TRNG AI HOC S PHAM KY THUAT TP.

HO CH MINH
KHOA C KH CHE TAO MAY
BO MON C IEN T --------------------

BAI GIANG

KY THUAT O LNG VA CAM BIEN

(LU HNH NI B)

TP. HCM 2006

Chng 1: Nhng khi nim v c trng c bn ca k thut o lng v cm bin................................................................................................................. 2 1.1 Mt s nh ngha v c trng........................................................................ 2 1.2 Phn loi cm bin.......................................................................................... 11 1.3 Cc i lng nh hng................................................................................ 15 1.4 Mch o lng v gia cng thng tin o........................................................ 16 1.5 Sai s php o v gia cng kt qu o lng ................................................. 17 1.6 Chun cm bin .............................................................................................. 19 1.7 nhy........................................................................................................... 20 1.8 tuyn tnh .................................................................................................. 21 1.9 nhanh-Thi gian hi p........................................................................... 22 1.10 Gii hn s dng cm bin........................................................................... 23 1.11 Cc mch giao din in t ca cc b cm bin......................................... 24 Chng 2: Cc chuyn i o lng s cp..................................................... 30 2.1 Khi nim chung............................................................................................. 30 2.2 Cc chuyn i in tr.................................................................................. 33 2.3 Cc chuyn i in t ................................................................................... 43 2.4 Cc chuyn i tnh in ................................................................................ 58 2.5 Cc chuyn i nhit in .............................................................................. 73 2.6 Cc chuyn i ha in................................................................................. 84 2.7 Cc chuyn i in t v ion ........................................................................ 96 2.8 Cc chuyn i lng t................................................................................. 99 Chng 3 Cm bin thng minh..................................................................... 105 3.1 S ra i ca cm bin thng minh.............................................................. 105 3.2 Vi in t ha cc chuyn i s cp........................................................... 105 3.3 X l s b kt qu o trong cm bin thng minh ..................................... 106 3.4 Cu trc ca cm bin thng minh ............................................................... 109 3.5 Mt s v d v cm bin thng minh .......................................................... 110 3.7 Thit b o thng minh v linh hot ............................................................. 113 Ti liu tham kho..................................................................................................

CHNG 1:

NHNG KHI NIM V C TRNG C BN CA K THUT O LNG V CM BIN

1.1. MT S NH NGHA V C TRNG 1.1.1. nh ngha: Trong thc t i sng v sn xut, vic nm bt cc thng tin trong qu trnh hot ng ca cc h thng, thit b l v cng quan trng v cn thit. Ch khi nm bt c cc thng s ca chng, ni cch khc l nh gi nh lng c chng, chng ta mi c th lm ch c hon ton cc thit b v h thng trn phng din iu chnh, iu khin. Cc thng s ny thng c th hin qua cc i lng vt l c trng tng ng nh nhit , p sut, lu lng... V vy, khng c cch no khc l chng ta phi c cc phng php tng ng o lng gi tr ca cc i lng vt l ny. o lng: l mt qu trnh nh gi nh lng i lng cn o c kt qu bng s so vi n v o. [1] (Nh vy, khng phi i lng no cng c th o c mt cch trc tip v khng c n v mu ca i lng thc hin so snh, v d: ng sut c hc Khi ngi ta phi chuyn i i lng vt l ny sang dng khc thc hin php o, v d: chuyn sang dng in loadcell cm bin lc cng v so snh bng tng quan in) o lng hc: l ngnh khoa hc nghin cu v cc phng php o cc i lng khc nhau, v mu v n v o. [1] K thut o lng: l ngnh k thut nghin cu v ng dng cc thnh qu ca o lng hc vo phc v sn xut v i sng. [1] Cm bin chnh l mt trong nhng sn phm quan trng nht ca K thut o lng. Cc i lng vt l cn o c cm bin bin i thnh mt i lng in tng ng u ra. i lng in ny phn nh cc thng tin cn thit lin quan n i lng cn o. Cm bin: l mt thit b chu tc ng ca i lng cn o m khng c tnh cht in v cho ta mt c trng mang bn cht in (in tch, in p, dng in hoc tr khng) k hiu l s. c trng in s l hm ca i lng cn o: s = F(m).[2] R rng rng, vi mi loi cm bin th mi quan h hm s ny s c mt dng biu thc hm khc nhau. N ph thuc vo cc yu t cu thnh ca cm
2

bin nh: cu trc, vt liu, mi trng Tuy nhin n gin trong vic o lng v x l tn hiu, ngi ta thng c gng ch to cc loi cm bin sao cho quan h hm l mt hm tuyn tnh tc l c h s t l hng v n tr. H s t l thng c gi di tn gi l nhy ca cm bin, k hiu S:
S= ds s = dm m

(1.1) H s S thng ph thuc vo cc yu t: + S bin thin gi tr ca i lng cn o ( tuyn tnh ca th bin i i lng cn o) v tn s thay i ca n (di thng). + Thi gian s dng ca cm bin ( gi ho) + nh hng ca cc i lng vt l khc (nhiu t mi trng xung quanh) 1.1.2. Cc c trng ca k thut o lng: K thut o lng bao gm cc c trng sau: 1.1.2.1. i lng o (hay tn hiu o): Theo tnh cht thay i ca i lng o c th chia thnh i lng o tin nh v i lng o ngu nhin: a, i lng o tin nh: l i lng o bit trc c quy lut thay i ca n theo thi gian nhng c mt hoc mt s thng s cn phi o. thng l tn hiu mt chiu, xoay chiu hnh sin hay xung vung vi cc thng s cn o l bin , tn s, gc pha V d: o ln bin ca tn hiu hnh sin. b, i lng o ngu nhin: l i lng o c s bin i theo thi gian mt cch khng c quy lut, nu ly bt k gi tr no ca tn hiu th u l gi tr ngu nhin. V d: m ca khng kh. Trong thc t a s cc dng tn hiu o u l ngu nhin. Tuy nhin mt chng mc no ta c th gi thit rng trong sut qu trnh din ra php o, i lng o l tn hiu thay i chm hoc khng i hoc thay i theo quy lut bit. Trong trng hp i lng o ngu nhin bin i theo mt tn s rt ln th khng s dng c cc php o thng thng m phi o bng phng php o lng thng k.
3

 Theo cch bin i tn hiu o c th chia thnh tn hiu o ri rc (s) v tn hiu o lin tc (tng t): a, Tn hiu o lin tc (tng t): l bin i tn hiu o thnh dng tn hiu khc tng t vi n. ng vi n l cc thit b o tng t. V d: ampemet c kim ch o cng dng in. b, i lng o ri rc (s): l bin i tn hiu o thnh tn hiu s. ng vi n l cc thit b o s. Theo bn cht ca i lng o c th chia thnh: a, i lng o nng lng: l i lng o m bn thn n mang nng lng nh sc in ng, in trng, t trng, cng sut, b, i lng o thng s: l cc thng s ca mch in nh in tr, in cm, in dung hay h s t trng , hoc cc i lng o v tr, kch thc c, i lng o ph thuc thi gian: chu k, tn s, gc pha d, i lng o khng in: thc hin o c bng phng php in i hi phi c s chuyn i chng v dng tn hiu in bng b chuyn i o lng s cp. 1.1.2.2. iu kin o: Cc thng tin o lng bao gi cng gn cht vi mi trng sinh ra i lng o. Khi o phi m bo loi b c cc nh hng ca mi trng n thit b o (nhng yu t khin cho php o khng thc hin c trong iu kin tiu chun nh), ng thi bn thn thit b o cng khng c gy nh hng n (lm bin i) i lng o. 1.1.2.3. n v o: L cc gi tr mu chun v mt i lng no c quc t quy nh chung cho mi quc gia phc v cho vic so snh vi gi tr o c php o a ra c thng s c th. H thng n v quc t SI gm 2 nhm n v: + n v c bn: c th hin bng cc n v chun vi chnh xc cao nht m khoa hc v k thut hin i c th thc hin c. Cc n v c bn c chn sao cho vi s lng t nht m c th suy ra cc n v ko theo cho tt c cc i lng vt l. + n v ko theo: l n v c lin quan n cc n v c bn theo nhng quy lut xc nh bng cng thc.
4

Bng 1.1: Bng n v c bn v cc n v ko theo. STT Cc i lng vt l Cc i lng c bn: di Khi lng 1 Thi gian Dng in Nhit S lng vt cht Cng nh sng Cc i lng c hc: Tc Gia tc 2 Nng lng v cng Lc Cng sut Nng lng Cc i lng in: in lng in p, th in ng 3 Cng in trng in dung in tr in tr ring H s in mi tuyt i Culng Vn Vn trn mt Fara m m mt Fara trn mt C V V/m F .m F/m
5

Tn n v

K hiu

Met Kilogram Giy Ampe Kelvin Mol Candela

m kg s A K mol Cd

Mt trn giy Mt trn giy bnh phng Jun Newton Watt Watt giy

m/s m/s2 J N W W.s

Cc i lng t: T thng 4 Cm ng t Cng t trng in cm H s t thm Cc i lng quang: Lung (thng lng) nh sng 5 Cng sng ring ( chi) ri Nng lng Lumen Candela trn mt vung Lumen trn mt vung Lumen giy lm Cd/m2 lm/m2 (hay lux) lm.s Webe Tesla Ampe trn mt Henry Henry trn mt Wb T A/m H H/m

Bng 1.2: Bng cc bi v c s thng dng ca n v c bn. Tn ca tip u ng pico nano micro mili centi dexi Gi tr c s 10-12 10-9 10-6 10-3 10-2 10-1 K hiu p n m c d Tn ca tip u ng deca hecto kilo Mega Giga Tera Gi tr bi s 101 102 103 106 109 1012 K hiu da h k M G T

(Cc thng tin k hn v chun quc gia, mu v mt s thit b to mu cho vic o lng tham kho thm trong ti liu [2]) 1.1.2.4. Thit b o v phng php o: Thit b o: l thit b k thut dng gia cng tn hiu mang thng tin o thnh dng tin li cho ngi quan st. Chng c cc tnh cht o lng hc tc l cc tnh cht nh hng n kt qu o v sai s ca php o.

Phng php o: l cch thc thc hin qu trnh o, n ph thuc vo phng php nhn thng tin v cc yu t khc nh ln i lng o, iu kin o, sai s yu cu (xem thm mc I.1.3) 1.1.2.5. Ngi quan st: l ngi o v gia cng kt qu o. Nhim v ca ngi quan st khi o l nm vng phng php o, am hiu v thit b o m mnh s dng, kim tra iu kin o, phn on khong o chn thit b ph hp, chn dng c o ph hp sai s yu cu v mi trng xung quanh, bit iu khin qu trnh o c kt qu mong mun, nm c phng php gia cng kt qu o tin hnh gia cng kt qu o. Bit xt on kt qu t yu cu hay cha, c th o bng phng php thng thng hay bng phng php thng k C th ni, s pht trin ca my tnh v k thut cm bin ngy nay gim thiu rt nhiu cng vic ca ngi quan st v qu trnh o v x l d liu mt cch t ng. Tuy nhin, kinh nghim trong ng dng ca ngi quan st vn v cng quan trng trong vic la chn thit b v nh gi tin cy ca cc thit b o lng trong thc t lm vic. 1.1.2.6. Kt qu o: Kt qu o mt chng mc no c th coi l chnh xc v gi tr nh vy c gi l gi tr c lng ca i lng o (gi tr c xc nh bng thc nghim bi thit b o). Gi tr ny gn vi gi tr thc mt iu kin no c th coi l thc. nh gi lch gia gi tr o c v gi tr thc, ngi ta a ra khi nim sai s ca php o (tr tuyt i hiu ca 2 gi tr ny). y chnh l thng s cho php nh gi php o hay thit b thc hin php o c t yu cu khng. 1.1.3. Phng php o: Cc phng php o c th phn loi nh sau: 1.1.3.1. Phng php o bin i thng: S cu trc ca phng php ny c dng bin i thng, tc l khng c phn hi:
X

B
X0

X X0

A/D

Nx N0

SSs

Nx/N0

Hnh 1.1: S o bin i thng

7

Trong : X: X0: Nx: N0: B:

tn hiu cn o tn hiu mu (dng chia vch n v trong thang o) thng s quy i gi tr ln ca tn hiu cn o thng s quy i gi tr ln ca n v o b bin i

A/D: b chuyn i tn hiu tng t sang s SSs: b so snh s Gi tr o c l: X = X0.(Nx/N0) Loi dng c o bin i thng thng vp phi nhc im l sai s bng tng cc sai s ca cc khu v vy thng ch dng cc nh my, x nghip o cc thng s v kim tra cc qu trnh sn xut vi chnh xc khng cao. 1.1.3.2. Phng php o kiu so snh: S cu trc ca phng php ny c dng vng kn c phn hi:
X Xk Nx

SS

A/D

D/A
Hnh 1.2: S o kiu so snh Trong : X: Xk: lng mu) Nx: B: tn hiu cn o tn hiu phn hi (l tn hiu so snh c gi tr t l vi i thng s quy i gi tr ln ca tn hiu cn o b bin i

D/A: b chuyn i tn hiu s sang tng t A/D: b chuyn i tn hiu tng t sang s
8

SSs: b so snh Php o s din ra cho n khi tn hiu phn hi Xk c gi tr bng vi gi tr ca i lng cn o X. Thit b o kiu ny gi l thit b o kiu so snh hay thit b b. Ty thuc cch so snh m ta c th phn chia phng php o ny thnh: 1.1.3.2.1. Kiu so snh cn bng: L php so snh tin hnh sao cho lun gi gi tr sai lch X = 0. Khi gi tr o c ca tn hiu l: X = Xk = Nk.X0. V d: in th k dng cu o cn bng. 1.1.3.2.2. Kiu so snh khng cn bng: L php so snh tin hnh sao cho lun gi gi tr sai lch X = const 0. Khi gi tr o c ca tn hiu l: X = X + Xk (1.3) Nh vy, chnh xc ca php o s ph thuc vo php o X: gi tr X cng ln so vi X th chnh xc cng thp. (khi X = 0,1X th chnh xc thp hn khi X = 0.01X). V d: ng dng trong cc php o cc i lng khng in nh nhit , ng sut (dng mch cu khng cn bng) 1.1.3.2.3. Kiu so snh khng ng thi: Qu trnh o din ra nh sau: ban u cho tn hiu cn o X tc ng vo h thng o, sau ly 1 tn hiu mu Xk tc ng vo h thng o v iu chnh Xk sao cho tn hiu u ra cng ging ht i vi X, khi X = Xk. Kiu o ny c chnh xc ch ph thuc vo php o Xk. u im ca phng php ny l khi thay tn hiu u vo ta vn gi nguyn cc iu kin lm vic ca h thng o v do loi b c cc nh hng ngoi lai. V d: ng dng o dng in xoay chiu thng qua dng in 1 chiu da trn tc dng hiu dng trung gian l tc dng nhit (ampemet nhit). 1.1.3.2.4. Kiu so snh ng thi: Php so snh ny o ng thi gi tr ca X v Xk, cn c vo rt nhiu cc cp im trng nhau suy ra gi tr cn o.
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(1.2)

V d: o quy i chiu di ca 1 inch sang mm: ta t 2 thc o song song c gc 0 trng vi nhau. c c gi tr cc im vch chn trng nhau tip theo l: 127mm 5inches; 254mm 10inches; 381mm 15inches; T suy ra: 1 inch = 127/5 = 254/10 = 381/15 = 25,4 mm Phng php ny dng th nghim cc c tnh ca cc cm bin hay ca thit b o nh gi sai s ca chng. 1.1.4. Hm truyn ca cm bin: Quan h gia p ng v kch thch ca b cm bin c th cho di dng bng gi tr, graph hoc biu thc ton hc. Hm truyn ca cm bin l biu din ton hc ca mi quan h ny. c th l quan h tuyn tnh: s = a.m + b (1.4) (a l nhy ca cm bin, b l hng s bng tn hiu ra ca cm bin khi kch thch vo bng 0) hoc dng hm m, hm loga, hm lu tha (cc dng hm ton hc s cp): s = a.ekm s = 1 + a.lnm s = a0 + a1.mk (k l hng s) Cc dng hm phi tuyn thng khng c dng hm ton hc s cp nhng c th gn ng bng cc hm a thc bc cao. cc hm phi tuyn, nhy ca cm bin ph thuc tng im lm vic v c gi tr bng gi tr ca o hm hm truyn ti im lm vic:
a= ds dm m0

(1.5) (1.6) (1.7)

(1.8)

1.1.5. ln ca tn hiu vo: ln ca tn hiu vo l gi tr ln nht ca tn hiu vo t vo b cm bin m sai s khng vt qu ngng cho php. i vi cc b cm bin c p ng phi tuyn, ngng ng ca kch thch thng c biu din bng dexibel (bng logarit ca t s cng sut hoc in p ca tn hiu ra v tn hiu vo):
1dB = 10 lg u P2 = 20 lg 2 u1 P1

(1.9)

10

Bng 1.3: Quan h gia t s in p v t s cng sut tnh theo dexibel

Dexibel T s cng sut T s in p (dng in) 0,1 1,023 1,0 1,26 10 10 20 100 30 103 40 104 50 105 60 106 103 70 107 3162 80 108 104 90 109 3.104 100 1010 105

1,012

1,12

3,16

10

31,6

100

316

1.2.

PHN LOI CM BIN Cm bin c th c phn loi thep nhiu c s khc nhau:

1.2.1. Theo thng s ca m hnh mch thay th: Cm bin l mt phn t ca mch in m theo nguyn l ch to ta c th chia ra lm 2 loi cm bin l cm bin th ng v cm bin tch cc. 1.2.1.1. Cm bin tch cc: L loi cm bin c nguyn l hot ng l bin i cc dng nng lng phi in no thnh nng lng in vi tn hiu ra l dng in, in p, in tch c t l tng quan vi i lng cn o. Cm bin loi ny da trn cc hiu ng bin i sau: 1.2.1.1.1. Hiu ng nhit in: Cp nhit in: 2 on dy kim loi c bn cht ho hc khc nhau c hn dnh c 2 u vi nhau to thnh mt vng kn. Khi nhit 2 u ni chnh lch s xut hin mt sc in ng tng ng t l trong vng dy. Tn hiu ny s c a vo mch in gia cng tn hiu pha sau. 1.2.1.1.2. Hiu ng ho in: S dng khi tinh th ho in (Sulfat triglycine) tc l khi nhit 2 b mt ca khi tinh th ny chnh lch nhau th in tch 2 b mt s tri du v c ln t l thun vi phn cc in hay chnh nhit . chnh lch in tch ny s c a vo mch in gia cng tn hiu pha sau di hnh thc in tch trn 2 bn cc ca t in. (dng trong vic o thng lng bc x nh sng) 1.2.1.1.3. Hiu ng p in: Vt liu p in (thch anh) c tnh cht l khi b lc tc dng lm bin dng th s to ra cc in tch tri du trn cc mt i din c ln t l vi ln ca lc. chnh lch in tch ny s c a vo mch in gia cng tn hiu pha sau di hnh thc in tch trn 2 bn cc ca t in.
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1.2.1.1.4. Hiu ng cm ng in t: Khi mt dy dn kn chuyn ng trong t trng khng i (hoc khung dy ng yn trong mt t trng bin thin) s xut hin mt sut in ng trong vng dy t l vi lng t thng ct ngang vng dy trong mt n v thi gian, ni cch khc l t l vi tc dch chuyn ca dy dn. chnh lch in tch ny s c a vo mch in gia cng tn hiu pha sau. (ng dng trong o tc dch chuyn ca vt) 1.2.1.1.5. Hiu ng quang in: Da trn nguyn tc: di tc dng ca bc x nh sng hoc bc x in t c bc sng ngn hn gi tr bc sng ngng ca vt liu, cc vt liu s gii phng ra cc ht dn t do to ra dng in dn kch hot cc phn t tip theo trong mch gia cng tn hiu o. (ng dng trong cm bin quang bt sng n chiu cng cng) I.2.1.1.6. Hiu ng quang pht x in t: Da trn hin tng cc in t c gii phng thot khi vt liu v c thu gom bi in trng to ra dng in. Tn hiu ny s c a vo mch in gia cng tn hiu pha sau. 1.2.1.1.7. Hiu ng quang in trong cht bn dn: Khi chiu sng vo mt lp tip gip P-N th s lm pht sinh cc cc cp in t v l trng chuyn ng di tc dng ca in trng ca lp chuyn tip lm thay i hiu in th gia 2 u ca lp chuyn tip. Tn hiu in p ny s c a vo mch in gia cng tn hiu pha sau. 1.2.1.1.8. Hiu ng quang in t: Da trn hin tng: chiu bc x nh sng v t trng B (nam chm) vung gc vi nhau ng thi ln mt vt liu bn dn th s hnh thnh mt hiu in th theo phng vung gc vi mt phng to bi phng bc x v phng t trng. Hiu in th ny s c a vo mch in gia cng tn hiu pha sau. (ng dng o cc thng tin cha ng trong nh sng) 1.2.1.1.9. Hiu ng Hall: Mt vt liu bn dn dng tm mng c dng in chy qua khi t trong t trng B c phng to vi dng in I mt gc , s lm xut hin mt hiu in th VH c phng vung gc vi mt phng to bi I v B. Hiu in th ny s c a vo mch in gia cng tn hiu pha sau. ln ca VH c xc nh theo cng thc:

12

VH = KH.I.B.sin.

(1.10)

KH l h s ph thuc vt liu v kch thc hnh hc ca mu. Hiu ng Hall c ng dng trong cm bin xc nh v tr ca mt vt chuyn ng. Ngi ta gn mt thanh nam chm ln vt . V tr ca vt (v do v tr ca thanh nam chm) s xc nh gi tr ca t trng B v gc lch tng ng. Nh vy, VH l mt hm ph thuc vo v tr ca vt trong khng gian. Ch rng cm bin v tr kiu ny khng chuyn i nng lng (t v tr sang gi tr in p) m nng lng to tn hiu in p ra l ngun ca dng in I ch khng phi l i lng cn o (v tr). Cm bin kiu hiu ng Hall l cm bin tch cc v thng tin ra lin quan n sc in ng. 1.2.1.1.10. Cc hiu ng khc: Ngoi ra cn c cc hiu ng bin i tn hiu kiu sinh hc nh: bin i sinh ho, hiu ng trn c th sng, phn tch ph 1.2.1.2. Cm bin th ng: L loi cm bin hot ng da trn nguyn tc: i lng cn o c tc ng nh hng lm thay i gi tr tr khng ca cm bin v do lm thay i gi tr kin to mch in x l gia cng thng tin o pha sau mt cch tng ng. (v d: lm lch cu in tr (vn cn bng khi cha thc hin php o)) Gi tr tr khng ny thng ph thuc ng thi vo kch thc hnh hc ca mu o v cc tnh cht in ca vt liu nh in tr sut , t thm , hng s in mi . Trong cc php o, cc thuc tnh ny c th c nh hng mt cch ring bit hoc ng thi n tr khng ca cm bin. Thuc tnh kch thc hnh hc: thng c nh hng khi trong qu trnh o vt di chuyn hoc b lm bin dng. + Vi vt di chuyn: cm bin s cha phn t ng (li thp ng trong cm bin cm ng, np li t cm bin in th, bn cc di ng ca t in) v khi phn t ny di chuyn s ko theo s thay i tr khng tng ng. + Vi vt chu bin dng: cm bin s cha phn t bin dng chu tc dng trc tip hoc gin tip ca lc tc dng hoc cc i lng dn n lc (p sut, gia tc). V d: bn cc di ng ca t in chu tc dng ca p sut vi sai, cm bin o ng lc c lin quan cht ch n cu trc chu tc ng ca ng sut. Thuc tnh tnh cht in: mi vt liu u c th nhy vi cc tc ng ca nhiu i lng vt l khc nhau nh nh sng, nhit , p sut,Trong thc t, khi
13

tin hnh o cm bin lun chu nh hng tc ng ca yu t mi trng, nu cc vt liu ch to cm bin nhy vi qu nhiu i lng vt l s lm cho php o d gp phi rt nhiu sai s khng mong mun. V vy, cm bin lun c ch to sao cho ch mt trong s cc i lng trn c th thay i tr khng ca n trong khi nhng i lng cn li l khng i. Ch khi ta mi c tng quan n tr gia tr khng ca cm bin vi gi tr cn o. 1.2.2. Theo dng kch thch: Bng 1.4: Bng lit k cc c tnh ca kch thch STT 1 2 m thanh in Kch thc Cc c tnh ca kch thch Bin pha, phn cc, ph, tc truyn sng in tch, dng in, in th, in p, in trng (bin pha, phn cc, ph), in dn, hng s in mi T trng (bin pha, phn cc, ph), t thng, cng t trng, t thm Bin pha, phn cc, ph, tc truyn,h s pht x, khc x, h s hp th, h s bc x V tr, lc, p sut, gia tc, vn tc, ng sut, cng, mmen, khi lng, t trng, vn tc cht lu, nht Nhit , thng lng, nhit dung, t nhit Kiu, nng lng, cng

3 4

T Quang

6 7

Nhit Bc x

1.2.3. Theo tnh nng cc b cm bin:

14

Bng 1.5: Bng lit k cc tnh nng ca b cm bin STT 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 nhy chnh xc phn gii chn lc tuyn tnh Cng sut tiu th Di tn Tnh nng STT 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 tr Kh nng qu ti Tc p ng n nh (ngn hn v di hn) Tui th iu kin mi trng Kch thc, trng lng Tnh nng

1.2.4. Theo phm vi s dng cc b cm bin: + Cm bin trong Cng nghip + Cm bin trong Nghin cu khoa hc + Cm bin trong Mi trng kh tng + Cm bin trong Thng tin, vin thng + Cm bin trong Nng nghip + Cm bin trong Dn dng + Cm bin trong Giao thng + Cm bin trong V tr + Cm bin trong Qun s 1.3. CC I LNG NH HNG

Cc i lng nh hng hay i lng nhiu l cc i lng c th tc ng n tn hiu u ra ca cm bin ng thi vi i lng cn o. Bao gm: + p sut, gia tc, dao ng (rung): gy ra bin dng v ng sut trong mt s thnh phn ca cm bin khin tn hiu hi p b sai lch.
15

+ m: lm thay i tnh cht in ca vt liu nh: hng s in mi , in tr sut . + Nhit : lm thay i cc c trng in, c v kch thc ca cm bin. + T trng: c th gy nn sut in ng cm ng chng ln tn hiu c ch, lm thay i tnh cht in ca vt liu cu thnh cm bin. + Bin v tn s ca in p nui (v d bin th vi sai) nh hng n i lng in u ra. Trong mi php o, ngi ta lun c gng tm cch gim thiu nhiu nht nh hng ca cc yu t ngoi lai ny bng cc bin php chng nhiu trong o lng nh: S dng cc bin php chng rung, chng t trng, cch in n nh cc i lng nh hng nhng gi tr bit trc v chun cm bin trong cc iu kin (v d: bnh n nhit, ngun in p c b phn iu chnh) S dng cc s ghp ni cho php cho php b tr nh hng ca i lng gy nhiu.

1.4.

MCH O LNG V GIA CNG THNG TIN O Mch o bao gm ton b cc thit b o (k c cm bin trong ) cho php xc nh chnh xc i lng cn o trong nhng iu kin tt nht c th. Tn hiu tc ng vo u vo ca mch qua cm bin (mt cch trc tip nu l cm bin tch cc v gin tip thng qua b chuyn i nu l cm bin th ng) a ra u ra ca cm bin tn hiu in mang thng tin ca i lng cn o. Tip theo, tn hiu in ny c th c khuch i hoc tinh lc, c x l ti u ho ( nhng h thng o i hi chnh xc khng cao c th khng cn cc thit b ny), sau c chuyn i thnh cc dng c th c c trc tip gi tr trc khi c a ra u ra ca mch. u ra ny c th c ghp ni vi b hin th thng s, c th ghp ni my tnh, vi x l tip tc x l cho cc mc ch iu chnh ca h thng Vic chun h o m bo cho mi gi tr ch th u ra tng ng vi ch 1 gi tr i lng o tc ng u vo. Di y l mt v d s khi cu trc ca mt h o lng in th trn b mt mng nhy quang c lp rp t nhiu phn t: [1]

16

FC D PA 1 - My pht chc nng 3 - Tin khuch i 5 - Khuch i 7 - My tnh PC

5

MY IN

ADC

CPU
7

MN HNH 2 - Cm bin in tch 4 - So pha lc nhiu 6 - Chuyn i s tng t

Hnh 1.3: Mch o in th b mt 1.5. SAI S PHP O V GIA CNG KT QU O LNG Sai s ca php o l hiu s gia gi tr thc v gi tr o c. Sai s php o ch c th c nh gi mt cch c tnh bi v khng th bit c gi tr thc ca i lng o. Sai s c th chia thnh cc loi sau: 1.5.1. Sai s h thng: Sai s h thng l sai lch lun lun tn ti gia gi tr o c trung bnh v gi tr thc ca i lng cn o m khng ph thuc vo s ln o lin tip. Sai s h thng c th khng i hoc bin i chm theo thi gian. Sai s h thng c nguyn nhn do s hiu bit thin lch hoc khng y v h o hoc cng c th do iu kin s dng khng tt. C th chia sai s h thng theo cc nguyn nhn sau: 1.5.1.1. Sai s do gi tr ca i lng chun khng ng: V d: lch im gc 0 trn thang o Sai s ny c th loi b c bng cch kim tra k cc thit b trc khi s dng. 1.5.1.2. Sai s do c tnh ca cm bin: V d: sai s nhy hoc sai s ca ng cong chun, sai khc gia cc sn phm cm bin khc nhau ngay c trong cng lot sn xut, s gi ho ca cc cm bin
17

 gim thiu sai s ny yu cu ngi s dng phi thng xuyn tin hnh chun li cm bin. 1.5.1.3. Sai s do iu kin v ch s dng: V d: cm bin nhit c tc hi p khc nhau khi t trong cht lng chy lin tc v cht lng ng yn; bn thn in tr ca cm bin lm nh hng n gi tr in tr ca h thng c o 1.5.1.4. Sai s do x l kt qu o: V d: kt qu o lch khi tuyn tnh trong khi s dng cm bin gi thit l tuyn tnh (gi thit sai v s bin i ca i lng o); dn nhit ca v cm bin v dy dn khin nhit o c ca cm bin v nhit cn o khc nhau 1.5.2. Sai s ngu nhin: Sai s ngu nhin l sai s c ln, du v tn sut xut hin l khng tun theo bt k mt quy lut bit trc no. C th chia sai s ngu nhin theo cc nguyn nhn sau: 1.5.2.1. Sai s do tnh khng xc nh ca c trng thit b: Vi mi thit b o lng thng th gia cc nc o c mt phn bit nht nh v ln ca i lng u vo. Ni cch khc, nu tn hiu vo khng mt ln ti thiu no th s khng gy ra s bin i u ra ca cm bin. Nh vy, cng l mt yu t gy nn sai s gi l sai s linh ng v gi tr ln nht ca mc sai s ny chnh bng gi tr phn gii ti thiu ca cm bin. Mt yu t khc l sai s do c sai d liu, nguyn nhn l do cht lng ca b ch th (VD: mnh ca kim ch th) hoc do thi quen ca ngi thc hin. Sai s tr l sai s xut hin khi trong mch o c cha thnh phn c tr (tr t, tr c) 1.5.2.2. Sai s do tn hiu nhiu ngu nhin: L do cc nhiu nn gy nn kch thch nhit n cc ht dn trong cc in tr dn n lm thng ging in p u ra, cng c th l s tc ng ca cm ng k sinh do bc x in t gy nn sai s Ni chung cc thng ging ny khng th phn bit vi bin thin ca i lng o. 1.5.2.3. Sai s do cc i lng nh hng: Trong qu trnh chun cm bin c s tc ng ca cc i lng nh hng t mi trng vo cm bin nn bn thn kt qu chun cm bin bao hm nhng sai s do cc i lng nh hng em li.
18

Bin php gim sai s ngu nhin: thng thc hin bng cc bin php thc nghim thch hp: bo v mch o bng cch n nh cc thng s ca mi trng (nh nhit , m), ni t, che chn cc thit b o in, lc tn hiu (V cc loi nhiu, nguyn nhn ca nhiu v cc bin php khc phc xem thm trong [3]) 1.6. CHUN CM BIN Chun cm bin c mc ch din gii tng minh, di dng th hoc i s, mi quan h gia cc gi tr m ca i lng o v gi tr s o c ca i lng in u ra c tnh n cc thng s nh hng. Cc thng s nh hng ny c th l cc i lng vt l lin quan n i lng o (m cm bin rt nhy vi nhng bin thin ca chng), th d nh chiu cao, tc bin thin ca i lng o. Chng cng c th l cc i lng vt l khng lin quan n i lng o nhng tc ng n cm bin trong qu trnh s dng v lm thay i hi p, th d cc i lng nh hng ca mi trng nh nhit , m hay cc i lng nh hng ca ngun nui nh bin , tn s, in p lm vic ca cm bin. C th chia vic chun cm bin thnh cc dng sau: 1.6.1. Chun n gin: Chun n gin l php o trong ch c mt i lng vt l duy nht tc ng ln mt i lng o xc nh v s dng mt cm bin khng nhy vi cc i lng nh hng v cng khng chu tc ng ca cc i lng ny. y l trng hp c bit ca cc i lng o tnh, ngha l cc i lng c gi tr khng i, th d o khong cch c nh bng mt cm bin m ch th ca n khng ph thuc vo nhit v cc i lng nh hng, o mt nhit khng i bng mt cp nhit in Trong nhng iu kin nh vy, chun cm bin chnh l kt hp ca nhng gi tr hon ton xc nh ca i lng o vi cc gi tr tng ng ca i lng in u ra. Vic chun c tin hnh bng mt trong cch cch sau y: + Chun trc tip: cc gi tr khc nhau ca i lng o ly t cc mu chun hoc cc phn t so snh c gi tr bit trc vi chnh xc cao. + Chun gin tip: s dng kt hp ng thi mt cm bin cn chun vi mt cm bin so snh c sn ng cong chun c t cng trong mt iu kin lm vic nh nhau. Khi tc ng ln lt ln cc cm bin bng cng mt gi tr ca i lng o s thu c 2 u ra ca 2 cm bin cc kt qu tng ng. Lp li vi nhiu gi tr khc nhau v chnh dn s to c ng cong chun cho cm bin cn chun.
19

1.6.2. Chun nhiu ln: Khi cm bin c cha nhng phn t c tr (thng l tr c hoc tr t), gi tr o c u ra ph thuc khng nhng vo gi tr tc thi ca i lng cn o m cn ph thuc vo gi tr trc ca i lng ny. Phng php chun nhiu ln s c tin hnh vi cc trng hp ny. Trnh t nh sau: B1: t li im 0 ca cm bin: i lng cn o v i lng u ra c cc gi tr tng ng vi im gc, m = 0, s = 0. B2: Dng li i lng u ra: lc u tng gi tr ca i lng cn o u vo n cc i, sau gim gi tr o. Cc gi tr bit trc ca i lng cn o cho php xc nh ng cong chun theo c 2 hng tng dn v gim dn. Cc tnh cht vt l ca vt liu chu tc ng ca i lng cn o c th l mt trong nhng thng s quyt nh nh hng n hi p ca cm bin. Th d in dung ca cm bin t in o mc cht lng khng nhng ph thuc vo chiu cao ca cht lng m cn ph thuc vo hng s in mi ca n. in tr ca u o nhit b mt ca mt vt l mt hm ca nhit b mt v bn cht ca lp vt liu nm di b mt , s dn n ca lp vt liu ny gy nn ng lc cho cm bin. Trong nhng trng hp tng t nh vy, cn phi tin hnh chun cm bin ring bit i vi tng loi vt liu. [1] 1.7. NHY

nhy S xung quanh mt gi tr khng i mi ca i lng o c xc nh bi t s gia bin thin s ca i lng u ra v bin thin m tng ng ca i lng o u vo: [1]

s S= m m =mi

(1.11)

Gi tr ca nhy ph thuc vo tng ch (iu kin) lm vic ca cm bin nn thng c nh sn xut cung cp di dng bng k thng s tng ng vi cc iu kin khc nhau, nhm gip ngi s dng chn la cm bin mt cch ph hp. nhy thng ph thuc vt liu, kch thc, kiu lp rp, iu kin mi trng, tn s bin thin ca i lng o Ngi ta thng phn bit nhy 2 ch sau: 1.7.1. Trong ch tnh: nhy trong ch tnh l t s gia gia s s v s gia m tng ng, chnh l dc ca c trng tnh im lm vic. R rng nu c
20

trng tnh khng tuyn tnh th nhy khng th l hng s, ni cch khc n c gi tr khc nhau nhng im lm vic khc nhau. (BI TP: tnh nhy vi c trng tnh l ng thng (chnh l h s gc ca ng thng) v ng cong c phng trnh cho trc (o hm v thay thng s si v mi im lm vic vo suy ra Si)) T s chuyn i tnh ri l t s gia gi tr si u ra v gi tr mi tng ng ca i lng o u vo:

s ri = m Qi

(1.12)

T s chuyn i tnh khng ph thuc vo im lm vic Qi v ch bng S khi c trng tnh l ng thng i qua gc to . [1] 1.7.2. Trong ch ng: nhy trong ch ng c xc nh khi i lng o l hm tun hon ca thi gian. Trong iu kin nh vy, i lng u ra s ch lm vic danh nh cng l hm tun hon ca thi gian ging nh i lng o. Trong ch ng, s ph thuc ca nhy vo tn s ca i lng o S(f) xc nh c tnh tn ca cm bin. Nguyn nhn l do qun tnh c, nhit hoc in ca u o (ca cm bin v cc thit b ph tr) khin chng khng th p ng c tc thi so vi s bin thin ca i lng o. (trong trng i lng o bin thin, qu trnh x l tn hiu s dnh dng n yu t tn s v do tt c cc thnh phn qun tnh c, nhit, in (t trng cun dy, in trng t in) u c lin quan n nhy ca cm bin nn cn c xem xt mt cch tng th khi xt nhy) 1.8. TUYN TNH: 1.8.1. iu kin c tuyn tnh: Trong di o, nu mt cm bin c nhy khng ph thuc vo ln ca i lng o. tuyn tnh th hin trong ch tnh l cc on c tuyn p ng c dng ng thng ca cm bin. Trong ch ng (qu ), tuyn tnh th hin l s khng ph thuc vo i lng o ca ng thi nhy v cc thng s quyt nh hi p (tn s ring f0 ca dao ng khng tt, h s tt dn ). (ch qu s phn tch thnh cc thnh phn dao ng v c h s tt dn - ging trong iu khin t ng) 1.8.2. ng thng tt nht - lch tuyn tnh:

21

Trong thc t khi th nghim cm bin d c cho l tuyn tnh nht th tp hp kt qu cng khng bao gi cho ta mt ng thng. Nhng theo l thuyt xc xut thng k ta hon ton c th tm c mt ng thng m t tp hp nghim (p ng ng thng tt nht ca cm bin) bng phng php cc tiu bnh phng (phng php gia cng s liu): s = a.m + b vi: a=
N . si mi si . mi N . mi2 ( mi )
i 2 i i 2 i
2

(1.13)

b=

s . m s m . m N . m ( m )
i 2 i

si , mi : l cc cp gi tr thc nghim tng ng. 1.9. NHANH THI GIAN HI P: nhanh l thng s c trng cho kh nng x l tn hiu ca cm bin c theo kp s bin i theo thi gian ca i lng o khng. nhanh tr l thi gian t khi i lng o thay i t ngt n khi bin thin ca i lng ra s ca cm bin ch cn khc gi tr cui cng mt lng gii hn quy nh %. [1] nhanh c xc nh thng qua thi gian hi p. Gi tr thi gian ny c trng cho tc thay i ca qu trnh qu . N l hm ca cc thng s gy xc nh ch ny.
m m0

0
S/S0

0,9

0,1

Hnh 1.4: Cc khong thi gian c trng cho ch qu

22

tdm

tc

tdm

tc

1.10.

GII HN S DNG CM BIN:

Bt k cm bin no khi lm vic cng cn c duy tr trong mt phm vi chu ng nht nh. Phm vi thng c quyt nh t yu cu v kh nng khng b ph hu v tnh chnh xc ca thng s u ra ca cm bin. R rng cm bin s khng th lm vic c na khi n b ph hu v c hoc mch in bn trong. Nh ni trn, trong qu trnh lm vic, cm bin lun chu cc tc ng nhiu t mi trng. mt chng mc nht nh th nhng nh hng ny l khng ng k, nhng khi chng vt ngng chu ng ca cm bin th tn hiu ra ca cm bin s khng cn t tin cy cn thit na. Nhng ngng gii hn ny, thng c quy nh bi nh sn xut, bao gm: Vng lm vic danh nh: l vng gi tr ng vi nhng iu kin lm vic bnh thng ca cm bin. Bin gii ca vng ny chnh l ngng gii hn m cc i lng o, cc i lng vt l lin quan n i lng o hoc cc i lng nh hng c th thng xuyn t ti m khng lm thay i cc c trng lm vic danh nh ca cm bin. Vng khng gy nn h hng: L vng vt qu ngng gii hn ca cc i lng o, cc i lng lin quan, cc i lng nh hng nhng vn cha gy nn h hng (v tnh chnh xc) cho cm bin. vng ny, thng s ra ca cm bin khng cn chnh xc. Nhng khi iu kin lm vic tr v vng gi tr danh nh th thng s u ra ca cm bin li cho kt qu chnh xc. Vng khng ph hu: L vng m cc i lng o, i lng lin quan v i lng nh hng vt ra ngoi gi tr ngng ca vng khng gy nn h hng nhng vn cn trong vng khng ph hu. Khi thng s ca chnh cm bin khng cn kh nng t phc hi tr li khi iu kin lm vic tr li vng gi tr danh nh. Khi mun s dng li cm bin, ta phi chun li thng s ca n. Di o ca cm bin c xc nh bi nhiu gi tr gii hn ca vng i lng o m trong vng hot ng ca cm bin p ng c cc yu cu ra. Chnh v mc yu cu ny l khc nhau mi ng dng nn di o c th hp hn hoc rng hn vng gi tr danh nh.

23

1.11. CC MCH IN T GIAO DIN CA CC B CM BIN:

p ng u ra ca cc b cm bin ni chung l khng ph hp vi ti (pha sau n) v in p, cng sut, (do thng tn hiu ra ca cc b chuyn i ch l cc tn hiu in rt nh v thay i tu theo s bin thin ca i lng o). Chnh v vy, cn phi c mch giao din hay gia cng v mt nng lng in nm gia u ra ca cm bin v ti ( y ti trc ht chnh l h thng x l d liu pha sau). Cng vic ny c gi l chun ho tn hiu. (Tng tr ca mch giao din (v cc mch in t ni chung) l thng s gia gi tr in p v dng in phc u vo ca n). Cc mch giao din thng c xy dng trn c s cc b khuch i thut ton. B khuch i thut ton c cc c im sau: + Hai u vo: mt u o (-) v mt u khng o (+) + Tng tr vo rt ln (hng trm M hoc hng G) + in tr ra rt nh (vi phn chc ) + in p lch u vo e0 rt nh (c vi nV) nn thng c coi bng 0 VN = VP 0 (1.14) + Dng in phn cc u vo i0 rt nh (c pA) nn thng c coi bng (1.15) i0 = iv = 0 + H s khuch i mch h rt ln (A0 = 100000) + Di tn lm vic rng. + H s suy gim theo cch ni chung CMRR (Common Mode Rejection Ratio) (l t s h s khuch i thut ton i vi cc tn hiu sai lch v h s khuch i theo cch ni chung ca cng b khuch i thut ton) thng vo khong 90dB. + Tc tng hn ch s bin thin cc i ca in p tnh bng V/s. 1.11.1. B khuch i o lng IA: (Instrumentational Amplifier) H s khuch i ca IA khng cao (< 100), tn hiu ra t l vi hiu hai in p t 2 u vo: Ura = A(U+ - U-) = AU (1.16) u vo vi sai ng vai tr rt quan trng trong vic kh nhiu ch chung v tng in tr vo ca khuch i thut ton. in p trn Ra phi bng in p vi sai u vo U v to nn dng in i = U/Ra. Cc in p ra t khuch i thut ton U1 v U2
24

bng nhau v bin nhng ngc pha nhau. Khuch i thut ton U3 bin i in p vi sai thnh in p n cc u ra ca n. H s khuch i tng: A = 1 +

2R R 3 Ra R2
R2

(1.17)

U_

U1
+ -

R3

R1
-

U3
+

Ra

Ura

U2
+

R1

R2

U+

Hnh 1.6: Mch khuch i o lng IA 1.11.2. Mch kh in p lch: Trong thc t, khuch i thut ton lun c mt lch in p nht nh u ra, nguyn nhn l do cc in p bn trong nn to ra mt in p nh u vo ca khuch i thut ton ngay c khi h mch. Tr s in p ny vo khong vi mV nhng khi s dng mch kn, in p ny c khuch i v to nn in p lch u ra. V vy kh in p lch ny ngi ta gn thm bin tr R3 nh trong s sau.Bng cch iu chnh bin tr ny s a gi tr in p lch v 0 (mt trong cc thao tc chun cm bin): \

R3

25

+9V
7

Uv

3 + 2 - 741

Ura R2 R3

-9V R1

Hnh 1.7: Mch kh in p lch 1.11.3. Mch lp in p: y l mt trong nhng ng dng rt thng gp ca khuch i thut ton nhm tng in tr u vo dng ghp ni gia 2 khu trong mch o. H s khuch i ca mch bng +1. Tn hiu vo c a trc tip vo u vo khng o cn u vo o c ni trc tip vi u ra (phn hi 100%).
+9V

4 1 5

+ 4

Uv

Ura

-9V

Hnh 1.8: Mch lp li in p 1.11.4. Ngun in p chnh xc: chun cc dng c o chnh xc cn 1 ngun in p chnh xc. Pin mu Weston to nn in p chnh xc 1,018V c dng nh in p mu, tuy nhin do pin c in tr c 1-2K nn s khng cn chnh xc nu dng in c A. Chnh v vy khc phc ngi ta kt hp pin vi mch lp in p c iu chnh in p lch offset to ra b pin chnh xc c dng ra ln n 5mA do tr khng ra gn bng 0. Dng in cp t pin cho khuch i thut ton ch c 0,03A.
26

Pin Weston

1,018V

+9V
6

3 +
2 - 741
4 1 5

R1
Ura 1,018V

R2

-9V

Hnh 1.9: Mch cp ngun in p chnh xc 1.11.5. Mch cu Wheatstone: Cu Wheatstone gm 4 in tr hot ng nh cu khng cn bng, da trn vic pht hin in p qua ng cho ca cu. in p ra l hm phi tuyn nhng vi bin i nh <0,005 c th coi l tuyn tnh. R3: l in tr c gi tr bin i theo s bin thin ca i lng o. R4: l bin tr dng chnh nh trng thi cn bng ca cu khi cha tin hnh o. in p ra ca cu c biu thc:

Vout = Vcc Vcc

R3 R2 + R3

R4 R1 + R 4 R4 R4 + R4

= kx = Vcc (1 + k )(1 + k + x)
(1.18)

R 0 (1 + x) R 0 k + R 0 (1 + x)

Cu cn bng khi Vout = 0 : nhy ca cu l:

S=

R1 R 2 = =k R4 R

(khi R3 = R v x = 0)

dVout d kx k = Vcc (1 + k )(1 + k + x ) = Vcc (1 + k + x ) 2 dx dx

(1.19)

nhy ca cu t cc i khi:
dS d k 1+ x k = Vcc = Vcc =0 dk dk (1 + k + x ) 2 (1 + k + x ) 3

k = 1+x

(1.20)
27

Vcc

R1
2

R2
4
3 +
2 6

Vout

R4
1

R3 = R(1+x)

Hnh 1.10: Mch cu Wheatstone 1.11.6. Mch b nhit ca cc cu in tr: Mch cu Wheatstone thng c s dng trong cc mch o nhit , lc, ng sut, p sut, t trng Trong nhiu trng hp in tr ny nhy vi nhit nn cn phi b nhit nh hng ca nhit ln in tr. Mt trong s cc phng php thng dng l ni trc tip mch b nhit ln cu in tr. C th s dng cc s nh sau: A, S dng nhit in tr:
+E

Ura

Hnh 1.11: Mch b nhit dng nhit in tr B, S dng in tr c nh:

Rc
Vo
Ura

+E

Hnh 1.12: Mch b nhit dng din tr c nh C, S dng ngun p khng ch theo nhit :

28

Vc
Vo

+E

Ura

Hnh 1.13: Mch b nhit dng ngun p khng ch D, S dng ngun dng khng ch theo nhit :
+E
Ic

Vo
Ura

Hnh 1.14: Mch b nhit dng ngun dng khng ch E, S dng 4 in tr nhit: Hai in tr tx dng o nhit . Hai in tr t0 dng b nhit mi trng.
3

Rt Vcc
2

to

Rt to tx Rt

tx Rt
1

Ura

Hnh 1.15: Mch b nhit dng 4 nhit in tr

29

CHNG 2:

CC CHUYN I O LNG S CP
2.1. KHI NIM CHUNG: 2.1.1. Cc nh ngha: 2.1.1.1. Chuyn i o lng: L thit b thc hin mt quan h hm n tr gia hai i lng vt l vi mt chnh xc nht nh. (nh vy ni chung th chng chuyn i t i lng vt l ny sang i lng vt l khc (khng nht thit l in) v c quan h hm c th l phi tuyn, tuy nhin nng cao chnh xc ngi ta lun c gng to hm tuyn tnh) 2.1.1.2. Chuyn i o lng s cp: L cc chuyn i o lng m i lng vt l vo l khng in nhng i lng ra l i lng in. 2.1.1.3. u o: Chuyn i s cp c t trong mt v hp c kch thc v hnh dng rt khc nhau ph hp vi ch t ca im o to thnh mt loi dng c gi l u o hay b cm bin hoc sensor. Cc u o c th c ch to ring r thnh thit b bn trn th trng hoc i lin vi cc thit b o hay h thng o. Ni chung, nhy, chnh xc v tc ng nhanh ca cc thit b ny u ph thuc rt nhiu vo cng ngh ch to ra chng v cc thnh tu khoa hc hin ti trong cc lnh vc vt l lin quan. 2.1.2. Cc c tnh ca chuyn i s cp: (2.1) Phng trnh ca chuyn i s cp c dng:Y = f(X, Z) Trong : X l i lng khng in cn o Z l tc ng t mi trng xung quanh Thc t th c c c tnh ny ngi ta phi tin hnh thc nghim. V thng thng th cc c tnh thu c u l phi tuyn. Song ngi ta lun c gng tm cch tuyn tnh ho n bng cc mch in t hoc bng cc thut ton x l thng s trong qu trnh gia cng thng tin o. m bo chnh xc cho qu trnh chuyn i ta phi lun tnh n iu kin Z.
30

Khi nh gi mt chuyn i hay phi so snh chng vi nhau ta cn phi ch cc c tnh c bn sau: 1. Phi xt n kh nng c th thay th c ca cc chuyn i: tc l khi ch to mt loi chuyn i ta phi tnh n kh nng ch to nhiu chuyn i vi cc c tnh nh nhau cho trc. Nh th mi c th thay th khi b h hng m khng mc phi sai s. 2. Chuyn i phi c c tnh n tr: tc l vi ng cong hi phc ca chuyn i, ng vi mi gi tr ca X ch tng ng mt gi tr ca Y m thi. 3. ng cong ca chuyn i phi n nh: tc l khng c thay i theo thi gian. 4. Tn hiu ra ca chuyn i yu cu phi ph hp cho vic ghp ni vo dng c o, h thng o v my tnh. 5. c tnh quan trng ca chuyn i l sai s: + Sai s c bn: l sai s gy ra do nguyn tc ca chuyn i, s khng hon thin ca cu trc , s yu km trong cng ngh ch to. + Sai s ph: l sai s gy ra do s bin ng ca iu kin bn ngoi khc vi iu kin chun. nng cao chnh xc ca php o hay dng c o ngi ta thng c gng nng cao chnh xc ca cc chuyn i s cp v y chnh l khu c bn nht trong thit b m chnh xc ca n ph thuc rt nhiu vo bn cht vt l ca chuyn i. 6. nhy ca chuyn i: l mt yu t quan trng, n c tc dng quyt nh cu trc ca mch o m bo cho php o c th bt nhy vi nhng bin ng nh ca i lng o. 7. c tnh ng ca chuyn i: khi c tn hiu tc ng vo chuyn i th lun gy nn qu trnh qu ban u trong chuyn i, qu trnh ny din ra nhanh hay chm hon ton ph thuc vo dng chuyn i. c im ny c gi l tc ng nhanh ca chuyn i. Nu tc ng nhanh m chm th phn ng ca tn hiu ra ca chuyn i c s tr so vi s thay i ca tn hiu vo. 8. S tc ng ngc li ca chuyn i ln i lng o: c th lm thay i i lng o v tip n gy ra s thay i ca tn hiu u ra ca chuyn i. 9. Kch thc ca chuyn i: v mong mun l phi nh c th a u o vo nhng ni hp, nh, nng cao chnh xc ca cc php o. 2.1.3. Phn loi cc chuyn i s cp: C th phn loi theo cc phng php chnh sau:
31

2.1.3.1. Theo nguyn l ca chuyn i: a, Chuyn i in tr: l chuyn i trong i lng khng in X bin i lm thay i in tr ca n. b, Chuyn i in t: l chuyn i lm vic da trn cc nguyn tc v lc in t. i lng khng in X lm thay i cc thng s ca mch t nh in cm L, h cm M, t thm , t thng . c, Chuyn i tnh in: l cc chuyn i lm vic da trn cc hin tng tnh in. i lng khng in X lm thay i in dung C hay in tch ca n. d, Chuyn i ho in: l cc chuyn i lm vic da trn cc hin tng ho in. i lng khng in X lm thay i cc thng s in dn Y, in cm, sc in ng ho in e, Chuyn i nhit in: l cc chuyn i da trn cc hin tng nhit in. i lng khng in X lm thay i sc in ng nhit in hay in tr ca n. f, Chuyn i in t v ion: l cc chuyn i trong i lng khng in X lm thay i dng in t hay ion chy qua n. g, Chuyn i lng t: da trn hin tng cng hng t ht nhn v cng hng t in t. 2.1.3.2. Theo tnh cht ngun in ca chuyn i: a, Chuyn i pht in: l chuyn i c i lng ra l in p V, sc in ng E, dng in I v i lng vo l i lng khng in cn o. (chnh l dng Cam bin nng lng) V d: Chuyn i cm ng, cp nhit in, chuyn i p in b, Chuyn i thng s: l cc chuyn i c i lng ra l cc thng s in nh in tr R, in cm L, h cm M, nh cc chuyn i in cm, in dung, h cm. (chnh l dng cm bin thng s) 2.1.3.3. Theo phng php o ca chuyn i: a, Chuyn i trc tip: l chuyn i m qua i lng khng in c trc tip bin i thnh i lng in. b, Chuyn i b: i lng khng in cn o X c b bi i lng cng loi Xk do chuyn i ngc to ra: Xk = .Y Y = K(X - Xk) = K.X K..Y (2.2) sai lch X gia X v Xk c chuyn i thun bin thnh i lng Y: (2.3)
32

Suy ra:
Y= K .X 1 + K

(2.4)

Nu K>>1 th: Y = (1/).X (2.5) T biu thc ny ta thy Y ch ph thuc vo chnh xc ca chuyn i ngc. Do chuyn i thun c th rt phc tp qua nhiu ln bin i, sai s c th ln, song nu bo m h s bin i K rt ln th chnh xc ca chuyn i b ch ph thuc vo chnh xc ca chuyn i ngc. Chuyn i ngc thng l chuyn i trc tip c chnh xc cao nn chuyn i b thng cng s c chnh xc cao. 2.2. CC CHUYN I IN TR: L loi chuyn i bin s thay i ca i lng khng in cn o thnh s thay i gi tr in tr ca n. C 2 loi sau: 2.2.1. Chuyn i bin tr: 2.2.1.1. Cu to v nguyn l lm vic: Chuyn i bin tr l mt bin tr gm: + Mt li bng vt liu cch in (gm, s, bakelit hoc nhm, ng m c ph lp cch in) hnh dng rt khc nhau. + Trn li qun lin tip cc vng dy in tr (bng manganin, niken, crom, constantan, wolfram) c trng sn emay cch in (nn c th xp xt nhau). ng knh dy khong 0,020,1mm, in tr ca dy c th thay i t vi chc n vi K. + Trn li dy qun c con trt ch to bng hp kim platin-iridi hoc platinberin c n hi v tip xc tt, lc t gia con trt v li rt nh ch c 0,010,1N. Di tc dng ca i lng vo con trt s b dch chuyn. Quan h gia i lng ra v i lng vo c dng: R = f(XV). (2.6)

33

Hnh 2.1: Chuyn i bin tr 2.2.1.2. nhy v chnh xc:

Chuyn i bin tr ch cho ta pht hin s bin thin in tr bng in tr ca mt vng dy tng ng vi mt di chuyn bng khong cch gia 2 vng dy. Nh vy, nu in tr ton phn ca chuyn i l R vi s vng dy W th in tr nh nht c th pht hin c ( phn gii) l: R0 = R/W R0 l ngng nhy ca chuyn i. Nu chiu di ca bin tr l l th di chuyn ti thiu c th pht hin c s l: X0 = l/W Sai s ri rc ca chuyn i vi cun dy qun nh nhau: (2.8) (2.7)

R min l = 2R 2W

(2.9)

Trong : Rmin l in tr ton phn ca 1 vng dy R l in tr chuyn i W: s vng dy ca bin tr Sai s phi tuyn t 0,10,03%
34

Sai s nhit 0,1% trn tng 10oC. 2.2.1.3. Mch o: C th dng cc mch o sau: a, Mch bin tr:

I=

U = R x + R CT

U R CT

x +R l

(2.10)

Dng in trong mch t l nghch vi in tr cn o Rx. Nhc im ca mch l quan h gia I = f(x) khng tuyn tnh, dng in khng bin thin c t 0 tr i.

Hnh 2.2: S mch o kiu bin tr b, Mch phn p:

Hnh 2.3: S mch phn p

I=

U R - Rx +

RxRv Rx + Rv

(2.11)

35

U x = I.

RxRv = Rx + Rv

RxRv R - Rx + Rx + Rv

RxRv Rx + Rv

(2.12)

nu Rv >> R th

RvRx R x v do : Rv + Rx
R

x U.R x R x = U. x = U. l = U Ux = R l R Rv + Rx R

(2.13)

Quan h gia Ux v x l tuyn tnh, Ux bin thin t 0 n U khi Rx bin thin t 0 n R (thng Rx (1020)R). c, Mch cu: Nu R1 = R2 = R3 = R v Rg >> R th ta c: Ug Trong

U R . 4 R

(2.14)

R l lng bin thin in tr tng i khi bin tr di chuyn. R

Hnh 2.4: S mch cu d, Mch logomet: R: l bin tr R1, R2: l in tr cun dy logomet R3, R4: l in tr ph xc nh theo thng s ca chuyn i logomet. Khi Rx thay i lm dng in I1 v I2 thay i v gc quay = f(I1, I2) = f(R1, R2) = f(x).
36

Hnh 2.4: S mch o dng Lgmt 2.2.1.4. ng dng: Chuyn i bin tr thng dng o cc di chuyn thng (23mm) hoc di chuyn gc ca cc i tng o. Ngoi ra cn dng cho cc dng c o lc, p sut, gia tc hoc cc chuyn i ngc trong cc mch cu v in th k t ng. Chuyn i bin tr ch c th dng o cc i lng bin thin vi tn s khng ln (<5Hz). 2.2.2. Chuyn i in tr lc cng: 2.2.2.1. Nguyn l tc dng, cu to v cc quan h c bn: Khi dy dn chu bin dng c kh th in tr ca n cng thay i. Hin tng gi l hiu ng tenz. Chuyn i in tr lm vic da trn hiu ng ny c gi l chuyn i in tr tenz hay chuyn i in tr lc cng. Chuyn i in tr kiu ny c chia lm 3 loi: + chuyn i in tr lc cng dy mnh + chuyn i in tr lc cng l mng + chuyn i in tr lc cng mng mng Ph bin nht l loi chuyn i in tr lc cng dy mnh: Trn mt tm giy mng bn, ngi ta dn 1 dy in tr theo kiu hnh rng lc c ng knh khong 0,020,03mm. Dy c ch to t vt liu constantan, nicrom, hoc hp kim platin-iridi. Hai u dy c hn vi l ng dng ni vi mch o. Pha trn li c dn mt lp giy mng c nh dy. Chiu di l0 ca rng lc l chiu di tc dng ca chuyn i.

37

Hnh 2.5: Cu to ca chuyn i in tr lc cng kiu dy mnh Thng thng l0 = 815mm. Khi cn c kch thc nh l0 = 2,5mm. Chiu rng a thay i t 310mm. in tr dy thay i t 10150. Khi chiu di tc dng khng b hn ch, l0 c th t 100mm. in tr 8001000. Khi o bin dng 1 = l/l, chuyn i c dn trc tip ln i tng o. Lc i tng o b bin dng chuyn i s bin dng theo v in tr ca chuyn i thay i mt lng R = R/R. Ta c: hay Ta bit rng dy) do : hay trong : R = R/R: l s bin thin tng i ca in tr chuyn i khi b bin dng l = l/l : l s bin thin tng i theo chiu di dy dn s = s/s : l s bin thin tng i theo tit din dy dn, c trng cho s thay i kch thc hnh hc ca chuyn i. = /: l s bin thin tng i ca in tr sut, c trng cho s thay i tnh cht vt l ca vt liu chuyn i. Trong c hc bit: s = - 2Kpl (Kp l h s poisson)
38

R/R = f(l/l) R = f(1) R = l/s

(2.15)

(s l tit din, l l chiu di, l in tr sut ca

R l s = + R l s
R = + l - s

(2.16)

(2.17)

nu li t th ta c:

= m.l R = l(1 + 2Kp + m) = K.l

(2.18) (2.19) (2.20)

vi m l h s t l, l phng trnh bin i tng qut ca chuyn i bin tr lc cng. nhy ca chuyn i l: K = R/l = 1 + 2Kp + m i vi vt liu lng (thu ngn, cht in phn): Khi th tch v = l.s khng thay i trong qu trnh bin dng, h s Kp = 0,5 v b qua m v m rt nh th: Kvtliulng = 1 + 2.0,5 = 2 i vi vt liu kim loi rn: Ta c Kp = 0,24 4 nn nhy: Kvtliukimloirn = 1,5 4 (2.22) Do ng sut c trong chi tit cn nghin cu c lin quan vi module n hi E ca vt liu chi tit do : = E(l/l) v phng trnh bin i ca chuyn i lc cng c th biu din di dng: (2.21)

R k = R E

(2.23)

ng sut c ca chi tit v ca dy ch to chuyn i khng c vt qu gii hn bin dng n hi v iu c th dn n s thay i c tnh ca n. ng sut c hc trong cc chi tit c gii hn trong khong 20 30 % gii hn n hi. 2.2.2.2. Tnh cht ca cc chuyn i in tr lc cng: cc chuyn i in tr lc cng lm vic tt trong thc t, yu cu vt liu ch to chuyn i c nhy ln nhy t c cao. Mt khc, h s nhit ca chuyn i in tr lc cng () cn b v trong kim loi bin dng tng i l trong gii hn n hi khng ln hn 2,5.10-3, do R vo khong (1,25 10) tc l s thay i in tr tng i khng vt qu 1% khi i tng o chu p sut ln nht. Trong khi , s t nng in tr cng c th lm in tr ca chuyn i thay i mt lng cng gn bng lng in tr do bin dng. V vy, h s nhit ca dy in tr cng nh cng tt, cn phi b nhit cho mch o. Vt liu ch to dy in tr cn c in tr sut ln kch thc ca chuyn i nh.
39

 nhy ca cc chuyn i loi dy mnh khng ging nhy ca vt liu ch to n v trong qu trnh ch to hnh rng lc, phn b un khng chu bin dng theo hng cn o, lm nhy gim 25 30 %. Mun vy, phi tng di tc dng l0, mt khc cc phn un li chu lc tc dng vung gc vi trc ca chuyn i gy sai s trong qu trnh o. H s nhit ca chuyn i , khc vi h s nhit ca i tng o, khi nhit thay i gy bin dng ph trong qu trnh o. Ngy nay, gim kch thc ca chuyn i, tng in tr tc dng ca n cng nh c th ch to c chuyn i c hnh dng phc tp hn, ngi ta ch to chuyn i kiu mng mng v l mng. + Chuyn i l mng: c ch to t mt l kim loi mng vi chiu dy 0,004 0,012mm. Nh phng php quang khc, hnh dng ca chuyn i c th c to thnh mt cch rt khc nhau.

+ Chuyn i mng mng: c ch to bng cch cho bc hi kim loi ln mt khung c hnh dng nh trc. u im ca 2 loi chuyn i ny l in tr ln, kch thc nh, tng c nhy.

Hnh 2.6: Cu trc chuyn i in tr lc cng dng l mng v mng mng Ngoi ra cc vt liu bn dn nh silic, germany, asenua, cng c s dng ch to cc chuyn i in tr lc cng. Cc loi chuyn i lc cng dng vt liu ny c bn c hc km, song c cc u im l: + h s nhy ln K = (-200 +800)
40

+ kch thc nh (2,5mm) + nhit lm vic t -250oC n + 250oC Keo dn dng dn cc chuyn i lc cng cng l loi keo dn c bit nh B-2, B-4, axetolxeluloit 2.2.2.3. Mch o: Thng thng chuyn i in tr lc cng c dng vi mch cu mt chiu hoc xoay chiu v mch phn p. Khi mch cu ch c mt nhnh hot ng, tc l ch c 1 chuyn i hot ng, vn b nhit cn c m bo. Ngi ta s dng mt chuyn i cng loi dn ln chi tit khng lm vic cng vt liu vi i tng o v t trong cng 1 nhit . Khi cu khng lm vic s c trng thi cn bng:

RT R3 = =K R2 R4
ra:

(2.24)

Khi i tng o lm vic RT thay i thnh RRT, cu mt cn bng v in p

U a = U.

(1 + R ) R T R 3 R 2 R 4 [(1 + R )R T + R 4 ](R 2 + R 3 )

(2.25)

Nu R2 = R3; R4 = RTo (RTo l in tr chi tit dn trn chi tit khng bin dng) th ta c: Ua 0,25.U.R (2.26) Thun tin hn l s hnh 7.9b trong 2 nhnh cu c dn chuyn i tenz v cng hot ng. in p ra ca mch cn tng gp 2 ln v b nhit tt hn: sai s nhit b loi tr.

41

Hnh 2.7: Mt s kiu mch o ca chuyn i in tr lc cng Vi cu 4 nhnh hot ng, in p ra ca mch cu l ln nht tng gp 4 ln, sai s nhit cng b loi tr. Ngoi mch cu cn c th dng mch phn p: Mch trn dng o bin dng ng vi tn s > 1000Hz, v d bin dng do va p. in p ra o c trn RT mc ni tip vi in tr R. loi tr thnh phn mt chiu ngi ta mc thm t C. in p ri trn tenz:

UT = U

RT RT + R

(2.27)

Khi c bin dng vi tn s :

U T = U.
Vi R << 1 th ta c:

R T (1 + R sin t ) R + R T (1 + R sin t ) R T R sin t RT + R + RT R + RT RT R sin t R + RT

(2.28)

U T U.

(2.29)

in p ra ch ly vi thnh phn xoay chiu:

U a U.

(2.30)

42

2.2.2.4.

Sai s v phm vi ng dng:

Sai s ca thit b o dng chuyn i Tenz ch yu do chnh xc khc ca chuyn i. Khng th khc trc tip n chic m chng c ch to hng lot v c chun s b. Khi s dng cn phi c cng ngh dn chun v chn v tr chnh xc. Sai s v iu ny c th t ti 1 5%. Khi chun trc tip chuyn i vi mch o sai s c th gim n 0,2 0,5% khi o bin dng tnh v1 1,5% khi o bin dng ng. Ngoi ra cn c sai s bin dng d ca keo dn khi sy kh, do s dn n khc nhau gia chuyn i v chi tit dn. Cc chuyn i loi ny dng o lc, p sut, momen quay, gia tc v cc i lng khc nu c th bin i thnh bin dng n hi vi ng sut khng b hn (12)107 N/m2. 2.3. CC CHUYN I IN T: Chuyn i in t l nhm cc chuyn i lm vic da trn quy lut in t. i lng khng in cn o lm thay i in cm, h cm ca chuyn i hay t thng, t thm ca li thp. Chuyn i in t c phn thnh: chuyn i in cm v h cm, chuyn i cm ng, chuyn i p t. 1. Chuyn i in cm v h cm: A, Chuyn i in cm: L mt cun dy qun trn li thp c khe h khng kh (mch t h). Thng s ca n thay i di tc ng ca i lng vo Xv.

43

Hnh 2.8: Mt s dng chuyn i in cm 1-Li st t; 2-Cun dy; 3-Phn ng di ng c; -khe h khng kh Di tc ng ca i lng o, phn ng s di chuyn, khe h khng kh thay i t tr ca li thp do in cm v tng tr ca chuyn i cng thay i theo. Nu b qua in tr thun ca cun dy v tr t ca li thp ta c:
W 2 W 2 os = L= R

(2.31)

Trong :

W: : o : s:

s vng dy ca cun dy chiu di khe h khng kh t thm ca khng kh tit din thc ca khe h khng kh
L L ds + d s

R = /(os): t tr ca khng kh

Vi W = const ta c:
dL =

(2.32)

Vi lng thay i hu hn s v ta c:
L = W 2 o W 2 os o s o ( o + ) 2

(2.33)

trong : so v o l cc gi tr ban u ca s v (khi i lng vo Xv = 0) nhy ca chuyn i in cm vi khe h khng kh thay i S (gi s = const):
44

S =

L =

Lo o 1 + o
2

(2.34)

nhy ca chuyn i in cm vi tit din khng kh thay i Ss (gi = const):

Ss = L L o = s s o

(2.35)

trong : L o =

W 2 os o l gi tr in cm ban u ca chuyn i o

Khi = o, s = so v tng tr Z ca chuyn i:

W 2 o Z = L =

(2.36)

nhy tng i ca chuyn i khi tnh tng tr Z vi khe h khng kh thay i:

S ' = Z / Z o 1 = 2 / o 1 + o

(2.37)

trong Zo l gi tr tng tr ban u khi Xv = 0 T biu thc (2.35) thy rng tng tr ca chuyn i l mt hm tuyn tnh vi tit din khe h khng kh s v phi tuyn (hypebol) vi chiu di khe h khng kh. Ni cch khc, nhy ca chuyn i khi di ca khe h khng kh thay i khng phi l hng s m ph thuc vo t s /o. nhy ca chuyn i khi tit din ca khe h khng kh thay i l hng s v khng ph thuc vo lng thay i s. Trong cc chuyn i in cm vi khe h khng kh thay i gi tr /o khng vt qu 0,2 i vi chuyn i n v 0,4 i vi chuyn i mc kiu vi sai, vi gi tr trn phi tuyn ca chuyn i khng vt qu 1%. Tuy nhin ny o tng dn Y = 1/Z, nhy ca chuyn i s tuyn tnh i vi thay i di khe h khng kh (khi dng in I chy qua cun dy vi in p U cho trc tuyn tnh) do:
I= U ( o + ) W 2 o s

(2.38)

45

c tnh ca chuyn i in cm khi di khe h khng kh thay i Z = f() thng phi tuyn v c tnh Z = f() ph thuc tn s ca ngun kch thch. Tn s dng kch thch cng ln nhy cng cao. tng nhy chuyn i v tng on c tnh tuyn tnh lm vic, ngi ta thng dng chuyn i in cm mc theo kiu vi sai.

Hnh 2.9: c tnh ca chuyn i in t B, Chuyn i h cm: (chuyn i bin p) Cu to ca chuyn i h cm cng ging nh chuyn i in cm ch khc ch c thm cun dy o. Khi chiu di hoc tit din khe h khng kh thay i lm cho t thng ca mch t thay i v xut hin sc in ng e. T thng tc thi:
t = iW1 W1 o si = R

(2.39)

46

trong :

i l gi tr dng tc thi trong cun dy kch thch W1.

Hnh 2.10: Cc chuyn i kiu h cm a) Cc chuyn i n; b) Cc chuyn i mc kiu vi sai Sc in ng to thnh trong cun dy o W2 (s vng dy ca cun dy o l W2):
e = W2 d t W .W s di = 2 1 o dt dt

(2.40)

Khi lm vic vi dng xoay chiu i = Imsint Ta c:

e= W2 .W1 o s I m cos t

(2.41)
47

V gi tr hiu dng ca sc in ng:

E= W2 .W1 o s s I = K

(2.42)

trong :

I:

l gi tr hiu dng ca dng in

K = W1W2oI Biu thc (2.41) l phng trnh ca chuyn i h cm. Vi cc gi tr W2, W1, o, , I l hng s ta c:
dE = E E ds + d s s ks o ( o + ) 2

(2.43) (2.44)

hay

E = k

nhy ca chuyn i vi s thay i chiu di khe kh (s = const)

S = E = ks 2 o 1 + o
2

Eo o 1 + o
2

(2.45)

Cn nhy khi tit din khe kh thay i ( = const):

SS = E k E o = = s o S o

(2.46)

trong : E o = 0.

kso l sc in ng h cm ban u trong cun dy o W2 khi xv = o

So snh biu thc (2.45) v (2.46) vi cc biu thc (2.34) v (2.35) ta thy rng nhy ca chuyn i h cm khi I v khng bin i ch khc vi nhy ca chuyn i in cm gi tr Eo v Lo. Ngoi ra nhy ca chuyn i h cm Ss v S tng khi tn s ngun cung cp tng. i vi chuyn i in cm v h cm, trn cc on st t ca mch t c tn hao t tr v dng xoy lm thay i t tr v do tng tr cng b thay i. Tn hiu ra s thay i c bin v pha. Tuy vy s thay i v pha c th khc phc nu chuyn i c cung cp vi in p n nh cho trc. Do vy trong mch cu ch cn cn bng vi thnh phn bin . m bo ch in p cho trc, in tr ca ch th ch khng RCT trong mch cu cn nh hn in tr ca cc nhnh 5 10 ln.
48

Nu li st t lm bng vt liu c th s gy nn hiu ng b mt v nhy ca chuyn i s l mt hm kh phc tp. Khi ch to cc chuyn i in cm v h cm cn phi tnh n lc c in tc dng ln phn ng ca li thp: + Khi chiu di khe kh thay i:
F = 1 2 I L 2

( )

(2.47)

+ Khi tit din khe kh thay i:

Fs = 1 2 I L 2 s

( )

(2.48)

Nu dng in I l khng i th mt cch gn ng ta c:

F = 1 L 1 2 L I v Fs = I 2 2 s 2

(2.49)

Gi tr tc thi ca lc thay i vi tn s gp 2 ln tn s ca ngun cung cp (xem li trong [9]). V vy cn trnh tn s cng hng ring ca li phn ng khng c ln bng 2 ln tn s ngun cung cp. c tnh ng ca chuyn i h cm v in cm c xc nh ch yu h thng c ca phn ng. Tn s lm vic ca loi chuyn i ny rt rng, tu theo cu trc ca phn ng c th o c cc i lng bin thin t 500Hz vi kHz. C, Mch o: Thng th ngi ta dng mch cu khng cn bng vi ngun cung cp xoay chiu c mt nhnh hot ng (chuyn i n) hoc 2 nhnh hot ng (chuyn i mc kiu vi sai). V d mch cu hnh 2.11. l mch cu vi chuyn i mc kiu vi sai (cu 6 nhnh):

49

Hnh 2.11: Mch o ca chuyn i in t kiu cu vi sai 6 nhnh + in tr Rc v C dng cn bng thnh phn o (gc pha). (c cu to sm tr pha) + in tr Ro cn bng thnh phn thc (bin ): Ro << R + Ch th l dng c t in. i vi cc chuyn i h cm th ngi ta thng dng phng php o in p xoay chiu. Khi cn thit xc nh du ca i lng o c th dng chnh lu nhy pha. Cng sut ra ca chuyn i h cm thng ln (vi chc Watt) nn trong nhiu trng hp khng cn mch khuch i. D, Sai s v ng dng: Cc chuyn i in cm lm vic vi mch cu khng cn bng, ngun cung cp cho mch cu cn n nh. + Nu in p cung cp thay i 1% th c th gy ra sai s 1%. + Nu tn s ca ngun cung cp thay i 1% gy ra sai s 0,2% (vi mch cu cn bng sai s c th gim ti 0,5 1%). + Khi nhit mi trng thay i lm cho t thm ca mch t v in tr thc ca cun dy thay i cng c th gy ra sai s. Sai s trn c khc phc khi s dng chuyn i mc kiu vi sai. Chuyn i in cm v h cm c th o cc i lng khng in khc nhau tu theo cu trc ca tng loi chuyn i:
50

o di chuyn t vi chc m n hng chc cm; o dy lp ph; o bng ca chi tit gia cng; o lc t 0,1N n hng chc, hng trm N; o p sut vi di o t 10-3 N/m2 n hng chc ngn N/m2; o gia tc t 10-2g n hng trm n v gia tc trng lng.

2. Chuyn i p t: A, Cu to v nguyn l lm vic: Chuyn i p t l mt dng ca chuyn i in cm v h cm. Khc vi hai loi trn, mch t ca chuyn i p t l mch t kn. Nguyn l lm vic ca chuyn i p t l hiu ng p t.

Hnh 2.12: Cc chuyn i p t Di tc dng bin dng n hi c hc, t thm v cc tnh cht khc ca vt liu st t thay i. Chuyn i p t da trn hiu ng p t c th l chuyn i p t kiu in cm, hoc chuyn i kiu h cm. Di tc dng ca ng lc c hc lm cho li thp b bin dng, t thm thay i v t tr ca mch t R thay i lm cho in cm L hoc h cm M thay i theo. Nu b qua tn hao dng xoy v t tr, in cm ca chuyn i t s l:
L= W 2 W 2 . .s = R l

(2.50)

trong :

+W +R

s vng cun dy t tr ca mch t

51

+ s, l tit din v chiu di ca mch t + t thm ca li thp

W 2 s l

Tng tr ca chuyn i:
Z = L =

(2.51)

T biu thc (2.50) nu W = const ta c:

dL = L L L d + dl + ds l s

(2.52)

vi lng thay i , s, l ta c:
s l 1 + L = L o 2 s l [1 + (l / l )]

(2.53)

Lo l gi tr in cm ban u khi cha c lc tc ng. Suy ra:

L s l 1 + = 2 Lo s l [1 + (l / l )]

gi s rng s/s = -Kpl/l (Kp l h s Poisson) v l/l << 1 trong gii hn n hi, ta c nhy tng i ca chuyn i khi bin dng l:
SL = L / L o / K p + 1 = S K p + 1 = l / l l / l

(2.54)

trong

S =

/ l nhy p t, c trng ca li thp vt liu. l / l

i vi loi thp Pecmati S c th ln n 200 hoc ln hn, do S >> Kp + 1. Vi chnh xc tng i c th coi chuyn i tng i:
SL = / = S l / l

(2.55)

nhy thc ca chuyn i khi tnh n tn hao trn li thp, in tr ca cun dy s gim so vi nhy p t. T biu thc (2.51) ta thy nhy ca chuyn i i vi thay i ca tng tr Z bng nhy p t ca n:
SZ = Z / Z = SL = S l / l

(2.56)

52

Trong thc t ngi ta dng khi nim nhy tng i S i vi ng sut c hc : (2.57) trong = E(l/l); E l module n hi. B, Mch o: Mch o ca chuyn i p t tng t mch o ca chuyn i in cm v h cm. c tnh ng ca chuyn i p t c quyt nh ch yu bi mch o, c th lm vic vi cc i lng bin i ln n hng chc kHz.

Hnh 2.13: Cu to ca chuyn i p t kiu vi sai v mch o C, Sai s v ng dng: Sai s ca chuyn i p t c th gm cc yu t sau: + Sai s hi sai do hin tng p t tr khng trng lp trng thi t khi tng ti v khi gim ti. Khi tng ti v gim ti t n 10%. Sau khi lp li chu trnh tng ti v gim ti nhiu ln, s phn tn gim xung n 1% v sai s do hin tng p t tr khng gim na. + Sai s gy bi s dao ng ca dng in t ho, lm thay i t thm ban u v thay i ln ca hiu ng p t. gim sai s ny ngi ta chn gi tr dng in nh th no li thp lm vic vi cng t trng tng ng vi t thm ln nht. Sai s s khng ln hn 0,3 0,4% khi in p ngun dao ng 1%.

53

+ Sai s gy bi s dao ng nhit ca mi trng: Khi nhit thay i lm in tr thc ca cun dy, t thm ban u v hiu ng p t ca chuyn i thay i. Sai s do nhit mi trng thay i t 0,5 1,5% trn 10oC. ng dng: + Chuyn i p t thng dng o lc ln 105 106 N v o p sut trong cc iu kin kh khn. + Mc d chnh xc thp (3 5%) nhng do c cu trc n gin, tin cy cao nn c s dng nhiu bn ngoi hin trng o p sut, momen xoay trong cc my khoan t, o lc ct trong qu trnh gia cng kim loi 3. Chuyn i cm ng: A, Cu to v nguyn l lm vic: Chuyn i cm ng l chuyn i gm c nam chm vnh cu (hoc trong mt s trng hp l nam chm in) v cun dy. Khi t thng thay i, mc vng qua cun dy s sinh ra mt sc in ng:
e = W d dt

(2.58)

T thng thay i do v tr ca cun dy di chuyn trong t trng hoc do t tr ca mch t thay i khi v tr ca li thp thay i. Hnh sau th hin cu to mt s loi chuyn i cm ng thng gp.
Loi chuyn i Di chuyn thng Di chuyn gc

Cun dy di chuyn

54

Li st t di chuyn

Li st t b bin dng (da trn hiu ng p t)

Hnh 2.14: Mt s dng ca chuyn i kiu cm ng Hnh 2.14a l loi chuyn i cm ng c cun dy di chuyn. Khi cun dy di chuyn, t thng mc vng trong cun dy to ra mt sc in ng cm ng:
E= dx dx dx d = Bl = BDW =S dt dt dt dt

(2.59)

trong :

B: l = DW: D: W: x:

l t cm ca khe h khng kh l chiu di thc ca cun dy l ng knh trung bnh ca cun dy s vng dy s di chuyn ca cun dy

S = -BDW: l nhy ca chuyn i Chuyn i cm ng vi cun dy di chuyn theo gc quay (hnh 2.14b). Sc in ng sinh ra khi cuc dy quay mt gc l:
e = B l dx dt

hoc

e = B s

d dt

(2.60)

trong :

B: l = DW:

l cm ng t ca khe h khng kh l chiu di thc ca cun dy

55

D: x, : dy

l ng knh trung bnh ca cun dy tng ng l dch chuyn thng hay gc ca cun

s = D2W/4 l tit din thc ca cun dy

i vi chuyn i cm ng c li thp di chuyn (hnh 2.14c,d), sc in ng cm ng bng:

e = W dF d = W M dt R M dt WFM dR M = 2 R M dt

(2.61)

trong Gi s rng:

FM : l sc t ng ca nam chm. RM = RMo + kRMoX v coi RM << RMo

(RMo l t tr ca mch t khi X = 0, v k l h s ph thuc vo cu trc ca chuyn i) th ta c phng trnh:

e= kWFM dx dx =S R Mo dt dt kWFM R Mo

(2.62) (2.63)

vi:

S=

l nhy ca chuyn i l i lng o

x:

Nu li st t quay quanh trc (hnh 2.14d) theo quy lut hnh sin tc l khe h khng kh gia cc u cc t theo quy lut hnh sin (2 ln cho 1 vng quay). Mt cch gn ng ta c t tr ca mch t v t thng s thay i theo dng hnh sin:
+ min max min l = max + sin 2t 2 2

(2.64)

Sc in ng trong cun dy:

e = W d(t ) = WBs cos 2t dt

(2.65)

trong :

max, min s:

l gi tr t thng ln nht v nh nht l tit din ca cun dy

i vi chuyn i cm ng loi th 3 (hnh 2.14e,f): on 1 - 1 ca mch t chu lc tc ng theo thi gian fv (hoc mmen Mv bin thnh lc fv nh hnh 2.14f), do hiu ng p t lm cho t tr ca on thay i, do
56

 t thng mc vng quanh cun dy cng thay i v sinh ra lc in ng cm ng t l vi tc thay i ca lc fv, quan h trn c biu din bi phng trnh:
e = S df dl 11 = S ' v dt dt

(2.66) trong : l1-1: S , S : l chiu di on mch t bin dng l nhy tng ng khi thay i l v khi thay i fv

T ta thy rng i vi chuyn i cm ng, phng trnh bin i chung c dng:

e=S dx dt

(2.67)

trong : lc)

S: l nhy ca chuyn i cm ng ph thuc vo cu trc ca n x: l i lng vo ca chuyn i (di chuyn thng hoc gc hay

Khi s dng cc chuyn i cm ng cn ch n sai s do tn s thay i. Mch in tng ng ca chuyn i cm ng nh hnh 2.15.

Hnh 2.15: Mch in tng ng ca chuyn i cm ng Trn s RL v L l in tr thc v in cm ca cun dy Rt l in tr ti ng vi iu kin ban u nhy ton t ca mch c dng:
S(p) = SR t p Ur p = = So X R t + R L + pL 1 + p = L l hng s thi gian ca mch RL + Rt SR t L

(2.68)

trong :

So =

l h s t l ca chuyn i khi >> 1.

57

Qua cng thc (2.68) cho thy chuyn i cm ng l khu vi phn. T cc dng cu trc khc nhau ta thy rng cc chuyn i cm ng c cun dy di chuyn (hnh 2.14a,b) c c tnh tuyn tnh v c chnh xc cao hn. Cc chuyn i c li thp di chuyn (hnh 2.14c,d) c c tnh phi tuyn v t tr do ch s dng trong cc mch iu tn hoc iu pha. B, Mch o: T cc phng trnh c trng ca chuyn i ta cng thy rng sc in ng u ra t l vi tc bin thin ca tn hiu vo (c im ca khu c tnh cht vi phn), do mun o tn hiu phi lp thm b tch phn u ra ca chuyn i.
U = edt = S dx = Sx dt

(2.69)

C, ng dng: + Cc chuyn i cm ng c cun dy di chuyn dng o tc quay v mmen quay nh cc tc k. + Cc chuyn i c li thp di chuyn dng trong php o cc di chuyn thng, di chuyn gc quay, o bin rung (vi phn trm milimt n vi milimt) + Tn hiu ra ca cc chuyn i in cm t c cao (vi phn V n hng chc V) nn mch n gin khng cn khuch i + nhy cao ca chuyn i cho php o c cc di chuyn nh, o tc , gia tc v cc i lng khc vi tn s n 15 30 kHz. + Sai s ca chuyn i vi nam chm vnh cu v cun dy di chuyn t c t 0,2 0,5%. 2.4. CC CHUYN I TNH IN: Cc chuyn i tnh in c phn chia thnh 2 loi: 1. Chuyn i p in (chuyn i piez): A, Nguyn l lm vic: Chuyn i p in da trn hiu ng p in. C mt s vt liu khi chu tc dng ca mt lc c hc bin thin th trn b mt ca n xut hin cc in tch, khi lc tc dng ngng th cc in tch trn cng bin mt, hin tng gi l hiu ng p in thun. Ngc li, nu t cc vt liu trn trong in trng bin thin th in trng tc ng ln chng lm chng b bin dng, hin tng gi l hiu ng p in ngc. Cc chuyn i lm vic da trn hin tng p in gi l chuyn i p in.
58

Vt liu dng ch to cc chuyn i p in l tinh th thch anh (SiO2), titanatbari (BiTiO3), mui xenht, tuamalin

Hnh 2.16: Cu trc tinh th thch anh Hnh 2.16a l cu trc ca mt tinh th thch anh, n c 3 trc chnh: trc quang Z, trc in X v trc c Y. Nu ct tinh th p in thnh cc hnh khi c 3 cnh ng vi 3 trc quang, in v c th ta c chuyn i p in (hnh 2.16b). + Lc Fx tc dng theo hng trc in X gy ra hiu ng p in dc vi in tch: qd = d1Fx (2.70) in tch sinh ra khng ph thuc vo kch thc hnh hc ca n m ch ph thuc vo ln ca lc. Du ca in tch thay i vi s thay i du ca lc Fx. + Nu tc ng mt lc Fy theo trc c Y th s gy ra hiu ng p in ngang vi in tch: qng = -d1(y/x)Fy d1: (2.71) in tch ny ph thuc vo kch thc hnh hc ca chuyn i. l hng s p in (cn gi l module p in) y, x: l kch thc ca chuyn i theo trc Y, X Du ca in tch q vi hiu ng p dc v ngang l ngc nhau ngha l lc Fx nn lm xut hin cc in tch cng du vi lc Fy ko v ngc li. + Khi tc dng lc theo hng ca trc quang Z khng xy ra hin tng p in.
59

Trng hp cc cnh ca chuyn i khng song song vi cc trc chnh hoc lc tc ng khng song song vi cc trc, in tch sinh ra s b hn. Hnh2.17 l cc dng bin dng ca cc chuyn i p in.

Hnh 2.17: Mt s hnh dng bin dng ca chuyn i p in B, Tnh cht ca mt s vt liu p in: Thch anh: l vt liu t nhin hoc tng hp, c tnh cht sau: Hng s p in: d1 = 2,1.10-12 C/N ( nhit 200oC, d1 khng ph thuc vo nhit ; t 200oC n 500oC th d1 thay i nhng khng ng k; vi 573oC tnh cht p in b ph hy) Hng s in mi: ng sut cho php: = 39,8.10-12 F/m = 70 100 N/mm2

in tr sut: = 1016 /m (nhng ph thuc nhiu vo nhit v c gi tr khc nhau cc chiu trc khc nhau). Hng s p in: d1 = 107.10-12 C/N (Module p in d1 khng phi l hng s, trong nhiu trng hp gim 20% trong 2 nm. Do c hin tng tr nn c tnh q = f(F) khng tuyn tnh, song loi vt liu ny c tnh bn c hc cao, r tin, ch to c hnh dng bt k nn c dng rng di) Hng s in mi: Module n hi: = 1240.10-11 F/m E = 115.103 N/mm2

TitanatBari(BaTiO3) : l loi vt liu tng hp c tnh cht sau: -

Cc tnh cht ca TitanatBari khng ph thuc m nhng ph thuc nhiu vo tp cht, cng ngh ch to v in p phn cc.
60

Gn y ngi ta tm ra cc loi Titanat Ch (PbTiO3) v Ziriconat Ch (PbZnO3) c module p in ln hn TitanatBari gp 4 ln. C, Mch o v c tnh tn ca chuyn i p in: Chuyn i p in dng o cc i lng bin thin trong . Gii hn di ca tn s c quyt nh bi cc tham s in ca chuyn i v ca mch o, cng sut ra ca chuyn i rt b v vy tng tr vo ca mch o, phi rt ln, c 108 1014. Dy ni t chuyn i vo mch o cn c bc kim chng in tch r. Hnh 2.18 l s cu to ca mt chuyn i p in dng o lc fx. Hai phn t p in c t sao cho in tch phn cc ngc nhau khi va p. in tch c ly ra trn thanh dn 2 gia hai phn t 1, dy dn l dy bc kim 3.

Hnh 2.18: Chuyn i p in o lc Khi c tc dng lc hnh sin F = Fmaxsint, in p ra s l:

Ur = I R R . 1 / j C = jd 1F 1 + jCR R + 1 / jC

(2.72)

v nhy phc ca chuyn i:

S( j) = Rd 1 d j = 1 jRC + 1 C 1 + j

(2.73)

vi = RC =

RoR2 (Co + C 2 ) l hng s thi gian ca mch v chuyn Ro + R2

i Ro, R2, Co, C2 l cc in tr v in dung thc ca chuyn i v khuch i. (hnh 2.19)

61

Hnh 2.19: Mch o ca chuyn i p in T biu thc trn cho thy rng chuyn i p in l mt khu vi phn. Sai s tn s ca n s khng ng k nu tn s ca tn hiu tng i cao: >>1 (ng cong 1 hnh 2.20). gim sai s tn s di tn thp cn tng hng s thi gian ca mch o v tng tr vo ca mch khuch i rt ln. Nhng nu tng hng s thi gian bng cch tng in dung C s dn n gim tn hiu ra. Trong thc t lc tc ng ln chuyn i khng phi l lc Fx m l lc F (trong k c lc gy bin dng c hc v lc in). Vi lc tc dng F, phng trnh c biu din di dng:
d 2 x d x m +P + C o x = F 2 dt dt

(2.74)

a v dng ton t ta c: mp2 + Pp + Cox = F trong m, P, Co l khi lng, h s cn du v h s phn khng ca phn t p in. Mt khc lc Fx = sE.x/x vi s, E, x l din tch, module n hi v chiu dy ca phn t p in, quan h gia Fx v F c dng:
Fx = sE F 2 x mp + Pp + Co

(2.75)

nhy ca chuyn i tnh vi bin dng c hc:

S c ( j) = sE 1 2 2 mx o + j2 o Co m

(2.76)

trong :

o =

l tn s dao ng ring c hc
62

P 2 mC o

l mc cn du

nhy ca chuyn tnh vi c lc in v lc c:

S c ( j) = d 1 sE 1 j 2 2 C x o + j2 o 1 + j

(2.77)

c tnh nhy ca chuyn i c biu din trn hnh 2.20 trong ng cong 1 l c tnh in, 2 l c tnh c v 3 l c tnh c in.

Hnh 2.20: c tnh tn s T biu thc trn ta thy rng c tnh bin - tn thc ca chuyn i p in do tnh cht qun tnh c nn khc nhiu so vi c tnh ca khu vi phn. nhy ca chuyn i s khng ph thuc vo tn s ca qu trnh o vi iu kin o >> >> 1/, lc nhy c in ca n s l:
S cd = S cd ( j) = d1 sE 1 2 C mx o

(2.78)

Khi s dng chuyn i p in cn tnh n hiu ng dy cp v trong iu kin b rung bn thn dy cp cng sinh ra in tch do lm sai lch kt qu o. Trong thc t vi rung tn s 60 80 kHz in tch do dy cp rung sinh ra c th ln hn in tch ca bn thn phn t p in v vy phi s dng loi cp c bit chng rung (v d loi ABK). D, ng dng: Chuyn i p in c dng o lc bin thin (n 10000N), o p sut (100 N/mm2) v gia tc (ti 1000.g) trong di tn t 0,5 n 100kHz. u im ca chuyn i loi ny l cu trc n gin, c kch thc nh, tin cy cao, c kh nng o cc i lng bin thin nhanh.
63

Nhc im ca n l khng o c lc tnh, kh khc . Phn t p in v mch o cn phi chng m tt. Phn t p in c tr v c tnh phi tuyn (do module p in d1 ph thuc lc v p sut). Ngoi vic s dng cc hiu ng p in thun ca chuyn i p in, ngi ta cn s dng hiu ng p in ngc ch to cc chuyn i ngc o di chuyn v cc thit b kch thch dao ng siu m tn s dao ng c (v d dao ng k c hc). Nu t phn t p in trong in trng c cng Fx dc trc X, n s b bin dng tng i theo hng trc ny mt lng x/x = d1Ex; cn theo hng trc Y l y/y = -d1Ex. Bit rng Ex = Ux (in p t ln phn t p in), ta c: x = d1Ux ; y = -(y/x)d1Ux (2.79) Nhc im ca loi chuyn i ny l bin dng ca phn t in p rt nho, vi phn micromet. 2. Chuyn i in dung: A, Tnh cht chung v cc dng c bn ca chuyn i in dung: Nguyn l lm vic chung ca cc chuyn i in dung l da trn s tc ng tng h gia 2 in cc, to thnh mt t in. in dung ca n c thay i di tc ng ca i lng u vo. Hnh 2.21 l cu to ca mt s loi chuyn i in dung c bn. Chuyn i in dung c th chia thnh 2 nhm ln: chuyn i my pht v chuyn i thng s. + i lng ra ca chuyn i in dung my pht thng l in p ra ca my pht. i lng vo l s di chuyn thng, di chuyn gc ca bn in cc ng ca chuyn i. Loi ny thng dng o cc i lng c hc. + i lng vo ca cc chuyn i in dung thng s l cc di chuyn. i lng ra l s thay i in dung C ca chuyn i. Phng trnh ca chuyn i in dung pht in (hnh 2.22) c th nhn c t biu thc sau: Nu in p U t vo 2 in cc ca t in, in p ny lin quan n cc thng s nh sau:

U=

q = q C s

(2.80)
64

trong :

q: in tch trn bn cc ; C = s/ : in mi gia 2 bn cc s, : din tch ca bn cc v khong cch gia chng

Hnh 2.22: Chuyn i in dung v s tng ng Lc c F tc ng ln bn cc ng gm 2 thnh phn: + Lc tc ng do in tch tng h:

1 2 s 1 q 2 Fd = U 2 = 2 2 s

(2.81)

+ Lc y c hc Fc = S(p) gy nn bi cc ng v bng:
Fc = mp 2 + pP + C o

(2.82)

v lc tng hp:
1 q2 F = Fd + Fc = + mp 2 + pP + C o 2 s

(2.83)

T biu thc trn ta thy rng chuyn i in dung c tnh cht phi tuyn v vy phng trnh bin i ca chuyn i c th vit di dng:
dU =
dF =

U U 1 q dq + E o d dq + d = dq + d = s s q Co
F F q dq + d = dq + S(p )d = E o dq + S(p)d q s

(2.84) (2.85)

trong :

m: P: Co:

l khi lng ca cc ng l h s cn du l h s phn khng (l in dung ban u tng ng vi khong cch o gia 2 bn cc)
65

Eo =

Uo q q = o = : o C o o s

l cng in trng ban u ca t

in

66

Khe h khgn kh thay i Tit din s thay i Hng s in mi thayy i Vi sai n Vi sai Vi sai n

Vi s thay i tn

hao in mi

Hnh 2.21: Mt s dng chuyn i in dung thng gp

67

Nu chuyn i lm vic trong khong di chuyn nh phng trnh s c biu din di dng thay i :
= E o q = k o q p m + pP + C o
2

(2.86)

T biu thc (2.79) ta thy rng h s ko ca chuyn i in dung pht in l mt hm tuyn tnh vi in p U (in p trn 2 bn cc):
k o = kEo = k Uo q =k o o Co o

(2.87)

Phng trnh ca chuyn i in dung thng s biu din nh sau: Vi mt t in phng C = s/, khi mt trong 3 i lng , hay s thay i, in dung cng thay i theo, vi mt s thay i rt nh ca in dung ta c:
dC = C C C d + ds + d s
so oso + o s o o ( o + )2

(2.88)

a v dng sai phn ta c:

C =

(2.89)

S bin thin tng i ca in dung:

C s 1 = + 2 Co o so o 1 + o

(2.90)

trong :

o, o, so l cc gi tr ban u ca in mi, tit din v khong cch gia hai bn cc Co l gi tr in dung ban u khi khng c tn hiu vo.

Vi s thay i ca khong cch gia 2 bn cc khi = const v S = const ta c nhy ca chuyn i in dung:
S = C / C o 1 = 2 / o 1 + o

(2.91)

Khi din tch ca bn cc thay i (nhng vn gi = const, = const) th ta c:

S = C / C o =1 s / s o

(2.92)

v khi hng s in mi thay i (nhng vn gi = const, s = const) th ta c:

68

S =

C / C o =1 / o

(2.93)

Nu xt n dung khng X = 1/C vi = const ta c:

dX c = X c X c X c d + d + ds s

(2.94)

Vi s thay i hu hn s, , ta c cc nhy tng i:

S ' =
S ' =

X / X o =1 / o
X / X o 1 = 2 / o 1 + o

(2.95)

S 's =

X / X o 1 = 2 s / s o s 1 + so

vi Xco l gi tr dung khng ban u. T cc biu thc trn ta thy rng s bin thin tng i ca chuyn i in dung l hm tuyn tnh khi tit din bn cc v hng s in mi thay i, nhng phi tuyn khi khong cch gia 2 bn cc thay i. Ngc li, s bin thin tng i gi tr in khng ca chuyn i in dung l hm tuyn tnh khi khong cch gia 2 bn cc thay i v phi tuyn i vi tit din bn cc v hng s in mi thay i. Tr s bin thin tng i s/so v /o thng t t 0,15 0,2 i vi chuyn i n v 0,4 i vi chuyn i mc kiu vi sai. Khi khong cch thay i, s bin thin in khng Xc ca chuyn i s tng khi o gim i v in p ra ca mch o tng ln. Tuy nhin gim khong cch gia 2 bn cc ch thc hin n 1 gi tr no trnh in p nh thng cch in. (V d: i vi khng kh, cng in trng khng c ln hn 10KV/cm). Mt khc gia 2 bn cc khi c in p t vo s sinh lc ht:
Fh = U 2 s 2 2

(2.96)

Lc ny cn phi nh hn i lng o. i vi chuyn i mc kiu vi sai, lc ht gia 2 bn t c module bng nhau nhng ngc chiu nn b ln nhau.

69

Trong thc t, do c in dung k sinh Cks hnh thnh dy ni v bn thn cu trc ca chuyn i lm nhy ca n gim i.
Ctd C o / C o = Ctd 1 + (Cks / Co )

(2.97)

Ctd l in dung tc dng nhy c k n in dung k sinh s l:

S ' = XCtd / XCtd = / o 1 C 1 + ks Co

(2.98)

S ' =

X Ctd / X Ctd 1 = 2 / o 1 + ( / o )

1 C 1 + ks Co

S 's =

XCtd / XCtd 1 = 2 s / s o 1 + (s / s o )

1 C 1 + ks Co

nhy s cng gim nhiu khi t s Cks/Co cng ln. B, Mch o: Thng thng mch o dng vi chuyn i in dung l cc machj cu khng cn bng cung cp bng dng xoay chiu. Mch o cn phi thc hin cc yu cu sau: + Tng tr u vo (tc l in tr ca ng cho cu) phi tht ln + Cc dy dn phi c bc kim loi trnh nh hng ca in trng ngoi + Khng c mc in tr song song vi chuyn i lm gim tng tr ca n + Chng m tt + Tn s ngun cung cp cn phi cao tng cng sut ra ca chuyn i c th ti hng chc MHz. Hnh 2.23 l mt s s mch o dng vi chuyn i in dung: Hnh 2.23a l s mch o ca chuyn i in dung vi sai mc theo kiu mch cu vi 2 in tr R1 v R2. Cc in dung k sinh Cks1, Cks2, Cks3 song song vi hai in tr v ch th nn c tr s b khng ng k.
70

Do in dung ca t nh (chc F) m bo cng sut ra ln ngi ta dng mt khuch i c nhy cao. Cung cp cho mch cu l mt my pht tn s ln (MF). Hnh 2.23b l s

mch cu bin p vi 2 nhnh in cm, trong s ny in dung k sinh Cks1 v Cks2 l rt nh do ni song song vi 2 cun s cp bin p. Hnh 2.23: Cc mch o thng dng vi cc chuyn i in dung o i lng bin thin, cng vi mch cu ngi ta cn dng mch o dng 1 chiu. Nu b qua in dung k sinh ca ph ti Ct song song vi in tr Rt th ta c:
U o = iR i + 1 idt C

hay

CU o = iCR i + idt

(2.99)

Vi phn phng trnh trn theo thi gian ta c:

Uo dC di dC = R t Co + iR t +i dt dt dt

(2.100)

trong :

Co l in dung ban u, coi l hng s.

dC dU r dC U r = Co + Ur + dt dt dt R t

Nu gi: iRt = Ur v Ridi/dt = dUr t phng trnh (2.92) ta c:

Uo

(2.101)

Vi s di chuyn nh << o mt cch gn ng c th vit:

71

dC s o d Co d = = 2 dt o dt o dt

(2.102)

t gi tr dC/dt vo cng thc (2.94) ta c:

dU r d + Ur = 2 (Uo Ur ) dt dt o

(2.103)

vi = RtCo l hng s thi gian ca mch Vi iu kin << o v Ur << Uo ta c phng trnh gn ng ca chuyn i di dng:
dU r d + Ur = 2 Uo dt dt o

Vit di dng ton t ta c:

( p + 1)U r = U o p o

(2.104)

nhy ton t:
S( p ) = U r U o p = o 1 + p

(2.105)

v nhy phc:
S= U r U o j j = = S 'o o 1 + j 1 + j

(2.106)

vi So = Uo/o. Mch o trn c tnh cht l mt khu vi phn, tng tuyn tnh ca chuyn i v tng nhy ca mch ta c th dng mch nh hnh 2.24 hai ch lm vic:

Hnh 2.24: S mch o dng mt chiu

72

o bin rung: Trong trng hp ny hng s thi gian = RtCt phi ln bng cch tng Rt (tng in tr vo ca khuch i) o tc (o hm ca di chuyn) th ngc li hng s thi gian phi nh.

Thit b dng chuyn i in dung vi dng in 1 chiu ch c th khc ch ng. C, ng dng: + Loi c khe h khng kh thay i c dng o nhng di chuyn nh (t vi m n vi mm) Nu dng chuyn i in dung trong mch cung cp bng in p mt chiu c th o c tc , dch chuyn bin thin v cc i lng khc c th bin i thnh di chuyn (lc, p sut, gia tc). + Loi c din tch bn cc thay i dng o cc di chuyn ln (hn 1cm) v di chuyn gc (n 270o). + Chuyn i c in mi thay i dng o m (vi, cht do), o mc nc, chiu dy ca cc vt cch in, o lc. + Chuyn i c tn hao in mi thay i (mch o dng o gc tn hao tg ca t trong mch xoay chiu) dng xc nh cc tham s vt l ca vt liu no t gia 2 bn cc 2.5. CC CHUYN I NHIT IN: Chuyn i nhit in l nhng chuyn i da trn cc qu trnh nhit nh t nng, lm lnh, trao i nhit, Thc t khi o lng cc i lng khng in theo phng php in thng dng 2 hin tng: l hiu ng nhit in v hiu ng thay i in tr ca dy dn hay cht bn dn khi nhit thay i. Tng ng vi 2 hiu ng ny ta c 2 loi chuyn i cp nhit in v chuyn i nhit in tr. 1. Chuyn i cp nhit in: A, Nguyn l lm vic: Nguyn l lm vic ca cp nhit in da trn hin tng nhit in: nu 2 dy dn c bn cht ho hc khc nhau ni vi nhau ti 2 im 1 v 2 to nn vng dy kn (hnh 2.25) v ti mt trong hai im c t nng hn so vi im kia th s xut hin mt sc in ng v do hnh thnh nn dng in trong vng dy. Sc in ng c gi l sc in ng nhit in, l hiu s ca cc hm s nhit ca 2 im ni: ET = f(t1) f(t2) Mch in nh trn gi l cp nhit in hay cp nhit ngu. (2.107)
73

Hnh 2.25: Cp nhit in im c t nng gi l u cng tc, im cn li gi l u t do. Nu gi nhit ca im t do (im 2) l hng s f(t2) = C = const th ta c: ET = f(t1) f(t2) = f(t1) C = f*(t1) (2.108) y chnh l biu thc c s cho php o nhit bng cp nhit in. Theo phng php ny, vic o nhit (t1) s dn ti vic o sc in ng ca cp nhit in khi gi c nh nhit u t do ca n. (hnh 2.25) Vt liu dng ch to cp nhit ngu cn m bo cc yu cu sau: quan h gia nhit v sc in ng nhit in l mt hm n tr tnh cht nhit in khng thay i bn ho v c vi nhit phi cao dn nhit tt c tr s sc in ng nhit in ln Bng 2.1: Mt s cp nhit in thng thng
Gii hn nhit trn oC TT Tn cp nhit in o lu di 1 2 3 4 Platin Platin Ri (90% Pt + 10% Rh) () Crmmel (90% Ni + 10% Cr) Alumel (95% Ni + 5% Al) (XA) Crmmel Cpei (56% Cu + 44% Ni) (XK) ng Cpei 1300 900 600 350 o ngn hn 1750 1300 800 500 Sc in ng nhit in vi 100oC (mV) 0,64 4,10 6,95 4,75

74

5 6

ng Constantan Vonfram (5% Reni) Vonfram (20% Reni) (BP - 5/20)

350 1800

500 2500

4,15 1,33

Hnh 2.26 l mt s dng khc nhau ca cc chuyn i cp nhit in.

Hnh 2.26: S mch o dng mt chiu Cp nhit in c ni vi nhau bng phng php hn v t trong thit b bo v trnh b n mn ho hc. Thit b ny c ch to t vt liu dn nhit tt, bn c hc, khng thm kh. Thit b trn thng l cc ng c ch to bng thp c bit. i vi cp nhit in qu, ng ch to c bo v bng thch anh v gm. cch in ngi ta dng aming (300oC), ng thch anh (1000oC) hoc ng s (1400oC). B, Nhng nguyn nhn gy sai s v cch hiu chnh chng: Ta bit rng phng trnh bin i ca cp nhit in trong trng hp chung, mt cch gn ng, c th vit di dng: trong : ET = At + Bt2 + Ct3 (2.109) ET: sc in ng nhit in t: in V nhy ca chuyn i ny s l:
75

hiu nhit gia u cng tc v u t do.

A, B, C: l cc hng s ph thuc vo vt liu ca dy lm cp nhit

ST

dE T = A + 2Bt + 3Ct 2 dt

(2.110)

nhy khng phi l hng s m ph thuc vo nhit . Do vy cc cp nhit in cng nghip thng cho trc mt bng sc in ng ng vi cc nhit khc nhau trong khong 1oC vi nhit u t do l 0oC. Cc nguyn nhn ch yu gy ra sai s i vi cp nhit in l: a, Sai s do nhit u t do thay i: Khi khc cc cp nhit in, u t do c t trong mi trng c nhit 0oC, nhng trong thc t s dng, nhit u t do t trong mi trng khc 0oC. Khc phc sai s trn c th c nhiu cch: Hiu chnh h s k trn tng on ca ng cong c tnh ET = f(t). Hnh 2.27 l ng cong biu din quan h gia ET = f(t) vi nhit u t do 0oC. Gi s rng cp nhit in c th o nhit t vi nhit u t do t > to, lc : Sc in ng E(t,to) s nh hn sc in ng E(t,to) mt lng: ET = E(t,to) E(t,to)

ET EX EX

ET

to

E
to tX tX

Hnh 2.27: ng cong quan h ET = f(t) Theo hnh v ta c:

76

(t t) = (to to)tg/tg = (to to )k k = tg/tg : gi l h s hiu chnh nhit u t do, n l hm s ca t v do mi on ng cong l khc nhau. Trong khi khc , ng cong c phn chia thnh nhiu on, ng vi mi on l 100oC, mi on c 1 h s hiu chnh K, v c lp thnh bng. i vi cp nhit in c tnh l tuyn tnh th h s k bng n v. C th coi k = 0,8 1 i vi cp nhit in bnh thng v k = 0,5 0,6 i vi cp nhit in qu. Dng thit b hiu chnh nhit t ng nhit u t do: Trng hp ny c th mc mt mch cu trong 3 nhnh lm bng in tr khng thay i theo nhit (manganin) v mt nhnh in tr thay i theo nhit (ng, niken)

Hnh 2.28: Cu b nhit t ng Cu c tnh ton cn bng nhit 0oC, mc ni tip vi u t do ca cp nhit in. Khi in tr ca mi trng thay i in tr (ng, niken) thay i theo, cu mt cn bng, trn ng cho cu xut hin mt in p U. in p ny b cho lng E b gim khi mi trng c nhit khc 0oC. Ngoi ra, ngi ta cn dng dng c in th k t ng t ghi o nhit ca cp nhit in. Thit b ny s t ng b nhit ca u t do. b, Sai s do s thay i in tr ca ng dy, cp nhit v ch th: Cp nhit in thng c o sc in ng bng milivonmt hoc in th k in tr nh iu chnh bng tay hoc t ng vi gii hn o n 100mV. Khi o sc in ng bng milivonmt, dng in chy trong mch l:
I= ET R CT + R ND + R d

(2.111) sc in ng nhit in
77

trong :

ET:

RCT: in tr ca ch th milivonmt RND: in tr ca cp nhit in Rd: in tr ca ng dy dn

E.R CT R CT + R ND + R d

in p ri trn milivonmt l:
U CT = E' I( R ND + R d ) =

(2.112)

T cng thc trn ta thy cn gi cho RND v Rd khng thay i. Khi khc thng c tnh (RND + Rd) bng 5. Nguyn nhn gy ra sai s ch yu l do in tr ca milivonmt thay i v vy in tr ca n chn c tr s ln hn 40 n 50 ln in tr ca cp nhit in gim sai s. c, Ngoi cc sai s trn cn c : sai s gy nn do t cp nhit in khng ng v tr cn o, khng ng hng v din tch tip xc ca cp nhit in vi i tng o qu nh. Nhng sai s trn cn c khc phc. C, ng dng: ng dng ch yu ca cp nhit in l o nhit , ngoi ra cn c dng o cc i lng khng in v in khc nh: o dng in ( tn s cao), o hng chuyn i v lu lng ca cc dng chy, o di chuyn, o p sut nh ( chn khng) 2. Nhit in tr: Nhit in tr l chuyn i c in tr thay i theo s thay i nhit ca n. Tu theo tc dng nhit ca dng in cung cp chy qua n ngi ta phn ra: nhit in tr t nng v nhit in tr khng t nng. Trong nhit in tr khng t nng, dng in chy qua n rt nh khng lm tng nhit ca in tr v nhit ca n bng nhit ca mi trng. Nhit in tr loi ny dng o nhit v cc i lng c hc nh o dch chuyn. Trong nhit in tr t nng, dng in qua n rt ln lm nhit ca n tng ln cao hn nhit mi trng, nn c s to nhit ra mi trng xung quanh. Nhit in tr loi ny c dng o lu lng, lu tc ca dng chy v phn tch cc cht ho hc Nhit in tr c ch to c th bng dy hoc cht bn dn. Yu cu i vi cc vt liu ch to l: c h s nhit ln, bn ho hc khi c tc dng ca mi trng, in tr sut ln, kh nng chy. gim tn hao nhit dn, chiu di in tr phi ln hn ng knh dy gp nhiu ln (v d 200 ln)
78

A, Nhit in tr dy: Chuyn i nhit in tr dy thng thng c ch to t ng, platin v niken, ng knh dy t 0,02 0,06 mm vi chiu di t 5 20 mm. Nhit in tr ng: Di nhit lm vic ca nhit in tr ng trong khong 50 180oC. Phng trnh c trng ca n c biu din di dng: RT = Ro(1 + t) trong khong nhit t 0 100oC : t: Ro: h s nhit ca nhit in tr, = 4,3.10-3 1/oC nhit in tr ca chuyn i 0oC. Nu khng bit gi tr ca Ro ta dng biu thc: RT2 = RT1( + t2)/( + t1) vi: ng) Khi tnh in tr R2 nhit t2 ch cn bit in tr R1 nhit t1 bt k. Nhit in tr platin: Platin c th chu c nhit ln n 1200oC m khng b xi ho hoc nng chy. Phng trnh c trng ca n c biu din di dng: + trong khong nhit t 0 660oC: RT = Ro(1 + At + Bt2) + trong khong nhit t -180oC 0oC: RT = Ro[1 + At + Bt2 + C(t 100)3] vi Ro: l in tr 0oC A, B, C: l hng s c tnh ca c dng phi tuyn. Vi nhit > 660oC v < -180oC quan h gia RT = f(t) c chun ho v cho di dng bng. (2.116) (2.115) (2.114) RT1, RT2 l cc gi tr in tr ng vi cc nhit t1 v t2. = 1/ l hng s, ph thuc vp loi vt liu ( = 234 vi (2.113)

79

Nhc im ca chuyn i nhit in tr Platin l c tnh phi tuyn, khng dng c trong mi trng xi ho kh, nhng do bn ho hc cao, tnh do ln, ngi ta c th ch to thnh si rt mng (n 1,25m) nn c s dng rng ri. Nhit in tr Niken: Niken c th s dng n nhit 250 300oC, nhit cao hn quan h RT = f(t) khng cn n tr. Trong khong nhit t 0 100oC, 5.10-3 1/oC. Tnh cht in ca Niken ph thuc nhiu vo tp cht v qu trnh nhit luyn. u im c bn ca Niken l in tr sut cao (gp 5 ln ng), h s nhit in ln cho php ch to c cc chuyn i c kch thc nh. Hnh 2.29 v hnh 2.30 cho ta thy mt s loi nhit in tr thng dng trong cng nghip. Hnh 2.29 l s cu to ca nhit in tr trong dy nhit in tr c lun vo 2 hoc 4 ng s (2) v c bc ngoi bng bt xit nhm (3) (xit nhm cch in tt, bn nhit v dn nhit tt). Hnh 2.30 l cu to ca loi chuyn i nhit in tr dng trong cng nghip, chng gm c: dy (1) t trong ng s, bn ngoi l thit b bo v (2) c ch to bng loi thp tt khng g, gn chuyn i ln i tng do ngi ta dng tnh hoc ng (3) v hp u ra (4). i vi loi khng c hp u ra nh hnh 2.30b.

Hnh 2.29: Mt s loi nhit in tr thng gp 1) Dy in tr; 2) V bo v; 3) Bt xit nhm

80

Hnh 2.30: Mt s loi nhit in tr thng gp 1) Dy t trong ng s; 2) V bo v; 3) ; 4) Hp u ra B, Nhit in tr bn dn: Nhit in tr bn dn c ch to t mt s oxit kim loi khc nhau nh CuO, CoO, MnO v.v Quan h gia in tr v nhit ca n c biu din bi biu thc: RT = AeT Trong : A: : T: e: (2.117) l hng s ph thuc vo tnh cht vt l ca cht bn dn, kch thc v hnh dng ca nhit in tr. l hng s ph thuc vo tnh cht vt l ca cht bn dn l nhit tuyt i hng s logarit t nhin

H s nhit ca cht bn dn mang du m v c gi tr t 0,02 0,08 1/oC, ln gp 8 10 ln kim loi v ph thuc nhiu vo nhit . in tr sut ln do kch thc ca n nh. = -/T2 (2.118) Cu to ca nhit in tr bn dn c th dng thanh, dng a v hnh cu. Nhc im ca cc nhit in tr bn dn l c tnh nhit khng tuyn tnh, kh khc . Bng sau cho thy nhng thng s ca mt s nhit in tr dy v hnh dng cu to, thng s c bn ca nhit in tr bn dn.
81

Bng 2.2: Thng s ca mt s nhit in tr dy

Vt liu dy Khong nhit (oC) 0 650 -200 0 -50 180 in tr Ro () Sai s tng i Ro/Ro Cp I 10 46 100 53 100 0,05 0,1 0,05 Cp II 0,1 Cp I (0,153.10-3t) (0,154,5.10-3t) Sai s tuyt it (oC) Cp II (0,36.10-3t) (0,33,5.10-3t) Cp III (0,36.103 t)

Platin

ng

Bng 2.3: Cu to v thng s mt s nhit in tr bn dn

Loi in tr H s nhit in tr, %/oC in tr bn dn Nhit lm vic ln nht o C Hng s thi gian trong khng kh (s) ng dng

-2,4-3,4

1200

+120

85115

o nhit

-2,3-3,4

0,015

+120

85115

Hiu chnh nhit

82

-4,5-60

0,53,0

+120

o nhit

110

o nhit bin thin ca cht kh khng xm thc

C, Mch o: Mch o ca chuyn i nhit in tr c th dng mch bt k o in tr ca n. Thng thng ngi ta hay dng mch cu khng cn bng c ch th l lgmt hoc cu t ng ghi. gim sai s ca in tr ng dy c th dng mch cu 3 dy nh hnh 2.31.

Hnh 2.31: Mch o dng vi chuyn i nhit in tr a) Mch logomet; b) Mch cu 3 dy dng logomet; c) Mch cu 3 dy

83

Sai s ca nhit k in tr ch yu l do in tr ng dy khi nhit mi trng thay i. in tr ng dy c th t ti 5 trong khi in tr ca bn thn nhit in tr vo khong 40 100, do khi in tr ng dy thay i s gy nn sai s ng k. Ngoi ra, dng in chy qua nhit in tr gy nng cng lm cho in tr tng gy sai s. Mt khc, nhit in tr c bc ngoi bng mt v thp nn b tn hao nhit v gy sai s. D, ng dng: Chuyn i nhit in tr dng o nhit , o cc i lng khng in nh o di chuyn, o p sut v dng phn tch thnh phn, nng ca mt s hp cht v kh. 2.6. CC CHUYN I HO IN: 1. Nguyn l lm vic ca chuyn i ho in: Chuyn i ho in l nhng chuyn i da trn cc hin tng ho in xy ra khi cho dng in i qua bnh in phn hoc do qu trnh xi ho kh cc in cc. Cc hin tng ny ph thuc vo tnh cht ca cc in cc, bn cht v nng ca cc dung dch. Do chuyn i ho in thng l mt bnh in phn cha mt dung dch no , c 2 hay nhiu cc ni vi mch o lng. Ging nh phn t ca mt mch in, chuyn i ho in c th c c trng bng sc in ng m n sinh ra, st p khi dng in qua n hoc l cc phn t in tr, in cm, in dung. Nguyn l lm vic ca cc chuyn i ny l da vo quan h gia cc thnh phn, cc tnh cht cc dung dch vi cc thng s in ni trn. Quan h ny ph thuc vo rt nhiu yu t nh nhit , p sut, tc dch chuyn, cc thng s khc ca dung dch v ca in cc, do vy phng trnh bin i ca cc chuyn i ho in l cc hm rt phc tp. Khi tng mt s ph thuc ny v gim n mc thp nht cc s ph thuc khc c th ch to ra cc chuyn i ho in khng ch xc nh thnh phn, nng cc dung dch m cn dng o nhiu i lng khng in khc nh cc di chuyn, p sut, tc , gia tc hiu c nguyn l lm vic ca cc chuyn i ho in cn hiu c cc hin tng in ho c bn sau: A, Hin tng phn ly: Khi ho tan vo nc hoc cc dung dch khc cc hp cht mui, axit, baz, phn t ca cc cht ny s phn ly thnh cc ion in tch dng (cation) v cc ion in tch m (anion) to thnh dung dch c kh nng dn in. S chuyn ng ca cc ht mang in trong cht in ly hay gia cht in ly v cc in cc ch din ra di dng chuyn ng ca cc ion hoc tch ion trn cc in cc.
84

Nng ca dung dch cng ln th in dn ca cc dung dch cng tng. in dn ca nc tinh khit bng 0, in dn ca dung dch bt k c tnh bng cng thc: = fc = a (1/m) trong : c: f: (2.119) l nng tng ng hay nng phn t (gmol/lit) l h s hot ng ca dung dch (f = 1 dung dch long, gim khi nng tng) l h s, cn gi l in dn tng ng.

a = fc: l hot ng ca dung dch : Hnh 2.32 l c tnh ca mt s dung dch.

Hnh 2.32: c tnh ca mt s dung dch in dn ca cc dung dch ph thuc nhiu vo nhit . H s nhit ca cc dung dch in dn khc nhau vo khong 1,5 2,5% trn 1oC. B, in th cc: Khi nhng mt in cc kim loi vo nc hay dung dch, gia cc in cc v dung dch xut hin mt in th gi l in th cc. in th cc ny c to ra do cc ion dng kim loi i vo dung dch. Khi xc lp mt trng thi cn bng ng gia kim loi v dung dch, trn b mt kim loi xut hin mt in th nhy cp, chnh l in th cc. Khi nng dung dch thp, cc ion kim loi i vo dung dch nn in cc c th m hn so vi dung dch. Ngc li nng cao, cc ion kim loi c tch ra bm vo b mt in cc lm cho in cc c in th dng so vi dung dch. in th cc khng ch xut hin trn cc in cc kim loi m cn xut hin trn cc in cc phi kim loi. Ngi ta ly in cc hyro lm in cc chun, in th cc ca n bng 0.

85

in th cc ca cc cht khc nhau i vi in th cc chun khng vt qu 3V. V d: in th cc Kali EoK = -2,92V; Km EoZn = -0,76V; ng EoCu = +0,34V (Eo l in th cc chun vi nng 1g-mol/l v nhit 18oC). + in th cc nhit v nng bt k:

E = Eo +

RT ln a nF
R: T: n: F: l hng s kh, R = 8,3178/C nhit tuyt i oK ho tr ion hng s Faraday, F = 96522 C/g-mol

(2.120)

trong

+ Nu hai in cc nhng mi trng, trn cc in cc s xy ra cc phn ng xi ho kh v to thnh mt phn t ganvanic, sc in ng ca n bng hiu in th gia 2 in cc. Mi in cc gi l bn phn t.

E 12 = E1 E 2 = E 01 E 02 +

RT a 1 ln nF a 2

(2.121)

Ngoi in th cc ra, trn bin ca hai dung dch cng c mt hiu in th gi l in th bin sinh ra do c ng ca cc ion trong 2 dung dch khc nhau. in th bin c vi milivon n vi chc milivon. C, Hin tng in phn v s phn cc: Nu cho mt dng in chy qua dung dch th s xy ra hin tng in phn, l qu trnh bin i ho hc tch vt cht ra khi dung dch. tch mt gam tng ng mt cht bt k ra khi dung dch cn c mt lng in tch bng 96522 culong. Nguyn l lm vic ca cc chuyn i in phn da trn hin tng ny. Hin tng phn cc l hin tng thay i in th cc do s thay i nng gn in cc khi c dng in chy qua bnh in phn. Da trn hin tng phn cc ngi ta ch to cc thit b dng phn tch nh tnh v nh lng dung dch, thit b gi l phn cc k. Nu dng i qua bnh in phn l dng xoay chiu th in p phn cc cng s bin thin, in p v dng in lch pha nhau mt gc 90o.
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in p ri trn bnh in phn bao gm in p ri trn in tr dung dch v in p phn cc trn cc in cc U. Khi o in tr dung dch bng dng mt chiu, sai s do phn cc bng U/U v c th t ti 10% nu in p trn 2 cc U = 20V. i vi dng in xoay chiu sai s s gim nhiu khi U << U v bng0,5U/U2, v in p ri trn in tr bnh in phn v in p phn cc lch pha nhau 90o. 2. Chuyn i in dn dung dch: A, Nguyn l lm vic: Chuyn i in dn dung dch hot ng da vo s ph thuc ca in dn dung dch vi thnh phn v nng ca cht in phn cng nh khong cch l v tit din s ca in cc. Mt cch gn ng phng trnh ca chuyn i c dng:

R=

1l 1 l = s fc s

(2.122)

B, Mch o: Chuyn i in dn dung dch thng dng vi mch cu. Hnh 2.33 l s chuyn i in dn dung dch o nng . N gm: v (1), in cc Platin (2), bnh o (3) c l (4) lp chuyn i vo. Cc bnh ny cho php o nng dung dch ang chy hoc nh bm cao su (5) khuy dung dch.

Hnh 2.33: Chuyn i in dn dung dch o nng

87

Hng s k = l/s trong khong 30 70 1/m, c xc nh bng thc nghim vi sai s 1%. Chuyn i c cung cp bng in p xoay chiu 50Hz 1000Hz loi tr sai s do hin tng phn cc. Trong cng nghip, khi cn o nng cc dung dch ngi ta dng chuyn i c in cc dng 2 hnh tr ng tm v cho dung dch cn o chy qua. Tu theo bn cht ca dung dch, in cc c th c lm bng graphit, platin, thp khng nung hay cc vt liu khc khng tng tc vi dung dch. loi tr sai s do s phn cc, cng vi vic cung cp bng in p xoay chiu, ngi ta cn dng chuyn i 4 in cc hnh 2.34 trong c 2 bn in cc dng (1 v 2) cung cp bng dng in xoay chiu n nh v 2 in cc p (3 v 4) dng o in p.

Hnh 2.34: S chuyn i dng 4 in cc loi tr hin tng phn cc v cc tc dng tng h khng mong mun khc gia cc in cc v dung dch, ngi ta dng chuyn i in dn khng tip xc (hnh 2.35).

Hnh 2.35: Chuyn i in dn khng tip xc

88

Tu theo tn s cung cp cho chuyn i m phn thnh chuyn i tn thp v chuyn i cao tn. Hnh 2.35a l mt chuyn i m tn kiu bin p c cun dy ngn mch ( l mt ng thu tinh cha dung dch cn o). Dng in trong cun dy s cp ph thuc vo tng tr ca mch th cp. Bn thn mch th cp li c tng tr ph thuc vo nng dung dch cn o. Chuyn i ny dng o nng dung dch c in tr sut trong khong = 0 50 (1/m) Nhc im l kt cu phc tp do phi ch to vng ng cht lng. Gn y o cc nng nh ngi ta dng cc loi chuyn i in dn khng tip xc cao tn (vi MHz). Hnh 2.35b l loi chuyn i in dn kiu in dung, gm mt ng thu tinh hoc cht do c t cc in cc bng kim loi pha ngoi. Cc chuyn i cao tn kiu in cm (hnh 2.35c) trong cc in cc c thay bng dy qun quanh ng. Cc chuyn i cao tn c ni vi mch cng hng do mt my pht cao tn cung cp (hnh 2.36)

Hnh 2.36: Mch cng hng cao tn o nng dung dch nh c th dng mch 7.32a, mch cng hng gm cc phn t c mc song song vi nhau. Vi nng ln hn, ngi ta dng mch gm cc dng c mc ni tip. Dng c c khc theo mu c nng bit. C, ng dng: Chuyn i in dn dung dch c s dng rng ri o nng ca dung dch R khi gi l v s khng thay i:

R = f ( ) = k.

(2.123)
89

hoc o cc i lng c R = f(l/s) khi nng dung dch khng i. 3. Chuyn i gavanic: A, Nguyn l lm vic: Chuyn i Gavanic hot ng da vo s ph thuc ca in th cc theo nng , v thnh phn ca dung dch. Gavanic thng c dng rng ri o hot ca cc ion Hyr, qua xc nh c thnh phn v tnh cht ca dung dch cn nghin cu. S phn ly ca nc din ra nh sau: H2O = H+ + OH Nu gi aH+ v aOH- l hot ca cc ion H+ v OH th K = aH+.aOH- l mt hng s gi l hng s phn ly nhit 25oC, K = 10-14. Vi nc sch hoc dung dch trung ho: Vi dung dch axit: Vi dung dch kim: aH+ = aOH- = 10-7 aH+ > aOHaH+ < aOH-

Trong thc t tin cho vic tnh ton v ghi chp, ngi ta dng n v pH = - lg aH+. V aH+ thay i t 100 1014 nn pH nm trong khong 0 14. Cc dng c o pH c gi l pH-mt, trong c chuyn i Gavanic. Chuyn i Gavanic gm c bn phn t Calmen (1) v in cc o lng thu tinh (2). (Hnh 2.37)

Hnh 2.37: Cu to chuyn i Gavanic in cc bn phn t Calomen l mt ng thu ngn trong c dung dch Calomen bo ho kh ho tan (Hg2Cl2). S tip xc in ca bn phn t vi dung dch th nghim cn c thc hin qua dung dch KCl (kho in ly) gim in th khuch tn, do trn bin ca dung dch KCl in th khuch tn c tr s nh.
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in cc thu tinh (2) l mt bnh thu tinh c thnh mng (cha Natri). Khi nhng bnh thu tinh vo dung dch cc ion Natri t thnh bnh s i vo dung dch cn cc ion Hyr t dung dch vo chim ch ca chng do b mt ca lp thu tinh c lm bo ho bi cc ion Hyr v in cc thu tinh c tnh cht nh in cc Hyr. ly in th bn trong in cc thu tinh, bnh c y dung dch mu c pHm bit. Trong bnh thu tinh c in cc Clorua bc (3). Vi pHx cn o, sc in ng E ca chuyn i Gavanic c th biu din di dng: E = Eo + b.pH Trong B, Sai s: Sai s ca chuyn i Gavanic ch yu do nh hng ca nhit mi trng v in th bin. S thay i nhit dn n s thay i in th cc v in tr ca chuyn i. gim sai s ny c th dng mch hiu chnh nhit . (xem mch cui chng 1) Sai s ng ca chuyn i c in cc thu tinh ph thuc vo chiu dy ca bnh. Vi thnh bnh rt mng (0,05mm), th ca in cc thu tinh thay i tc thi theo s thay i ca pH trong dung dch. Khc c tin hnh theo dung dch mu c pH n nh v c th t c vi sai s tuyt i 0,01pH. C, Mch o: Do tn hiu ra ca chuyn i Gavanic rt nh (tng tr ra ln) nn mch o cn c tng tr vo ln (108 1012). Khi o sc in ng ca chuyn i Gavanic thng dng mch o kiu b c thit b t ng hiu chnh sai s nhit . D, ng dng: Cc pH-mt cng nghip c th c pH ca dung dch v bn nhit t 0 100oC vi sai s c bn 0,02 n v pH. Cc pH-mt trong phng th nghim vi in cc thu tinh c mn chn v c thit b hiu chnh nhit t c sai s khng ln hn 0,01 n v pH v di lm vic trong khong t 0 100oC. 4. Chuyn i in phn (chuyn i Culong): A, Nguyn l lm vic:
91

(2.124)

Eo: l sut in ng ca chuyn i khi pH = 0 b: l h s ph thuc vo nhit v loi in cc s dng.

Chuyn i in phn hot ng da trn hin tng in phn. Theo nh lut Faraday, quan h gia in lng Q v lng vt cht tch ra trn in cc c biu din theo phng trnh:

Q = idt =

m.n.F A

(2.125)

trong

m: khi lng cht c gii phng n: ho tr ion A: trng lng nguyn t cht F: hng s Faraday (F = 96522 C/g-mol)

Chuyn i in phn l mt khu tch phn, i lng vo c th l in lng Q hoc s thay i dng in vi thi gian t. i lng ra c th l khi lng cht gii phng hoc s thay i chiu di, in tr ca in cc, trong sut quang hc ca in cc v dung dch. B, Sai s v ng dng: Chuyn i in phn n gin nht l ng h thi gian hnh 7.34a, dng o thi gian lm vic ca cc thit b. N gm c v thu tinh (1) t 2 in cc bng ng Ant (2) v Catt (3). Catt nm trong ng mao qun, dc theo ng mao qun c thang chia 5. Dung dch cha trong bnh l sunfat ng CuSO4. Khi c dng in mt chiu i qua s xy ra hin tng in phn. Ant tan vo dung dch cn Catt c bm vo mt lng ng lm tng di ca n.

92

Hnh 2.38: Chuyn i in phn v s mc mt chiu, xoay chiu Vi dng in khng thay i, di ca cc Catt khi tng mt lng l c th vit di dng:
l = A I . .t = k .t nF s

(2.126)

trong

l mt dng in s l tit din Catt t l thi gian o

Hnh 2.38b v 2.38c tng ng l s mc ca ng h vi dng in mt chiu v xoay chiu. ng h thi gian trn c ch to vi gii hn o 5 10000h vi dng chy t 0,01 1mA. Sai s khong 5% khi cn Catt v 20% khi tnh theo thang chia . Ngoi ng h thi gian, chuyn i in phn cn c ch to thnh cc dng c o in lng khi phng np cquy v cc in tr iu khin dng trong cc mch iu khin v mch iu chnh. 5. Chuyn i Khimtrn: A, Nguyn l lm vic:
93

Khimtrn l mt chuyn i in ho, nguyn l lm vic ca n (tng t nh it v tranzito bn dn), da trn vic s dng lp kho, l lp mi trng lm ngho i cc ht mang in tch. Chuyn i Khimtrn l mt bnh in phn cha y dung dch IottuaKali c duy tr di dng xi ho v dng kh ca mt loi ion nht nh. Cc in cc c lm bng kim loi khng tng tc ho hc vi cht in phn (vng, bch kim) Khi dng dung dch, IottuaKali phn ly thnh: KI = K+ + INu ta t vo hai in cc Ant v Catt mt in p c 1V. Cc ion s chuyn ng v dn in. in dn ca dung dch ch yu l do cc anion I-, cn cation K+ khng tham gia dn in v Catt c in th m c -2V (trong khi in th thot ca K+ khong 1,8V) Di tc dng ca in trng gia Ant v Catt, cc ion I- di chuyn n Ant v cho Ant in t to thnh I-3: 3I- I-3 + 2e Cc ion I- gim lin tc v rt nhanh cho n khi dng in gim n khng (I = 0) do I- bin ht thnh I-3. Nh s khuch tn trong dung dch, cc ion I-3 chm vo cc Catt, chng nhn c in t to thnh dng khuch tn: I-3 + 2e 3IDng in khuch tn ny rt nh c 10A nhit bnh thng. Bng phng php no ngi ta y cc ion I-3 v in cc Catt, cc ion I-3 nhn in t bin thnh 3I- v dng in tng ln rt nhanh. Dng in I ph thuc ch yu vo lng chuyn ng ca ion I-3 v pha Catt, tc l ph thuc vo tc ng ca i lng c hc no . B, Sai s: C, ng dng: ng dng ch yu ca chuyn i Khimtrn l dng trong cc dng c o p sut, gia tc v to thnh it in ha. Hnh 2.39 l v d v mt loi chuyn i Khimtrn c ch to thnh thit b o p sut v c tnh Von-Ampe ca n (hnh 2.40). Thit b gm c bnh (1) c gn kn bi 2 mng n hi (2). Bn trong bnh gm c cc Catt lm bng Platin (3) c l gia dung dch i qua, hai Ant (4) c t hai pha ca Catt, l nhng tm li Platin, bn trong bnh cha dung dch KI. Khi cc in cc c mc vi ngun in ngoi, dung dch trng thi ng yn, dng in chy trong mch rt yu v ch yu l dng khuch
94

tn (hnh 2.40). Di tc dng ca p sut bn ngoi, mng n hi p dung dch KI c cc ion I-3 qua l ca Catt (3). Cc ion I-3 nhn in t to thnh 3I- v dng in tng ln. Dng chy ca dung dch qua l cng nhiu, dng cng tng nhanh nhng cc ng cong c tnh hnh 2.40.

Hnh 2.39: Chuyn i Khimtrn

Hnh 2.40: c tnh Vn-Ampe ca chuyn i Khimtrn

95

Hnh 2.41: Chuyn i o gia tc gc 1) Bnh cha dung dch; 2) ng cha dung dch Cc ng cong ny tng t nh c tnh Von-Ampe ca tranzito. Hnh 7.36 l s nguyn l ca chuyn i o gia tc gc. Trong chuyn i ny khng c mng n hi, bnh cha dung dch c dng ng trn. Di tc dng ca gia tc gc, dung dch b di chuyn qua l ca cc Catt v dng in thay i theo s thay i gia tc. 2.7. CC CHUYN I IN T V ION: 1. Phn loi: Nhm cc chuyn i in t v ion l nhm gm nhiu loi chuyn i khc nhau. Nguyn l lm vic ca cc loi chuyn i ny da vo s thay i dng ion v dng in t di tc ng ca cc i lng o. Ngi ta chia cc chuyn i in t v ion thnh 2 loi: chuyn i in t v chuyn i ion ho.Trong cc chuyn i in t, chng c phn thnh: chuyn i t pht x in t, chuyn i pht x nhit in t v chuyn i pht x quang in t. 2. Chuyn i t pht x in t l cc n 2 cc: Di tc dng ca in trng mnh (vi in p trn Ant v Catt c 3000V), cc in t bn ra khi Catt. Trn ng i chng ion ho cc phn t kh to thnh cc ion dng v ion m. Dng in chy t Ant n Catt thay i theo mt khng kh trong n 2 cc. ng dng nguyn l trn ngi ta ch to cc thit b o p sut thp cn gi l cc chn khng k. V d: chn khng k loi BM B-1 ca Lin X c o chn khng 2.10-6 8.10-4 mmHg. 3. Chuyn i c pht x nhit in t: Cc loi chuyn i ny c ch to di dng n in t hai cc v ba cc. Do Catt b t nng, cc in t bn ra khi n v di tc dng ca in trng, cc in t chuyn ng t Ant n Catt. Trn ng i ca in t, chng lm ion ho
96

khng kh to thnh cc ion dng v ion m, cng nh loi chuyn i t pht x in t, chuyn i loi ny dng o chn khng ti 10-6 mmHg. Nu gi cho n c chn khng n nh , dng in chy trong mch ph thuc vo khong cch gia 2 cc Ant v Catt. ng dng hin tng trn, ngi ta ch to cc thit b o cc i lng c nh o dch chuyn, o p sut 4. Chuyn i c pht x quang in t: Di tc dng ca cc dng nh sng vi bc sng thch hp chiu vo Catt, in t t Catt b bt ra to thnh dng in. Chuyn i quang in c phn thnh 3 loi: + T bo quang in: l phn t quang in s dng hiu ng quang in ngoi. l mt n chn khng hay c kh m Catt ca n s pht ra cc in t di tc dng ca dng nh sng. + Quang in tr: l loi chuyn i quang in da vo hiu ng quang in trong. in tr ca mt vi cht bn dn thay i di tc dng ca dng nh sng. Cc cht c hiu ng quang in trong mnh l Selen, mui Sunfit Cadimi, hp cht ca Tal, Bismut hoc ch vi lu hunh. + Pht it (Van quang in) l chuyn i quang in, di tc dng ca nh sng, lp kho ca mt s mt ghp cc cht bn dn s tr thnh ngun dng in. 5. ng dng ca chuyn i quang in: Chuyn i quang in dng o cc i lng khng in khc nhau. Chng rt khc nhau v kt cu v h thng quang hc, iu xc nh tc dng ca dng nh sng ln phn t quang in. Song v c bn c th phn cc chuyn i quang in thnh 2 nhm: + Nhm 1: gm cc chuyn i lm vic trong ch iu bin bin , dng quang in ph thuc vo i lng khng in cn o. Do , chng i hi cc c tuyn khng b ph thuc vo thi gian v tc ng ca cc nhn t bn ngoi (nh nhit , in p ngun dao ng). + Nhm 2: gm cc chuyn i lm vic trong ch iu bin tn s (iu tn), dng quang in khng phi l hm ca i lng cn o. Hnh 2.42 l v d cc phng php s dng cc chuyn i quang in o cc i lng khng in. Hnh 2.42a: i tng A l ngun sng, dng nh sng ca n di chuyn n chuyn i quang in lm thay i c tnh ca n. ng dng nguyn l trn ngi ta ch to cc thit b nh ho quang k cng sng o nhit bng phng php khng tip xc.
97

Hnh 2.42b: n si t hay ngun sng bt k ng vai tr l ngun pht sng, dng nh sng khi i n phn t quang in phi qua i tng o A v b hp th mt phn, mc hp th nhiu t ph thuc vo tham s cn o ca bnh A. l cc thit b so mu dng o c v trong sut ca dung dch v mi trng kh. Hnh 2.42c: ngun sng (n ) chiu sng i tng A v c phn chiu tr li n phn t quang in. Kh nng phn x ca i tng A ph thuc vo cht lng v trng thi b mt v c th l hm s ca i lng cn o, v d dng c o bng chi tit, o tc quay ca trc quay Hnh 2.42d: ngun sng n phn t quang in b chn bi l chn A. Mc chn tu thuc vo v tr ca l chn tc l tu thuc vo di chuyn ca n. l c s ca dng c o di chuyn, cc b m

Hnh 2.42: Cc phng php s dng cc chuyn i quang in 6. Chuyn i ion ho: a, Nguyn l lm vic: Di tc dng ca cc tia phng x v tia Rnghen, cht kh s b ion ho. Nu bnh ion ho c t mt in p th cc in t v ion s chuyn ng c hng to thnh dng in ion. Dng ion ph thuc vo in p t ln bnh, tnh cht ca tc nhn ion, mi trng ion ho, vt liu ca thnh bnh v cc vt th khc nm trn ng i ca cc tc nhn ion ho. Cc tc nhn ion ho l cc tia phng x nh tia , tia , tia v tia Rnghen.
98

Chuyn i ion ho c nhiu loi khc nhau, song bt k loi no cng cn c ngun phng x v thit b thu cc sn phm ca qu trnh ion ho to thnh dng in.Thit b gi l b thu bc x. b, B thu bc x: C nhim v bin i nng lng bc x ht nhn thnh in nng. B thu bc x da vo hin tng ion ho cht kh khi cho tia phng x i qua n hoc da vo hin tng pht quang ca mt s cht di tc dng ca nng lng bc x ht nhn. C 3 loi bnh thu bc x: + Bnh ion ho + My m phng in trong cht kh + My m nhp nhy. Hnh 2.43a l c tnh Von-Ampe ca bnh ion ho v hnh 2.43b cu to ca mt bnh ion ho bng tia . Dng quang in thng rt nh (c 10-3 10-7 A). in p t ln in cc cao p (v bnh) c hng nghn Von, dng in ion ly qua cc li c khuch i bng b khuch i o lng.

Hnh 2.43: Cu to v c tnh Vn-Ampe ca bnh ion ho trnh dng in d, cch in gia cc li v v (cc cao p) phi t ti (10 1013 M), v th in cc li c bc bi cc bo v ni t vi mch o lng thu dng in d t cc cao p.
8

ng dng ca cc chuyn i ion ho dng o cc i lng khng in nh chiu dy lp ph b mt cc chi tit, o di chuyn, o p sut (100 kN/m2 0,1 N/m2), tc dng kh, tp cht trong khng kh 2.8. CC CHUYN I LNG T:
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L loi chuyn i da trn hin tng vt l ht nhn nguyn t. Ta hy xt sau y mt loi chuyn i lng t ph bin nht, l chuyn i da trn hin tng cng hng t ht nhn. Trong nhng nm 1960, gio s S.A.Spektor trng i hc Bch khoa Ptecbua s dng hin tng cng hng t ht nhn vo k thut o lng. Nh vic o cng t trng cng nh cc i lng khc c quan h vi n chng hn nh dng in ln nng cao c chnh xc ln rt nhiu ln. 1. Nguyn l lm vic ca chuyn i: Ta bit rng nhiu ht nhn nguyn t c cha mt mmen t c gi l dipol kh hiu l v mmen khi lng chuyn ng c gi l spin p. T s ca cc mmen y l =/p gi l h s thu t ca ht nhn. N l mt hng s m i lng ca n khng ph thuc vo cc iu kin bn ngoi.

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Hnh 2.44: Chuyn i lng t Nu ta t vt liu (v d: nc nng) trong mt ng th nghim. Sau t c ng nghim vo trong mt t trng u (hnh 44a) c t cm B th cc mmen t s

quay xung quanh vect B (hnh 44b). Lc mmen lc M tc dng ln cc mmen t c th hin bng phng trnh:
M = B

(2.127)

cn phng trnh chuyn ng s c dng:

dP = M = B dt

(2.128)

Nhng mt khc:
dP = P dt

(2.129)

- l tn s quay ca mmen t xung quanh B. T ta c:

B = P

Suy ra:

B = B P

(2.130)

Nu trong mt phng vung gc vi t trng B ta to ra mt t trng xoay chiu B c tn s cao cng quay vi mmen dipol th khi vect B quay ng b vi cc mmen t dipol s gy ra s thay i ca t trng cao tn v s xut hin mmen tc
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ng ln dipol lm cho gc gia B v thay i. Khi c s cn bng gia tn s

quay ca mmen t xung quanh B v tn s quay ca vect B s sinh ra cng hng. l hin tng cng hng t ht nhn.

Nh vy c th xc nh B theo gi tr tn s cng hng v h s thu t . H s i vi mi cht c th xc nh chnh xc n 0,001% cn sai s o c th t n 0,001% bng tn s k ch th s. Cho nn nu s dng loi chuyn i ny c th o t cm ca t trng vi chnh xc cao hn hn cc phng php thng thng khc. 2. Sai s: Sai s ca php o t trng ny ph thuc cc yu t sau: + Sai s do tn s c th t n 0,001% + Sai s do vic xc nh h s thu t l 0,001% + Sai s do vic tm im cng hng c th t 0,05 0,1% Do php o t trng ny c th t n sai s 0,1 0,2%. Trong khi bng cc phng php thng thng sai s c 1,5 2%. 3. Mch o: Mt ng nghim (1) cha mt cht (v d nc nng D) t vo trong mt cun dy (2). Cun dy ny cng vi in dung C (c th thay i c) to thnh mt my pht cao tn LC. ng nghim v cun dy c t trong mt t trng u c t cm cn o Bx ca nam chm vnh cu (4). (hnh 2.45) Hnh 2.45: Mch o ca chuyn i cng hng t ht nhn

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Khi xy ra hin tng cng hng t ht nhn l lc m tn s quay ca prtn (ht nhn Hyr) bng tn s ca my pht cao tn mt gi tr no ca t cm B. trng thi s xy ra s mt mt nng lng lm gim bin dao ng ca my pht. nhc li hin tng cng hng v nhn c tn hiu lin tc, t trng khng thay i Bx c iu ch bi mt t trng xoay chiu c tn s thp 50Hz bng mt cun dy ph (3) t trong t trng. Nh vy in p cao tn ca my pht cng b iu ch. Sau vo khuch i cao tn qua tch sng vo khuch i m tn v i n 2 bn cc Y ca dao ng k in t. Mt khc ta a tn hiu iu ch 50Hz qua b iu chnh pha vo 2 bn cc Y ca dao ng k. Qu trnh ny c biu din hnh 2.46a tn hiu iu ch 50Hz c chu k l TM. C mi chu k TM iu kin cng hng c nhc li 2 ln. V khi tn hiu iu ch i qua im 0 gi tr B ti c cng hng s nhc li. Nh th trn mn hnh ca dao ng k s xut hin 2 tn hiu (hnh 2.46b). iu chnh pha ca tn hiu iu ch vo 2 cc X ca dao ng k ta c th tch thnh 2 tn hiu nh hnh 2.46b. im giao nhau gia s l im cng hng. Khi im t v tr gia mn hnh ca dao ng k th ta o tn s cao tn bng tn s k ch th s. T theo cng thc (2.123) ta tnh c gi tr t cm Bx cn o.

Hnh 2.46: a, Tn hiu cng hng t ht nhn b, Tn hiu cng hng trn mn hnh dao ng k in t

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4. ng dng: Phng php k trn c dng o t cm ca t trng u t 0,005T tr i. Gii hn o ph thuc vo ht nhn nguyn t ca cht m ta s dng. V d: Nu ht nhn l Hyr (H2) th ta c th o t trng n 0,5T Nu dng Li7 th o t 0,5 1,0T Nu l nc nng D th c th o c t 1,0T tr i. Ngoi vic o t trng, phng php ny cn c s dng rng ri trong thc t o dng in ln. Trong lnh vc Y hc, ngi ta s dng loi chuyn i ny ch to my chp ct lp (TURBOGRAPH) l loi my hin i pht hin cc khi u trong no hoc trong c th thay cho vic s dng tia X c hi. 5. Chuyn i cng hng t in t: Ngoi chuyn i cng hng t ht nhn ngi ta cn s dng chuyn i cng hng t in t. Trong chuyn i ny phng php v thit b tm cng hng ging nh i vi chuyn i cng hng t ht nhn. H s thu t in t c tnh theo cng thc sau:
dt = e 2m e C

(2.131)

Trong :

e: me: C:

in tch ca in t khi lng ca in t tc nh sng

So snh vi cng hng t ht nhn th cng hng t in t c: + H s thu t ln hn gp 103 ln v tn s cng hng cng ln hn c 3 ln. + Tn hiu cng hng t in t cng ln hn tn hiu cng hng t ht nhn v th m c th o Bx nh hn (t 1.10-5 5.10-4T) m phng php cng hng t ht nhn kh c th t c. + Sai s ca phng php cng hng t in t ln hn cng hng t ht nhn v rng ca cng hng kh ln do vy m vic tm cng hng vp phi sai s ln hn. + Cng hng t in t cng s dng o t trng u v cc i lng lin quan n t trng u.

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CHNG 3:

CM BIN THNG MINH

3.1. S RA I CA CM BIN THNG MINH Cm bin lm nhim v bin i t i lng o phi in thnh in trong cc h thng thng tin o lng v iu khin. y l khu c bn nht quyt nh sai s ca h thng o hay dng c o. Vic ci tin cc c tnh k thut ca cm bin nhm gim thiu cc sai s ca chng vn lun c quan tm v nghin cu. Mt trong nhng cch lm em li nhiu hiu qu nht hin nay chnh l vic p dng cc thnh tu ca cng ngh vi in t v tin hc trong o lng. Vi nhng tnh nng u vit m cc b vi x l, vi iu khin (khi kt hp chng vi cc b cm bin khc nhau) em li nh: kh nng t ng chn thang o, t ng x l kt qu o, thng tin o v b sai s... khin cho xu hng ny c nhanh chng ng dng mt cch rng ri trn th gii. Ngoi ra, vi s pht trin mnh m ca k thut chip in t, gi thnh ca chng cng khng qu t thm ch lm cho gi thnh ca cc b cm bin thng minh tng ln khng ng k so vi cc cm bin thng thng khc. Vic kt hp vi x l vi cc cm bin thng thng to nn cm bin thng minh vi cc u im vt tri in hnh nh: S dng a chc nng, c th o nhiu i lng khc nhau vi cc khong o khc nhau. C kh nng chng trnh ho vi ngha l qu trnh o c th theo mt chng trnh nh trc, chng trnh ny c th thay i bng cc thit b ghi chng trnh. T ng x l kt qu o: t ng khc , t ng chn thang o, t ng b sai s h thng v ngu nhin, t ng b nh hng cc yu t khc nhau, t ng truyn kt qu o ln cp trn. 3.2. VI IN T HO CC CHUYN I S CP nng cao tnh nng ca cc cm bin, ngi ta c gng a cng ngh vi in t vo cc chuyn i o lng s cp in hnh ho chng v nng cao c tnh k thut ca chng lm phn t c bn ca cm bin thng minh. 1. Chuyn i in tr: Ngi ta lm ra cc nhit in tr chnh xc v thm ch cc cu o bng k thut vi in t. Ngi ta cng ch to ra cc chuyn i in tr lc cng bng cng ngh ny, nui cy a tinh th trn n tinh th c ng dng trong cc cm bin o trng lng (cn), cc p k (o p sut) v cc hiu p k (o lu
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lng). Ngi ta cng ch to c cc in tr b nhit ngay trn cc cm bin loi tr nh hng ca nhit ln kt qu o. Nhit , p sut, lu lng l ba i lng thng gp nht trong cc h thng t ng ho qu trnh sn xut. Cc chuyn i in tr lc cng ny c nui cy trn mng kim loi, v th khng b nh hng ca hin tng trt gy nn bi cng ngh dn in tr. 2. Chuyn i quang in: Pht it, ptrn, ng dn quang vi cng ngh vi in t s t c kch thc nh v hiu qu cao. Optron kt hp vi cp quang lm tng hiu qu ca cc phng php o quang in. V d: thit b o tc (optron tachometic) cc quang k, quang ph k, cc my so mu o c c kch thc gim mt cch ng k, dn n gim bt kch thc mu th v thm ch c th thc hin php o ti ch trong c th. Cc cm bin c kt hp vi kh nng x l ca my tnh tr thnh cc thit b phn tch thng minh. 3. Cng ngh mng bn thm c chn lc: Cng ngh ny to ra c cc chuyn pHmt vi cc khuch i bn dn trng u vo t kch thc khng qu 1mm, cho php linh hot ho cc php o pH vi cc yu cu khc nhau. Trong phn tch nng vt cht, mng lc c chn lc tr thnh nhng b phn rt qu, cc my phn tch kh hu hin i c chn lc cao vi nng thp. Nghin cu cc cm bin a chc nng vi chuyn i s cp in t l mt ni dung ca vic nghin cu to ra cc cm bin thng minh. 3.3. X L S B KT QU O TRONG CM BIN THNG MINH Trong cc cm bin thng minh, ngi ta s dng kh nng tnh ton ca cc b vi x l nng cao cc c tnh k thut ca b cm bin nh: nng cao chnh xc, loi tr sai s phi tuyn, b nh hng ca yu t mi trng... 3.3.1. T ng khc : Qu trnh t ng khc tin hnh nh sau: Ban u, tin hnh o cc gi tr ca i lng vo chun ghi vo b nh, sau o cc gi tr ca i lng cn o v bng cc cng c ton hc (thut ton) c th so snh, gia cng kt qu o v loi tr sai s. Cng vic ny c thc hin cho tng cm bin. Khi mc cm bin vo h thng, vi x l lm nhim v iu khin tn hiu chun thay i, b nh s ghi li cc gi tr u ra y ca cm bin mt cch tng ng.
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Khi o, i lng o x tc ng vo cm bin tng ng vi gi tr no ca x th b nh s a ra gi tr tng ng ca tn hiu chun c ghi t trc. Vi cch lm , chng ta c th loi tr c cc sai s phi tuyn ca c tnh ca cm bin m cc dng c s thng thng khng lm c. Phng php ny i hi cc cm bin phi hon ton ging nhau trong trng hp hng hc cn thay th s khng gy ra sai s ng k. Nu khng, khi thay th cm bin mi khng hon ton ging th phi tin hnh khc li. 3.3.2. X l tuyn tnh ho tng on: Trng hp c tnh ca tn hiu x sau cm bin l mt hm phi tuyn ca i lng o , tc l x() l mt hm phi tuyn. Thay v khc c tnh o vo b nh nh trn, ta c th thay th c tnh x() bng mt ng gp khc tuyn tnh ho tng on vi sai s o cho trc tc l sai s xp x ho khng vt qu o. chnh l phng php ni suy tuyn tnh. Thut ton l chn on tuyn tnh ha nh sau: gi tr o ca i lng o ng cong x() cho tng ng mt gi tr xo. xo c lu li trong RAM ca vi x l gi tr 1 ca i lng o ng cong x() cho tng ng mt gi tr x1. x1 c lu li trong RAM ca vi x l gi tr 2 ca i lng o ng cong x() cho tng ng mt gi tr x2. x2 c lu li trong RAM ca vi x l Tnh t s cc s gia bc mt ca a thc ni suy Lagrange x * ( ) i qua 1 2 im xo, x1:
( 2 , o ) = x2 xo 2 o

Tnh gi tr ca a thc ni suy im 1:

x * ( 1 ) = x o + ( 2 , o )( 1 o ) 1

Tnh sai lch im 1:

1 ( 1 ) = x 1 x * ( 1 ) 1

So snh 1(1) vi sai s cho o. Nu 1(1) < o th gi tr tn hiu s khng c chp nhn.

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 im 3 ta c x3 Gi tr ca x3 c lu trong RAM Tnh t s cc s gia bc mt ca a thc ni suy Lagrange x * () : 2

( 3 , o ) = x3 xo 3 o

Tnh gi tr ca a thc ni suy cc im 1, 2:

x * ( 1 ) = x o + ( 3 , o )( 1 o ) 2 x * ( 2 ) = x o + ( 3 , o )( 2 o ) 2

Tnh sai lch im 1, 2:

2 ( 1 ) = x 1 x * ( 1 ) 2
2 ( 2 ) = x 2 x * ( 2 ) 2

So snh 2(1) v 2(2) vi sai s cho o. Nu

2 ( 1 ) < o th gi tr 2 ( 2 ) < o

tn hiu s khng c chp nhn v khng c coi l im cui ca on tuyn tnh ho. im k no ta c xk v a thc ni suy s l:
x * 1 ( j ) = x o + ( k , o )( j o ) k
( k , o ) = xk xo k o

m ta c k 1 ( j ) = x j x * 1 ( j ) o k i vi mt im j no , thm vo 0 < j < k. Khong ni suy lc s bng:

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 k = k o

Lc gi tr xk s c chp nhn nh l im cui ca on thng ca ng xp x ho tng on. Vi php ni suy tuyn tnh, qu trnh hi phc s c tin hnh bng cch ni lin cc im bng cc on thng:
x * ( ) = x o + xk xo ( o ) k o

on thng tip theo s i qua im k v gi tr ca qu trnh tuyn tnh ho tng on. Mt cch tng qut: on thng th i ca ng gp khc c dng:
x * () = x i + k x i +1 x i ( i ) i +1 i

phc hi cc gi tr o ta ch vic tnh x * () theo i s l cc i i lng o c t cm bin. Cc gi tr tnh c theo ng ni suy tuyn tnh lun lun m bo sai s cho php l o. 3.3.3. Gia cng kt qu o: Khi tnh ton sai s ngu nhin, ngi ta thng s dng cc c tnh ca chng, l k vng ton hc v lch bnh qun phng. Cc c trng thng k ny nh gi sai s ca kt qu o. Vic tnh cc c tnh s ny l ni dung c bn trong qu trnh gia cng kt qu o. tnh k vng ton hc v lch bnh qun phng ta phi c s lng cc php o rt ln. Tuy nhin trong thc t s lng cc php o n l c hn, v th ta ch tm c c lng ca k vng ton hc v lch bnh qun phng m thi. Thng cc c lng i vi cc lng o vt l c cc tnh cht c bn l cc c lng c cn c khng chch v c hiu qu. 3.4. CU TRC CA CM BIN THNG MINH Qua nhng phn tch v chuyn i s cp, v cc ni dung phi x l trong cc h thng o lng cc i lng vt l c th suy ra cu trc ca cm bin thng minh s bao gm: Cc chuyn i s cp dng bin i i lng cn o thnh i lng in. Cc i lng ny c th chnh l i lng ch cn thit cho php o, cng c th l i lng nh hng dng loi tr sai s do nh hng ca chng. Cc i lng in sau c a qua cc khu chuyn i chun ho.
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 Sau cng c a vo b dn knh MUX v qua chuyn i A/D trc khi vo vi x l.

C 2 loi cng ngh: + Nu cc chuyn i l loi chuyn i s cp bnh thng th cc u ra ca chng c a vo mt vi mch cng ngh lai gm cc bin i chun ho, MUX, A/D v vi x l trong mt khi c u ni lin my tnh cp trn v b ghi chng trnh cho EPROM. + Nu cc chuyn i l loi chuyn i thc hin bng cng ngh vi mch th c chuyn i ln cc phn t gia cng pha sau c trong mt khi cng ngh mch lai. Cc cm bin thng minh dng trn pht trin v th vic h thng ho cc cm bin, chn cu trc th no cho c tnh linh hot cao, vic chng trnh ho c d dng, y l cc ni dung cn nghin cu v cm bin thng minh. 3.5. MT S V D V CM BIN THNG MINH 3.5.1. Cm bin o p sut thng minh 4301: Cm bin o p sut thng minh 4301 l mt cm bin p sut o t xa, c th s dng o c p sut, mc, lu lng (kt hp vi cc b bin i khc). Cm bin thng minh c ch to t cm bin in dung. Thit b c ch to bng cng ngh cao v tin cy. K thut s c p dng cho 4301 to ra kh nng truyn d liu i xa v d dng ghp ni vi cc thit b ngoi vi gia i tng o v phng iu khin trung tm ca x nghip cng nghip. S khi ca cm bin thng minh c biu din hnh di y. Cm bin c s dng l cm bin in dung kiu vi sai. cm bin ny p sut P1, P2 tc ng ln 2 pha ca cm bin CH, CL ( y P1 P2). Khi P1 > P2 mng n hi ca cm bin b y sang pha P2 to s chnh lch in dung ca 2 pha. Mt pha in dung tng ln CH cn pha kia in dung b gim CL. l cm bin kiu vi sai. Sau khi mc cm bin vo mch o chun ho (MCH) tn hiu pht ra di dng tn s. Qua mch cch ly bng phtit tn hiu c a vo CPU. MUX c ci t
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 ngoi tn hiu o cn a tn hiu nhit mi trng vo hiu chnh sai s qua mt cm bin nhit sau qua A/D a vo vi x l, RAM... trong CPU. CPU lm nhim v qun l mi thao tc ca tt c cc khu trong b cm bin nh tuyn tnh ho tng on ng cong ca cm bin v truyn thng tin i xa qua MODEM hoc vo my tnh. Chng trnh c ct gi PROM bn trong vi x l khi thu thp s liu, thng tin c nh vo RAM. Thng tin trong RAM s b mt khi ngt ngun v vy CPU c cha thm EEPROM lu tr thng tin ny. V d v thao tc ny l qu trnh khc , sp xp v nhn bit cho ra s liu o. Mt b EEPROM khc cng c lp t ghi v c thng tin v chnh lch p sut v nhit mi trng. B u ra OUTPUT thc hin nhim v a thng tin ra di dng tng t (qua D/A-126A) di dng dng mt chiu DC 4 20 mA hoc ra ch th s, hoc truyn i xa hay vo my tnh (thng qua MODEM EELL-202). S dng MODEM iu hc tn s dng m ng vi mc 1 l tn s 1200Hz v ng vi mc 0 l tn s 2200Hz khi truyn tn s hoc truyn dng in 1 chiu DC 4 20 mA. Ngun cung cp c dng l 3,9mA. Tu thuc vo cch s dng, b cm bin thng minh c th c cc chc nng sau: + o trc tip i lng o x: s dng trong trng hp o p sut, chnh p sut v o mc. + o cn bc 2 ca x ( x ): trong trng hp o lu lng vi cc chuyn i p sut kiu vi sai. + o cn bc 2 ca x3 ( x 3 ): s dng cho trng hp o lu lng mt knh nc m c tit din hnh thang. + o cn bc 2 ca x5 ( x 5 ): s dng cho trng hp o lu lng mt knh nc m c tit din hnh ch V. + Tn hiu p sut c sp xp theo bng biu c 16 im hay bin i thnh mc ca mt b cha hnh tr. + Qu trnh din ra lun c so snh vi mt gi tr t trc (Setpoint). S sai lch so vi gi tr t s c a vo iu khin bi thut ton PID. + Qu trnh hiu chnh c thc hin cho khng nhng mc cao, mc thp m cn cho cc chc nng khc nh: u vo, u ra, cc dng thao tc, ch th, iu chnh gi tr t, iu chnh cc thng s ca b PID... mt cch t ng hon ton. + ...

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3.5.2. Cm bin o p sut vi sai thng minh:(SMART 3000 - Honeywell) y l cm bin p sut vi sai (DPS - Differential Pressure Sensor) kt hp vi cm bin p sut tnh (SPS - Static Pressure Sensor) v mt cm bin nhit (TS Temperature Sensor). Hai loi cm bin sau phn tch v phn nh cc i lng nh hng n php o v hiu chnh i lng cn o l p sut vi sai. Ton b 3 cm bin ny nm trong mt hp tiu th dng in khong 4 20 mA. Vic trao i gia cm bin v nhn vin vn hnh nh bn phm. S nh v:

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Khi cm bin y gm 3 cm bin DPS, SPS, TS; tip theo l b iu bin rng xung PWM dng chun ho tn hiu o. Tip n tn hiu tng t thu c s c s ho v x l thng qua b vi x l, vi iu khin v b x l tn hiu DSP (Digital Signal Processor) (b x l chuyn dng ny thng c dng nhng ni cn tng cng kh nng tnh ton. Chng trnh ca chng thng cha nhiu lnh s hc hn cc lnh di chuyn d liu hoc x l vo ra). 3.6. THIT B O THNG MINH V LINH HOT Cng trn c s ca cm bin thng minh ngi ta ch to ra cc thit b o linh hot v thng minh. Cc thit b o thng minh thng c dng vo cc h thng thng tin o lng sau: H thng t ng nghin cu khoa hc H thng t ng kim tra xut xng v kim tra tip nhn hng ho H thng t ng phn tch nng vt cht trong cng nghip, sinh ho, sinh hc H chun on k thut. Trong cc h thng trn ngi ta gii quyt cc vn sau: 1. Menu ho cc ch o lng: 2. Chun t ng thit b: 3. T ng lp chng trnh th nghim: Cc th nghim u tun th mt trnh t th, thu thp kt qu, x l v bo co theo mt mu nht nh. Vi mt menu nht nh my t ng lp trnh th, ly s liu v in kt qu o. Cc v d thc t v my o thng minh: 1. My TOC-5000: (hng Shimadzu, Nht Bn) My hot ng da trn nguyn l t v phn tch kh kiu hng ngoi. Khong o 4.10-9 n 4.10-3, sai s khng vt qu 1% n 2% tu theo ch lm vic.
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My c cc kh nng o lng sau: Phn tch TC (nng cacbon ton phn) Phn tch IC (nng cacbon v c) Phn tch TOC (nng cacbon hu c ton phn) Phn tch NPOC (nng cacbon hu c khng sc) Trn c s tn hiu phn tch c th thc hin cc nhim v: + T ng ho iu khin van, l, mot... thc hin php o theo menu. + T ng chn ch ti u cho vic phn tch + T ng chn ng cong khc thch hp nht cho vic phn tch + T ng chn khi lng cht th nghim thch hp cho vic th (42500l) + T ng lp li php o 10 ln x l gia cng ngu nhin + T ng tnh ton din tch cc xung pick nhn suy ra nng + T ng trnh by kt qu di nhiu dng khc nhau tu theo yu cu. 2. My 7457-5700A: (cng ty Fluke, M) My c kh nng t ng kim tra cc thit b o: + Kim tra cc multimet (vn nng k) tng t hoc s vi cc gii o khc nhau. + o in p mt chiu v xoay chiu (220mV n 1100V) vi sai s khng ln hn 10 phn triu. + o dng in mt chiu v xoay chiu (220A n 2,2A) c th m rng thang o n 11A. + o in tr t 1 n 100M.

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TI LIU THAM KHO

[1]. [2]. [3]. Nguyn c Chin, V Qu im, Phm Vn Tun, L Ph; Gio trnh cm bin; NXB Khoa hc v k thut. Phm Thng Hn, Nguyn Trng Qu, Nguyn Vn Ho; K thut o lng cc i lng vt l ; NXB Gio dc. L Vn Doanh, Phm Thng Hn, Nguyn Vn Ha, V Thch Sn, o Vn Tn; Cc b cm bin trong k thut o lng v iu khin; NXB Khoa hc v k thut. Nguyn Ngc Tn, Ng Tn Nhn, Ng Vn Ky; K thut o; i hc Bch Khoa TpHCM. Bi Vn Yn ;o in thc hnh; NXB Hi Phng. Dng Minh Tr ;Cm bin v ng dng; NXB Khoa hc v k thut. Gio trnh o lng cc i lng in v khng in; V Trung hc chuyn nghip Dy ngh. V Qu im, Phm Vn Tun, L Ph; C s k thut o lng in t; NXB Khoa hc v k thut. B sch gio trnh Vt l i cng hc trong giai on i cng.

[4]. [5]. [6]. [7]. [8]. [9].

[10]. Manual for Theory; PEPPERL FUCHS company [11]. Jacob Fraden; Handbook of modern sensors; Springer [12]. Ian R. Sinclair; Sensor and Tranducers; Planta Tree [13]. Jon Wilson; Sensor technology handbook;Elsevier [14]. Thomas Putruzzelles;Alarm, Sensor & Security circuit Cookbook; Mc Graw-Hill