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Focus on

I N
Basics
T H I S I S S U E :
CONNECTING RESEARCH & PRACTICE

First-Level
Learners
1
Techniques for
Teaching Beginning-Level
Reading to Adults
Ashley Hager

7
Beginning ESOL Learners’
Advice to Their Teachers
MaryAnn Cunningham Florez

11
The Neurobiology of
Reading and Dyslexia
Sally E. Shaywitz, M.D., and
Bennett A. Shaywitz, M.D.

16
Using a Multisensory
Approach to Help
Struggling Adult Learners
Gladys Geertz Techniques for Teaching
Reading for Pleasure
20 Beginning-Level Reading
Sondra Cuban
to Adults
24
Theory to Practice, by Ashley Hager
Practice to Theory
Anne Murr

I
have been teaching beginning-level reading (equivalent
28 to grade 0–2) at the Community Learning Center in
Teaching Reading to Cambridge, MA, for the past eight years. The majority of
First-Level Adults students in my class have either suspected or diagnosed reading
Judith A. Alamprese
disabilities (dyslexia). The difficulty they experience learning to
31 read is as severe as the urgency they feel about mastering the
Blackboard task. One of my students, a former Olympic athlete, had to
turn down a job offer as a track coach because of his inability
32 to read the workout descriptions. He describes his life as “an
All About NCSALL
ice cream that he is unable to lick.” continued on page 3

Volume 5, Issue A • August 2001 WORLD EDUCATION NCSALL


Focus on
Basics

F
ocus on Basics is the quarterly pub-
lication of the National Center
for the Study of Adult Learning
and Literacy. It presents best practices,
current research on adult learning and
Welcome!
“First-level readers,” “beginners,” “new readers,” “0-4 level,” adult basic education
literacy, and how research is used by
adult basic education teachers, coun- has struggled with what to call those learners who are really still building decoding and
selors, program administrators, and poli- comprehension skills. This inability to settle on a name may be masking a larger issue:
cymakers. Focus on Basics is dedicated
to connecting research with practice, to Why are we, as a field, failing to serve these learners well?
connecting teachers with research and I can think of three general reasons.
researchers with the reality of the class- The first is the system. The funding structure for many adult basic education programs
room, and by doing so, making adult
basic education research more relevant does not encourage service to beginners, because beginners often progress slowly.
to the field. Discomfort with providing direct instruction, which can feel childish to teachers
who are attempting to create adult learning environments, is another stumbling block.
All subscription and editorial A third is that serving first-level learners well is hard work and requires specific
correspondence should be sent to:
training. Native English-speaking adults who have not learned to read probably have some
Focus On Basics learning difficulties or disability. Teachers must know a lot about the craft of reading to
World Education teach someone with a learning disability, and many adult basic education teachers, while
44 Farnsworth Street well intentioned, lack the formal training in reading instruction they need to reach these
Boston, MA 02210–1211 learners effectively.
e-mail address: FOB@WorldEd.org
The teachers writing in this issue of Focus on Basics do know a lot about teaching
Focus on Basics is copyrighted, but we reading. Ashley Hagar, of Cambridge, Massachusetts; Gladys Geertz, of Anchorage, Alaska;
urge readers to photocopy and circulate and Anne Murr of Des Moines, Iowa, all bring immense skill to their classrooms and
the publication widely. When reprinting
articles, please credit Focus on Basics
programs. They all have found that very structured classes, with direct instruction in
and the National Center for the Study specific subskills such as phonological awareness, word analysis, and sight word recognition,
of Adult Learning and Literacy. among other skills, provide the best results. Their students don’t chafe under direct
instruction, they welcome it: finally, they have the tools they need to join, however
Editor: Barbara Garner
Layout: Mary White Arrigo
belatedly, the reading club.
Illustrator: Mary White Arrigo The beginning learners in MaryAnn Cunningham Florez’s English for speakers of
Proofreader: Celia Hartmann other languages (ESOL) program had valuable feedback to share about the strengths and
weaknesses of their instructors. Included in their list was the suggestion to “talk to us
Focus on Basics is published by the
National Center for the Study of Adult
about learning and the learning process.” It echoes the metacognitive strategies provided
Learning and Literacy (NCSALL). to students by Hagar, Geertz, and Murr. Florez shares her students’ complete list of
NCSALL is funded by the Educational suggestions, and her techniques for getting such input from students.
Research and Development Centers Drs. Sally and Bennett Shaywitz, in their overview of the neurobiology of dyslexia,
Program, Award Number R309B60002,
as administered by the Office of explain that an inability to segment the written word into its underlying phonologic elements
Educational Research and Improvement/ results in readers having difficulty in decoding and identifying words. But, they remind us,
National Institute of Postsecondary the phonologic deficit is “domain-specific.” That is, other cognitive skills are intact. This
Education, Libraries, and Lifelong is important information to share with first-level learners. It explains the paradox so often
Learning, U.S. Department of Education.
encountered of otherwise intelligent people who experience great difficulty reading.
The contents of Focus on Basics do not We hope that the articles in this issue provide first level teachers with an introduction
necessarily represent the positions or to the techniques useful for teaching first-level learners. Let us know what works for you.
policies of NCSALL or the National
Institute on Postsecondary Education, * * *
Libraries, and Lifelong Learning; World You’ve noticed that this issue of Focus on Basics looks different. We decided to
Education; the Office of Educational
“freshen” our layout and design with new typeface and a few other small changes.
Research and Improvement; or the U.S.
Department of Education, and you “Blackboard” is now inside the back page, and we’ve added the section “All About
should not assume endorsement by NCSALL” to the back cover. We hope that the editorial content remains as relevant and
the Federal Government. useful as it has always been.

Sincerely,

Barbara Garner
Editor

2 AUGUST 2001 • NCSALL


Focus on
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Techniques for Teaching four to 12 years of school; one student teach the structure of the English
continued from page 1 has a high school diploma. One language using a phonics-based
student has documented learning approach.
Little research is available on the disabilities (LD). Students typically I draw from a number of phonics-
most effective methods for teaching enter my class knowing little more based reading programs, including
reading to beginning-level adults. My than the names of the letters and a the Wilson Reading System, the
continuing challenge has been to handful of letter sounds. They are Orton-Gillingham System, and the
determine how reading acquisition usually only able to write their name Lindamood-Phoneme Sequencing
research conducted with children can and, in most cases, the letters of the Program (LiPS; see the “Blackboard”
be applied to teaching reading to alphabet. However, one student had on page 31 for contact information).
adults. In this article, I describe the never held a pencil before he entered The Wilson Reading System is a
techniques I have found most useful; my class. multisensory, phonics-based program
I hope other teachers working with Our class meets two evenings a developed specifically for adults.
beginning readers will find them week for three hours each evening. Unlike phonics-based programs for
helpful. Because skilled reading depends on children, the Wilson system is
the mastery of specific subskills, I find organized around the six syllable
it helpful to teach these explicitly. I types, which enables even beginning
Our Class organize the class into blocks of time level adults to read works with
This year our class includes nine in which, with the help of two somewhat sophisticated vocabulary
students: six men and three women. volunteers, I directly teach eight (see the box on page 4 for the
Three are from the United States, components of reading: phonological six syllable types). The Orton-
five are from the Caribbean, and one awareness, word analysis, sight word Gillingham program is a phonics-
is from Ethiopia. Their ages range recognition, spelling, oral reading for based program similar to the Wilson
from late 20s to late 50s and all accuracy, oral reading for fluency, Reading System but designed for
are employed. Their educational listening comprehension, and dyslexic children. Students learn
experiences range from completing writing. These components embody about syllables much later in the
the skills and strategies program. I find particularly helpful
that successful readers the Orton-Gillingham technique for
have mastered, either learning phonetically irregular sight
Typical Lesson Plan consciously or words (see page 5). The LiPS Program
unconsciously. My is useful for helping students acquire
for a Three-Hour Class curriculum also includes an awareness of individual sounds in
an intensive writing words. This ability, referred to as
Component Time (min)
component. phonemic awareness, is a prerequisite
Over the last for reading and spelling.
Phonological Awareness 10
30 years, a significant
Word Analysis 20 amount of research
has compared the
Phonological
Word Recognition effectiveness of different Awareness
approaches to teaching Phonological awareness, which
“Sight Words” 10
beginning reading to involves the ability to differentiate
children. It consistently and manipulate the individual sounds,
Spelling 20
concludes that approaches or phonemes, in words, is the strongest
that include a system- predictor of future reading success for
BREAK 10
atically organized and children (Adams, 1995). No research
explicitly taught program exists that describes the affects of
Oral Reading (Accuracy) 20
of phonics result in phonological awareness on reading
significantly better word for adults. However, I have found
Oral Reading (Fluency) 35
recognition, spelling, that teaching phonological awareness
vocabulary, and com- to my beginning-reading adults
Comprehension 25
prehension (Chall, 1967; significantly improves their reading
Curtis, 1980; Stanovich accuracy and spelling, especially for
Writing 30
1986; Adams, 1990; reading and spelling words with
Snow et al., 1998). For blends.
this reason, I directly continued on page 4

NCSALL • AUGUST 2001 3


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Basics
Three phonological tasks that phonics while reading, especially for I use the Wilson Reading System
I use with my students, in order of students with suspected reading to teach phonics because the six
difficulty, are auditory blending, disabilities (Blackman et al., 1984; syllable types are introduced early on.
auditory segmenting, and phonemic Chall, 1967, 1983). Beginning readers This enables even beginning-level
manipulation. Auditory blending should be encouraged to decode adults to read words that are part of
involves asking students to blend unfamiliar words as opposed to their oral vocabulary and overall
words that the teacher presents in reading them by sight, because it cognitive abilities. After learning
segmented form. For example, I say requires attention to every letter in the closed syllable rule, for example,
“/s/-/p/-/l/-/a/-/sh/” and the students sequence from left to right. This helps students are able to read three-
responds with “/splash/.” Auditory to fix the letter patterns in the word syllable words such as “Wisconsin,”
segmenting is exactly the opposite. in a reader’s memory. Eventually, “fantastic,” and “Atlantic.” Reading
I present the word “/sprint/” and the these patterns are recognized multisyllabic words provides my
student must segment the word into instantaneously and words appear students, who have acquired a history
its individual sounds “/s/-/p/-/r/-/i/-/n/- to be recognized holistically (Ehri, of reading failure, with an unexpected
/t/.” Phonemic manipulation, which is 1992; Adams, 1990). sense of accomplishment and opens
the strongest predictor of reading
acquisition, is also the most difficult. Syllable Types
The student must recognize that
individual phonemes may be added, SYLLABLE TYPE DESCRIPTION
deleted, or moved around in words.
The following exchange is an Closed Syllable (vc/cv) – one vowel per syllable
example of a phonemic manipulation – ends with one or more consonants
task. I ask the student to repeat a – the vowel has a short sound
word such as “bland.” Then I ask example: pit, bath, splash, mitten
the student to say the word again,
changing one of the phonemes. For Vowel-Consonant-e – one vowel, then a consonant, then an e
example, “Say it again without the Syllable (vce) – the first vowel has a long sound
“/l/.” The student responds with – the e is silent
“/band/.” While phonological example: hope, mine, bedtime
awareness does not include the
student’s ability to associate sounds Open Syllable (v/cv), (vc/v) – one vowel
with letter symbols, and tasks are – ends with the vowel
presented orally, the research – vowel has a long sound
concludes that the most effective example: me, so , flu, why
way to promote phonemic awareness
R-Controlled Syllable – one vowel, followed by an r
is in conjunction with the teaching
– vowel sound is neither short or long
of sound-to-symbol relationships
– vowel sound is controlled by the r
(Torgesen, 1998).
– /ar/ as in “car,” /or/ as in “Ford,”
/ er/, /ir/, /ur/ all sound alike as in “her,”
Word Analysis “bird,” “church”
Word analysis, or phonics,
involves teaching the alphabetic The Consonant-LE Syllable – has three letters: a consonant, an “l,”
principle: learning that the graphic and an “e”
letter symbols in our alphabet – the e is silent
correspond to speech sounds, and – the consonant and the “l” are blended
that these symbols and sounds can together
be blended together to form real example: little, grumble, table
words. Word analysis strategies
The Double-Vowel Syllable – two vowels side-by-side making one
enable students to “sound out” words
sound
they are unable to recognize by sight.
– usually the first vowel is long, and the
Explicit, direct instruction in phonics
second is silent
has been proven to support beginning
example: maid, may, leaf, seen, pie, goat
reading and spelling growth better
Credit: Wilson Reading System
than opportunistic attention to

4 AUGUST 2001 • NCSALL


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Basics
possibilities for them. Recognizing words. To avoid unnecessary This places a lighter burden on short-
syllable types is important because the frustration, it is best to tell term and working memory.
syllable pattern determines the sound beginning readers which words they For beginning-level readers who
of the vowel and how the word must should decode and which words are native speakers of English, it is
be pronounced. they must recognize by sight. important to include nonsense words
I have found that the Wilson as part of dictation practice. Nonsense
Reading System Sound Tapping words require the student to use word
technique is a particularly effective
Spelling attack strategies as opposed to sight
way to teach decoding. In this Spelling is an effective way to recognition.
technique, each sound in a word is reinforce both word analysis skills
represented by one tap. Students tap and automatic word recognition.
the first sound with their index finger Research consistently indicates Oral Reading
and thumb, the second sound with that fluent, skilled readers (both Oral reading builds accuracy and
their middle finger and thumb, the children and adults) make use of fluency, both of which contribute to
third sound with their ring finger and spelling patterns when they read improved reading comprehension. It
thumb, etc. If the student runs out of and, conversely, reading itself is also the most practical way for me
fingers, he or she returns to the index reinforces a knowledge of spelling to monitor a student’s progress. It
finger. Digraphs — two letters that patterns (Adams, 1995). Spelling gives a student an opportunity to
make one sound (/sh/, /ch/, /th/, /ck/, for practicing word analysis skills practice applying word attack and
/ph/) — are represented with one tap. and spelling for promoting word word recognition skills in context.
Example: bed = 3 sounds, 3 taps; recognition (usually of phonetically Because reading for fluency and
shed = 3 sounds, 3 taps; stint = 5 irregular words), however, involve reading for accuracy involve different
sounds, 5 taps. This technique different tasks and call for different objectives and require different
helps students to hear all the sounds teaching techniques. The VAKT materials, I find it useful to teach
in a word. method, described earlier, is a and evaluate them as two separate
process for teaching learners how activities.
“Sight Word” to spell phonetically irregular
words. When dictating phonetically
Oral reading for accuracy gives
students an opportunity to use the
Recognition regular words, include only those word analysis skills they have been
Since many of the words that words that include letter sounds taught directly, so I choose reading
appear most frequently in print are and spelling rules that have been selections from controlled texts.
phonetically irregular, even beginning taught directly. During accuracy reading, the
readers must learn to recognize some An especially effective emphasis is on using word analysis
words by sight. Students with reading technique for the spelling of knowledge to decode unfamiliar
disabilities have typically relied phonetically regular words is the words. The goal of fluency reading,
almost entirely on their ability to LiPS technique. This involves on the other hand, is to encourage
memorize words. In most cases, asking students to put down a students to read smoothly and with
however, their strategies for poker chip for each sound they expression. When asking my students
remembering the way words look hear. After identifying the correct to do fluency reading, I do not
in print have proved ineffective. number of sounds in the word, interrupt the flow of the reading to
I have experienced some success students locate the vowel sound discuss the content of the text or to
in teaching sight words using the and place a different-colored chip analyze a particular spelling pattern.
Visual-Auditory-Kinesthetic-Tactile over the chip that represents the If the student makes a mistake, I
(V-A-K-T) method that is part of the vowel sound. Only after they have provide the word. Because it is
Orton- Gillingham program. The identified the sounds and isolated difficult to find materials that are easy
VAKT method, which emphasizes the vowel sound are students asked enough for a beginning reader to read
memorization through visualization, to select the letter symbols that fluently, I often address fluency in the
involves asking the student to say the represent the sounds in the word. context of rereading material students
name of each letter in a word and to
trace each letter with his or her finger
in the air before covering the word
and attempting to spell it on paper.
The VAKT method may be used to
help students with both the reading /sh/ /i/ /p/ /sh/ /i/ /p/ = s-h-i-p
and spelling of phonetically irregular

NCSALL • AUGUST 2001 5


Focus on
Basics
have first read for accuracy. The comprehension skills. I ask questions References
Wilson Reading System describes a such as “What do you think the
■ Adams, M.J. (1990). Beginning to Read:
technique for promoting fluency people in the photograph are feeling?”
Thinking and Learning About Print.
called penciling that I have found “How can you tell?” or “What do you Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
particularly useful. I encourage the think may have happened to make
student to read more than one word them feel that way?” Open-ended ■ Adams, M.J. (1995). “Resolving the
in a breath by scooping a series of questions encourage students to make “great debate”.” American Educator, 19(2).
words together with a pencil. First, I inferences, draw conclusions, and ■ Blackman, J., Bruck, M., Herbert, M., &
model how the sentence should be express opinions. Seidenberg, M. (1984). “Acquisition and
read. For example: “The man with use of spelling-sound correspondences in
the hat is big.” Eventually, students reading.” Journal of Experimental Child
are able to pencil the sentences for
Conclusion Psychology, 38, 114-133.
themselves but, at the beginning, I Progress can be excruciatingly ■ Chall, J.S. (1967). Learning to Read: The
scoop words into phrases for them. slow for beginning-level adult readers. Great Debate. New York: McGraw-Hill.
When working on oral reading The volunteers who work in my class
■ Chall, J.S. (1983). Stages of Reading
for either accuracy or fluency, I divide are struck by the lack of novelty in my Development. New York: McGraw-Hill.
the class up according to ability. I classes. Each class follows the same
routine (see the Typical Lesson Plan) ■ Curtis, M.E. (1980). “Development of
assign my teaching volunteers to components of reading skill.” Journal of
work with the higher-level groups. and a significant amount of class time
Educational Psychology, 72, 656-669.
Periodically, I pair stronger readers to is spent reviewing previously taught
act as student teachers with their less skills and rereading texts. For ■ Ehri, L.C. (1992). “Reconceptualizing
beginning-level readers, and especially the development of sight word reading
skilled classmates.
for those with reading disabilities, a and its relationship to encoding.” In P.
Before being paired with a less Gough, L. Ehri, & R. Treiman (eds.),
skilled reader, however, student predictable routine helps to alleviate
Reading Acquisition (pp. 107-144).
teachers receive explicit instruction anxiety. Students get upset when the
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates.
in providing decoding clues and class does not follow its expected
course. The volunteers are also ■ Snow, C., & Strucker, J. (2000).
handling errors. I find this activity
surprised that students do not feel “Lessons from preventing reading
effective for two reasons. First, by difficulties in young children for adult
teaching someone else, the more insulted or embarrassed working with
learning and literacy.” In J. Comings, B.
skilled student teachers consolidate the letters of the alphabet and reading
Garner, & C. Smith (eds.), Annual
their own knowledge and become texts that may appear babyish. On the Review for Adult Learning and Literacy,
cognizant of their own relative contrary, after years of only using a hit Vol. 1, 25-69. San Francisco: Jossey-
progress. Second, the more-skilled or miss approach, my students are Bass, Inc.
readers become a source of inspiration extremely relieved to discover that
■ Stanovich, K.E. (1986). “Matthew
and support for the less-skilled readers reading involves patterns of letters
effects in reading: Some consequences
in the class. with predictable sounds. of individual differences in acquisition
One student describes his early of literacy.” Reading Research Quarterly,
experience with reading: “When I 21, 360-407.
Comprehension was in grade school, I would listen to
■ Torgesen, J. (1998). “Catch them before
For readers at the 0–3rd grade the other kids read aloud and I had
they fall; Identification and assessment
level, I teach higher-level no idea how they knew that those to prevent reading failure in young
comprehension skills using materials letters said those words. When it was children.” American Educator, 32-39.
other than those the students can my turn, all I could do was guess.
read themselves. In my class, critical Now it makes sense! It’s like I found
thinking usually takes place in the the key.” About the Author
context of a classroom debate. Topics The challenge of teaching reading Ashley Hager teaches a beginning- and
I have found particularly conducive to beginning-level adults can be daunting. intermediate-level reading class at the
to a heated discussion include “Why In my opinion, however, teaching at Community Learning Center, Cambridge,
do you think it is or is not appropriate the beginning level is also the most MA. She is also the Boston Region Young
to hit your children when they rewarding. It is extremely moving to Adults with Learning Disabilities (YALD)
Coordinator and teaches a 16-week,
misbehave?” and “Why do you think witness an adult who, after years of
graduate-level course on the theory of
there is so much crime in this struggling with the sounds of individual reading. Ms. Hager has designed basic
country?” letters, is able to read a letter from a reading and foundations of reading and
Using photographs is also family member or a note that his or her writing certification courses for the
effective in building higher-level child brings home from school. Massachusetts Department of Education.❖

6 AUGUST 2001 • NCSALL


Focus on
Basics
wonderful window into what
Beginning ESOL Learners’ teachers need to know and
do to support beginning-level
Advice to Their Teachers English language learners,
and also gave me valuable
by MaryAnn Cunningham Florez information for planning
and implementing the
“They [the teachers] have effort, spirit — might not training of their teachers.
a lot of ‘esfuerzo’.” seem that informative,
In ESOL, we often talk about
but we were holding these learner-centered instruction and

I
t seemed like an discussions in the learners’ the value of including learners’
innocuous comment native Spanish, and the perspectives and realities in our
from a learner about a implications of that word in program and classroom planning
and implementation. Teachers and
two-teacher team, and it Spanish and the comments administrators everywhere work to
was only one of many that I it sparked provided a wealth gather learners’ input on issues from
furiously noted as I talked of insights into the instruc- content topics to teaching methods. I
with a focus group of adult tional process in that class- began conducting learner focus groups
as a way of including learners’ voices
learners from a beginning- room. The learners were in our small program’s end-of-semester
level class in English for telling me what they valued evaluation. In what specific areas did
speakers of other languages in their teachers’ practices: I think learners’ comments might be
(ESOL). When I opened my not only their heart and applied? I was probably expecting
them to be helpful in identifying
notebook a day or two later, dedication, but also the barriers to participation or providing
however, I realized exactly focus, pace, activity, and comments that might help me as I
how much this learner and sense of purpose in the talked with individual teachers about
others were telling me. The lessons they conducted. their practices.
I was missing the potential
word “esfuerzo” made me It provided me with a impact that direct comments and
stop and think. The English ideas from learners could have on staff
translation from a development, especially for
dictionary — teachers working with
beginning-level

NCSALL • AUGUST 2001 7


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learners. Until, that is, I began to see Central American learners assigned to volunteer teachers for the program’s
the quality, thoughtfulness, and depth five different classes. Sixty percent of five classes: three two-person teams
of the comments they were providing. the learners enrolled were placed in and six individual teachers. All of the
These comments added enriching the three beginning-level classes. teachers teach one night a week; one
dimensions to the approaches, They attend classes two evenings a teacher teaches both nights of her
techniques, and information that week for two hours, working primarily class. Only one of the teachers has
are usually a part of training for on basic language development within experience teaching English to non-
teachers working with beginning- a life skills context. The learners English speakers.
level learners. exhibit a range of literacy skills (from The advice that follows —
Ours is a community-based nonliterate to highly literate) and representing a collection of the most
volunteer program at St. Anthony educational backgrounds in their frequently heard statements —
of Padua Catholic Church, Falls native language, as is typical in is drawn from the comments of
Church, VA. We began this year with beginning-level classes (Brod, 1999; 28 students in the beginning-level
approximately 140 predominantly Shank & Terrill, 1997). There are 12 classes who participated in three
different focus groups with me. All
of the learners are native Spanish
Self Assessment speakers; I conducted the focus groups
in Spanish to ensure that all could
participate as fully as they wanted.
I ask learners to self-assess what they have learned at the end
of each unit in our textbook. I give each learner a three-column
chart and I draw a similar one on the board. The first column
The Learners’
will be filled in with items we studied in the unit. Learners put Advice
a check in one of the other two columns to indicate if they have Repeat, but differently. One of
mastered the item or not. I use symbols (a simple drawing of the most consistent suggestions was
that teachers need to create oppor-
a person smiling and another of a person frowning) or words
tunities for learners to practice
(“I know;” “I don’t know”) to head these columns, depending material repeatedly but in different
on the proficiencies of my learners and their comfort with ways and in different contexts. For
the process. some learners, this meant a better
balance of opportunities to engage
in speaking, listening, reading, and
I ask learners to look back through the unit and think about writing. For others, it meant different
what we have studied. We then brainstorm together and I practice structures: pair work,
record the items on the chart on the board while the learners individual work, round-robin, choral
record them on their individual charts. (I may write one or two response, etc. For still others, it meant
items in the first column as examples, to get them started.) changing the context in which the
content or material is used: saying,
copying, and printing lists of numbers
Depending on the learners’ language levels, I might use words, as a first step for pre- or nonliterate
symbolic drawings, or a combination of both to list the items learners and later practicing them
that we brainstorm. As I list items, I make sure that I point to again as times, dates, and prices.
Spend more time on topics and
the page or pages in the book where they were covered, to
go more deeply into them. Learners
remind learners of the context and to make sure everyone is were generally very happy with the
clear about what we are naming. Learners then indicate topics and themes typically covered
individually what they have learned and what they need to in beginning-level classes: health,
practice more. Afterward, we debrief, either as a whole group personal information, jobs, or
or in pair or small groups that then report back to the large shopping. They appreciated the fact
that these topics involved language
group, to determine the items that people had in common. On
they needed to know and use in their
that basis, we decide what we may need to review as a class daily lives. However, they suggested
or as individuals.❖ that teachers spend more time on
each topic, offering more and different
ways to practice the material and

8 AUGUST 2001 • NCSALL


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Basics
exploring issues and situations The latter, in particular, is a valuable their homelands, or even their
associated with it. They wanted concept to introduce, although it families when so many of these things
teachers to move more deliberately may be difficult because learners may are in the past and all students have
through the language and materials not have experience with it; or if to work with is the present tense? If
being presented and to be open to they do it, they may not know it as teachers are going to involve learners
studying related language and issues self-assessment. in activities that ask them to use life
identified by the learners. Give us more than the “simple experiences as their basis, the learners
Don’t fall into a vocabulary rut. present.” As one learner put it, how want at least a start on the language
Many learners felt that teachers spent can teachers expect learners to talk or tools required to do so. This may
more time on practicing vocabulary write about important experiences, mean introducing and using some past
than on actually using it. Flash cards,
matching games, labeling of pictures,
copying of words, and similar vocab-
ulary development exercises are
Ideas for Eliciting Learner Feedback
useful, but they shouldn’t constitute
the whole lesson. The learners want What if you want to get feedback from your learners about the
to use the words in sentences, in learning process in your classroom, but you do not share a
dialogues, and completing other tasks.
native language with them?
Do more reading and writing.
The majority of learners felt that
reading and writing are the skills most ■ Use picture or word prompts to stimulate role plays or brain-
often neglected in their beginning- storming sessions to preface a new topic. As you and the
level ESOL classes. While most
learners do this, you will gather clues about what they already
acknowledged that speaking and
listening (or “understanding,” as know or have experienced and any special needs or interests
many learners called it) were the they may have in relation to the topic.
immediate needs in their lives,
reading and writing were the areas
■ Create a Language Experience Approach (LEA) story about
in which they felt they needed the
most practice. They wanted teachers to studying English. Find or draw pictures in which people are
make concerted efforts to incorporate writing, listening, speaking, looking in a dictionary, talking
level-appropriate reading and writing collaboratively, etc. After the story has been completed, ask
as regular parts of the class, as they learners to circle the ways they like to study English, compare
did with speaking and listening. with each other, and even create a consensus list of advice
Let us know how we are doing.
that you can use to inform your lesson planning.
A number of learners expressed a
desire for more tests and quizzes in
their classes. With further probing, ■ Take a picture of your classroom on a typical day. Ask learners
however, I found that what they to create (draw, assemble a collage, for example) pictures of
really wanted were more oppor-
classes they have attended in the past. Ask them to compare
tunities of any type that would help
them to check on their progress. the pictures they create with the picture of your current class-
Paper-and-pencil tests were men- room. Write or discuss what your students like and dislike
tioned, perhaps because learners about each.
are familiar with this means of
assessment. More consistent, concrete
■ At the end of a class period, ask learners to comment on
feedback from the teacher was also
mentioned. Teachers may feel that, the various activities in which they participated. They can do
at the beginning levels, learners this by voting yes or no on whether a specific activity was
will find tests or direct feedback too helpful, or by rating it. Use pictures, symbols, recognizable
intimidating or even discouraging. words or phrases, and refer back to concrete handouts or
The challenge may be for teachers to
products of the activities to support the learners as they
introduce learners to the variety of
forms that assessments can take and tackle the task.❖
to the concept of self-assessment.

NCSALL • AUGUST 2001 9


Focus on
Basics
tense verbs or a sentence using a wanted their teachers to talk to them revealed the cognitive, intellectual,
modal. It does not mean, however, about what learners need and what psychological, and social savvy and
that beginning learners should be helps them most in the classroom. capability that inexperienced teachers
expected to learn everything about They were willing to share their can sometimes overlook in learners
that past tense verb or modal and be strategies for learning, their goals, and with beginning-level English language
able to reproduce it out of the context their difficulties in order to help the or literacy proficiencies and skills
in which it was presented. teacher adjust instruction. They were (Brod, 1999; Shank & Terrill, 1997).
Know when to say “That’s all very sophisticated and thoughtful in They will resonate strongly when
you need to know right now.” These their analysis of the learning process used in teachers’ preparation and
beginning-level learners respect when in their classroom. Teachers may want training in our program. I had a
a teacher tells them that they do not to look at ways in which pictures, role distinct advantage in gathering
need to know all the intricate playing, and similar techniques could these comments, since I spoke the
explanations behind a grammar point be used to gather feedback on the ways students’ native language. It would be
or a common, but structurally more that learners learn best, topics or interesting to see if program planners
advanced, phrase, such as “May I themes they want to explore, or even or teachers using role plays, responses
help you?” In fact, they are sometimes the sequence in which learners want to to pictures, Language Experience
relieved simply to memorize what cover chapters or units in a textbook. Approach (LEA), or similar tech-
they need to know and proceed to the niques might get the same types of
practice that is more appropriate and responses from mixed native-language
necessary for their level. The learners Conclusion groups. These beginning learners have
discussed this issue primarily in These comments are not a great deal of useful advice to offer
terms of grammar and a few simple, necessarily innovative ideas for to their teachers as well as to staff
practical idioms. However, I think it working with beginning-level learners. developers and trainers like me. It
is worth considering when planning In fact, most are a part of good would be worth the effort to find
other aspects, such as vocabulary or teaching practices for students of any ways to tap that resource.
even content to be covered. (For level (see Holt, 1995; Wrigley &
example, do beginning-level learners Guth, 1990). They helped me focus, References
really need to know “veins” and however, not only on what the
■ Brod, S. (1999). What Non-readers or
“arteries” and the differences between learners need but also on what
Beginning Readers Need to Know:
them, or can that wait for the next inexperienced teachers often Performance-Based ESL Adult Literacy.
level?) Teachers need to make clear for overlook, forget, or do not completely Denver, CO: Spring Institute for
themselves the knowledge they abso- understand about working with International Studies.
lutely need to frame their lessons and beginning-level ESOL learners. In a
■ Holt, G. (1995). Teaching Low-level
the extent of information they actually “church basement” program like ours, Adult ESL Learners. Washington, DC:
need to impart to their students. the amount of time that you can ask National Clearinghouse for ESL
Watch your “teacher talk.” volunteers to contribute beyond their Literacy Education.
Many of the learners reported that weekly teaching commitment is
■ Shank, C., & Terrill, L. (1997).
teachers used very complicated limited both by their schedules and “Multilevel literacy planning and
language that distracted or confused by the desire not to over-tap their practice.” Focus on Basics, 1 (C), 18-21.
them in the course of presenting generosity. However, you also want
■ Wrigley, H. & Guth, G. (1990).
materials and lessons. Teachers to make sure that volunteers are
Bringing Literacy to Life: Issues and
often devote a great deal of time sufficiently prepared and supported Options in Adult ESL Literacy. San
to determining what content and in their teaching efforts. I think these Mateo, CA: Aguirre International.
material are appropriate for the learner comments will help me to
beginning-level learner. In an ideal focus better the training for teachers
in beginning-level classes. Such
About the Author
situation, they then spend additional
time figuring out how to present them classes constitute more than 50 MaryAnn Cunningham Florez is the
percent of our program and tend volunteer coordinator of St. Anthony of
in an understandable way. Teachers
Padua Catholic Church’s Adult English as
need to be doubly aware of the to attract new, less-experienced
a Second Language (ESL) Program in Falls
vocabulary and language structures volunteers. They remind me to Church, VA. She is also assistant director
that they use to present, explain, include aspects and strategies that and web coordinator at the National
and even “fill” the time in and are second nature to me as an Center for ESL Literacy Education in
around lessons. experienced beginning-level teacher. Washington, DC. She has more than
Talk to us about learning and These learner voices were 10 years experience working with adult
the learning process. Learners practical and thoughtful. They English language learners.❖

10 AUGUST 2001 • NCSALL


Focus on
Basics
27 to 49 percent of parents of
The Neurobiology of dyslexics may have the disorder.
Studies implicate loci on chromo-
Reading and Dyslexia somes 6 and 15 and, more recently,
on chromosome 2 in the causation
of dyslexia.
by Sally E. Shaywitz, M.D., and
Bennett A. Shaywitz, M.D. The Cognitive Basis
of Dyslexia

D
evelopmental dyslexia within the population, reading and The phonologic deficit
reading disability occur along a hypothesis — There is now a
is characterized by continuum, with reading disability strong consensus among investigators
an unexpected diffi- representing the lower tail of a in the field that the central difficulty
culty in reading experienced normal distribution of reading ability. in dyslexia reflects a deficit within
by children and adults Good evidence based on sample the language system, although other
surveys of randomly selected pop- systems and processes may also
who otherwise possess the ulations of children now indicate contribute to the difficulty. The
intelligence and motivation that dyslexia affects boys and girls language system is conceptualized as
considered necessary for equally (Figure 1); the long-held a hierarchical series of components:
accurate and fluent reading. belief that only boys suffer from at higher levels are neural systems
dyslexia reflected sampling bias engaged in processing, for example,
It represents one of the most in school-identified samples. semantics, syntax, and discourse; at
common problems affecting Dyslexia is a persistent, chronic the lowest level is the phonologic
children and adults; in the condition; it does not represent module dedicated to processing the
United States, the prevalence a transient “developmental lag” distinctive sound elements that
(Figure 2). Over time, poor readers constitute language. The functional
of dyslexia is estimated to and good readers tend to maintain unit of the phonologic module is the
range from five to 17 percent their relative positions along the phoneme, defined as the smallest
of school-aged children, spectrum of reading ability. discernible segment of speech; for
with as many as 40 percent
of the entire population Causes
reading below grade level. Dyslexia is
Dyslexia (or specific reading both familial and
heritable: both
disability) is the most environmental and
common and most carefully genetic influences
studied of the learning affect the expression
disabilities, affecting 80 of dyslexia. This
observation pro-
percent of all individuals vides opportunities
identified as learning disabled. for early identi-
This article reviews recent fication of affected
advances in the neuro- siblings and often
for delayed but
biology of dyslexia and their helpful identi-
implications for teaching fication of affected Figure 1. Prevalence of reading disability in research-
identified (RI) and school-identified (SI) boys and girls.
adults with dyslexia. adults. Thus 23 Schools identify about four times as many boys as girls,
to 65 percent of reflecting primarily externalizing behavioral characteristics
Epidemiology of children who have
a parent with
that are more likely to bring boys to a teacher’s attention.
This skewed prevalence rate reflects referral bias. When
Dyslexia dyslexia, 40 percent actual reading scores are used to identify children, there
is no significant difference in the prevalence of dyslexia
Like hypertension and obesity, of siblings of between boys and girls (based on data in Shaywitz
dyslexia fits a dimensional model: dyslexics, and et al., 1990).

NCSALL • AUGUST 2001 11


Focus on
Basics
example, the word “bat” consists of subjects with dyslexia, other subtypes spoken word “apparition” will not be
three phonemes: /b/ /ae/ /t/ (buh, aah, may account for some cases of able to use their knowledge of the
tuh). To speak a word, the speaker dyslexia. Examples include dyslexia meaning of the word until they can
retrieves the word’s phonemic con- resulting from deficits in naming- decode and identify the printed word
stituents from his or her internal speed in addition to phonological on the page and will appear not to
lexicon, assembles the phonemes, and deficits, the so called double-deficit know the word’s meaning.
then utters the word. Conversely, to hypothesis.
read a word, the reader must first The phonologic deficit
segment that word into its underlying Implications of the in adolescence and
phonologic elements. The awareness phonologic model of adult life — Deficits in
that all words can be decomposed dyslexia — Reading is comprised phonological coding continue to
into these basic elements of language of two main processes: decoding and characterize dyslexic readers even
(phonemes) allows the reader to comprehension. In dyslexia, a deficit in adolescence; performance on
decipher the reading code. In order at the level of the phonologic module phonological processing measures
to read, a child has to develop the impairs the reader’s ability to segment contributes most to differentiating
insight that spoken words can be the written word into its underlying dyslexic from average readers, and
pulled apart into phonemes and that phonologic elements. As a result, the average from superior readers as
reader experiences well. Children with dyslexia neither
difficulty, first spontaneously remit nor do they
in decoding the demonstrate a lag mechanism for
word and then in “catching up” in the development of
identifying it. The reading skills. That is not to say that
phonologic deficit many dyslexic readers do not become
is domain-specific; quite proficient in reading a finite
that is, it is indepen- domain of words in their area of
dent of other, non- special interest, usually words that
phonologic, abilities. are important for their careers. Such
In particular, the individuals, while able to decode
higher-order cog- words in this domain, still exhibit
nitive and linguistic evidence of their early reading
functions involved problems when they have to read
Figure 2. Trajectory of reading skills over time in
in comprehension, unfamiliar words, which they do
nonimpaired and dyslexic readers. Ordinate shows
Rasch scores (W scores) from the Woodcock-Johnson such as general accurately but not fluently and
reading test (Woodcock & Johnson, 1989) and abscissa intelligence and rea- automatically. In adolescents, oral
shows age in years. Both dyslexic and nonimpaired soning, vocabulary, reading, the rate of reading, as well
readers improve their reading scores as they get older, and syntax, are as facility with spelling may be most
but the gap between the dyslexic and nonimpaired
generally intact. useful clinically in differentiating
readers remains. Thus dyslexia is a deficit and not a
developmental lag (from Francis et al., 1996). This pattern — a average from poor readers.
deficit in phonologic From a clinical perspective,
the letters in a written word represent analysis contrasted with intact higher- these data indicate that as children
these sounds. This so-called pho- order cognitive abilities — offers approach adolescence, a manifestation
nemic awareness is largely missing in an explanation for the paradox of of dyslexia may be a very slow reading
dyslexic children and adults. Results otherwise intelligent people who rate. Children may learn to read words
from large and well-studied pop- experience great difficulty in reading. accurately, but they will not be fluent
ulations with reading disability According to the model, a or automatic, reflecting the lingering
confirm that in young school-aged circumscribed deficit in a lower-order effects of a phonologic deficit.
children, as well as in adolescents, a linguistic (phonologic) function Because they are able to read words
deficit in phonology represents the blocks access to higher-order processes accurately (albeit very slowly),
most robust and specific correlate and to the ability to draw meaning dyslexic adolescents and young adults
of reading disability. Such findings from text. The dyslexic reader cannot may mistakenly be assumed to have
form the basis for the most successful use his or her higher-order linguistic “outgrown” their dyslexia. These older
and evidence-based interventions skills to access the meaning until the dyslexic students may be similar to
designed to improve reading. While printed word has first been decoded their unimpaired peers on untimed
children and adults with a phonologic and identified. For example, readers measures of word recognition, yet
deficit represent the vast majority of who know the precise meaning of the continue to suffer from the phono-

12 AUGUST 2001 • NCSALL


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Basics
logic deficit that makes reading less rhymed. (For example, do [LEAT] and a concomitant increase in
automatic, more effortful, and slow. and [JETE] rhyme?) Nonword reading activation in the inferior frontal gyrus.
The provision of extra time is is perhaps the clearest indication of These data indicate that dyslexic
therefore an essential accom- decoding ability because familiarity readers demonstrate a functional
modation; it allows them the time to with the letter pattern cannot in- disruption in an extensive system in
decode each word and to apply their fluence the individual’s response. Of the posterior cortex encompassing
unimpaired higher-order cognitive particular interest were differences in both traditional visual and language
and linguistic skills to the brain activation patterns in men com- regions as well as a portion of
surrounding context to get at the pared to women. Figure 3 illustrates association cortex. The involvement
meaning of words that they cannot that activation during phonological of this latter region, centered about
entirely or rapidly decode. processing in men was more lateralized the angular gyrus, is of particular
to the left inferior frontal gyrus, interest since this portion of
known as Broca’s area; in contrast, association cortex is considered
Neurobiological activation during this same task in pivotal in carrying out those cross-
Influences women resulted in a more bilateral modal integrations necessary for
A range of neurobiological pattern of activation
investigations using postmortem brain of this region.
specimens and, more recently, brain These findings
morphometry and diffusion tensor provide the first clear
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) evidence of gender-
suggests that there are differences based differences
between dyslexic and nonimpaired in the functional
readers in the back of the brain, organization of the
specifically in the temporoparieto- brain for language.
occipital brain regions. Functional They support and
brain imaging studies also show a extend a long-held
failure of left hemisphere posterior hypothesis that
brain systems to function properly language functions
are more likely to Figure 3. Gender-based differences in the brain during
in adult dyslexic readers while they phonological processing. Composite fMRI images
perform reading tasks. be highly lateralized
show the distribution of brain activation patterns in
In principle, functional brain in males but are men (left) and women (right) during a nonword
imaging is quite simple. When an represented in both rhyming task. In men, activation is lateralized to the
individual is asked to perform a cerebral hemispheres left inferior frontal regions; in women the same region
in females. is active bilaterally (data from Shaywitz et al., 1995).
discrete cognitive task, that task
places processing demands on par- Studies of
ticular neural systems in the brain. dyslexic readers
To meet those demands requires indicate a significant
activation of neural systems in specific disruption in the
brain regions and those changes in neural systems for
neural activity are, in turn, reflected reading in dyslexic
by changes in cerebral blood flow. subjects as they try to
We use the term “functional imaging” decode pseudowords.
for technologies that measure those Thus, as shown in
changes in blood flow in specific brain Figure 4 during
regions while subjects are engaged in nonword rhyming in
cognitive tasks. dyslexic readers, we
found a disruption Figure 4. Composite fMRI activation maps in nonim-
in several critical paired and dyslexic readers engaged in phonological
Gender-Based components of a processing during the nonword rhyme task show that
nonimpaired readers activate a large region involving the
posterior system
Differences involving the angular gyrus (1), supramarginal gyrus, and posterior
portions of the superior temporal gyrus. In contrast,
In an early study of 19 neuro- posterior superior dyslexic readers demonstrate a relative underactivation
logically normal right-handed men temporal gyrus in this posterior region and an increased activation in the
and 19 women, the subjects had to (Wernicke’s area) inferior frontal gyrus (a) and middle frontal gyrus (b)
decide whether two pseudowords and the angular gyrus, bilaterally(data from Shaywitz et al., 1998).

NCSALL • AUGUST 2001 13


Focus on
Basics
reading (i.e., mapping the visual (the letters) of
percept of the print onto the phono- the word into the
logic structures of the language). linguistic sounds (the
Consistent with this study of phonemes) they
developmental dyslexia, a large represent and then
literature on acquired inability to access the meaning
read (alexia, for example, following of the word. As early
a stroke) describes neuroanatomical as 1891, Dejerine
lesions most prominently centered suggested that a
about the angular gyrus. It should not portion of the
be surprising that both the acquired posterior brain region
and the developmental disorders (which includes the
affecting reading have in common a angular gyrus and Figure 5. Neural systems for reading. Converging
disruption within the neural systems supramarginal gyrus evidence indicates three important systems in reading,
serving to link the visual represen- in the inferior parietal all primarily in the left hemisphere: 1) anterior system in
the left inferior frontal region; 2) dorsal parietotemporal
tations of the letters to the phono- lobule, and the
system involving angular gyrus, supramarginal gyrus,
logic (language) structures they posterior aspect of and posterior portions of the superior temporal gyrus;
represent. While reading difficulty the superior temporal 3) ventral occipitotemporal system involving portions of
is the primary symptom in both gyrus) is critical for the middle temporal gyrus and middle occipital gyrus.
acquired alexia and developmental reading. See text for details.
dyslexia, associated symptoms and Rather than the interventions in a more focused and
findings in the two disorders would smoothly functioning and integrated efficient way. Such studies are now
be expected to differ somewhat, reading systems observed in non- underway.
reflecting the differences between impaired readers, disruption of the For dyslexic readers, these brain
an acquired and a developmental posterior reading systems results in activation patterns provide evidence
disorder. In acquired alexia, a dyslexic readers attempting to com- of an imperfectly functioning system
structural lesion resulting from an pensate by shifting to other, ancillary, for segmenting words into their
insult (e.g., stroke, tumor) disrupts a systems (e.g., anterior sites such as phonologic constituents; accordingly,
component of an already functioning the inferior frontal gyrus and right this disruption is evident when
neural system and the lesion may posterior sites). The anterior sites, dyslexic readers are asked to respond
extend to involve other brain regions which are critical in articulation, to increasing demands on their
and systems. In developmental dyslexia, may help dyslexic readers develop an phonologic analysis. These findings
as a result of a constitutionally based awareness of the sound structure of now add neurobiological support for
functional disruption, the system the word by forming the word with previous cognitive/behavioral data,
never develops normally. The their lips, tongue, and vocal apparatus pointing to the critical role of phono-
symptoms reflect the emanative and thus allow them to read, albeit logic analysis, and its impairment,
effects of an early disruption to the more slowly and less efficiently than in dyslexia. The pattern of relative
phonologic system. In either case the if the fast occipitotemporal word underactivation in posterior brain
disruption is within the same identification system were functioning. regions contrasted with relative
neuroanatomical system. The posterior sites, for example the overactivation in anterior regions
right occipitotemporal area, may may provide a neural signature for
be used by the dyslexic reader to the phonologic difficulties char-
A Neural Model facilitate visual pattern recognition, acterizing dyslexia.
compensating for the impaired word
for Reading analysis systems in the left posterior Editor’s note: Portions of this chapter
These data from laboratories regions. The shift to ancillary neural appeared in (Shaywitz 1998; Shaywitz and
around the world indicate that a systems in dyslexic readers may Shaywitz 1999; Shaywitz, Pugh et al. 2000;
number of interrelated neural systems support accurate, but not fluent Shaywitz, Shaywitz et al. In Press; Shaywitz,
are used in reading: at least two in and automatic, word reading. Shaywitz et al. In Press; Shaywitz, Lyon et
posterior brain regions as well as Delineation of the circuitry for al. In Press) with permission.
distinct and related systems in reading in dyslexia may now allow
anterior regions (Figure 5). strategies for specific interventions Acknowledgments
In order to read, the beginning designed to facilitate the function of This work was supported by
reader must break the reading code, these ancillary systems, and a method grants from the National Institute
that is, transform the visual features to measure the efficacy of such of Child Health and Human

14 AUGUST 2001 • NCSALL


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Basics
Development (PO1 HD 21888 and (vol. III, pp. 229-249). Mahwah, NJ: ■ Woodcock, R.W., and Johnson, M.B.
P50 HD25802). We thank Carmel Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. (1989). Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-
Lepore for her help in preparing the ■ Shaywitz, B., Shaywitz, S., et al. (1995). Educational Battery — Revised (WJ-R).
manuscript. “Sex differences in the functional Allen, TX: Developmental Learning
organization of the brain for language.” Materials.
References Nature, 373, 607-609.
■ Shaywitz, S. (1998). “Current concepts:
About the Authors
■ Anderson, A., & Gore, J. (1997).
“The physical basis of neuroimaging Dyslexia.” The New England Journal of Sally E. Shaywitz, M.D., is a Professor of
techniques.” In M. Lewis and B. Peterson Medicine, 338(5), 307-312. Pediatrics and the Co-Director of the
(eds.), Child and Adolescent Psychiatric NICHD-Yale Center for the Study of
■ Shaywitz, S., & Shaywitz, B. (1999).
Clinics of North America (vol. 6, pp. 213- Learning and Attention.
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264). Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Co. Ashwal (eds.), Pediatric Neurology: Bennett A. Shaywitz, M.D., is a Professor
■ Bruck, M. (1992). “Persistence of Principles & Practice (vol. 1, pp. 576- of Pediatrics and Neurology and the Co-
dyslexics’ phonological awareness 584). St. Louis, MO: Mosby. Director of the NICHD-Yale Center for
deficits.” Developmental Psychology, the Study of Learning and Attention.❖
■ Shaywitz, S., Shaywitz, B., et al. (In
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close the classes because it is too
Using a Multisensory difficult for new students to catch up.
The class atmosphere is casual, but
Approach to Help the instructor is in charge. We have
found that most adults relish humor
and the feeling of camaraderie. Each
Struggling Adult Learners group tends to become close-knit, and
we foster group development.
We have expanded and modified
by Gladys Geertz the Slingerland techniques for use
with adults with and without language

I
have been a teacher for sensory teaching techniques from disabilities. The modifications are
Orton-Gillingham that were adapted minor; for example, we do not use
about 25 years. When for the classroom by Beth Slingerland tracing procedures (going over the
I taught elementary (Slingerland, 1996). Orton-Gilling- same letter many times) as much with
school, it seemed that most ham developed their teaching our students. Since our students are
kids learned to read almost techniques working one-on-one adults, and many of them are familiar
with dyslexic children and those with the letters, we require them to
by osmosis. Even the with specific language disabilities. A trace a letter three times, instead of
students of some truly colleague and I developed a program the 10 or 20 that may be required in
lackadaisical teachers that uses these techniques in classroom elementary school. We also proceed
usually learned to read. But settings with adult, low-level reading more quickly to paper and pencil
students. What differentiates our tasks, rather than spending a lot of
what about the children method from the Slingerland method time using the pocket chart or board.
who didn’t? I spent many is that we move through a lesson more We also introduce three or four
hours working on ways to quickly, teaching more concepts in a letters during each class session;
help these special children, day than would be taught in an an elementary teacher may only
elementary school class. introduce one or two letters a day.
sometimes finding a tech-
At the beginning of our basic classes,
nique that helped, other
times passing a child on to Our Program we discuss our teaching procedures
with the students, explaining that
The ALP multisensory classes
the next grade in hope that consist mostly of students who have
because they have missed some of the
another teacher would find educational experiences necessary for
gone through the school system in learning, we are starting over.
the key. What happened to the United States. Some are dropouts;
these kids? They are the others are high school graduates. They
adults I work with every range in age from 18 to 75 years. Our A Success-Oriented
classes are limited to 15 students, but
day at the Anchorage some classes have only four or five. Program
Literacy Project (ALP) in All of our teachers are trained in the The multisensory approach is
Anchorage, AK. Because no Slingerland method, and as of this a success-oriented program. We
writing, we have three instructors in only expect students to know what
one ever found the answer, the multisensory program who teach they have been taught. We provide
eventually many of them a total of nine multisensory classes. instruction, guide the students through
became frustrated and Two are spelling classes, three are a a successful learning experience, and
dropped out of school. Some combination of reading and spelling, then reinforce this successful learning
and four are reading classes at various experience. We make sure that all
of them graduated, but they levels, ranging from first to approx- students leave the classroom feeling
still could not read. imately 10th grade level. Each class that they have experienced success.
About eight years ago, I observed meets three days a week for an hour We begin with a single unit of
the Slingerland technique being and a half per class. Our quarter sight, sound, or thought, and then
used with children in Slingerland lasts 10 weeks. proceed to the complex combinations
classrooms in the Anchorage schools, Our classes are not open entry. of these units. We start with sight and
and with adults at ALP. The We continue to accept new students sound association, following the same
Slingerland technique uses multi- for the first two weeks, but then we routine day after day, and adding a few

16 AUGUST 2001 • NCSALL


Focus on
Basics
consonant letters and then, slowly, one simultaneous procedure. It letters are tall and go to the head
the vowels. We usually begin with the requires learners to see, hear, speak, line, some fall below the foot line,
short /i/ vowel sound, and the and do at the same time. We follow and some are crossed or dotted.
consonant sounds of /n/, /t/, and /p/, a set pattern of seven steps in every We then make the letter in the air,
using the sequence in Angling For lesson. This strict adherence to while explaining exactly how it to
Words by Carolyn G. Bowen (1983). structure provides a consistent, make it. Next, the students make
expectable routine that frees the letter in the air, very large, using
students to concentrate on their pointers and index fingers as
“We provide learning. their writing tools.
From the first day of After making the letter in the air,
instruction, guide the class, we begin class with oral each student receives a 12 X 18 inch
language skills, because the sheet of newsprint, which has been
students through a spoken word is much more folded to create lines. We write a
successful learning comfortable than the written
word to a low-level reader.
cursive letter in crayon on this
newsprint. Now the students can
experience, and then First, we, the teacher and the trace the letter with their fingers,
learners, talk, using complete “feeling” it and saying it. We trace
reinforce this successful sentences. We encourage each the letter at least three times with
student to participate. Some our fingers, three times with the blunt
learning experience.” oral language questions con- end of a pencil from which the eraser
cern the students personally: has been removed, and three times
“How long does it take you with the pencil point. Learners then
(Teachers could conceivably to get to class?” “How do you get move on to the next box on the
introduce letters in any sequence, to class?” “What is your favorite paper, tracing with no crayon letter as
but it is practical to start with high- restaurant and why?” “What is your a guide, using their fingers, then the
frequency letters and those that favorite holiday and why?” “How will blunt end of the pencil, and then the
correspond to a selected text.) We this class help you?” “If someone gave pencil point. Then on to the next
spell and read words from these you a thousand dollars, how would box using the same procedure. This
letters, and then we move on. The you spend it?” is the Slingerland technique used
time involved in teaching the letter In the second segment of the for teaching writing. It involves
sounds depends on the needs of the lesson, we introduce the sound- seeing, saying, feeling, and doing
particular group of students. symbol relationship. We introduce a simultaneously. We repeat it every
Once the sounds are learned, letter while writing it in the
students move on to the more com- air: kinesthetic movement. If
plex tasks of reading and spelling the students need instruction
words, putting these words into in writing the letter, we also Typical Lesson Plan
sentences, and then mastering do the writing procedure. Most Components
paragraphs. With these basic skills, early readers print; therefore,
students are able to handle more we teach them cursive writing.
complex reading and writing material. The left to right directionality • Using oral language skills
of cursive makes it easier to • Learning a sound-symbol relationship,
write neatly, helps fluency, and using cards to review the
A Sample increases speed in writing, and sound-symbol relationship
gives our students the skill
Multisensory Lesson that most adults have: writing • Decoding
How does a typical multisensory in cursive, which we expect • Vocabulary enrichment
lesson unfold? People tend to learn our students to do also.
through different or unique stimuli. In the writing procedure, • Phrase reading
Some of us learn better visually, some we write the letter on the • Structured reading
auditorily, and others kinesthetically. board, using three lines —
I have found that most people prob- a head line; a belt, or middle, • Story reading using comprehension skills
ably learn best by using two of line; and a foot line —
these modalities. The multisensory while communicating to the
technique makes use of all these students exactly how the
modalities and combines them into letter is made and that some

NCSALL • AUGUST 2001 17


Focus on
Basics
day for every lesson. words in a lesson, of which one-third student approaches the chart at the
After saying the name of the are nonsense. To decode a word, the front of the classroom. We say a
letter and writing the letter in the air, student underlines the vowels, divides phrase, the student underlines the
we show the class a picture of a key the word into syllables, shows what phrase with a yard stick, reads it
word beginning with that letter, such each vowel “says” by writing above aloud, and the other students repeat
as turtle for /t/. Next, the sound of /t/ each vowel a diacritical mark, the phrase. All the phrases on the
is made as it is heard in the key word pronounces the word, and then chart are read a second time using this
turtle. After the instructor demon- defines it. We teach this entire procedure. Then a different student
strates the procedure, the class follows procedure, one step at a time, with comes to the chart and we pose
the procedure as a group, then each each step modeled by the teacher. questions formatted as “Find the
student does it. “Write the letter in The fourth segment, after we phrase that . .” The student finds the
the air, say the keyword, say the decode several words, is learning phrase that answers the question,
sound of the letter.” They have felt vocabulary. From conversing with underlines it, and reads it aloud. The
the letter, spoken the letter, heard the our students, and from answering their other students read the phrase aloud.
name of the letter and letter sound, questions about words, we know that We do all the phrases in the same
and said the letter sound. many of them have limited vocab- way. A fourth student comes to the
After we have introduced the ulary skills. When introducing a story, chart. That student begins at the
sound-symbol relationship for a we teach the definitions of new words bottom phrase, reads it, and the other
specific number of letters, we review and the learners put them
this sound-symbol relationship by into sentences. One of the
displaying flash cards of the letters. reading series that we use Procedure for
This is a review with emphasis on with low-level readers is
both enabling the learners to feel Early Reading Comprehension Phrase Reading
success and allowing the teacher to in Varied Subject Matter
ascertain whether everyone has (Ervin, 1999), which has The teacher puts the following on a chart:
learned the relationship. The students four levels. Written for the
write the letter in the air, speak the older elementary school
name of the letter, hear the name of child, the series seems to be
the letter and the sound of the letter, successful with adults. New a very lazy cat
and then say the sound of the letter. vocabulary in this story in the shrubs
Every lesson has a review of letters includes “shrubs,” “snug,”
using this sound-symbol relationship. and “den.” We also use cold and snowy
The third lesson segment the Kim Marshall (1999) He would moan
involves the decoding of words. We series for readers above the
decode, or sound out, a list of words fourth grade level, which and eat them
every day. We develop these lists by is targeted for adults.
using words that incorporate the Newspapers or Reader’s
sounds taught in the second segment Digest are other sources
of the lesson. We do not include of informational stories. The teacher might ask the learners to:
words that contain sounds that we Our students tend to find
have not taught. So, for example, if nonfiction more interesting “Find the phrase that tells where”
we have only taught the sounds for than fiction. “Find the phrase that has a word
short /i/, consonants /t/, /n/, /p/, then The fifth lesson segment that means the opposite of warm”
we can spell or decode only words is phrase reading, or reading “Find a phrase that begins with an
containing those sounds, such as tip, by ideas. We put five to article”
nip, nit, it, tin, pin. To encourage eight phrases on a chart, “Find a phrase that is the
students to sound out words rather read a phrase, and the beginning of a sentence”
than memorize or sight read them, students repeat it. All “Find a phrase that begins with a
we often use nonsense words such as phrases are read once with conjunction”
“nin,” or “ip.” The more vowel and the teacher modeling and
consonant sounds the students learn, the students repeating. After
the more words we can use. We begin that, the students and
with one-syllable words, progress to instructor discuss any new Taken from Early Reading Comprehension, Book A, “The
two syllables, three syllables, and so vocabulary, hyphenated Lazy Cat” Paragraph 1, by J. Ervin.
forth. We usually decode 20 to 25 words, or grammar. Then a

18 AUGUST 2001 • NCSALL


Focus on
Basics
students repeat it. The student at reading, is structured reading. The us to hear the learners’ decoding,
the chart reads from the bottom to first paragraph of the story is read expression, and fluency. We discuss
the top of the chart, focusing on com- aloud using structured reading: a every paragraph, always pressing for
prehension. During this phase, we student reads a certain number of good comprehension. After answering
build comprehension skills, lengthen words (a phrase) specified by the some specific questions about the last
eye-span, make functional use of word teacher. The phrase may answer a one or two paragraphs, the learners
attack skills, make predictions, and where, what, why, how, or when read them silently. Then the class
build cognitive skills. question. We say to one student: discusses the last two paragraphs and
The sixth segment, after phrase “Read the first three words that tell someone reads them aloud.
why.” The student
reads the first three
Structured Reading words. We ask
Challenges
another student to: Finding appropriate reading
Students read directly from the book using the phrases “Read the next four materials for adult students reading
the instructor indicates to them: words that tell at a low level is extremely difficult.
who.” The student Several publishers print books at a
Toby was a wild cat who lived in a city reads the next four fourth-grade reading level and above;
park. He was a very lazy cat. He also liked words. We choose materials for adults reading at lower
to eat. Even when it was cold and snowy, another student: reading levels lower are scarce.
“Read the next Another major challenge is time.
he knew how to get his meals without
two words that Every day we struggle to include all
ever leaving where he slept. He would
tell where.” The seven steps in our 90-minute class.
stay in his snug den in the shrubs. We may modify the lesson by making
student reads the
next two words. steps shorter, decoding fewer words, or
This phrase reading reading half the story and assigning
is done throughout the rest for homework, but we do not
Instructor says: Read the first five words continue the lesson the next day.
the first sentence.
that tell who. Repetition of the seven-step sequence
When the first
Student 1 reads: Toby was a wild cat. sentence is finished, provides useful structure, freeing
we pick a student learners to focus on content rather
Instructor says: Read the next two words to read the entire than methodology.
telling what. sentence using
phrasing. The
Student 2 reads: who lived.
objective is to get
Results
students to read by Since I have started using
Instructor says: Read the next four words this multisensory approach, I have
ideas or thoughts,
that tell where. witnessed success. During the winter
not by words.
Student 3 reads: in a city park. Each sentence and spring 2000 instructional sessions,
is read in sequence for example, our learners improved
Instructor says: Read the complete sentence using the same their skills in word reading and word
using that same phrasing. method. Eventually, attach at a statistically significant
the first paragraph level as measured by the WRAT3
Student 4 reads: Toby was a wild cat (pause) (word reading) and the Woodcock
— and only that
who lived (pause) in the Johnson-Revised (word attack) tests.
paragraph — is
city park. But more than statistics, the successes
read using phrase
reading designed come from the students. They are
Instructor says: Read the next two words now willing to pick up a newspaper
by the teacher.
that tell you what. and they can laugh and joke about
In lesson
segment seven, their reading, because they have
The procedure continues until the end of the each student gets a experienced some success. They tell
paragraph. To conclude, a student reads the entire turn to read orally. us that the structure and continuity
paragraph using good phrasing. Each student reads of the instruction as well as the
Taken from Early Reading Comprehension, Book A, “The Lazy Cat” aloud a different interactive teaching methods were
Paragraph 1, by J. Ervin. paragraph in the particularly helpful. They have
story. This enables discovered that they are not the only

NCSALL • AUGUST 2001 19


Focus on
Basics
people in the world with reading
difficulties and know that, with time
and diligence, they can achieve their
Reading for Pleasure
educational goals. Learners’ personal reading choices can provide
References teachers with ideas on how to motivate and
■ Bowen, C. (1983). Angling For Words.
Novato, CA: Academic Therapy
support them
Publications.
■ Ervin, J. (1999). Early Reading by Sondra Cuban
Comprehension in Varied Subject Matter.

A
Cambridge, MA: Educators Publishing fter tutoring, she really wanted to read love stories
Service, Inc. but felt she couldn’t. She said, “I guess
teaching, and doing my mind’s so tired that I get frustrated
■ Marshall, K. (1999). The Kim Marshall research in literacy and give up. I guess, like I said — too
Series, Reading Book 1. Cambridge, MA:
Educators Publishing Service, Inc. programs, I wanted to know much stuff going [on] in my mind.”
more about how literacy fit Her desire to read love stories was
■ Slingerland, Beth H. (1996) A Multi-
fueled by the romances and comedies
Sensory Approach To Language Arts for into women’s lives, thinking she watched on TV, which she enjoyed
Specific Language Disability Children that this could help me
Books 1, 2, 3. Cambridge, MA: and which distracted her from her
Educators Publishing Service, Inc. understand how better to family problems.
serve women learners in The women in the study all read
and wanted to read popular-culture
About the Author programs. I conducted a materials — commercially published
Gladys G. Geertz has her master’s degree lengthy qualitative study of books also referred to as genre and
in Learning Disabilities and is certified as 10 women learners for my trade books — that were not, for the
a Slingerland instructor. As multisensory
doctoral dissertation. I most part, used in the literacy program
coordinator for the Anchorage Literacy
they attended. They also used reading
Project, she teaches four reading/writing wanted to find out if the for similar ends: they read to make
multisensory classes, serves as demon-
stration teacher for the Star School’s
women learners I was themselves feel better. I interviewed
Adult Literacy Program, and is a teacher studying read outside of the the women over the course of a year
trainer of multisensory techniques.❖ program, what they wanted about their schooling and work
experiences, the ways they learned
to read about, and what in their families of origin, and about
their purposes were for their use of mass media: anything from
reading. I focus here on my watching television to reading books.
interviews with four women I also observed them and interviewed
staff in the program within this period.
and what their experiences I discovered gaps between what the
suggest for curriculum and women read and wanted to read
instruction in literacy outside of the program and what the
PLAY programs. program offered.
In the literacy program, they
IT Gloria, Donna, Lourdes, and
Elizabeth were enrolled in a computer-
learned basic keyboarding skills,
English grammar, phonics, and oral
FORWARD! assisted literacy program in a semirural
area of Hawaii. Gloria and Donna
pronunciation. Instruction in the
program tended towards skills-based
were beginning adult basic education learning from commercial texts such
Share (ABE) students; Lourdes and
Elizabeth, both students of English
as student dictionaries, Laubach books
such as the Challenger series, reading
Focus on Basics for speakers of other languages
(ESOL), were at slightly higher levels
skills workbooks such as the Steck-
Vaughn Reading for Today series, as
with a colleague. in the program. Donna was at the
lowest level of literacy of the four
well as pre-GED materials. The
program also used educational and
women and rarely read. She told me diagnostic software and typing

20 AUGUST 2001 • NCSALL


Focus on
Basics
program tutorials. Library books and materials they referred to in the Reading and eating in con-
newspapers were sometimes brought interviews would, by most standards, junction with TV watching were
into the tutoring instruction but were be considered too difficult for the important and ritualized for Elizabeth,
not central to the curriculum. learning level in which the program who also read Japanese novels.
placed them. Lourdes, for example, Elizabeth explained how she read
was at an ESOL level of competency when she was younger, “every day
The Research 2 (between grades 4.5 and 6.5). She because I’m home alone so breakfast,
Each woman participated in five described what she learned from lunch, dinner, I have a book stand in
interviews between August, 1997, and reading Gail Sheehy’s The Silent the center. I have the book there
May, 1998. Four of the interviews Passage, a book that deeply affected while I’m eating — I read books.”
lasted between one and two hours her. Lourdes also said she read the She read trade books, for example,
and concerned the women’s literacy Bible and small prayer books. She The Joy Luck Club, by Amy Tan,
and learning in school, their work, read these books regularly, and as which helped with her English
families, and social networks, as well needed, sometimes on a daily basis. vocabulary and was stimulating to
her. She also listened to tapes of
this book. Her family members and
acquaintances were uninformed
about the intense pain a serious
back problem gave her. So, turning
to books and going to classes seemed
like a smart move. “I have lots of
pain. [Be] cause I don’t complain…
I’m not expecting that person always
feels sorry for you,” she said.

Gloria
Gloria, a Hawaiian woman in her
early 50s who spent her younger years
working on macadamia farms and in
pineapple factories, was worried about
being able to pay her rent due to wel-
fare cuts. She explained, “and, you
know, like welfare — even though
you know you’re true [being honest],
they don’t know, they just give you
hard time.” She read the Bible every
day and related to it as “a love letter”
and a source of wisdom. She also
listened to Bible tapes, used Bible
as their use of mass media. The bio- software, discussed the Bible with her
graphical interview was shorter and Elizabeth pastor and his wife, and used biblical
valuable for obtaining background Elizabeth, a 70-year-old nat- resources to teach children in Sunday
information. uralized Japanese woman, was a meat school. These activities invigorated
Gloria, Lourdes, and Elizabeth wrapper for most of her working years. her and distracted her from her
did read outside of the literacy She confided in me with both excite- worries. When she felt trapped
program, and although I did not ask ment and shame that she had gotten by the welfare system, she sought
them how much they read or venture hooked on soap operas through a spiritual materials for the direction
into the technical aspects of their friend, even videotaping them while and comfort they provided.
reading, they described memorable she was away. She told me about the “The book. It’s more intimate
reading experiences and the effects character development in these shows [than the computerized version of the
the books had on them. They read and that an advantage to watching Bible]…. because that is more like a
mainly for pleasure and to reduce them was that they helped her learn study tool. And then when you’re
tension, reading stories that nurtured standard English. She also read books reading, this is what the pastor said,
them emotionally. The reading that had romantic storylines. when you’re reading, it’s like a love

NCSALL • AUGUST 2001 21


Focus on
Basics
letter. Like somebody wrote to you and grade papaya, was in her 50s. and inspirational books gave her a
and say how much he loves you. So Now a health aide, she was married to sense of hope. This and other popular-
the Bible is actually a love letter and a local man. When facing problems culture books she read helped her to
he telling you what’s taking place in with co-workers and her husband, feel independent. As she described it,
the world.” Lourdes read her prayer book and “The first book I read — I’ll never
inspirational books. She also watched forget it. Was back in 19…, maybe
a nun on television every night to 1981, was with Norman Vincent
Lourdes relax and to seek encouragement. Peale, the positive thinker. Oh
Lourdes, a naturalized Mexican Oprah Winfrey and her guests, many that book was good. So from then
mother who used to sew aloha shirts of whom were authors, inspired her, on I start you know, in my head I can
do it. They interest me to go back to
work and to be indep[endent]… you
The Theory know what I am now. Not to listen to
my husband too much…”
Cultural theories of reading for pleasure, including reading response theory
She carried books in her purse
(see Storey, 1993; Simonds, 1992; Radway, 1991; Fiske, 1989; Modleski, 1982),
focus on the psychological benefits readers receive from reading mass-produced
and consulted them when she had
materials, otherwise called “popular texts.” Pleasure reading is pleasurable because “the blues.” She learned to use them
it can bring out the “melodramatic imagination” of women readers (Storey, p. as a shield from pain, using them for
141). It provides “a terrain on which to dream” (Storey, p. 148) with fantasies comfort:
that both reflect and counter “the very real problems and tensions in women’s “…I have another one [a book],
lives” (Modleski, 1982, p. 14). pick-me-up-prayers. Pick me up. And
“Popular culture texts” or “genre literature” (self-help books, mysteries, it’s, like, if I do a lot of those things
romance novels, Christian literature, even the Bible) may be favored by casual for somebody, then something goes
readers over other “classical” literature (i.e., “great books”) because they evoke wrong, and I remember what that
readers’ emotions and are not intimidating. They carry familiar messages from book says…So these little books help
the media that are open for interpretations. John Fiske refers to these texts as me a lot. Oh, it make me feel good
“producerly” (p.103) because the story lines do not follow strict rules and they because you know that God is here.”
contain many “loose ends” and “gaps” that seduce readers to fill them in and
produce new meanings. These meanings are themselves relevant to readers’ lives,
feelings, and cultures. This process is possible because the texts are open and Lessons for Practice
accessible. Readers identify with strong and weak characters because the characters Lourdes, Elizabeth, and Gloria
act out their problems in ways that readers understand and desire. The readers can turned to books for love, pleasure,
imagine themselves as treasured heroines and feel emotionally strong. and comfort, and I think Donna
Janice Radway (1991) studied 42 women romance readers, many of whom had would read for similar reasons, if she
some college education. She learned that the women often read romances when felt she could. These women related
they were under stress and depressed or just to relax: it had tranquilizing effects. to books in ways that nourished them
Reading these stories allowed them to unwind and focus on their “personal needs, emotionally and reflected their life
desires and pleasures.” (p. 61). It also fulfilled their fantasies of being cared for by
concerns and gender roles. They
another person. The women knowingly read and reread the formulaic accounts for
also used electronic media, such as
a desired emotional experience, in part, as a “reversal of the oppression and
emotional abandonment suffered by women in real life” (p. 55).
television, computers, and video, to
Reader-response theory offers another way to understand the role of reading supplement their pleasure reading.
in women’s lives by asking not only about the meanings women receive from texts This reflects newer theories about
but also the feelings they bring to reading. Reader-response theory provides an electronic and print literacy tech-
approach for understanding and building on students’ reading interests and their nologies as intertwining and complex
imaginations. social activities: part of people’s
Other research demonstrates how pleasure reading can be used effectively in everyday social relations and identities,
the classroom. Cho and Krashen’s study (1994) found that women studying English not divorced from public activities
for speakers of other languages (ESOL) who read romance novels (the Sweet Valley and institutions (see Brandt, 1990;
series) felt that this reading increased their vocabularies and their interest in Hemphill & Ianiro, 1995; Merrifield,
reading as it helped them learn English. A practitioner-researcher, Donna Earl, 1997; Pattison, 1982; Tuman, 1992).
reported that students in a literacy program read more outside when she focused on Lourdes, for example, used two
increasing their outside reading practices. She felt that providing learners with different types of media (prayer books
high-interest, easy-to-read materials is one factor in enabling learners to “learn to and a television show featuring a nun)
love reading” (1997, p. 1).❖ for the same purpose: comforting
herself during rough times and to

22 AUGUST 2001 • NCSALL


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Basics
connect to her emotions. Her use instructors. Women students may be Culture. Boston: Unwin Hyman.
of these sources also related to her ashamed or too shy to admit they ■ Hemphill, D., & Ianiro, R. (1995)
gender, her access to technological enjoy these books and find them “Media, technology, and literacy in
resources, her generation, and her moving (see Simonds, 1992). Yet immigrant and multicultural contexts.”
ethnicity. these materials can motivate students Alberta University, Edmonton. Faculty
Asking about and then listening to read because they reinforce of Education. 36th Annual Adult
to women’s struggles and problems emotional responsiveness between Education Research Conference
allows you to see their interests and the reader and the text and relate Proceedings.
needs at different life stages and to students’ cultures (see Rowland, ■ Horsman, J. (2000). Too Scared to
under particular circumstances. It also 2000). These texts give students Learn. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
allows you to understand their coping opportunities to practice reading Associates.
without the pressure to “get ■ Imel, S., & Kerka, S. (1997). Women
it right.” Teaching students and Literacy: Guide to the Literature and
“Women students to see reading as a tool for Issues for Woman-Positive Programs, 367.
Columbus, OH: ERIC.
relaxation (see Horsman,
may be ashamed or 2000; Kortner, 1993) rather ■ Kortner, A. (1993) Bibliotherapy.
than a forced and difficult Bloomington IN: ERIC Clearinghouse
too shy to admit they activity is important in on Reading and Communication Skills.
creating in learners a desire ■ Merrifield, J. (1997). Life at the Margins:
enjoy these books to read. Literacy, Language and Technology in
Everyday Life. NY: Teacher’s College
and find them Conclusion Press.
■ Modleski. T. (1982). Loving with a
moving.” Offering pleasure reading
to a woman learner as one of
Vengeance: Mass Produced Fantasies for
Women. Camden, CT: Archon Books.
many reading choices in a
■ Pattison, R. (1982). On Literacy: The
strategies and the resources and people literacy program may make her feel Politics of the Word from Homer to the
to which they turn. The process of that the program is an oasis rather Age of Rock. New York: Oxford
describing themselves helps them to than a tax on her energy. Offering University Press.
become the “experts” and assert more pleasure reading that makes women
■ Radway, J. (1991). Reading the Romance:
control over the curriculum (see, feel good can “hook” women into Women, Patriarchy and Popular
CCLOW, 1996; Imel & Kerka, 1997). reading because it is an enjoyable, Literature. Chapel Hill: University of
The same process can assist teachers emotionally stimulating practice. This North Carolina Press.
to create curriculum based on type of reading can connect to women’s
■ Rowland, M. (2000). African-Americans
learners’ changing needs. It may emotional lives in a nonthreatening and Self-help Education: the Missing Link
be difficult to ask sensitive questions way and potentially turn reading a in Adult Education. Bloomington IN:
at intake, but as soon as rapport is satisfying daily ritual. ERIC Clearinghouse for Adult, Career,
established, this can be a very and Vocational Education.
useful activity. References ■ Simonds, W. (1992). Women and Self-
Learners like Donna, who claim ■ Brandt, D. (1990). Literacy as Help Culture: Reading between the Lines.
they want to read love stories but still Involvement: The Acts of Writers, New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University
feel embarrassed about their literacy Readers and Texts. Carbondale, IL: Press.
levels, might be doubly embarrassed Southern Illinois University Press. ■ Storey, J. (1993). An Introductory Guide
to “come out” and admit to literacy ■ Canadian Congress for Learning to Cultural Theory and Popular Culture.
staff that they want to read these Opportunities for Women (1996). Athens, University of Georgia Press.
stories and popular psychology books. Making Connections. Toronto, Ontario: ■ Tuman, M. (1992). Wordperfect: Literacy
She said, “I really feel stupid because CCLOW. in the Computer Age. Pittsburgh, PA:
I didn’t do this long ago. Should of. ■ Cho, K., & Krashen, S. (1994). University of Pittsburgh Press.
Like I said, I was so embarrassed to “Acquisition of vocabulary from Sweet
tell it. To face somebody and tell Valley Kids Series. Adult ESL About the Author
them. I still cannot do that you know acquisition.” Journal of Reading. 37 (8),
662-667. Sondra Cuban finished her doctoral
and say, ‘I cannot read.’ It’s really dissertation in 1999 and joined NCSALL
hard to come out.” Pleasure reading ■ Earl, D. (1997). “Learning to love as a research associate. She works on a
and inspirational books may appear reading.” Focus on Basics, 1 (B), 1-4. longitudinal persistence study of students
frivolous and inconsequential to ■ Fiske, J. (1989). Understanding Popular in selected library literacy programs. ❖

NCSALL • AUGUST 2001 23


Focus on
Basics
interactive experiences that would
Theory to Practice, stimulate their literacy learning.

Practice to Theory Our First Practice


With guidance from Drake’s
A tutor-based program goes through multiple professor of early childhood literacy,
we adopted the America Reads
changes to serve its first-level learners better tutoring model: read together, write
together, and incorporate spelling and
by Anne Murr skills development. Since phonemic
awareness is a necessary part of
theory and research that support it, literacy learning, we encouraged tutors

I
entered the adult to use phonemic awareness activities.
intertwine.
literacy field four years Every tutor received Edward Fry’s
ago as a volunteer tutor Adult Center Phonics Patterns (1997a), a resource to
in the Drake Adult Literacy guide practice in phonemic awareness
The Drake University Adult
and spelling patterns. Each student
Center in Des Moines, Iowa. Literacy Center is a community
received Fry’s Introductory Word Book
In my current role as Center outreach service of the Drake
(1997b; the 1,000 most commonly
University School of Education.
Coordinator, I screen and Community and university volunteers
used words) for use in building sight
place adult learners with vocabulary and was encouraged to
meet one-to-one twice a week with
bring in reading materials that had
volunteer tutors, train adult new readers. Learners range in
personal meaning for him or her. We
volunteers, and teach the age from late teens to 70, with most
purchased books written for adults at
in the 30 to 45 year range. The
initial lesson with all new majority work full- or part-time but
the beginning reading level. Students
students and tutors. I learn wrote during each tutoring session,
feel they could get better jobs if their
because writing promotes the practice
as much from the adult new reading skills were better. Many
of phonological processing skills.
readers as they learn from attended special education in school,
We hoped to address reading
but declare, “I know I can learn. I just
me. Along with teaching me never got the chance.”
skills development with computerized
about the varied and skilled drill and practice. We used the
Academy of Reading (Autoskill,
ways in which they have Theory 1998), which provides individualized
succeeded in their lives, As I began to craft a literacy training in phonemic awareness and
they have taught me about curriculum for adults I asked, “Do reading. Adults were free to come to
the depth of difficulty they adults learn to read in the same way the Literacy Center to work on basic
children do?” I downloaded Learning skills at their own pace. No keyboard
have in processing to Read: Literacy Acquisition by skills were necessary. With all these
language. Their struggles Children and Adults by Perfetti & pieces in place, we were confident
have taught me about the Marron (1995) from the National that we had a balanced approach to
determination to learn and Center on Adult Literacy’s web site. literacy instruction for adults: use of
Their study of the research led them personally meaningful text and writing
the obstacles they face. to conclude that the cognitive process in the context of real tasks as well as
As a Head Start teacher earlier by which children and adults learn independent computerized skill work.
in my career, I learned two valuable to read is the same. Of course, adults
principles. The first was to reflect have more experiences, knowledge,
daily on what did and did not work in and vocabulary in some areas, and Reflections
the classroom and to make changes more emotions linked to learning Mary, the woman I was tutoring,
based on those reflections. The failure. Young children, I knew, learn chose to read from her children’s Bible
second was to move from theory through sensory stimulation while story easy reader. Despite practicing
to practice, from practice to theory. interacting with their environment. computer skills for hours and reading
I will examine here how critical This principle guided my decisions as familiar stories repeatedly, she con-
reflection on the Drake Adult I began to design our curriculum. I tinued to make the same decoding
Literacy Center’s practice, and on the wanted adult learners also to have errors. One of her goals was to be able

24 AUGUST 2001 • NCSALL


Focus on
Basics
to spell all her grandchildren’s names adults with dyslexia (defined as addresses lesson planning and gives
so she could write them on each language-based learning disabilities) volunteers practice with the lesson
child’s Christmas presents. For several and is based on Orton-Gillingham plan format. Tutors meet with me
months we practiced and practiced, multisensory principles. First, students occasionally in follow-up seminars
but those names never became auto- learn letter-sound correspondence to continue learning. The Center’s
matic and accurate. Our first year and how letters and sounds combine limited budget precludes formal
together, Mary’s spelling improved in words (phonemic awareness and Wilson training for our tutors, but
phonological processing WRS instructors’ materials give
skills). The WRS 10-part tutors detailed and specific guidance.
“The lack of lesson plan provides both Currently 22 tutors and students are
structure and flexibility to learning together using the Wilson
progress informed us allow students multiple Reading System.
opportunities to build skills
that our learners needed and to receive immediate Informed by the
feedback on their learning.
a different type of Instructional materials also
Learners
give volunteer tutors the During our initial assessment,
instruction.” specifics they need to teach adults are often frustrated when
with confidence. they cannot name the sounds that go
slightly in letters she wrote to her with the letters. While many of our
pen pal, but she was not making learners know most of the consonant
progress toward her goal of learning
A New Practice sounds, no one is able to name all the
to read. She wanted to learn and The Literacy Center Advisory vowel sounds (phonemes) accurately.
worked hard to learn, but my teaching Committee decided that all new They struggle with perceiving sounds
did not help her skills to improve. volunteers would use the WRS to in words: they seem to be in a fog of
During the first year, not one instruct adults with low literacy skills. sound from which they can identify
adult learner had made measurable Although we were not yet proficient few individual phonemes. They also
progress in learning to read. The in the WRS, it met our learners’ are angry that no one ever taught
lack of progress informed us that our needs more than our previous them what they need to know in
learners needed a different type of instruction had. The WRS also gave order to learn to read.
instruction. It was time to find a volunteer tutors a specific structure Most of our adult new readers
better way. and materials they had lacked. (At a have a bank of words they know by
pilot training session for adult literacy sight, but the “little words” give
providers I attended months later, them difficulty. When asked in the
More Theory Barbara Wilson confirmed that this initial assessment to read word lists
I had been searching the National is the way all adult literacy programs beginning with three-letter closed
Institute for Literacy’s electronic dis- begin using Wilson materials. After syllables and progressing to increasingly
cussion lists — covering such topics we had sheepishly
as learning disabilities, Equipped for admitted the we were
the Future, and technology — for
suggestions on improving literacy
“sort of” using the
Wilson Reading
“... they seem to be
instruction. Barbara Guyer, who
works with college students with
System, Barbara told
us, “You start by doing
in a fog of sound from
learning disabilities, wrote “When all as much as you know which they can identify few
else fails, we go to the Wilson.” Since and can do. Then
all else had indeed failed for adults at return to the individual phonemes.”
our Literacy Center, we decided to try instructor’s materials
the Wilson Reading System, (WRS; and refine your skills
Wilson, 1988). With funds donated as you are ready.”) more complex words, many have
by R.R. Donnelley, a publishing Volunteers initially attend three more difficulty with the smallest
corporation with a plant in Des hours of orientation. The first hour words (ship or den versus mascot or
Moines, we bought a Wilson starter and a half session is an overview of pumpkins). The small words have
kit. Our initial expenses were less reading disabilities and how the fewer visual clues from which students
than $500. Wilson Reading System addresses can make their best guess.
WRS is written specifically for those deficits. The second session Many of our learners tell me

NCSALL • AUGUST 2001 25


Focus on
Basics
that they do not know that letters brains of children and adults with with the results of their hard work.
represent the sounds in the words we reading problems do process language When Mary started with the WRS,
speak, or that when you see a letter, differently (Shaywitz, et al. 1998; she didn’t like it because she thought
that letter tells you the sound. During Richards, et al. 2000). A large she already knew the alphabet. “But I
the introductory lesson, most are able proportion of reading failure is the found out I didn’t know the sounds,”
to recognize the individual sounds in result of neurological difficulties that she said. “When my employer left me
three-letter words for the first time. must be addressed directly. a note, I panicked: back to old habits.
As they systematically learn letter- Substantial research indicates that Then I took my time and I read it!”
sound correspondences and how to effective instruction for persons with Jesse, who also attends a center
blend and segment sounds in words, reading deficits should be systematic where he is working on job skills, said,
learners stop relying on the “guess and and intensive, and should involve “At that center they don’t teach me
check” method of reading, and move directly teaching how to recognize the sounds. I need that.”
to the more reliable “see and say” sounds in words and how letters One of our youngest students, a
method. represent sounds (Liberman & 20-year old college student diagnosed
Adults in our Center have shown Shankweiler, 1985;
me that no step in the process of Torgesen et al., 1997).
learning to read comes easily. They Instruction must include
must repeatedly practice each new multisensory approaches,
“... we now have a way
sound, each new combination of
sounds, often for months, before skills
with extensive oppor-
tunities for practice that
to track learner progress,
and concepts become automatic. One allow the learner to attain and learners are making
task in the Wilson lesson is to read 15 automaticity. Instruction
words, three words per line. Learners about word structure and progress.”
must read three words silently, then comprehension must also
return to the beginning of the line be included. The WRS
and read the three words aloud. After contains these necessary components, with learning disabilities, exclaimed,
carefully decoding each word, they and adults respond positively to this “This is productive. Learning is fun.”
often return to the beginning of the instruction. Adult learners are learning to trust what
line and cannot remember the first they know about letters and sounds.
word. These are persons with many Reflections on our Volunteers also are responding
abilities and accomplishments, but positively. “I like the fact that the WRS
they can master holding sounds and Present Practice program is so well organized. It’s a step-
words in short term memory only In contrast to our first, less struc- by-step approach with many helps for
after a multitude of repetitions. tured language experience approach, both the student and tutor,” said one.
we now have a way to track learner Another commented, “I like
Informed by progress, and learners are making the flexibility. My student can move
progress. Every WRS level (Step) is ahead while continuing to review
Research divided into substeps. During each previously learned concepts.”
A year after beginning to use the lesson, the learner reads a list of 15 We continue to refine our
WRS, I enrolled in a research class words and graphs the number of words tutoring skills, and we know that
that was a requirement for my masters read correctly. When the learner easily we are not yet proficient. With
degree in adult education. I began to and consistently reads 14 or 15 out of more training resources, tutor
research the question, “Why do chil- 15 words, he or she moves to the next preparation and support could be
dren fail to learn to read?” Research substep. Every learner in our Center greatly improved. To become more
confirms what I have learned from has progressed through at least several effective, tutors need to be active
our adult learners. The lack of substeps. 13 have moved from step one independent learners. Wilson tutor
phonemic awareness and inability to to step two. Three learners are now materials are clear and explicit, but
manipulate sounds in words, which I in step three and four are in step four volunteers need to spend time reading
see in our adult new readers, is one of (out of a total of 12 steps). Progress is and practicing their skills.
the causes of reading failure (Bradley slow; however, each person is taking
& Bryant, 1983). the time he or she needs to build
These reading deficits are neuro- reading skills. Adult learners in our The Future
logically based and span all levels of program are forming the foundation Our Center’s process of practice
cognitive ability. New brain scanning of skills necessary to become indepen- and praxis continues. Are we
technologies have identified that dent readers, and they are pleased providing the best possible literacy

26 AUGUST 2001 • NCSALL


Focus on
Basics
instruction for adults with language- ■ Fry, E. (1997a). Introductory Word Book.
based learning disabilities? How Chicago, IL: NTC/Contemporary. Focus on Basics
can we improve vocabulary and Electronic Discussion List
■ Fry, E. (1997b). Phonics Patterns.
comprehension development? Chicago, IL: NTC/Contemporary. Focus on Basics electronic
How can we address emotional discussion list is a forum for discussion
■ Liberman, L., & Shankweiler, D.
blocks to help adults create the about the articles published in Focus
(1985). “Phonology and the problems
on Basics. It is a place to converse
conditions for their learning? What of learning to read and write.” Remedial with colleagues about the themes
more can we do that we have not and Special Education, 6, 8-17. examined in the publication; to get
yet discovered? ■ Lyon, R. (1995). “Toward a definition questions answered and to pose
Research clearly identifies the of dyslexia.” Annals of Dyslexia, 45, 3-27. them; to critique issues raised in the
criteria of instruction for children publication; and to share relevant
■ Perfetti, C.A., & Marron, M.A.
with reading disabilities, and has (1995). “Learning to read: Literacy
experiences and resources.
measured the effectiveness of this To participate in the Focus on
acquisition by children and adults.”
instruction. However, I have found Basics discussion list (it’s free!), go to
National Center on Adult Literacy,
no research that measures the the LINCS homepage at http://nifl.gov.
Technical Report TR95-07.
Choose “Discussions.” Scroll down to
effectiveness of reading instruction ■ Read, C., & Ruyter, L. (1985). and click on “Focus on Basics.” Then
for adults with low literacy skills. I “Reading and spelling skills in adults of click on“Subscribe,” which is to
want to know if we are doing all we low literacy.” Remedial and Special the left, and follow the instructions.
can to give our learners the most Education, 6, 43-52. Or, send an e-mail message to
effective instruction. I have begun ■ Richards, T., Corina, D., Serafini, S., LISTPROC@LITERACY.NIFL.GOV
my own research to measure the Steury, K., Echelard, D., Dager, S., with the following request in the body
impact on adults’ reading skills of Marro, K., Abbott, R., Maravilla, K., & of the message: SUBSCRIBE NIFL–
direct, systematic instruction in Berninger, V. (2000). “The effects of a FOBasics firstname lastname. Spell
phonological processing skills by phonologically-driven treatment for your first and last names exactly as
you would like them to appear. For
volunteer tutors using the Wilson dyslexia on lactate levels as measured
example, Sue Smith would type:
Reading System. by proton MRSI.” American Journal of
subscribe NIFL–FOBasics Sue Smith
Research informs our practice Neuroradiology, 21, 916-922
There should be no other text
in the one-to-one tutoring setting ■ Shaywitz, S., Shaywitz, B., Pugh, K., in the message. Give it a couple of
with adults. Individuals in the Adult Fulbright, R., Constable, R.T., Mencl, minutes to respond. You should
Literacy Center also instruct me about W.E., Shankweiler, D., Liberman, A., receive a return mail message
their needs and the challenges of Skudlarski, P., Fletcher, J., Katz, L., welcoming you to NIFL–FOBasics.
remediating their reading difficulties. Marchione, K., Lacadie, C., Gatenby, The manager of this list is
C., & Gore, J. (1998). “Functional Barbara Garner, editor of Focus on
What will the next adult learner
disruption in the organization of the Basics. She can be reached at
teach me and how will that inform
brain for reading in dyslexia.” Barbara_Garner@WorldEd.org. Please
our practice? Together, we move from Neurobiology, 95, 2636-2641. DO NOT send subscription requests
theory to practice, practice to theory, to this address.❖
■ Torgesen, J.K., Wagner, R.K., &
in the continuing process of
Rashotte, C.A. (1997). “Prevention
reflection and learning.
and remediation of severe reading
disabilities: Keeping the end in mind.” Editorial Board
References Journal of Scientific Studies of Reading, 3, Volume 5A
217-234. August 2001
■ Autoskill (1998). Ottawa, Ontario:
Academy of Reading. ■ Wilson, B. (1988). The Wilson Reading Melva Abdullah, State Education
System. Milford, MA: Wilson Language Agency, Washington, DC
■ Bell, L., & Perfetti, C. (1994). Training Corp.
“Reading skill: Some adult Miriam Burt, Center for Applied
comparisons.” Journal of Educational Linguistics, Washington, DC
Psychology, 86, 244-255. About the Author David Coccari, Regional Educational
■ Bradley, L., & Bryant, P.E. (1983). Service Agency, Summersville, WV
Anne Murr has been coordinating the
“Categorizing sounds and learning to Drake University Adult Literacy Center, Sam Gordenstein, World Education,
read—a causal connection.” Nature, Des Moines, Iowa, since May, 1998. She Boston, MA
301, 419-421. has a degree in elementary and early Nora Manzanares, State Department
■ Byrne, B., & Ledez, J. (1983). childhood education and taught Head of Education, Santa Fe, NM
“Phonological awareness in reading- Start for six years. She has completed
Jessica Mortensen, World Education,
disabled adults.” Australian Journal of course work for a masters degree in adult Boston, MA
Psychology, 35, 185-197. education.❖

NCSALL • AUGUST 2001 27


Focus on
Basics
the particular instructional approaches
Teaching Reading to that are associated with reading
improvement in adults. To address this
First-Level Adults gap, the US DOE funded two national
studies on reading for adults: the
Evaluation of Effective Adult Basic
Emerging Trends in Research and Practice Education Programs and Practices,
conducted by the research firm Abt
by Judith A. Alamprese Associates Inc.; and the What Works
Study of Adult English as a Second

R
eading has always ABE practitioners’ concerns Language Programs, undertaken by
center on teaching reading to first- the American Institutes for Research.
been a fundamental level learners, generally are defined The National Center for the Study
concept taught in as those scoring at a 0 to 6th grade of Adult Learning and Literacy
adult basic education (ABE). equivalent on a standardized reading (NCSALL) is also studying the
The methods and contexts test or at Level 1 on the National instructional strengths and needs in
Adult Literacy Survey. First-level reading of adults enrolled in ABE and
for reading instruction, how- adults enter ABE programs with a English for speakers of other languages
ever, have varied over time range of reading skills. This variation (ESOL) classes.
according to practitioners’ in abilities sometimes poses challenges
for instructors. The enrollment of
theoretical perspectives and
first-level learners in ABE programs
Key Issues
belief systems about the remains constant: about 17 percent Although not based on research
reading process. For example, of those participating in programs on adults, the syntheses presented in
the teaching of reading often funded under the Adult Education the report prepared by the National
and Family Literacy Act (US Reading Panel (2000) provide a useful
has been imbedded in in- perspective for understanding key
Department of Education, 1999).
structional content rather ABE practitioners have voiced a issues in reading instruction. Taking
than addressed as a discrete desire to learn about effective into account the work undertaken by
skill. Because of the variations instructional methods for them. the National Research Council
Furthermore, as states implement the Committee — Preventing Reading
in instructional approach, it Difficulties in Young Children (Snow,
National Reporting System for ABE
sometimes has been difficult accountability, ABE staff at all levels Burns, & Griffin, 1998) — National
to discern the extent to which have a need to understand the amount Reading Panel research syntheses
reading is being taught in of improvement it is reasonable to examined how critical reading skills
expect from a first-level learner over are most effectively taught and the
ABE programs. instructional methods, materials,
a specified time. All of these circum-
The past five years have witnessed stances have led to the teaching of and approaches most beneficial for
a national call to improve the teaching reading emerging as critical topic students of varying abilities. The
of reading in elementary education. in ABE, particularly as a focus for Panel examined three topics in
Reading is now a priority in key staff development and program reading: alphabetics (phonemic aware-
education legislation, such as the improvement. ness and phonics instruction), fluency,
Reading Excellence Act and Title 1 and comprehension (including both
of the Elementary and Secondary vocabulary and text comprehension
Education Act. It has been the sub- Emerging Research instruction). The implications of the
ject of research syntheses sponsored Panel’s report for teaching adults are
by the US Department of Health and on Adult Reading that direct instruction on these topics
Human Service’s National Institute on The literature on teaching may be beneficial to first-level adult
Child Health and Human Develop- reading to children is extensive, but learners, and that teachers must
ment in conjunction with the US few national studies have examined understand adults’ relative strengths
Department of Education (DOE). effective strategies for reading in these areas prior to beginning
Reading instruction is also one of the instruction with adults. Most studies instruction. A recent review of the
key areas under program quality in on adult reading have been small in literature on adult reading research
the Adult Education and Family scale and descriptive in design. As a (Venezky et al., 1998) supports
Literacy Act (AEFLA) of 1998. result, few empirical data exist about these findings.

28 AUGUST 2001 • NCSALL


Focus on
Basics
examining ABE programs serving to foster participation.
Questions for ABE English-speaking, first-level learners In selecting ABE programs
The emerging research on K-12 in reading classes across the country. and classes for our study, we are
reading raises issues for teaching first- Our study is also investigating factors targeting programs offering reading
level adult learners. Will adults be that may be associated with learners’ instruction that is organized
receptive to being taught with a direct improvement: their personal and structured and taught by
instruction method? How much background and prior experience in individuals with training and or
emphasis should be placed on each of education and work; the amount that extensive experience in reading
the key reading areas? How can adult they participate in instruction; the instruction. Since prior research
text materials be incorporated into type of reading instruction that they (e.g., Young et al., 1994) has
instruction focused on these reading receive; and the characteristics of the indicated that instruction in ABE
ABE program in which often is not organized or systematic
“Our intent is to they participate. and thus may not contribute to
While learners’ learner outcomes, our approach
develop a better under- background and amount has been to exclude programs that
standing of the ways in of the instruction they
receive are factors often
would not provide a good test of
the study’s questions. We also
which ABE programs can examined in research, want to determine the extent to
the operation of an which teachers’ prior experience or
both organize reading ABE program is a new training contributes to learners’
instruction and provide the area of inquiry. We are growth.
attempting to address In our initial analyses of five
resources to foster the gaps of previous ABE programs, we found structured,
participation.” studies of adult
education programs,
organized classes where reading is
taught explicitly and includes
for example, National activities aimed at developing
areas? These questions and others Evaluation of the Adult Education phonemic awareness as well as
concern instructors as they consider Program (Young, et al., 1994), the fluency and comprehension. The
using research in refining their Evaluation of the Even Start Program amount of time spent on these topics
practice. One source of forthcoming (St. Pierre et al., 1995), and the varies with the level of the learners.
information about these questions is Evaluation of the National Workplace Classes for learners at the 0 to 3rd
Abt Associates’ study of reading Literacy Program (Moore et al., 1998). grade equivalent level spend more
instruction for first-level learners, These examined the impact of ABE time on phonemic awareness and
which is attempting to answer two programs but did not develop in-depth phonics than classes for learners
critical questions: enough information that allows us at the 4th to 6th grade equivalent
■ How much do first-level adult to understand the instructional and level. The instructional content
learners who participate in ABE organizational approaches that local moves in a sequence. An attempt is
programs improve their reading ABE programs use to administer ser- made to build vocabulary with words
skills and reading-related behaviors vices and produce learner outcomes. from the text used in developing
after participation? Our assumption is that while reading comprehension. Reading
■ How are adults’ personal charac- quality instruction may be necessary passages used in comprehension
teristics, as well as the operational for learners to improve, it may not be exercises are selected for high rele-
and instructional characteristics sufficient to address all of the needs vance to adults and are appropriate
of ABE programs, related to the that adult learners bring to the for the learner’s reading level.
amount of improvement in reading instructional setting. We are studying Observations of classes indicate
skills or reading-related behaviors the instructional leadership that that instructors monitor learners by
among first-level learners? programs provide, the background moving around the room to make
and experience of instructors, the sure that they are on task and pro-
Studying Direct types of learner assessment that are viding feedback by correcting a
used, and the support services that mistake when it is made. Teachers
Instruction programs provide to learners. Our foster high learner engagement by
We are attempting to answer the intent is to develop a better under- involving all participants in the
fundamental question of whether standing of the ways in which ABE class, by having learners take turns
adults improve their reading skills as a programs can both organize reading working at the board to complete
result of attending ABE programs by instruction and provide the resources exercises, and by encouraging all

NCSALL • AUGUST 2001 29


Focus on
Basics
learners’ participation in discussion. by the reading programs noted interested in offering group-based
To provide opportunities for above, as well as commercially instruction.
learners to practice the knowledge produced materials, artifacts such as
and skills that they are learning, the newspaper, and exercises they References
teachers use exercises to guide create. The classes are based on a ■ Alamprese, J. A. (2001). Strategies for
learners in developing their reading predetermined set of activities that Teaching Reading to First-Level ABE
skills. They use a variety of learning may vary depending on learners’ pace Learners. Presented at the 2001
modalities, including oral reading, the and progress (Alamprese, 2001). Commission on Adult Basic Education
completion of exercises on the board, (COABE) Conference, Memphis, TN.
and group recitation. They also have
learners complete out-of-class assign-
Learners’ ■ Moore, M.T., Myers, D., & Silva, T.,
with assistance from Judy A. Alamprese
ments. Instructors gives concrete Perspectives (1998). Addressing Literacy Needs at
feedback; offer verbal praise when a Adults participating in the study Work Implementation and Impact of
learner gives a correct response or Workplace Literacy Programs: Final
are asked to describe which aspects of
demonstrates initiative; encourage Report. Washington, DC: Mathematica
the instructional process facilitate or Policy Research Inc.
self-monitoring by pointing out impede their learning as well as their
specific strategies; and elicit verbal perceptions of their experience in ■ National Reading Panel (2000).
praise from other learners. In Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-
the ABE program. Participants in
addition, teachers attempt to involve Based Assessment of the Scientific Research
the first group of five ABE programs Literature and Its Implications for Reading
all participants by asking frequent have cited the pace and structure of Instruction. Bethesda, MD: National
questions, calling on learners by teaching, the repetition of content, Institute on Child Health and Human
name, having learners take turns in the feedback provided to them, and Development.
oral reading, providing responses to instructors’ personal interest in their
learners’ written exercises, asking ■ Snow, C.E., Burns, S.M., & Griffin, P.
well-being as important factors (eds.). (1998). Preventing Reading
learners to volunteer to participate affecting their learning. These adults Difficulties in Young Children.
in class exercises, and providing also have a high rate of attendance Washington, DC: National Academy
opportunities for learners to ask (67 percent), and many have enrolled Press.
questions in class. in more than one term or semester in ■ St. Pierre, R., Swartz, J., Gamse, B.,
The instructors organize their the program. Overall, they assess their Murray, S., & Deck, D. (1995). National
reading instruction into a series of experience in the reading classes as Evaluation of the Even Start Family
exercises or activities. They have an positive, productive, and motivating Literacy Program: Final Report
overall plan for the semester, term, or (Alamprese, 2001). Cambridge, MA: Abt Associates Inc.
session, and their instructional activ-
■ US Department of Education (1999).
ities follow a sequence based on the
reading framework that they are Conclusion Adult Education: Human Investment
Impact,1994-1998. Washington, DC:
using. Those who have been trained The instructional methods used US Department of Education.
in reading instructional approaches by teachers in the first group of
■ Venezky, R., Oney, B., Sabatini, J., &
such as the Slingerland Approach, programs in this study are consistent Richa, J. (1998). Teaching Adults to Read
the Wilson Reading System, and with the research reported by the and Write: A Research Synthesis.
the Lindamood-Bell Learning Process National Reading Panel and the Bethesda, MD: Abt Associates, Inc.
are likely to adapt lesson plans these synthesis of reading produced by
■ Young, M.B., Morgan, M., Fitzgerald,
training programs provide. Other Venezky and colleagues. Since the N., & Fleischman, H. (1994). National
ABE teachers create their own lesson data collection is not yet complete, an Evaluation of Adult Education Programs:
plans, which include instruction on analysis of the relationship between Draft Final Report. Arlington, VA:
the reading components (e.g., word these methods and learners’ capacity Development Associates.
analysis and word recognition, to improve their reading skills is not
vocabulary development, compre- yet available. The study is scheduled
About the Author
hension development) in various for completion in 2002, when the
amounts of time and sequence. final results will be available. In Judith A. Alamprese is an educational
researcher with Abt Associates, in
The emphasis on any one reading the interim, however, the trends in
Washington, DC. She has worked closely
component depends on learners’ instruction that are being documented with many states, including Connecticut
reading level and specific instruc- in the study offer some insight into and Pennsylvania, on adult education
tional needs. In carrying out these current reading instructional practices change initiatives, and has conducted a
lessons, instructors use a variety of that are of interest to teachers serving variety of studies of ABE over the past
materials, including those produced first-level learners and who are 15 years.❖

30 AUGUST 2001 • NCSALL


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Resources on available for $49.95 plus shipping Contact


and handling from Farnsworth’s
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Practitioners Serving Adults with ■ http://www.ldonline.org is a Main Street, Millbury, MA 01527-
Learning Disabilities (1999). service of The Learning Project at 1441; telephone (508) 865-5699;
Funded and supported by the WETA, Washington, DC., in fax (508) 865-9644.
National Institute for Literacy, this association with The Coordinated
resource consists of five guidebooks Campaign for Learning ■ The Orton-Gillingham Program,
and a video designed for use by Disabilities. While it focuses Academy of Orton-Gillingham, P.O.
literacy programs to enhance the primarily on kids, it also has useful Box 234, Amenia, NY 12051-0234;
quality of services provided to information relative to adults. telephone (845) 373-8919.
adults with learning disabilities.
Each guidebook covers a different ■ http://www.cast.org/bobby/, or ■ LiPS- Phoneme Sequencing
topic: understanding learning “Bobby,” is a free Web-based tool Program, Lindamood-Bell San Luis
disabilities, legal issues related to that analyzes web pages for their Obispo, 416 Higuera Street, San
adult with learning disabilities, accessibility to people with Luis Obispo, CA 93401; telephone
systems and program change, disabilities. It also analyzes web (800) 233-1819; fax (805) 541-8756.
resources, the assessment process, pages for compatibility with
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Published in
For more information, visit the accessible sites, online discussion, Focus on Basics
NIFL web site (http://slincs. and other information.
coe.utk.edu/special_collections/ ■ Accommodating Math Students
learning_disabilities/) or phone the with Learning Disabilities
■ http://slincs.coe.utk.edu/special_ Rochelle Kenyon
Academy for Educational Develop-
collections/learning_disabilities/ (Volume 4, Issue B, September 2000)
ment, which distributes the
includes resources on learning
publication: (202) 884-8186.
disabilities for teachers, learners, ■ Beginning Math for Beginning
and administrators. It is part of the Readers
■ Teaching Adults Who Learn
National Institute for Literacy’s Linda Huntington
Differently, An Extensive Guide
LINCS system, a national electronic (Volume 4, Issue B, September 2000)
for Literacy Teachers and Tutors
information and communication
(2000) by L. Skinner, P. Gillespie,
system for adult literacy. ■ Seven Easy Pieces
& L. Balkam, is published by
Red Van Publishers and includes Shirley Brod
teaching and intervention strategies, ■ An electronic discussion list on (Volume 3, Issue D, December 1999)
information on language structure learning disabilities is maintained
and learning differences, teaching by LINCS http://www.nifl.gov/lincs/ ■ Reading
tips, and sample lessons. It is discussions/discussions.html. (Volume 1, Issue B, May 1997)

NCSALL • AUGUST 2001 31


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All About and Literacy — Volume 2 (March 2001). four issues each year and encourage

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