra s dng mt cch c hiu qu. Khm ph th ba c l l khm ph v i nht ca Newton, l nh lut vn vt hp dn. Khm ph ny kch ng tr tng tng ca cc nh khoa hc, mnh lit hn mi khm ph v l thuyt khc trong thi k cn i. Theo mt giai thoi ai cng bit th Newton gic ng ri tm ra nh lut hp dn khi ng quan st qu to ri. S tht th chuyn tri t ht nhng vt gn khng c g mi l. Nhng iu mi l l Newton m rng nhn xt p dng i vi vn vt, t tri t cc hnh tinh v chng minh c thuyt ca ng bng ton hc. iu ng ngc nhin l Newton khng h cng b g v ba pht minh cc k quan trng ca ng v ton hc vi phn, mu sc v nh lut hp dn. Bn tnh rt d dt kn o, ng khng thch ting tm, khng thch tranh lun, v c mun xp x nhng pht minh ca ng. Nhng g ng cng b sau ny u do bn b thc p, nhng cng b song ng li hi hn v trt mm yu nghe li h. ng ngh rng cng b s khin cho ngi ta ph bnh, ri t ph bnh i ti tranh lun, iu m Newton vi bm tnh nhy cm rt ly lm kh tm. Sau nhng nm sng n dt v nhn h bt c d v bnh dch hch tn st London, Newton li tr li Cambridge. Tt nghip i hc xong, ng c c lm gio s trng Trinity. t lu sau, cu gio s ca Newton l Barrow t chc, Newton khi mi 27 tui c b nhim lm gio s ton hc, mt chc v ng gi trong hai mi by nm lin. Mi hay mi hai nm tip theo, ngi ta bit rt t v nhng hot ng ca Newton. Ch bit ng tip tc nghin cu v nh sng v cng b khm ph ca ng v thnh phn ca nh sng trng. Lp tc ng b li cun vo mt cuc tranh lun v l nhng kt lun ca ng v nh sng tri ngc hn vi quan nim ng thi, v v trong tp ti liu cng b, ng trnh by quan nim trit l ca ng v khoa hc. ng ch trng rng: nhim v chnh yu ca khoa hc l tin hnh nhng cuc th nghim, ghi nhn nhng kt qu ca th nghim, v sau ht l rt ra nhng nh lut ton hc cn c vo kt qu nhng th nghim . ng vit: Phng php thch ng nht nghin cu c tnh ca s vt l suy lun xut pht t nhng cuc th nghim. Nhng nguyn tc ny hon ton ph hp vi phng php nghin cu khoa hc hin i, nhng trong thi Newton li khng c chp nhn. Thi , chu nh http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
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hng trit hc c, cc hc gi thng hay tin tr tng tng, l tr, b ngoi ca s vt nhiu hn l tin s th nghim. Cc nh khoa hc c ting tm nh Huygens v Hooke cng ln ting kch Newton khin ng bc dc v quyt nh t nay v sau s khng cng b g na. ng vit: Ti b kh s v nhng cuc tranh lun v l thuyt quang hc n ni ti phi hi hn ti sao li t b np sng yn vui ca ti chy theo mt ci bng. Khng nhng vy, ng cn t ra chn ngy c khoa hc v ni ng mt ht lng nhit thnh trc kia i vi khoa hc. Sau ny v nhiu bn b khuyn khch v quy ry nn ng mi vit tp sch v i: Nguyn tc ton hc, mt tp sch c thnh hnh ch v mt s ngu nhin. V nm 1684, qua nhng con tnh ca Picard, ln u tin ngi ta o c chnh xc chu vi tri t. Da vo nhng kt qu ca nh thin vn hc Php, Newton p dng nguyn tc lc hp dn chng minh rng: S d mt trng xoay quanh tri t v cc hnh tinh xoay quanh mt tri u l v lc hp dn (sc ht). Lc hp dn ny thay i theo khi lng vt th b ht v thay i nghch vi bnh phng ca khong cch. Newton chng minh rng chnh nh lut gii thch hnh bu dc ca qu o cc hnh tinh, lc hp dn gi vng c mt trng v cc hnh tinh trong qu o v cn bng c vi lc ly tm ca cc hnh tinh khi quay to ra.
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Phn 46
[...] ''...Thot u ti dng ngn ng ph thng nhiu ngi c th hiu. Nhng v sau ngh li, ti vit phn ny bng nhng cng thc ton hc.... S d ti vit kh khn nh vy, nhng ai c nm vng nhng nguyn tc th mi c lng c tm quan trng ca n, v do mi gt b c nhng nh kin v v tr m h quen thuc t trc...''[...]
Mt ln na Newton li khng mun cng b pht minh ca ng v s b mt ln nht ca v tr. Tuy nhin ng thi cng c nhiu nh khoa hc n lc tm kim gii p cho nhng cu hi v s chuyn ng trong thi dng h. Nhiu nh thin vn hc cho rng: cc hnh tinh chy theo mt tri l v lc hp dn, trong s c Robert Hooke xa nay chuyn mn kch Newton rt d di. Tuy vy vn khng c v no chng minh c l thuyt ca mnh bng ton hc. Vo giai on ny, Newton tr nn nh ton hc ni ting, v nh thin vn hc Edmund Halley trnh by bi ton xong, ti thm ng Cambridge, yu cu ng gip . Khi y Halley mi v l ra rng t hai nm v trc Newton gii p c bi ton ny ri. Hn na Newton cn tm ra nhng nh lut v s chuyn ng ca cc vt th chu s chi phi ca lc hp dn. y vy m Newton khng h c nh cng b nhng pht minh ca ng. Halley thy ngay tm quan trng nhng pht minh ca Newton v ng ht lng thuyt phc Newton phi khai trin trn bnh din l thuyt. Phn v nhit tnh ca Halley, phn v ng li cm thy hng khi vi khoa hc, Newton khi cng vit tp Nguyn tc ton hc m Langer gi l: Mt kho bu ca khoa hc, mt tc phm mi l nht t xa n nay. iu ly k l Newton ch mt c mi tm thng vit xong b Nguyn tc ton hc. Trong thi gian , qu say sa vo b sch n ni ng qun n, qun ng. Ch c mt b c siu phm, c sc lm vic siu phm mi c th hon tt mt cng trnh v i nh b Nguyn tc ton hc trong mt thi gian ngn ngi nh vy. Vit xong b sch Newton gn nh kit sc v c vt cht ln tinh thn. Trong thi gian vit b Nguyn tc ton hc, Newton cn b quy ry v nhng cuc tranh lun thng xuyn, nht l nhng cuc tranh lun vi Hooke, ngi t cho chnh ng ta mi l ngi tm ra thuyt chuyn ng http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
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ca hnh tinh, c th gii thch bng lut hp dn bnh thng i nghch. Bc mnh v nhng li vu co , Newton chn nn khng vit tip b sch Nguyn tc ton hc m ng vit xong c hai phn ba. Mt ln na Halley li phi van ni Newton vit tip phn cn li, v l phn quan trng nht ca b sch. Trong lch s b Nguyn tc ton hc ngi ta khng th khng nhc n vai tr ca Edmund Halley. Khng nhng ng khuyn khch, thc y Newton lm vic, m ng cn vn ng Hi khoa hc Hong gia xut bn b sch, v chnh ng b ri mi vic ring trng nom cng vic n lot. V sau Hi khoa hc Hong gia li t chi ti tr v Halley phi b tin ti ra chi cho vic xut bn, d ng khng giu c g v c c mt gia nh phi nui dng. Nm 1687, sau khng bit bao nhiu tr ngi, cun sch Nguyn tc ton hc in xong, kh nh, bn 10 hay 12 shillings mt cun. Trang in nhan sch c ghi: giy php xut bn ca Samuel Pepys, Ch tch Hi khoa hc Hong gia. C ngi nhn xt rng: rt c th Pepys khng hiu mt cu no trong sch ca Newton. Tm lc sch Nguyn tc ton hc bng nhng li l thng thng l vic kh khn nu khng ni l khng th lm c. Tuy nhin y chng ta c th ghi ra my im chnh yu ca b sch. Trong Nguyn tc ton hc Newton cp n s chuyn ng ca cc vt th trn bnh din ton hc, nht l s p dng ng lc hc v lut vn vt hp dn vo h thng mt tri. Khi u, Newton trnh by php ton hc vi phn, mt pht minh c dng lm phng tin tnh ton trong ton th b sch. K Newton nh ngha v khng gian, thi gian, trnh by nhng nh lut v s chuyn ng v cc ng dng. Nguyn tc c bn l: mi vt th u ht ln nhau vi mt lc nghch vi bnh phng khong cch. Ngoi ra Newton cn a ra cc nh lut v s va chm cc vt th. Newton dng nhng hnh k h c in trnh by cc thuyt vt l ca ng. Quyn u tin ca b sch Nguyn tc ton hc, cp n s chuyn ng cc vt th trong khng gian. Phn th hai ca quyn ny cp n s chuyn ng trong mi trng tr lc, th d nh chuyn ng di nc. Trong phn cui Newton cp n s chuyn ng phc tp ca th lng v nhng bi ton v s chuyn ng ny u c gii p. Ngoi ra Newton c tnh cc tc ca m thanh v din t bng ton hc s chuyn
LC S THI GIAN
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ng ca ln sng. Quyn mt ny l nn tng ca khoa hc vt l ton hc, khoa thy tnh hc v thy ng hc ngy nay. Quyn th hai Newton ph v tr h ca Descartes ang thnh hnh. Theo thuyt ca Descartes nhng chuyn ng ca cc vt th trong khng trung u l do cn lc m ra. Tt c khng gian u trn ngp mt cht lng v nhiu ni nhng cht ny quay cung thnh bo lc. H thng mt tri gm 14 trung tm bo lc, trong trung tm ln c mt tri. Cc hnh tinh u ch l nhng vt th b cun theo cn bo lc nh nhng ming g nh trong xoy nc. Descartes dng thuyt bo lc ny gii thch hin tng hp dn trong v tr. Tri vi Descartes, Newton chng minh bng thc nghim v bng ton hc rng: Thuyt bo lc hon ton mu thun vi nhng s kin thin vn v khng gii thch ni s chuyn ng ca cc vt th trong khng gian. Quyn th ba c l: V tr h y l phn quan trng nht trong cng trnh ca Newton. Trong phn ny Newton cp n nhng h qu thin vn hc ca nh lut hp dn, ng vit: Trong nhng quyn trc ti xc nh nhng nguyn tc ca khoa hc, nhng nguyn tc khng phi l trit l m l ton hc... Nhng nguyn tc l nhng nh lut v iu kin ca mt s nhng chuyn ng, nhng nng lc...Ti chng minh nguyn tc nhiu on...vi...s gii thch rng: y l nhng s kin thng thng trong to vt... nh l trng lng v sc cn ca nh sng, ca m thanh. By gi, cng t nhng nguyn tc ti trnh by v tr h. Gii thch ti sao ng khng ph thng ha thuyt ca mnh, Newton vit: Phn th ba ny, thot u ti dng ngn ng ph thng nhiu ngi c th hiu. Nhng v sau ngh li, ti vit phn ny bng nhng cng thc ton hc v ch nhng ngi no nm vng cc nguyn tc trnh by nhng quyn trc mi hiu c. S d ti vit kh khn nh vy, nhng ai c nm vng nhng nguyn tc th mi c lng c tm quan trng ca n, v do mi gt b c nhng nh kin v v tr m h quen thuc t trc. Ti khng khuyn mi ngi phi nghin cu nhng nguyn tc ti ra, v ngay nhng c gi c trnh ton hc cao cng phi mt nhiu cng phu mi hiu c. V nhng l , c ngi gi cun Nguyn tc ton hc c ging vn xa vi, lnh but, ging vn ca mt gio ch ni m ni. http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
196
on m u, Newton trnh by kin mang tnh cch mng rng: nhng hin tng trn mt t cng khng khc g nhng hin tng trong khng gian. Nhng nguyn nhn nh nhau cho kt qu nh nhau, loi ngi v loi vt cng th nh nhau, ri chu u hay chu M th cng th, nh sng bp la khng khc g nh sng mt tri, s phn chiu nh sng trn mt t cng tng t nh cc hnh tinh. Vi li xc nh ny Newton ph quan nim c truyn cho rng ch c tri t l xu xa cn cc th gii khc u hon m c. Mac Muray bnh lun: Nhng nh lut duy l em li trt t v do lm sng sa nhng chn xa nay vn c coi l hn mang v b mt.
LC S THI GIAN
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Phn 47
[...] Chnh Newton cng nhn nhn rng: v tr h ca ng ch l tip tc cng trnh khi u t Corpernicus c Tycho Brahe, Kepler v Galileo pht trin thm. ng vit: nu ti nhn c xa hn nhng ngi khc, y l v ti ng trn vai cc v nhn [...]
Quyn th ba ca b Nguyn tc ton hc cp n v s vn . Newton khng nh s chuyn ng ca cc hnh tinh v cc v tinh, trnh by phng php o khi lng ca mt tri v cc hnh tinh, tnh t trng ca tri t, tnh sai bit v nm, trnh by l thuyt v thu triu, v qu o ca sao chi, s chuyn ng ca mt trng v nhng vn tng t. Trong l thuyt v nhng s xo trn trong khng gian, Newton chng minh: mt trng chu sc ht ca c tri t ln mt tri, do qu o ca mt trng b sc ht ca mt tri xo trn mc d sc ht ca tri t mnh hn. Cc hnh tinh khc cng b xo trn tng t. Mt tri khng phi trung tm ng yn mt ch ca v tr nh mi ngi u tin tng t trc ti nay. Mt tri cng chu sc ht ca cc hnh tinh cng nh hnh tinh chu sc ht ca mt tri, v cng chuyn ng nh cc hnh tinh. Sau ny v p dng thuyt xo trn trong khng gian nn ngi ta khm ph ra c hai hnh tinh na: Hi vng v Dim vng. Newton tnh khi lng ca cc hnh tinh v mt tri tng i vi khi lng tri t. ng c lng t trng ca tri t gp nm hay su ln t trng ca nc (con s ca cc nh khoa hc ngy nay l 5,5) v da vo c lng ny Newton tnh khi lng ca mt tri, cc hnh tinh v v tinh, Adam Smith gi nhng con tnh ny ca Newton l vt ln trn tm l tr v kinh nghim ca con ngi. Sau Newton gii thch s d tri t dp hai u v tri t quay trn mnh n, v ng tnh c tri t dp u l bao nhiu. Cn c vo tri t dp hai u v hi phnh ra khong xch o, Newton suy din ra rng: sc ht xch o mnh hn hai u - chnh hin tng ny gii thch c b mt sai bit v nin lch, gii thch c s chuyn ng hnh nn ca trc tri t ging nh con quay. Hn na nghin cu nghin cu hnh th ca mt t, Newton cn p dng nh lut vn vt hp dn gii thch hin tng thu triu ln xung. Khi trng trn, nc trn mt t chu sc ht
Stephen Hawking
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mnh nht, do thu triu dng cao. n khi sc ht ca c mt tri v mt trng cng tc ng th thu triu dng ln cao nht. Mt hin tng khc rt thng thy cng c Newton gii thch, l hin tng sao chi, Newton gii thch rng: chuyn ng di sc ht ca mt tri, sao chi bay theo mt hnh bu dc v cng rng ln v phi mt nhiu nm mi bay c mt vng. Gii thch nh vy, sao chi khng cn l im g theo cch m tn d oan, m l mt hin tng thin vn ngon mc v v hi. Cn c vo thuyt ca Newton v sao chi, Edmund Halley c th nhn r v tin on ng s xut hin c 75 nm mt ln ca ngi sao chi c gi l Sao chi Halley. Sao chi mt khi quan st c, ngi ta c th tin on bc ng tng li ca n. Mt k cng na ca Newton l ng khm ph ra c phng php o khong cch mt nh tinh, cn c vo s lng nh sng nhn c t mt hnh tinh do s phn chiu ca nh sng mt tri. Trong sch Nguyn tc ton hc Newton khng h tr li cu hi: ti sao trong v tr, m ch tr li cu hi: th no trong v tr? Sau ny c d lun ln n quan nim ca ng v v tr c tnh cht thun tu my mc v khng tha nhn phn sng to th gian ca Cha, nn Newton phi vit thm li tuyn ngn v tn ngng. Trong k ti bn ln th hai, ng vit: C mt h thng hng v v v cng ngon mc gm mt tri, hnh tinh v sao chi ch c th xut pht t mt ng ton tr, ton nng... Ging nh ngi m, khng bit g n mu sc, chng ta cng khng th bit c Thng nhn thc cc s vt ra sao. Newton tin tng rng: s mng ca khoa hc l tm hiu, v hiu bit cng su rng chng ta cng tin gn c ci l khi u ca s vt, d rng chng ta khng th khm ph ra nhng nh lut Khi thu ca to vt. Nguyn tc ton hc ca Newton l b sch v i, tuy nhin nhng nh khoa hc hm m Newton nht cng u nhn nhn rng tc phm khng phi l v tin. Cohen vit: Thnh cng ln ca Newton s d c c nh nhng cng trnh ca cc nh khoa hc tin bi. Ngy trc Newton, Descartes v Fernat pht minh ra khoa hnh hc gii tch, Oughtred, Harriot v Wallis pht trin mn i s, Kepler tm ra nh lut v chuyn ng, Galileo tm ra nh lut v tc v xc nh rng: mt s chuyn ng c th chia ra nhiu thnh http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
LC S THI GIAN
199
phn c lp (th d nh tri n bay gm c mt tc tin u v pha trc v mt tc ri xung tng dn nh kiu mt vt nng ri xung vy). Nhng cng trnh va k ca cc nh bc hc ch l nhng yu t chun b cho khi c v i ca Newton thc hin mt s tng hp chng minh mnh dt khot rng: v tr chuyn vn theo cc nh lut ton hc. Vit v Newton, Jean cng nhn nhn rng: Thi th gii ang cn mt ngi c kh nng h thng ho, tng hp v trin khai nhng cng trnh ton hc c tnh ton th, v ngi l thin ti Newton. Chnh Newton cng nhn nhn rng: v tr h ca ng ch l tip tc cng trnh khi u t Corpernicus c Tycho Brahe, Kepler v Galileo pht trin thm. ng vit: nu ti nhn c xa hn nhng ngi khc, y l v ti ng trn vai cc v nhn. Tt c nhng cuc tranh lun din ra trong thi Newton l v thi s hot ng khoa hc rt si ni. Cc l thuyt mi ua nhau ra i, m ng cho nhng cng cuc nghin cu ca cc nh khoa hc ti nng. Ngi ta khng ly lm l c hai nh khoa hc mi ngi mt ni m ng thi c nhng khm ph nh nhau. l trng hp xy ra trong cuc tranh lun gia Newton vi Leibniz v vi Hooke, ra thuyt vn vt hp dn. Tuy thnh cng mun hn Newton, nhng Leibniz v Hooke cng b cng trnh trc Newton, v Newton vn khng thch s ph trng. Nc Anh v Scotland tip nhn sch Nguyn tc ton hc ca Newton nng nhit hn lc a chu u, v khp mi ni sch ph bin rt chm chp. ng nh Newton ni trc, mun hiu t tng ca ng phi c trnh ton hc rt cao. Tuy nhin ngay nhng ngi ch hiu i khi cng phi nhn nhn gi tr v i cng trnh ca Newton. Dn dn, cc nh khoa hc khp th gii u chp nhn h thng ca Newton v n th k 18 h thng ca Newton chim c ch ng vng chi trong th gii khoa hc. Vit v cho xut bn xong sch Nguyn tc ton hc Newton cn sng hn bn chc nm na, nhng hnh nh ng mt gn ht s hng th i vi cng cuc nghin cu khoa hc. Trong thi gian ny Newton c c lm Vin trng Vin sng ch, c N hong Anne phong tc, c bu lm Ch tch Hi khoa hc Hong gia Anh t nm 1703 n nm 1727 l nm
Stephen Hawking
200
ng t th, c chng kin sch Nguyn tc ton hc ti bn ln th hai ri ln th ba v c ngi i tn sng v trng vng. Nhng khm ph khoa hc trong th k hai mi chng t cng trnh ca Newton c nhiu thiu st v phi sa i li, nht l trong lnh vc thin vn hc. Th d, Einstein trong thuyt tng i chng minh rng: khng gian v thi gian khng phi l tuyt i theo nh quan nim ca Newton. Tuy nhin nhiu nh khoa hc v k thut nhn xt rng: nhng hin tng thng thy nh cch b cc ca nhng nh trc tri, s an ton ca vm cu xe ho, s chuyn ng ca xe hi, my bay, tu thu vt i dng, cch o thi gian v nhiu thc hin khc ca nn vn minh c kh, u bt ngun t nhng nh lut do Newton khm ph ra. James Jeans nhn nh rng: "Nhng nguyn tc ca Newton ch lc hu i vi mt phn ht sc nh ca khoa hc hin i. Khi cc nh thin vn hc mun vit nhng bi thng thng v vn hng khng hay mun tho lun v s chuyn ng ca cc hnh tinh, h ch cn s dng nhng l thuyt ca Newton. Cc k s xy cu, ng tu thu, u my xe ho vn s dng nhng kin thc xa, v nh th l thuyt ca Newton khng cn g thay i. Trng hp k s in sa cha my in thoi hay v thit k nh my pht in cng tng t. Khoa hc ng dng trong cuc sng hng ngy vn hon ton l khoa hc cn c vo cng trnh ca Newton. Chnh khi c siu vit ca ng a khoa hc vo ng ng ca n, v bt k ai am hiu phng php ca Newton u phi tin tng nhng phng php chc chn s dn ta tm ra s tht v khoa hc. Nhng li tn dng Newton ca Einstein dt khot nh hn mi l l ph phn Newton. Einstein vit: i vi Newton, to vt l mt quyn sch m ng m ng c th c c mt cch d dng. Newton ngi ta thy s kt hp nh thc nghim, nh l thuyt, nh c kh hc v ng cn l mt ngh s khi ng ph din t tng ca ng. V cui i, Newton chng t ng l mt ngi ht sc khim tn khi ng nhn nh v cuc i ca mnh nh sau: Ti khng bit ngi ta cho ti l mt ngi nh th no? Nhng ring mnh, ti thy ti ch l mt a tr con chi a trn bi bin, thnh thong pht hin c mt hn si nhn nhi, mt v s xinh p, trong khi trc mt ti cn c mt i dng bao la y nhng b mt cha c khm ph. http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
LC S THI GIAN
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Phn 48
[...] C l ngoi tr Karl Marx, trong s nhng nhn vt ni danh v ni rng ra trong s hng triu ngi sinh trong th k 19, khng ai c nh Darwin, v Darwin m ra nhng tro lu t tng, nhng quan nim mi v sc sng ca con ngi [...]
U TRANH SINH TN Charles Darwin V tc phm ngun gc cc chng loi Mt s trng phng k l xy ra trong nm 1809 l nm chng kin nhiu v nhn cho i hn mi nm khc. Trong mi a ht ring, cc v nhn , v no cng xy dng c s nghip siu vit. Trong s c Charles Darwin, mt Newton ca khoa sinh vt hc v Abraham Lincoln, v Tng thng gii phng n l Hoa K. Hai v nhn sinh cng ngy v gn nh cng gi. Ngoi hai v , ngi ta cn phi nhc n nhng tn tui nh: Gladstone. Tennyson, Edgar Allan Poe, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Elizabeth Barret Browning v Felix Mendelsohn, cng cho i trong nm 1809. C l ngoi tr Karl Marx, trong s nhng nhn vt ni danh v ni rng ra trong s hng triu ngi sinh trong th k 19, khng ai c nh Darwin, v Darwin m ra nhng tro lu t tng, nhng quan nim mi v sc sng ca con ngi. Ngy nay ngi ta ni n hc thuyt Darwin nh ni n hc thuyt Karl Marx, hc thuyt Malthus v hc thuyt Machiavelli. Trong sut gn mt th k, cc nh bc hc tranh lun si ni v nhng nguyn tc nn tng ca hc thuyt Darwin, v ngy nay nhng nguyn tc c gii khoa hc tha nhn. Cuc tranh chp gia hai phi Tn v Cu khi u nm 1859, ko dai dng sang c th k 20, v c lit nht l khi xy ra v n con kh lch s bang Tennessee. Ch mi y, cuc ci c gia hai phi mi c du hiu du xung. Khi Darwin cn tui thiu nin, khng ai c th ng sau ny ng s tr nn nh khoa hc ni ting nht th gii. Darwin sinh trng trong mt gia nh gm nhng ngi lm ngh t do v nhng hc gi. Thn sinh ca http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
202
Darwin cng ngh rng Darwin s kh c th lm nn cng chuyn g ng k. trng trung hc, cu hc sinh Darwin rt chn mn c ng Hy Lp, v chn lun c chng trnh c in cng nhc. Cu thng b gio s mng v ti ph phm th gi vo nhng th nghim ha hc, ph phm th gi su tm su b cng cc mu . Nm 16 tui, cng nh ng thn khi xa, Darwin c gia nh cho theo hc ngnh y khoa ti trng i hc Edinburgh. Hai nm sau, Darwin ni rng ngh cha bnh khng phi l ngh ca mnh, nn lin Darwin c gi ti trng i hc Cambridge, hc lm mc s ca gio hi Anh quc. Darwin Cambridge 3 nm, v theo ng, l ba nm khng c ch li g cho s hc hi. Tuy nhin trong thi gian ny Darwin c ci may mn c giao thip thn tnh vi hai gio s c hai th lc, l Henslow, gio s mn thc vt hc v Sedgwick, gio s mn a cht hc. Darwin dnh rt nhiu th gi theo hai gio s i du ngon cc min qu su tm cn trng v quan st vn vt. Chnh gio s Sedgwick vn ng cho nh vn vt hc Darwin c p tu Beagle i nghin cu rng ri min nam bn cu. Sau ny Darwin ni rng chuyn i l bin c quan trng nht trong i. Chuyn i ny quyt nh ton b s nghip ca i ng; v cng trn tu Beagle, nh tr nn mt gio s cht hn trong lng ng. Trong 5 nm lin, t nm 1831 n nm 1836, tu Beagle i vng quanh th gii, cp bn khp nm chu, v hu khp nhng hi o ln. Ti u, nh a cht hc, nh thc vt hc, nh ng vt hc Darwin cng su tm loi cy ci, loi ng vt, cn sng hay ha thch, trn cn hay di nc, cng cuc su tm rt c ch cho s tm kim v vit lch ca ng sau ny. Vi con mt ca nh vn vt hc, ng nghin cu thi th loi tho mc hay ng vt, c trn nhng ng c hoang Apganixtang, trn nhng sn ni Andes tr tri, trong nhng h nc mn, v sa mc Chil v Australia, nhng rng rm Brazin, Sierra del Fuego v Tahiti, nhng qun o Cape Verde tri ht cy. Darwin cn nghin cu c a cht min rng ni v b bin Nam M, nhng o san h, nhng di tch ng vt Patagonia, nhng ging ngi tuyt chng Peru, nhng th dn Sirra Del Fuego v Patagonia. Trong tt c nhng ni Darwin t chn ti, c qun o Galapagos cch b bin pha ty Nam M chng 500 dm l khin ng ch hn c. Trn nhng hn o khng ngi v tr tri ny, Darwin thy c mt ging ra http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
LC S THI GIAN
203
khng l m ng gp di hnh thc ha thch ni khc, thy nhng con thn ln tuyt chng t lu nhng min khc trn th gii, nhng con cua khng l, nhng con s t bin. iu khin Darwin ngc nhin hn ht l chim mung y tuy cng chng loi nhng vn khc cc chim mung lc a chu M. Hn na, ng cn nhn xt thy c nhiu ging chim tuy cng mt chng loi, nhng mi o thuc qun o Galapagos li c nhng im d bit khc nhau. Hin tng k l qun o Galapagos, cng thm nhng s kin Darwin nhn xt thy trc y Nam M, tng thm quan nim bt u thnh hnh v quy lut tin ha ca vn vt trong tr ng. Chnh Darwin k li rng: Ti ngc nhin v cng khi tm thy di ct ging sc vt to ln c v cng nhng cnh ng hoang vu bn Nam M, ging nh ging cu tr (armadillos) hin nay. Th n l hnh th nhng ng vt thuc cng chng loi thay th nhau qua s quan st su v pha nam trn i lc chu M. Sau ht, l v c tnh Nam M ca hu ht nhng ng vt trong qun o Galapagos v c bit l hnh thc nhng chng vt ny hi khc nhau trn mi o thuc qun o Galapagos, khng phi v nhng o ny c v rt gi ci theo quan nim a cht hc. T y v sau Darwin khng cn tin vo nhng li ging dy trong kinh thnh ni rng: thng to ra cc chng loi ng vt nguyn vn v i i khng h thay i. Ngay sau khi v Anh, Darwin pht trin l thuyt ca ng v lut tin ha ca vn vt, thu thp cc bin thi ca cc chng loi vit tp Ngun gc cc chng loi. Bn tho u tin ca tp sch ny, c vit vo nm 1842 v ch gm ba mi lm trang, nhng n nm 1844, tp sch ln ti 230 trang. Khi u Darwin t vn ti sao cc chng loi pht sinh ri vi thi gian li bin thi v phn chia ra lm nhiu ging khc nhau, v cui cng mt s li c th b tuyt chng? Darwin tm c gii p cho nhng cu hi , sau khi bt ng ng c tp Lun v dn s ca Malthus. Chnh Malthus nu ra kin ny: mc gia tng dn s trn th gii b tr hon bi nhng sc cn r rng nh bnh tt, tai nn, chin tranh v i km, Darwin lin ngh rng: c th nhng tr ngi cng lm chm li qu trnh sinh si ny n cc chng loi ng vt thc vt. ng vit:
Stephen Hawking
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Sau nhiu nm quan st k lng s sng cc ng vt, thc vt ti thu hiu th no l quy lut u tranh sinh tn ng tr khp mi ni. Do ti nhn nh rng, cc chng loi s tn ti nu gp iu kin thun li, v nu gp nghch cnh s c th b tuyt chng, v chnh yu t hon cnh khin pht sinh ra nhng chng loi mi. l khi im l thuyt ca ti, v c theo chiu hng ti tip tc vic nghin cu. Chnh nhn nh a Darwin khm ph ra quy lut o thi t nhin, quy lut u tranh sinh tn, khn sng mng cht, nn tng l thuyt ca cun Ngun gc cc chng loi.
LC S THI GIAN
205
Phn 49
[...] Darwin nhn thy rng: trong cc sinh vt, mt s c th sinh vt rt ln phi b tiu dit, ch mt s no sng st. Nhiu loi sinh vt phi cht nui sng loi sinh vt khc. Cuc chin u tip din khng bao gi ngng, v loi ra khi cuc u tranh tn ti tt c nhng con vt, cy ci no khng iu kin tn ti...[...]
Trong hai mi nm lin, Darwin su tm gom gp cc s kin, vit thnh sch chng minh l thuyt ca ng. ng c rt rng, loi sch bo, cc sch du k, sch v th thao, sch dy lm vn, chn nui, cc sch vn vt hc. Darwin k li rng: Khi ti nh li cc sch bo ti c v trch yu, chnh ti cng phi ngc nhin ti sao ti li c nhiu nh th. Khng nhng c m thi, Darwin cn tip xc vi nhng ch tri chuyn v chn nui, trng trt, v gii p nhng bng cu hi cho tt c nhng ai c th cung cp nhng iu xt ra c th c ch cho cng cuc su tm nghin cu ca ng. Darwin nghin cu nhng b xng chim nui nh ri em tui v trng lng ca xng y so snh vi chim rng thuc cng chng loi. ng nui rt nhiu chim b cu nghin cu kt qu s ghp ging. ng th nghim nhng loi hoa qu v ging tho mc trn mt nc v di bin su, tm ti cc vn truyn ging. Tt c kho tng hiu bit ca ng v thc vt hc, a cht hc, ng vt hc v c sinh vt hc thu thp c bn nm i theo tu Beagle c em ra sng lc v s dng chng minh cho l thuyt tin ho ca sinh vt. Darwin ng h mnh m nguyn l o thi t nhin qua nhng cuc nghin cu v s o thi nhn to. Trong trng hp nui trng gia sc v cy c: nga, ch, mo hay la m, la mch, hoa c v.v... ngi ta la chn v nui nhng ging no c ch nht cho nhu cu ca mnh. Kt qu l gia sc, ng cc v hoa c bin dng n ni rt kh phn bit c tnh cht tng t ca chng vi nhng sinh vt thuc cng chng loi hin ang sinh si ny n trong thin nhin. Chnh s o thi nhn to ny to ra nhng nhnh chng loi mi. Ngi chn nui la chn nhng con vt v ging cy c nhng c tnh h cn. H ch nui, ch trng nhng ging y i ny qua i khc v cui cng to ra nhng chng loi mi nh l con chu ca chng loi c trc y. Th d nh nhiu ging ch ngy nay tuy rt khc nhau nhng u c chung mt gc t, l ging ch si.
Stephen Hawking
206
Darwin l lun: nu s tin ho ca cc chng loi do s o thi nhn to, vy s o thi t nhin c th l yu t quyt nh s tin ho cc chng loi c khng? Trong thin nhin, vai tr ca ngi trng trt, chn nui c thay th bi quy lut u tranh sinh tn (strugle for existence). Darwin nhn thy rng: trong cc sinh vt, mt s c th sinh vt rt ln phi b tiu dit, ch mt s no sng st. Nhiu loi sinh vt phi cht nui sng loi sinh vt khc. Cuc chin u tip din khng bao gi ngng, v loi ra khi cuc u tranh tn ti tt c nhng con vt, cy ci no khng iu kin tn ti. V l mi c s thay i hnh dng ca cc sinh vt thch nghi vi nhng iu kin mi, tn ti. Ch tm ca Darwin l xy dng l thuyt v s tin ho ca sinh vt tht vng chi vi y bng chng, v vy mi n nm 1850 ng vn cha ngh n vic cng b kt qu cng trnh ca ng. Nhng sau , v s thc gic ca bn b ng mi bt tay vo vit mt b sch v i cho xut bn thnh nhiu tp. Sch vit c mt na th mt ting st n: Darwin nhn c mt bc th ca nh vn vt hc Alferd Russel Wallace hin ang nghin cu v vn vt hc qun o M Lai. Trong th, Wallace tit l rng ng cng ang nghin cu v ngun gc cc chng loi, v cng nh Darwin, chnh tp Lun v dn s ca Malthus gi cm hng cho ng. Cng vi bc th, Darwin cn nhn c mt tp Lun v s bin dng ca cc chng loi li l ng nh li ca Darwin khi ng trnh by l thuyt ca ng. Darwin k li rng: D Wallace c c bn tho ti vit vo nm 1842, ng cng khng th tm lc l thuyt ca ti mt cch thng minh hn th ny c. C rt nhiu cu ng vit hin ti dng tn nhng chng trong sch ca ti. Darwin lm vo ci th kh x v r rng ng v Wallace, c hai u cng i ti mt kt lun nh nhau, tuy c hai khng c lin h g vi nhau. C iu khc l Darwin dy cng suy t nghin cu, cn Wallace pht minh ra l thuyt tin ho ca sinh vt, trong mt pht xut thn. V sau Darwin v Wallace u ng trnh nhng ti liu v l thuyt ca mnh trc phin hp ti ca hi Linnaean. Th l l thuyt Tin ho ca vn vt do s o thi t nhin c cng b vo bui hp chiu ngy 1 thng 7 nm 1858, v ngay sau ti liu ny c cho ng trong tp san ca hi. B kch thch v v Wallace v tranh th thi gian, Darwin b cng trnh v i ang vit d, quyt nh vit mt tp gn hn m ng gi l Tm lc. n cui nm 1859, tp sch tr ct ca khoa vn vt hc ngy nay c nh John Murray Lun n xut bn. Ln xut bn u tin, sch in http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
LC S THI GIAN
207
c 1.200 bn, v bn ht ngay trong ngy pht hnh. Nhiu ln xut bn khc k tip, v n nm 1882 l nm Darwin t th, ring nc Anh sch bn c 24.000 cun. Ngoi ra sch cn c dch ra hu khp cc ting ca cc nc pht trin v khoa hc. Khi u sch nhan l: Lun v ngun gc cc chng loi qua con ng o thi trong cuc u tranh sinh tn. V sau, tn sch c rt ngn, v ngy nay c li: Ngun gc cc chng loi. Trong bn chng u, Darwin trnh by c s l thuyt ca ng v sinh vt hc, bn chng sau ng cp n nhng lp lun ngi ta c th vin ra nh l thuyt ca ng. Sau ng dnh nhiu chng ni v mn a cht hc, v a l hc cc loi ng vt v thc vt, v v nhng s kin thch ng lin quan n vic phn loi trong vn vt hc cng nh khoa sinh vt hnh thi hc v phi sinh hc. Chng cui cng tm lc ton b ni dung b sch. Bt u Darwin trnh by nhng bin i tnh cht ca cc ging vt nui, ging cy trng, ngha l nhng bin i do con ngi to ra. Nhng bin i do tc ng ca s o thi nhn to c em ra so snh vi nhng bin i trong thin nhin, ni cch khc, do tc ng ca s o thi t nhin. Ri Darwin kt lun: sc sng l lun bin i v khng th c hai vt hon ton ging nhau. Theo Darwin, ngoi nhng bin i nhn to v bin i t nhin, cn phi k n tc ng ca cuc u tranh sinh tn. y Darwin nu ra rt nhiu s kin chng minh rng: khng phi mt con vt hay mt ci cy no ra cho i cng c kh nng bo tn cuc sng trn th gian. Th d loi chm ln hn c l loi voi, nu con voi no c sinh cng c sng v sinh sn c bnh thng th sau mt thi gian t 740 n 750 nm mt cp voi c th sinh ra bao gm c chu cht cht cht chng mi chn triu con. V th gii s trn ngp ton l voi. Da vo nhng th d tng t, Darwin suy din ra rng: nhiu sinh vt c sinh nhng khng c sng, l kt qu s u tranh sinh tn din ra gia sinh vt khc chng loi, hoc do kt qu s u tranh vi iu kin sinh hot vt l. Ni chung, tt c mi sinh vt t cy ci, loi c loi chim n cc loi c v, k c ngi, u c th sn xut ra rt nhiu mm ging nhng ch c mt thiu s c ra cho i, hoc c th sng tip c trong th gii.
Stephen Hawking
208
Ngoi ra, Darwin cn chng minh mt cch r rng mi lin h gia cc chng loi. ng thy loi ong t c cng dng truyn ging cho mt vi th cy, nh cy hoa Png-x hoc vi loi c. ng vit: S ong nhiu hay t mt min no , phn ln tu thuc s chut ng thng hay ph phch bnh mt v t ong... S chut, ai cng bit, tu thuc phn ln s mo... Do ngi ta c th tin c rng, mt min no , s mo quyt nh s hin din ca mt s chng loi hoa, qua s trung gian ca loi chut v loi ong.
LC S THI GIAN
209
Phn 50
[...] Sch Ngun gc cc chng loi ca Darwin ra i, d lun ng thi gi y l mt i ha, nh ting st n ngang tai, v nu thuyt ca Darwin ng th chuyn Sng th k trong Kinh thnh ca C c gio l khng th chp nhn c na... [...]
K tip, sch Ngun sng cc chng loi cp n nguyn l o thi t nhin cn tr s sinh si ny n cc chng loi nh th no? Trong bt k chng loi no cng c nhng con mnh hn, chy nhanh hn, thng minh hn, t nhim bnh hn, v chu c nhng thay i gt gao ca thi tit tt hn cc con khc cng chng loi. Nhng con kho s c sng v sinh sn, cn nhng con khc yu hn s phi cht. Ging th trng sng c min Bc cc nh c b lng ln vo mu tuyt, cn loi th lng mu d nhn hn, d b co v ch si pht hin, bt n tht cho nn tuyt chng. Loi hu cao c s d cn tn ti n ngy nay v trong nhng nm hn hn, nh ci c di ngong ngong hu c th n hoa l trn ngn cy, trong khi hu ngn c phi chu cht i. Chnh nhng c im v sinh l v hnh th thun li bo m cho loi no c c nng thch hp hn ht vi cuc sng, v ri sau qung thi gian di hng ngn nm to ra nhng chng loi mi. Darwin vit mt cch bi thm v nh lut nanh v vut ng tr khp mi ni. Chng ta chim ngng b ngoi ca to vt chan ho nh sng vui ti. Chng ta thy c tha thi thc n cho mun loi. Nhng chng ta khng bit hay qun rng, chim chc s d sng c v ru rt ca quanh ta, phn ln v chng n cc loi su b hay cc ht ging, v nh vy c ngha chng thng xuyn tiu dit s sng. V chng ta qun rng chnh nhng chim chc , trng v t ca chng cng thng b cc loi chim v loi th khc n tht, ph hu. Chng ta qun rng thc n tuy tha thi cho mun loi, nhng khng phi ma no cng tha thi. Darwin cn nhn xt rng chnh hot ng sinh sn ng vai tr quan trng trong s o thi t nhin nhng con c cng trng, nhng con vt sng thch hp hn ht vi ngoi cnh, thng hay c sng. Nhng con g khng c ca s t c hy vng nhiu con. V loi chim cuc tranh u thng mang tnh n ho hn, v chim c chinh phc chim mi khng phi bng http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
210
sng, bng ca m bng ting ht hay, b lng rc r, bng nhng v iu tn k. Trong s o thi t nhin, kh hu cng l mt yu t quan trng v nhng ma qu lnh hay l qu hn hn thng cn tr rt nhiu sc sinh sn ca sinh vt... nhn qua ai cng tng rng kh hu khng c nh hng g n cuc u tranh sinh tn. Nhng xt k, ngi ta thy rng kh hu trc nht lm suy gim s sn xut thc phm, do kh hu c th khin cho cuc u tranh sinh tn tr nn mun phn c lit gia cc vt cng chng loi hay khc chng loi nhng cng n mt th thc phm. Trong tnh trng , ch nhng con no sc chu ng nng, lnh, sc ot thc n mi c th bo tn s sng. Darwin vit rng: Hng ngy hng gi, nh lut o thi t nhin ch ng mun loi trn mt t. Nhng con yu hn b tiu dit nhng s sng cho nhng con cng trng. nh lut o thi t nhin din bin mt cch m thm v khc lit. nh lut bin i nhng sinh vt cn bo tn c s sng, nhng sinh vt ny c th thch nghi hn na vi cc iu kin sinh hot. Nhng bin i din tin rt chm chp nn chng ta kh nhn thy. Phi nghin cu nhng thi k a cht hc di ng ng, chng ta mi thy rng sinh vt sng chung quanh ta ngy nay khc xa nhiu lm. Trong chng kt lun sch Ngun gc cc chng loi, Darwin cho rng: quy lut o thi t nhin c sc mnh v bin, khin ngi ta c th suy din ra rng: c th tt c cc sinh vt hin sng trn mt t ny u gc mt vt th no tip nhn c s sng u tin. Darwin tin rng: chnh thin nhin vi nhng nh lut kht khe sng to ra nhng sinh vt c c cu rt phc tp, v ng thy kt qu ca nh lut o thi t nhin gi hng cho cng vic ca ng rt nhiu. Darwin vit: Nh vy, chnh v phi chin u tn ti, chnh v k yu hn phi i, phi cht, nn cc sinh vt cn li mi th h mt thm tt p; l iu phn khi hn ht m chng ta c th quan nim c. Quan nim nh vy, chng ta thy cuc sng qu l hng v, cuc sng khi thu c Thng ban pht cho mt hay nhiu vt, nhng cha ng khng bit bao nhiu l kh nng pht trin. Trong khi qu t vn quay bt di bt dch theo nh lut v trng lc th mt sinh vt khi thu ht sc n gin li c th v ang pht sinh ra v vn chng loi sinh vt tuyt vi.
LC S THI GIAN
211
l l thuyt tin ho khng ngng c trnh by trong sch Ngun gc cc chng loi. Tuy nhin, tri vi s tin tng ca nhiu ngi, Darwin khng phi l ngi sng lp ra thuyt tin ho, v thuyt c t trc Aristotle v Lucretius. Sau ny, cc nh khoa hc ni ting nh Buffon, Goethe, Erasmus Darwin (ng ni Charles Darwin), Lamarck v Herbert Spencer cng cao thuyt tin ho. Tuy nhin, s ng gp ca Darwin v cng quan trng. Trc ht, ng su tm c rt nhiu bng chng hin nhin chng minh rng c s kin tin ho tht trong cc sinh vt. Sau na, Darwin nu ra quy lut o thi t nhin rt ni ting v ly quy lut ny gii thch hp l cch thc tin ho ca cc sinh vt. Sch Ngun gc cc chng loi ca Darwin ra i, d lun ng thi gi y l mt i ha, nh ting st n ngang tai, v nu thuyt ca Darwin ng th chuyn Sng th k trong Kinh thnh ca C c gio l khng th chp nhn c na. Gio hi lin pht ng phong tro chng i mnh m v ln n thuyt ca Darwin l nguy him cho tn gio. Tuy Darwin ht sc d dt, trnh khng ng n trng hp tin ho ca loi ngi, y vy m ng vn b gn cho ting xu l ch trng gc t ca loi ngi l ging kh. lm gim gi tr ca Darwin ngi ta tm cch ch giu ng. Mt bi bo ng trong tp ch Quarterly Review gi ng l con ngi di dt c gan vit sch bnh vc nhng li phng on v nhng suy lun hon ton thi nt, con ngi di dt nghin cu to vt theo mt cch hon ton nhc nh cho khoa hc. Tp ch Spectator kch thuyt ca Darwin v thuyt ph nhn o c v chng t tc gi c mt cch hiu lm bi hoi lun l. Darwin cn b kt ti l thu thp nhng s kin bin gii cho mt nguyn tc sai lm. Bo Spectator vit : Ngi ta khng th ly bt khng kh m kt thnh si dy thng vng chc c. Mt nh bo ma mai: Liu ngi ta c th tin c rng tt c mi ging c ci tt c trin vng tin ho thnh ngi khng?. Bng ging vn gay gt, bo Athenaeum vit: V nc Anh khng c to n tn gio, cho nn ta nh trao Darwin cho cc thn linh, cho cc trng hc v vin bo tng trng pht. Trc nhng li kch , Darwin ni: H s khng thiu ti u, nhng h chun b ci g v by cch cho nhng th d bt ti. ngay t quc ca Darwin v ti trng i hc Cambridge, Whewell cm tng tr sch Ngun gc cc chng loi t sch ca b mn. http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
212
Trong gii khoa hc, Darwin c s ng h nng nhit, nhng s chng i khng phi t. i din cho phi bo th cc oan no c Owen Anh v Agassiz Hoa K. C hai ng ny ln ting cho rng thuyt ca Darwin l ngy khoa hc v mt ngy kia s b chm trong qun lng. Nh thin vn hc John Herschel gi thuyt Darwin l nh lut lon x (higgledy - piggdedy). Gio s c ca Darwin v a cht hc Cambridge, Sedgwick coi thuyt ca Darwin hon ton sai lm v rt c hi v vit trong th gi cho Darwin rng sch ca Darwin lm cho ng ci n v bng. Sedgwick cho thuyt ca Darwin cng c tnh in khng nh ci u xe la ca Gim mc Wilkin s a chng ta ln cung trng.
LC S THI GIAN
213
Phn 51
[...] Mt khc ngi ta cn em p dng hc thuyt ca Darwin trong nhng lnh vc m nu cn sng chc chn ng s phn i kch lit. Th d nh ch ngha pht xt vin ra quy lut o thi t nhin, hay l lut khn sng mng cht bin gii nhng hnh ng st nhn nhm tiu dit mt s chng tc ca h. [...]
Tuy nhin Darwin khng thiu ngi ng h nng nhit. ng u phi k n nhng ngi nh nh a cht hc Charles Lyell, nh sinh vt hc Thomas Huxley, nh tho mc hc Joseph Hooker, v Asa Gray, nh tho mc hc ni ting ca Hoa K. Trong s cc nh khoa hc ny, Darwin trng i nhiu hn c Huxley m ng gi l cng tc vin ca ng v Huxley cng t nhn l v s ca Darwin. Vn khng phi l ngi quen tranh lun, bt chin, Darwin khng h cng khai bnh vc l thuyt ca ng, vic ny hon ton do Huxley, mt ngi c ti li va hng hi m nhim. Trong cuc xung t ny la din ra vo nm 1860 xung quanh hc thuyt Darwin, chnh Huxley ng mt vai tr quan trng. Sn khu l phin hp ca hc vin Anh quc Oxford tho lun v hc thuyt Darwin. C trng pho ca i phng l Gim mc Wiberforce Oxford. Trong on kt bn tham lun m ng tin rng p tan c l thuyt Darwin, Gim mc Wiberforce quay v pha Huxley ang ngi trn din n, ni ging cch chm bim: Ti mun hi gio s Huxley, ging t ni hay t ngoi ca gio s thuc loi kh?. Nghe vy Huxley ni ring vi bn: Thng trao s mnh ng ta vo tay ti ri. Ni ri, theo li ngi k li, Huxley ng dy tr li gim mc nh sau: Chng ta khng c l do g xu h v ngun gc loi ngi l loi kh. Nu ti c v t tin no m mi khi nh li ti phi ly lm xu h, th v t tin y phi l hng tr thc lm vic khng ngh ngi v c qu nhiu ti nng khc nhau cho nn ng tham vng qu cao. Hng ngi ny thy rng thnh cng trong a ht hot ng ca mnh cha li cn mun bn mng n a ht khoa hc m h khng hiu g c, v h ch lm cho vn khoa hc tr thnh ti tm thm vi nhng li vn v v ngha. H cn kho lo cu vin ti nhng tn iu tn gio v nhng li xch m ao to ba ln nh lc hng thnh gi.
Stephen Hawking
214
y l trn xung t u tin, v cn nhiu trn ny la sau ny na, gia gio hi v gii khoa hc xung quanh hc thuyt tin ha ca Darwin. i vi vn tn gio, quan im ca Darwin c chiu thay i khi v gi. Hi thiu thi, ng nhn nhn l to vt c sinh ra mt cch hon ton theo quy lut. Trong cun Cuc i v th t, Darwin t tin tng rng trong mt tng lai xa xi con ngi s hon ho hn by gi rt nhiu. V gi Darwin li vit: C mt l l rt mnh na khin ti tin Thng , l l l l tr ch khng phi l l cm tnh. Ngi ta rt kh, thm ch hu nh khng th, quan nim c rng: c ci v tr mnh mng v k diu ny, trong con ngi vi kh nng nhn li li qu kh v hng v tng lai, li c th l kt qu ca mt s ngu nhin m qung hay mt tt yu. Sau khi suy ngh min man nh vy, ti t cm thy phi tin rng c mt ci ngun khi thy c tr thng minh tng t nh ngi, ngha l ti tin c thng . Trong thi gian vit b Ngun gc cc chng loi, ti nh l tm trng ca ti l nh vy. Tuy nhin qua nhiu din bin thng trm v sau, nim tin ca ti khng cn c nh trc. n y li ny sinh mt mi hoi nghi: Ti t hi lm sao c th tin c rng linh hn con ngi, thot u khng khc g linh hn cc loi vt h ng nht, li c th suy lun ti nhng kt lun bao la nh vy? Darwin khng tr li cu hi v kt lun nh sau: Ti khng c tham vng ri sng nhng vn tru tng . Chng ta khng th bit ni ngun gc ca vn vt v ti nh cam nhn mnh l ngi theo ch trng l tr hu hn. Sau khi sch Ngun gc cc chng loi xut bn, Darwin vit tip rt nhiu sch khc cp n tng vn ring bit, nhng tu trung ng vn trin khai l tuyt tin ha ca sinh vt bng quy lut o thi t nhin c trnh by minh bch trong Ngun gc cc chng loi. Trc ht ng vit hai tp l: Cn trng bin thnh cht bn cho ging lan, v Nghin cu v s sng ca cc ging cy leo. Sau Darwin vit hai tc phm quan trng hn nhan : Nhng bin th ng vt v thc vt nui trong nh, v S sinh sn ca loi ngi v vn tnh dc o thi. Darwin cn vit rt nhiu sch cp n cc vn nh so snh s th hin cm xc gia loi ngi v loi vt, nhng sch ni v ging cy n su b, v tc dng ca vic lai ging, kh nng di ng ca thc vt, hin tng cy bin thnh t. http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
LC S THI GIAN
215
Trong sch Ngun gc cc chng loi, Darwin c trnh bn lun v ngun gc loi ngi, v ng s d lun c th bc b ton b l thuyt ca ng. n cun Dng di loi ngi, Darwin a ra nhiu s kin chng t rng loi ngi cng tin ha t nhng sinh vt th s m ra. Nhn bao qut li, chng ta thy rng, trn mi a ht hc thut, nh hng ca Darwin rt su m. V ngy nay cc nh sinh vt hc, a cht hc, ha hc, vt l hc, cc nh nhn chng hc, tm l hc, cc nh gio dc hc, trit hc, x hi hc v ngay c cc nh s hc, chnh tr hc v ngn ng hc u chp nhn l thuyt tin ha ca ng. Charles Ellwood nh gi nh sau: Khi ngh n nh hng ln lao ca Darwin trong mi lnh vc t tng, nht l cc khoa sinh vt hc, tm l hc v x hi hc, ngi ta bt buc phi kt lun rng: Darwin l nh t tng phong ph nht th k 18, khng nhng ca nc Anh m ca c th gii. Do , ng xng ng c v tr vinh quang cao nht trong gii khoa hc. V ngy nay ngi ta mi bt u nhn ra c ngha x hi ca hc thuyt Darwin. Bnh lun v sch Ngun gc cc chng loi West cng ng rng: nh hng ca Darwin tht bao la. Nu ln mt nguyn tc mi m ng thi vn tip tc nghin cu hc hi, Darwin o ln tt c cc ngnh khoa hc, t thin vn hc n s hc, t c sinh vt n tm l hc, t phi hc n gio dc hc. Mt khc ngi ta cn em p dng hc thuyt ca Darwin trong nhng lnh vc m nu cn sng chc chn ng s phn i kch lit. Th d nh ch ngha pht xt vin ra quy lut o thi t nhin, hay l lut khn sng mng cht bin gii nhng hnh ng st nhn nhm tiu dit mt s chng tc ca h. Hoc nh bn hiu chin bin gii chin tranh l mt phng tin o thi k yu v bo tn k khe. Th d nh nhng c s lm n, cng da vo nhng nh lut o thi t nhin, khn sng mng cht, tm cch tiu dit nhng cng ty nh b hn. Ngy nay kin thc khoa hc c ph bin rng ri, cng trnh ca Darwin cng thm c gi tr v bao gm nhng quan st v cng tinh t. Cho d nhng khm ph mi l ca khoa hc hin i c bin i phn no l thuyt ca Darwin, nhng tu trung l thuyt tin ha vn ng vng trong di truyn hc, c sinh vt hc v trong rt nhiu b mn khoa hc khc.
Stephen Hawking
216
V a v ca Darwin trong lch s khoa hc, khng ai c th vit ng hn Julian Huxley, nh sinh vt hc ni ting, chu ni ca Thomas Huxley, ngi cng tc, ngi bin h v l bn ca Darwin. Julian Huxley vit: S nghip ca Darwin... a th gii sinh vt vo trong phm vi chi phi ca nh lut thin nhin. Sau Darwin, ngi ta khng cn ngh rng mi sinh vt v ng vt c sng to nguyn vn t lc khi thy, khng cn ngh rng c mt tr thng minh huyn b trang b cho cc sinh vt nhng kh gii k diu kim n hay ng u vi k th, khng cn ngh rng loi c mt sc mnh huyn b dn dt s tin ha ca mun loi. Nu thuyt o thi t nhin l ng th chng ta c th tin rng tt c cc ng vt, thc vt, k c ngi, s d nh chng ta thy ngy nay, cng v tri qua qu trnh tin ha theo nhng nh lut t nhin m qung, khng khc g nhng nh lut khin c ni mc, khin qu t v cc hnh tinh khc chy thnh ng bu dc chung quanh mt tri. nh lut m qung phi chin u sinh tn, nh lut di truyn m qung tt nhin a ti kt qu l o thi k yu v bo tn s sng ca k mnh, v do thc y tin ha ca cc sinh vt... Julian Huxley vit tip: S nghip ca Darwin khin chng ta c th xc nh c v tr ca con ngi v nn vn minh hin i mt cch chnh xc hn. Con ngi khng phi mt sinh vt hon tt, khng c th tin ha thm c na. Nhn li lch s di dng dc, con ngi thy rng l mt lch s khng phi i xung m l i ln, v con ngi cn c kh nng bin ha na trong tng lai. Hn na, vi s hiu bit v s tin ha ca cc sinh vt, chng ta bit kin nhn hn. My ngn nm lch s tht khng c ngha l g so snh vi gn triu nm con ngi c mt trn tri t, v con s ny khng c ngha l g khi so snh vi hng ngn triu nm tin ha ca sinh vt trn mt t. Hiu nh vy, chng ta c quyn kin nhn sau khi cc nh thin vn hc cho bit rng t ra chng ta cng cn c mt ngn triu nm na vt ln ti nhng nh cao mi ca s sng.
LC S THI GIAN
217
Phn 52
[...] Einstein bt chng ta tin nhng iu kh tin th d nh: khng gian hnh cong, ng ngn nht ni lin hai im khng phi l ng thng, v tr c hn nhng khng c bin gii, hai ng song song cui cng s gp nhau, tia sng i theo ng vng cung, thi gian c tnh cht tng i v mi ni phi do mt cch...[...]
CHA U CA K NGUYN NGUYN T Albert Einstein v thuyt tng i Albert Einstein l mt trong s rt t nhn vt trong lch s, m ngay khi cn sng tr thnh mt nhn vt huyn thoi. T tng ca ng cng b him, ngi i cng mun hiu, v t tng chng nh ting ni ca ng t nh ni Olympia vng xung trn gian. Bertrand Russel nhn xt rt ng: Ai cng bit Einstein lm c nhng chuyn k l, nhng rt t ngi hiu l chuyn g. C tm cho rng, mc du khng ng hn, th gii ny ch c chng mt t ngi hiu trn vn l thuyt ca Einstein v v tr, th s kin ny thch thc hng ngn nu khng ni l hng triu ngi quyt tm c tm hiu xem nh ton hc ph thy ni nhng g. Einstein kh hiu v phm vi t tng ca ng v cng rng ln v phc tp. T.E. Bridges nhc n mt nh khoa hc Anh, tng vit rng: Hc thuyt ca Einstein kt hp s kin vt l vi s kin ton hc v ch c th gii thch bng ton hc. Mun hiu hc thuyt ca Einstein khng th khng c mt trnh ton hc rt cao. George W. Gray cng ni tng t: Einstein trnh by thuyt Tng i bng ngn ng ton hc, v vy rt kh trnh by thuyt ny bng th ngn ng no khc. Nu trnh by thuyt Tng i bng ngn ng thng thng th chng khc g dng mt cy kn saxophone do khc ha tu s 5 ca Beethoven. Tuy nhin c l c mt vi nt trong v tr quan ca Einstein c th din t bng ngn ng thng thng m ch cn n ngn ng s h ca ton hc. y tht l mt th th gii k o, lm o ln nhng t tng bt r t bao http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking
218
th k nay, mt mn h ln l lng rt kh tiu ha i vi nhiu ngi. Einstein bt chng ta tin nhng iu kh tin th d nh: khng gian hnh cong, ng ngn nht ni lin hai im khng phi l ng thng, v tr c hn nhng khng c bin gii, hai ng song song cui cng s gp nhau, tia sng i theo ng vng cung, thi gian c tnh cht tng i v mi ni phi do mt cch, phi o chiu di ty theo tc , v tr khng phi hnh cu m l hnh tr, mt vt th chuyn ng th kch thc co li, nhng khi lng li tng ln, thi gian l chiu th t thm vo ba chiu cao, di v rng... Nhng ng gp ca Einstein cho khoa hc nhiu khng k xit, nhng trc ht phi k n thuyt tng i m theo li Banesh Hoffman c mt tnh cht v i t Einstein ngang hng vi nhng nh khoa hc ln nht ca mi thi i nh Isaac Newton v Archimde. Nhng nghch l m hoc v nhng thnh cng rc r kch ng mnh lit tr tng tng ca mi ngi. Cuc cch mng ca Einstein bt u vo nm 1905, tc l nm t Chuyn san vt l hc c Annalen der Physik ng mt bi bo di chng 30 trang vi ci nhan tm thng l ng in ca nhng vt th chuyn ng. Nm Einstein mi 26 tui v l mt vin chc bnh thng trong c quan cp bng sng ch Thy S. Einstein sinh trong mt gia nh Do thi trung lu Ulm, Bavaria nm 1879. Khi cn nh khng c biu hin no chng t ng l thn ng, ngoi tr nng khiu ton hc. V hon cnh gia nh, nn nm 15 tui, Einstein phi t lp. Sau ny di c sang Thy S, Einstein theo hc khoa hc ti trng i hc bch khoa Zurich, thnh hn vi mt bn sinh vin v tr thnh cng dn Thy S. Khng thc hin c gic mng lm gio s i hc kim sng, Einstein nh chp nhn lm cng chc, c nhim v tho bo co v vit li n t ca cc nh sng ch gi cho c quan cp bng sng ch. Thi gi rnh, Einstein nghin cu rng ri tc phm ca cc nh trit hc, khoa hc v ton hc. Chng bao lu sau ng chun b y tung ra mt lot nhng ng gp mi cho khoa hc, nhng ng gp s c ting vang rng ln sau ny. Trong tc phm nm 1905, Einstein tung ra Thuyt Tng i c bit lm rung chuyn quan nim chung v khng gian, thi gian, vt cht v nng lng. Ton b thuyt tng i ny da vo hai gi thuyt ct yu. Gi thuyt th nht l: mi s chuyn ng u c tnh cht tng i. c mt nim c th v nguyn tc ny, ngi ta thng hay ly v d ngi ngi trong toa xe ha ang chy. Nu tt c cc ca u ng kn, http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
LC S THI GIAN
219
ti nh bng th mi ngi ngi trn xe khng c thc g v tc v phng hng, thm ch c l khng bit c xe ang chy na. Mt ngi i tu thy, nu cc ca ng kn, cng trong tnh trng tng t. Chng ta nhn thc c s chuyn ng l qua s tng i vi cc vt khc. Ngay c tri t quay chng ta cng khng nhn thy, nu khng c nhng tinh cu khc so snh. Gi thuyt tr ct th hai ca Einstein l: Tc ca nh sng khng b l thuc vo s chuyn ng ca ngun sng. Tc ca tia sng bao gi cng l 186.000 dm mt giy ng h (xp x 300.000km/giy), bt k ni no. Tia sng xuyn qua trong toa xe ha ang chy cng c tc ngang vi tc tia sng chy ngoi toa xe. Khng c mnh lc no vt c tc ca nh sng, ch tc ht in t mi sut sot c vi tc ca nh sng. Nh vy nh sng l thc th c nht trong v tr khng bao gi bin i. Cuc th nghim ni ting do hai nh khoa hc M Michelson v Morley thc hin vo nm 1887 to c s cho thuyt ca Einstein v nh sng. o tc ca nh sng cho ng mt cch tuyt i, hai nh khoa hc kia ch ra mt h thng my mc nh sau: Hai ng ng, mi ng ng di chng mt dm c t thng gc vi nhau. ng ng th nht t theo cng chiu vi chiu tri t quanh chung quanh mt tri, ng ng th hai hng ngc li vi chiu quay ca tri t. u mi mt ng ng t mt tm gng cng mt lc chiu vo c hai ng ng mt chm nh sng. Thi ngi ta tin rng ch no trng khng, l c kh ther, v nu thuyt ny ng th mt tia sng s chy theo ng ng nh ngi ta bi ngc chiu, v mt tia sng khc s chy theo ng ng nh ngi ta bi xui chiu. Nhng sau cuc th nghim, mi ngi u ngc nhin thy rng c hai chm tia sng cng di ngc li vo ng mt lc nh nhau. Th nghim b coi l mt tht bi. Thuyt ca Einstein tung ra nm 1905 tr li nhng thc mc ca Michelson, Morley v cc nh vt l hc khc. Trong cc khong trng khng c kh ther v cuc th nghim vi hai ng ng o rt ng tc ca nh sng. Cn c vo th nghim ny, Einstein suy ra iu v cng quan trng l tc ca nh sng khng bao gi thay i bt k o di iu kin no, v s chuyn ng ca tri t quay chung quanh mt tri cng khng nh hng g n tc ca nh sng.
Stephen Hawking
220
Tri vi Newton, Einstein khng nh rng khng lm g c s chuyn ng tuyt i. Quan nim c vt th chuyn ng mt cch tuyt i trong khng gian l iu v l. S chuyn ng ca vt th ch l tng i vi s chuyn dng ca vt th khc. Trng thi ca mi vt th l chuyn ng trn mt t v khp mi ni trong v tr, khng c vt th no l tuyt i ng yn. Trong v tr ng, t vt th nh nh nguyn t n nhng di thin h bao la, s chuyn ng l trng thi vnh hng. Tri t quay chung quanh mt tri vi tc 20 dm/giy ng h. Trong v tr tt c u chuyn ng, v khng c th g ng im mt ch, th lm g c tiu chun o tc , chiu di, kch thc, khi lng v thi gian, ngoi tr o vi s chuyn ng tng i. Ch c nh sng l tuyt i, v tc ca nh sng lc no cng l 186.000dm/giy ng h, bt k ngun sng, bt k v tr quan st, ng nh cuc th nghim Michelson - Morley chng t.
[...] Theo thuyt tng i ca Einstein th ngi ta c th ui kp qu kh v sinh ra tng lai nu ngi ta c tc vt tc nh sng. [...]...Thi gian v khng gian khng th tch ri nhau. Mi vt lun lun chuyn ng, cho nn theo quan nim ca Einstein, chng ta sng trong mt v tr bn chiu m thi gian l chiu th t [...]
Trong s nhng quan nim ca Einstein v v tr, quan nim v s tng i ca thi gian i ngc vi quan nim xa nay, v kh hiu hn c. Einstein ch trng rng: nhng bin c xy ra nhiu ni khc nhau c th xy ra cng mt lc i vi k ny, nhng xy ra khc lc i vi k khc mt v tr chuyn ng tng i vi ngi trc. Th d hai bin c xy ra cng mt lc i vi ngi quan st ng trn mt t, c th xy ra khc lc i vi ngi ngi trn xe ha hay my bay. Thi gian khng tuyt i, m l tng i vi v tr v tc ca ngi quan st. p dng thuyt ny nhn nh v tr, ngi ta thy rng mt bin c, th d mt v n xy ra khng mt lc i vi ngi quan st ngay trn tinh cu v ngi quan st trn tri t. Mt bin c din ra trn mt tinh cu xa lc c th hng nm mi chuyn hnh nh ti mt t, mc du nh sng chy vi tc 186.000 dm/giy ng h. V tinh t ta quan st thy hm nay ch l v tinh t ca bao nhiu nm v trc, v c th lc ny v tinh t y khng cn. Theo thuyt tng i ca Einstein th ngi ta c th ui kp qu kh v sinh ra tng lai nu ngi ta c tc vt tc nh sng. Mi tinh cu chuyn ng c mt h thng thi gian ring, khc hn h thng thi gian mi tinh cu khc. Mt ngy trn tri t ch l thi gian http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
LC S THI GIAN
221
tri t quay mt vng trn trc ca n. Sao Mc mt nhiu thi gi hn tri t quay chung quanh mt tri, v vy mt nm trn sao Mc di hn mt nm trn tri t. Tc cng nhanh, thi gian cng chm. Chng ta u quen ch ngh rng mi vt th u c ba chiu, nhng Einstein ch trng thi gian cng l mt chiu ca khng gian. Thi gian v khng gian khng th tch ri nhau. Mi vt lun lun chuyn ng, cho nn theo quan nim ca Einstein, chng ta sng trong mt v tr bn chiu m thi gian l chiu th t. Ni tm li, tin c bn ca thuyt Einstein trnh by ln u tin na th k trc y l tnh tng i ca mi chuyn ng, v tnh tuyt i c nht ca nh sng. Trin khai nguyn l tng i ca mi s chuyn ng, Einstein cn lm sp mt quan nim khc vn vng chc t xa xa. T trc ngi ta vn tin rng chiu di v khi lng trong mi trng hp c th quan nim c vn l tuyt i v khng th thay i. By gi Einstein khng nh khi lng hay trng lng cng chiu di ca mt vt th thay i ty theo tc ca vt th . Einstein a ra th d: mt on xe la di mt ngn b (B: 0,304 mt) chy vi tc bn phn nm tc ca nh sng. i vi ngi ng yn mt ch th on tu chy ch cn di 600 b, nhng i vi ngi ngi trn th on tu vn di 1000 b. Tng t nh on tu, mi vt th chuyn ng trong khng gian cng u co ngn li ty theo tc . Mt chic gy di 100 m (m (inch) = 0,025 mt), nu phng ln khng gian vi tc 161.000 dm/giy ng h, s co ngn li ch cn di na m. Tri t th quay trc nn chu vi cng co rt li chng su phn mt. Khi lng cng c th thay i. Tc cng nhanh th khi lng ca vt th cng tng. Nhiu cuc th nghim chng t rng vt th bn ln khng gian vi tc ln ti 86% tc nh sng, s cn nng gp i so vi khi cn nm yn di t. S kin ny c hu qu quan trng trong cng cuc pht trin nguyn t sau ny. Thuyt tng i ca Einstein trnh by nm 1905 c coi l L thuyt hn ch v tnh tng i v ch p dng ring i vi s chuyn ng. Tuy nhin, trong v tr chng ta, hnh tinh v cc thin th rt t khi chuyn ng u theo ng thng. Mt l thuyt phi bao gm c mi th chuyn ng, mi m t v tr. V l , Einstein phi dnh
Stephen Hawking
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mi nm xy dng L thuyt Tng qut v tnh tng i, trong ng nghin cu sc mnh huyn b hng dn s chuyn ng ca cc hnh tinh, nh tinh, sao chi, thin thch, thin h v nhng vt th khc quay cung trong khong khng ca v tr bao la. Trong l thuyt tng qut v tnh tng i cng b nm 1915, Einstein ra mt quan nim mi v sc ht, o ln hn nhng quan im v trng lc v nh sng c ngi ta chp nhn t thi Isaac Newton. Newton cho trng lc l mt lc, nhng khc vi Newton, Einstein chng minh rng khong khng gian chung quanh mt hnh tinh hay mt thin th, l mt trng hp dn tng t nh t trng chung quanh nam chm. Nhng vt th ln nh mt tri, cc v tinh t u ta ra chung quanh mt trng hp dn rt rng. Tri t v mt trng ht nhau l v vy. Thuyt trng hp dn cn gii thch nhng chuyn ng khng bnh thng ca sao Kim, mt hnh tinh gn mt tri nht, nhng chuyn ng l nt c nhng nh thin vn hc t bao th k nay v l mt trng hp ngoi l, khng tun theo nh lut v sc ht ca Newton. Trng hp dn cc tinh t c sc cc mnh c th b cong tia sng. Vo nm 1919, tc l my nm sau khi thuyt tng qut v tnh tng i c tung ra, nhng bc nh chp c trong mt v nht thc xc nhn thuyt ca Einstein l ng: cc tia sng i theo ng cong ch khng phi ng thng, do b tc ng trng hp dn ca mt tri. T tin , Einstein suy ra rng: khng gian hnh cong. Chu nh hng ca mt tri, cc hnh tinh quay theo nhng ng no ngn nht, tng t nh con sng khi chy ra bin, ty theo a hnh m chy theo nhng ng t nhin nht, d chy nht. Trong phm vi tri t, mt con tu hay mt chuyn phi c vt bin, i theo khng phi ng thng m l ng cong ngha l cung ca mt vng trn. Hin nhin l ng gn nht gia hai im khng phi ng thng m l ng cong. nh lut ny cn ng c vi s chuyn ng ca hnh tinh hay tia sng. Nu chp nhn thuyt khng gian c hnh cong, phi ng nhin chp nhn thuyt khng gian hu hn. V d, mt tia sng xut pht mt v sao, sau hng triu nm ra i, vn s tr v ngun sng c, chng khc g nh du lch i mt chuyn vng quanh th gii. V tr khng phi l din ra bt tn trong khng gian, m c nhng gii hn tuy khng th xc nh c nhng gii hn ny.
LC S THI GIAN
223
Trong s nhng khm ph v i ca Einstein v khoa hc, ng gp ca ng cho cng cuc nghin cu v nguyn t l c tc dng trc tip v su rng nht i vi th gii ngy nay. t lu sau khi t chuyn san vt l hc tung ra thuyt tng i vo nm 1905, Einstein cn cho ng bo ny mt bi bo ngn c tm vang di rt ln, nhan l Qun tnh ca mt vt th c ty thuc vo nng lng ca vt th khng?. Einstein xc nh rng: t ra l trn l thuyt nng lng nguyn t c th s dng c. Sc mnh khng khip ca nguyn t c th c gii ta theo mt phng trnh do Einstein ra: E = mc2, ngha l: nng lng bng khi lng nhn vi tc ca nh sng, ri li nhn vi tc ca nh sng ln na. Ni mt cch c th, Einstein cho rng: trong na cn Anh (cn Anh = 453,592 gam) ca bt k cht g u cha mt nng lng tng ng vi sc mnh ca by triu tn thuc n TNT. Mt nh bnh lun nhn xt: nu khng c phng trnh ca Einstein cc nh khoa hc vn c th m mm tch c nguyn t uranium, nhng khng chc cc nh khoa hc hiu y l mt ngun nng lng khng khip, vt liu ca nhng tri bom khng khip.
Stephen Hawking
224
Phn cui
[...] i vi Albert Einstein, ngi ta khng th khng ni n nh hng. Phi gi nhng l thuyt ca ng l cch mng v m ra k nguyn nguyn t. K nguyn ny a nhn loi i n u chng ta cha th bit. Hin nay chng ta ch bit rng Einstein l nh khoa hc, nh trit hc v i nht ca th k... [...]
Trong phng trnh ni ting E = mc2, Einstein chng minh nng lng v khi lng ch l mt, hai trng thi khc nhau v khi lng chnh l nng lng c li. Barnett nhn nh rt ng l phng trnh E = mc2 gii thch c rt nhiu im v vt l hc, t bao lu nay vn cn l nhng im b mt. Phng trnh gii thch ti sao cht quang tuyn phn x nh radium v uranium li c th lin tip trong hng triu nm bn ra nhng tia li ti chy vi tc khng khip. Phng trnh cn gii thch ti sao mt tri v cc v tinh t li c th tun nh sng v sc nng trong hng t t nm, v nu mt tri ch c la theo li thng thng th tri t ca chng ta phi cht trong ti tm u lnh t hng triu nm ri. Phng trnh cn cho chng ta thy nng lng gh gm cha cht trong nhn nguyn t v tin on ch cn mt lng rt nh cht uranium cng to ra mt tri bom c sc cng ph c mt thnh ph. Cho mi n nm 1939 phng trnh ca Einstein vn cn l l thuyt. Vo nm , sau khi b c quc x trc xut khi chu u, Einstein sang M ri t lu sau ng nhp quc tch M. Einstein c tin c quc x ang lng nhp cng uranium v ang nghin cu v bom nguyn t, ng lin vit cho Tng thng Roosevelt mt bc th ti mt: Nhng cng cuc nghin cu mi y ca E. Fermi v Lzilard m bn tho c gi ti ti, khin ti ngh rng trong tng lai rt gn, cht uranium c th bin thnh mt ngun nng lng mi m v quan trng... Hin tng mi ny c th dn ti vic ch to bom, v c th tin rng... ch mt tri bom loi , mang di tu v cho n hi cng c th tn ph ton th hi cng v cc vng ph cn. Kt qu tc khc ca bc th Einstein gi cho Roosevelt l vic khi cng xy dng n bom nguyn t Manhattan. Nm nm sau, trai bom nguyn t u tin c a ra th Almagordo Reservation thuc bang New http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
LC S THI GIAN
225
Mexico, v t lu sau M th bom nguyn t tn ph Hiroshima, sm kt liu chin tranh vi Nht Bn. Bom nguyn t l mt trong nhng kt qu thc t vang di nht ca l thuyt Einstein. Tuy nhin ngi ta vn cn phi k n thc t khc na. Nm 1905, nm thuyt tng i ra i, cc nh khoa hc trin khai nh lut v in nh hc (Photoelectric Law) ca Einstein, gii thch nhng tc ng in nh huyn b v do m ng cho v tuyn truyn hnh, phim c ting ni, con mt thn cng nhng p dng khc. Chnh v pht minh ny m Einstein c tng gii Nobel v vt l nm 1922. Trong nhng nm cui i, Einstein vn khng ngng n lc xy dng l thuyt v Trng thng nht (Unfided Field Theory) nhm chng minh tnh cht ha hp v ng nht ca to vt. Theo Einstein, cc nh lut vt l hc chi phi nguyn t nh b cng c th p dng i vi nhng vt th ln lao trong khng gian. Do l thuyt v Trng thng nht ca Einstein gii thch c mi hin tng vt l theo mt khun mu c nh. Lc ht, in lc, t lc v nguyn t lc tt c u l nhng lc c th gii thch c bng mt l thuyt duy nht. Nm 1950, sau gn na i nghin cu, Einstein ln u tin trnh by l thuyt Trng thng nht ca ng trc th gii. ng ng tin rng thuyt ny nm gi c cha kha ca v tr, thng nht trong mt quan nim, t th gii cc nh v quay cung ca nguyn t n khng gian mnh mng ca cc thin th. V nhng kh khn v ton hc nn thuyt ca Einstein vn cha c nhng s kin vt l hc kim chng ton b. Tuy vy Einstein vn vng tin rng l thuyt v Trng thng nht ca ng gii thch c tnh cht nguyn t ca nng lng v chng minh c s hin hu ca mt v tr c sp t rt trt t. T tng trit l gy cm hng v hng dn Einstein qua bao nhiu nm n lc, v nhng phn thng cho nhng n lc , c Einstein trnh by trong bi ging v ngun gc L thuyt tng qut v tng i ti trng i hc Glasgow nm 1933. Kt qu cui cng rt gin d, bt k mt sinh vin thng minh no cng c th hiu c mt cch d dng. Nhng ch c th hiu c sau khi tri qua nhng nm m thm tm kim mt s tht m ngi ta ch cm thy ch khng th ni ln c. Ngi ta ch c th hiu c iu khi lng ham mun ln n mc cung nhit, v khi tri qua nhng giai on tin tng ri nghi ng, nghi ng ri tin tng cho ti mt lc no , bng hiu r c s tht sng sa. http://ebooks.vdcmedia.com
Stephen Hawking Trong mt dp khc, Einstein bc l c tnh tinh thn ca ng:
226
Cm xc p nht v su xa ca con ngi l cm xc trc s huyn b. Chnh cm xc ny khin cho khoa hc chn chnh ny n. Nhng ai khng cn c nhng cm xc , khng cn bit ngc nhin v ch bit ng ngn ngi ra v s hi th sng cng nh cht. Cm thy iu huyn b m con ngi khng sao gii thch ni, l v n ch biu l ra khi m kh nng t i ng bun ca chng ta ch hiu c nhng hnh thc thp km ca ci quy lut cao siu di v p rng r hn ht. Chnh s bit v cm xc l nn tng ch thc ca tn gio. Con s nh khoa hc tn dng Einstein khng k xit. Chng ta hy c hai tc phm vit v Einstein, hiu a v c nht ca ng trong gii khoa hc. Paul Oehser vit: i vi Albert Einstein, ngi ta khng th khng ni n nh hng. Phi gi nhng l thuyt ca ng l cch mng v m ra k nguyn nguyn t. K nguyn ny a nhn loi i n u chng ta cha th bit. Hin nay chng ta ch bit rng Einstein l nh khoa hc, nh trit hc v i nht ca th k. Trc mt chng ta, Einstein c dng dp mt v thnh v nhng cng trnh ca ng khin chng ta thm tin tng vo kh nng tr tu ca con ngi. ng cn l hnh nh bt dit ca con ngi lun lun tm hiu. Nh khoa hc Banesh Hoffman kt lun nh sau: Einstein v i khng hn ch v nhng t tng khoa hc m cn v tc dng tm l. Trong mt giai on nghim trng ca lch s khoa hc, Einstein chng minh rng, nhng t tng xa khng hn l thing ling bt di bt dch. Chnh s chng minh m ng cho tr tng tng ca nhng ngi nh Bohr v Broglie khin h c th thnh cng trong a ht lng t. Ton th khoa vt l hc ca th k 20 u mang du n khng th xa nho ca thin ti Einstein.

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Gii thiu cun sch "Lc s thi gian"

Hnh 1.1: M hnh v tr ca Aristotle - Ptolemy coi tri t l trung tm ca v tr.

Hnh 2.3: vng trn ln dn ca cc gn sng s to thnh mt nn c nh nm ng ti ch v ti thi im hn chm vo mt nc.

Hnh 2.6: Nn nh sng khi mt tri tt.

Hnh 3.3: Hai thin h ngy cng tch xa nhau.

Hnh 4.2: Ch c mt lng sng nh i qua khe.

Hnh 5.1 a, b, c: Hnh minh ha v cc dng spin khc nhau ca ht.

Hnh 7.4: Ht o cng c th ri vo l en nh mt ht thc hoc phn ht thc.

ging nh ta quan st c? Cu tr li by gi s tr nn n gin. Nu v tr khc i th chng ta s khng th tn ti y c!

Stephen Hawking Trong mt dp khc, Einstein bc l c tnh tinh thn ca ng:

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