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What is Electricity?
It's a lot easier to describe what it does than what it is. For example,
electricity operates our lights, runs our refrigerators and powers our electric
motors.
The word "electric" comes from the Greek word "amber" and has been
used to describe a wide range of related phenomena. We can't see electricity,
but we can see its effects, such as light.
Electricity can exist in a number of forms, but there are two types of
commonly used electricity:
Electrons
To gain an insight into how electricity
flows through a material, we need to
understand the structure of atoms -- nature's
building blocks.
Protons and electrons follow specific laws of attraction. Since they have
opposite charges, they attract to one another. If an atom has the same number
of protons as electrons, then the atom is balanced, and stable. The orbiting
electrons remain in their orbits as long as nothing upsets the balance.
When something upsets this balance, then some of the electrons become
"knocked" out of their orbits. The are called "free electrons". This unbalanced
condition can be caused by rubbing cat's fur on amber, passing a wire through a
magnetic field, or putting two chemicals together, as in a dry cell battery.
The free electrons are attracted to atoms where there is an electron missing
and will fill the space just vacated by the first free electron. When this
conditions occurs continuously, the movement of electrons becomes the basis
for the flow of electrical energy we call "current".
Voltage
Voltage is the electrical force that causes free electrons to move
from one atom to another. Just as water needs some pressure to force it
through a pipe, electrical current needs some force to make it flow. "Volts" is
the measure of "electrical pressure" that causes current flow. Voltage is
sometimes referred to as the measure of a potential difference between two
points along a conductor.
The scientific symbol for voltage is an "E", dating to early days of electricity
when it was called the "Electromotive force". Scientists and engineers use the
"E" symbol for voltage, while electricians and wiring books use "V" as the
voltage symbol. This can create some confusion, since either may be
encountered. In this title, we'll use the practical symbol "V" for voltage.
Current
Current is a measure of the rate of electron flow through a material. Electrical
current is measured in units of amperes or "amps" for short. This flow of
electrical current develops when electrons are forced from one atom to
another.
That is why the amperage flow in a circuit is important, since the more amps
flowing, the more heat is produced. Most people notice this heating effect
when the cord of any appliance or electrical device heats up after the device
has been running for an extended period.
The scientific symbol for amperage is an "I", dating back to the early days of electricity.
It is still used by scientists and engineers. Electricians and wiring guides use "A" as the
amperage symbol. In this title, we'll use the practical symbol "A" for current flow in
amps.
Unlike DC voltage and current, which remain steady, AC voltage and current
changes -- or cycles -- 60 times per second in North America. AC power in
Europe cycles 50 times per second.
Conductors
Materials that are made up of atoms whose electrons are easily freed are
called conductive materials or "conductors". Platinum, gold, and silver are
examples of the very best conductors of electricity. Gold is used extensively in
small quantities for high-value products like microelectronics, high quality
audio components, computer chips and telecommunications satellites.
Copper and aluminum are also quite excellent conductors of electricity and
much less expensive. Almost all electrical wiring is aluminum or copper.
Resistance
Electrical resistance is defined as the resistance to flow of electricity through a
material. Even the best conductors, such as gold, have some resistance.
Resistance elements essentially fall somewhere between a conductor and an
insulator. Resistance can also be considered a measurement of how tightly a
material holds onto its electrons. For example, common resistance elements in
a circuit are lights, motors, and electrical resistance heaters.
We can use a water piping system as an analogy. The resistance in the water
pipe to the flow of water comes mainly from the size of the pipe. Rust and
corrosion inside the pipe, objects stuck inside the pipe, and the number of
bends and fittings all add up to increase the resistance to the flow of water.
When electricity flows through any resistance, energy is dissipated in the form
of heat. If the heat becomes intense enough, the conductor resistor may
actually glow. This is exactly how an incandescent light bulb works. The
filament is made of a material that will resist the current enough to heat up
and glow.
Insulators
Insulators are materials that have structural properties exactly
opposite of conductors. These materials are made up of atoms whose electrons
are not easily "freed". These electrons are said to be tightly bound to the
nucleus, and are very stable.
Insulators are used to prevent the flow of electrical current. The rubberized
power cord and plastic coverings on appliances are typical examples of
insulators. Glass, rubber, porcelain, and most plastics are good insulators.
Power
Power is a measure of the amount of work an electric current can accomplish
in a specified period of time. The most common unit of electrical power
measurement is the watt, or kilowatt, which is 1,000 watts. Power is the rate
at which electrical energy is converted into some other form of energy such as
light, heat or mechanical work or horsepower.
For any electrical device, the higher its power rating in watts, the greater its
consumption of electrical energy, not necessarily the amount of work it
produces. For example, consider a 100-watt incandescent light bulb. The 100
watts does not represent how much light it produces, but how much electrical
power it uses. A 17-watt fluorescent lamp may produce much or even more
light, while using only 17% of the power.
U.S. motor manufacturers still rate motors in units of horsepower where one
horsepower equals 746 watts.
The symbol for "power" is a capital "P". The kilowatt is shown as
"kW" with a little k and capital W. The megawatt is shown as "mW"
with a little m and capital W.
Energy
Electrical energy is the average amount of power used over a given time period
and is commonly measured in "kilowatt-hours." Electric utility electric meters
accurately measure the kilowatt-hour energy use by the customer, and may
also measure peak power use during a specified time interval.
Let's calculate the energy use for a blow dryer. Say the blow dryer is rated at
1,500 watts by the manufacturer. This is how much electric power it uses when
it operates. If the blow dryer is operated for a total of 2 hours each month, the
blow dryer consumes 1,500 watts x 2 hours = 3000 watt-hours. Since utility
rates are based on kilowatt-hours, divide by 1,000 to get 3 kilowatt-hours. This
shows how power consumption and operating time are important in
determining energy use.
Magnetism
The generation of electric power depends on magnetism or the
principles of magnets. Most of us have seen a magnets' ability to attract certain
metals, such as iron. Any material that can attract metals is called a "magnet".
The attractive ability of these materials is called "magnetic force". Certain
specimens of iron ore possess this attracting property when they are taken
from the earth. One name for this material is magnetite or lodestones.
Magnets
The basic atomic structure of a magnet seems to align most of the molecules in
the same direction. It's possible to see this force through a simple experiment:
Put a bar magnet under a sheet of glass and sprinkle iron filings on the glass.
The lines of force from the magnet show up clearly as the filings form a
pattern. Notice that the attractive forces are greatest at the two ends of the
magnet, where the majority of filings gather. We call these ends "poles".
The density of the pattern represents the strength of the field, which is the
magnitude of the force exerted upon a magnetic material placed at the point
in the field. These lines are called lines of magnetic flux.
Permanent magnets are those which will hold their magnetism after the
magnetizing force has been removed and will continue to be magnets for as
long as they are not disturbed by being jarred or heated.
Electromagnetic Fields
The flow of electricity through a conductor produces both an electric
and magnetic field around the conductor. Collectively, these two fields are
referred to as an electromagnetic field or EMF. The strength of the electric
field is measured in volts per meter and varies with the amount of the source
voltage. The higher the source voltage, the higher the strength of the field.
Electric field strength decreases rapidly with distance from the source.
Electric fields are produced both naturally and by any conductor carrying
electricity. The strength of the earth's natural electric field varies, but on
average is about one-thousandth of a volt per meter. Electric field strength
typically varies from 10 to 150 volts per meter under electric distribution lines
and 5 to 100 volts per meter inside homes and workplaces.
Magnetic fields produced by electrical circuits drop off rapidly with distance
from the source. The magnetic field produced by a microwave at 1 foot is 70 to
100 milligauss while at five feet away, the magnetic field strength drops to five
milligauss.
Electric fields are blocked by shielding such as walls, houses, trees, other
vegetation, soil, and other large dense objects. Magnetic fields, on the other
hand, pass easily through most objects and are only blocked by structures
containing large amounts of iron or iron alloy metals.
Electromagnets
Electromagnets play an essential role in the operation of generators, motors,
transformers, and relays. Electromagnets are constructed by wrapping an
insulated conductor wire around an iron object, like a large nail, and then
passing an electrical current through the wire. The strength of the
electromagnet depends on the number of wraps, the size of the wire, and the
amount of current flowing through the wire.
The magnetic lines of force induce current into the wire loop in the same
direction of flow as the loop moves in a circle, so the electricity produced is DC
since current flow is always the same direction.
AC Generator
One of the easiest ways to think about AC or electric
power generation, is to think about it as the
opposite of electric power use -- kind of like a motor
running backwards. Motors convert electricity into
power and motion. Generators convert motion and
power into electricity.
Single-Phase
Three Phase
Single-Phase
Single-phase alternating current is most often used in homes, small businesses
and on farms. In large commercial buildings and industrial locations where
larger motors are used, single phase power is not usually adequate.
As the magnet continues to rotate, the South pole's magnetic field cuts the
coiled wires in the opposite direction, producing an opposing voltage which
again builds up to a maximum at the three-fourths revolution point. As the
north pole moves from the three-fourths turn to one full revolution, the
voltage then decreases to zero.
One complete revolution of the magnetic field is called a cycle. If there was
only one coil of wire in the outer portion of the generator this would be a
single phase device. By adding two additional coils of wire to the generator, we
could then generate current in three individual coils or phases, or three phase
power.
Three Phase
Three-phase power is designed especially for large electrical loads where the
total electrical load is divided among the three separate phases. As a result,
the wire and transformers will be less expensive than if these large loads were
carried on a single phase system.
Three-phase generators usually have three separate windings, each producing
its own separate single-phase voltage. Since these windings are staggered
around the generator circumference, each of the single-phase voltages is "out
of phase" with one another. That is, each of the three reaches the maximum
and minimum points in the AC cycle at different times.
The word "phase" is often abbreviated using the Greek letter "phi" and is
written as a zero with a slash mark through it.