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Technical guide
Road drainage
The Technical Department for Transport, Roads and Bridges Engineering and Road Safety (Service d'tudes techniques des routes et autoroutes - Stra) is a technical department within the Ministry of Transport and Infrastructure. Its field of activities is the road, the transportation and the engineering structures. The Stra supports the public owner The Stra supplies State agencies and local communities (counties, large cities and urban communities) with informations, methodologies and tools suited to the specificities of the networks in order to: improve the projects quality; help with the asset management; define, apply and evaluate the public policies; guarantee the coherence of the road network and state of the art; put forward the public interests, in particular within the framework of European standardization; bring an expertise on complex projects. The Stra, producer of the state of the art Within a very large scale, beyond the road and engineering structures, in the field of transport, intermodality, sustainable development, the Stra: takes into account the needs of project owners and prime contractors, managers and operators; fosters the exchanges of experience; evaluates technical progress and the scientific results; develops knowledge and good practices through technical guides, softwares; contributes to the training and information of the technical community. The Stra, a work in partnership The Stra associates all the players of the French road community to its action: operational services; research organizations; Scientific and Technical Network (Rseau Scientifique et Technique de l'Equipement RST), in particular the Public Works Regional Engineering Offices (Centres d'tudes techniques de l'Equipement CETE), companies and professional organizations; motorway concessionary operators; other organizations such as French Rail Network Company (Rseau Ferr de France RFF) and French Waterways Network (Voies Navigables de France VNF); Departments like the department for Ecology and Sustainable Development The Stra regularly exchanges its experience and projects with its foreign counterparts, through bilateral co-operations, presentations in conferences and congresses, by welcoming delegations, through missions and expertises in other countries. It takes part in the European standardization commissions and many authorities and international working groups. The Stra is an organization for technical approval, as an EOTA member (European Organization for Technical Approvals).
Technical guide
Road drainage
This document is the translation of the work "Drainage routier" published in March 2006 under the reference 0605.
This Road Drainage guide has been written by a working group, including: Marie-Odile Cavaills (Stra) Yasmina Boussafir (CETE Normandie-Centre - LRPC Blois) Marc Valin (CETE Nord-Picardie) Francis Van laethem (CETE Nord-Picardie - LRPC Lille) The team has relied heavily on the in-depth work carried out in 1997 by: - Jean-Louis Paute (CETE de LOuest - LRPC Saint-Brieuc), with inputs from: - Yves Arnaud (CETE de Lyon - LRPC Clermont-Ferrand), - Jean-Louis Aussedat (Scetauroute), - Vronique Berche (CETE Normandie-Centre - LRPC Saint-Quentin), - Patrice Bioche (CETE de LOuest - LRPC Angers), - Pierre-Yves Bot (DDE du Morbihan), - Didier Giloppe (CETE Normandie-Centre), - Herv Havard (LCPC), - Alain Quibel (CETE Normandie-Centre).
Notes on reading the guide - Bibliographical references: the numbers in square brackets [ ] in the text relate to the documents listed in the bibliography in Appendix 5 - The abbreviations encountered in the text are explained in Appendix 6.1 - References to the glossary: words or expressions marked by * in the text relate to terms explained in Appendix 6.2
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Contents
The Stra supports the public owner ............................................................................2 The Stra, producer of the state of the art....................................................................2 The Stra, a work in partnership..................................................................................2
Contents..................................................................................................................... 5 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 10 Chapter 1................................................................................................................. 11 1 - General notions about drainage ...................................................................... 11 1.1 - Definition of drainage .................................................................................... 12 1.2 - Criteria to be considering during a drainage study.................................... 14 1.2.1 - When is drainage necessary? .................................................................... 14 1.2.2 - Climatic or meteorological context........................................................... 15 1.2.3 - Hydrogeological context (see Appendix 1)............................................... 17 1.2.4 - Type of subgrades and pavement courses................................................. 19 1.2.5 - Unusual pavement points .......................................................................... 19 1.3 - Effects of drainage on the environment ....................................................... 21 Chapter 2................................................................................................................. 22 2 - Drainage in a new road project ....................................................................... 22 2.1 - General dimensioning rules .......................................................................... 23 2.1.1 - Designing the drainage project.................................................................. 23 2.1.2 - Optimizing the road project layout ........................................................... 23 2.1.3 - Subsequent maintenance and repair .......................................................... 23 2.1.4 - Geometric characteristics of drainage systems ......................................... 23 2.1.5 - Rules for evacuating drainage water ......................................................... 24 2.1.6 - Environmental impacts.............................................................................. 25
Impact on water..........................................................................................................25 Waste management.....................................................................................................25
2.2 - Earthworks ..................................................................................................... 28 2.2.1 - Site capacity and traffic............................................................................. 28 2.2.2 - Improvement in the hydric state of soils to be re-used; ............................ 30 2.2.3 - Interception of water ingress in cut........................................................... 31
Generalized water ingress and bank stabilization .....................................................31 Random water ingress ................................................................................................31 Unpredictable random water ingress.........................................................................31
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2.3 - Pavement formation levels ............................................................................ 35 2.3.1. - Subformation (below capping level) (PST): ............................................ 35
PST (Subformation (below capping level)) classification and improvement .............35 Treatment of singular points in the longitudinal section............................................40
2.3.2 - Capping layer ............................................................................................ 42 2.4 - Pavement......................................................................................................... 44 2.4.1 - Drainage systems in pavement courses..................................................... 44 2.4.2 - Drainage systems at singular points.......................................................... 47
Shoulder and emergency hard shoulder (BAU) .........................................................47 Median........................................................................................................................47 Dividing island, directional island and obstacle island .............................................47 Roundabout ................................................................................................................47
Chapter 3................................................................................................................. 48 3 - Drainage of an existing pavement ................................................................... 48 3.1 - Types of disorder encountered in pavements.............................................. 49 3.1.1 - Flexible pavements.................................................................................... 49 3.1.2 - Rigid or semi-rigid pavements .................................................................. 50 3.1.3 - Cement concrete pavements...................................................................... 50 3.1.4 - Bituminous material courses ..................................................................... 50 3.1.5 - Modular material pavements (paving blocks and slabs) ........................... 50 3.1.6 - List of singular pavement points with respect to drainage........................ 50 3.2 - Analysis ........................................................................................................... 52 3.2.1 - Compiling information.............................................................................. 52 3.2.2 - Putting the analysis together ..................................................................... 54
Marking systems .........................................................................................................54 Table interpretation....................................................................................................54 Decision model ...........................................................................................................55
3.3 - Definition of work solutions .......................................................................... 56 3.4 - Dimensioning or assessment of flow rates to be drained through the old pavement .................................................................................................................................. 56 Chapter 4................................................................................................................. 58 4 - Characteristics of drainage systems and of materials used in them ............ 58 4.1 - Drainage structures and systems.................................................................. 59 4.1.1 - Deep ditches .............................................................................................. 60
Objective.....................................................................................................................60 Standard schemes .......................................................................................................60 Operating method.......................................................................................................62
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Chapter 5................................................................................................................. 96 5 - Execution of work, application of quality assurance, completion of drainage work, operation and maintenance ................................................................................... 96 5.1 - Execution of drainage work .......................................................................... 97 5.1.1 - Execution of work ..................................................................................... 97
Optimum work period.................................................................................................97 Managing interfaces...................................................................................................97
5.1.3 - Checks ..................................................................................................... 100 5.2 - Application of quality assurance in the drainage work............................ 101 5.2.1 - Quality Assurance Plan Organizational Scheme (SOPAQ).................... 101 5.2.2 - Site-specific Quality Assurance Plan (PAQ) .......................................... 101 5.2.3 - Quality Master Plan (SDQ) ................................................................... 103 5.3 - Completion of drainage work ..................................................................... 104 5.3.1 - Acceptance .............................................................................................. 104 5.3.2 - Handover of as-built drawing.................................................................. 104 5.4 - Drainage system operation and maintenance............................................ 104 5.4.1 - Inspection of structure with as-built drawing.......................................... 104 5.4.2 - Establishment of the zero point in the absence of an as-built drawing... 104 5.4.3 - Maintenance and repair work ................................................................ 105
Monitoring................................................................................................................105 Repairs and repair frequency...................................................................................105
Appendices ............................................................................................................ 106 Appendix 1 - Special hydrogeological* studies.................................................. 107 G11 mission, preliminary feasibility study ........................................................ 107 G12 standard mission, geotechnical* feasibility study ...................................... 107 G2 standard mission, geotechnical* feasibility study ........................................ 107
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Appendix 2 - Improvement in hydric conditions of materials ......................... 108 Appendix 3 - Assessment of flow rates to be drained........................................ 110 3.1 - Through subgrades ..................................................................................... 110 3.2 - Through the pavement................................................................................ 112
3.2.1 - Diffuse infiltrations via the surface courses..................................................112 3.2.2 - Infiltration through the cracks (see Diagram 45) .........................................114 Sample estimation of a drainage system dimensioning. ..........................................................115 Checking the utility of draining ...............................................................................................115
Appendix 4 - Elements to establish the special technical clauses (CCTP) ...... 116 1 - Description of work to be carried out ........................................................... 116
1.1 - Localization of work.........................................................................................116 1.2 - General description of work reserved for the contractor ................................116 1.3 - Work not included in the contract....................................................................116
1.4 - References to drawings extracted from the capital investment project...... 116 2 - Quality assurance .......................................................................................... 116 3 - Material, product and component specifications .......................................... 116
3.1 - Required characteristics of drainage systems..................................................116 3.2 - Materials for earthworks and backfill..............................................................116 3.3 - Ancillary structures..........................................................................................117
4 - Work execution method (example for cutoff drains and EDRC) ................. 117
4.1 - Specifications on installation and setting out of systems .................................117 4.2. - Acceptance and storage of supplies and materials .........................................117 4.3 - Trench execution method .................................................................................117 4.4 - Laying specifications........................................................................................117 4.5 - Compacting specifications ...............................................................................117 4.6 - Dealing with singular points............................................................................117 4.7 - Installing inspection chambers, connections to outlets....................................117 4.8 - Ancillary work..................................................................................................117 4.9 - Using the road during the work .......................................................................118
Appendix 5 - Bibliography .................................................................................. 118 Standards: ........................................................................................................... 118 Technical documents:......................................................................................... 118 For information:.................................................................................................. 119 Appendix 6 - Abbreviations and glossary .......................................................... 120 6.1 - Abbreviations ............................................................................................. 120 6.2 - Glossary...................................................................................................... 120
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Introduction
Varying amounts of water are found in the road environment, be it in the cut and fill banks, inside the pavement itself or in the underlying soils or adjacent shoulders. A well-drained pavement has better mechanical behavior in a subgrade whose bearing capacity is also improved. The result of pavement and formation levels containing less water throughout the climatic cycles is a considerable increase in pavement lifetime, less frequent maintenance sequences and effective protection against the highly-damaging effects of freezing and thawing phenomena. The terms "draining" and "drainage" are used to describe both the evacuation of run-off water and the elimination of subsurface water. To avoid any confusion in the purpose and design of systems, clear distinction is made between the specific functions of internal pavement draining systems and surface drainage, as indicated in Chapter 1.
This guide is the first methods document on road drainage to encourage taking drainage needs in road works systematically in account. It suggests solutions based on the type of structure, siting, dimensioning and maintenance for new road projects, including earthworks and for existing pavements. This document is intended for Project Engineers and Clients, managers, Design Offices and public works contractors involved in studying, creating and maintaining road drainage.
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Prcipitations Ruissellement Foss de crte Evacuation Infiltrations dans la structure DEBLAI Infiltrations REMBLAI
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Rainfall Run off Ditch on crest Evacuation Infiltrations in the structure CUT Infiltrations FILL
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Drainage chausse Drainage terrassement selon contexte hydrogologique Drainage commun chausse + terrain Equilibre avec une nappe ventuelle Remontes capillaires Nappe ou circulation d'eau sous-jacente
Pavement drainage Earthworks drainage depending on hydrogeological context Common pavement + ground drainage Equilibrium with any water table Capillary rises Water table or underlying water circulation
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Ruissellements Run off Dblai Cut Contexte climatique Climatic context Indice d'humidit Humidity index Intensit du gel Frost intensity Vgtation Vegetation Couche de chausse Pavement course Sols support Subgrades Gel Frost Equilibre avec une nappe ventuelle Equilibrium with any water table Remblai Fill Nature des sols support et couches de Type of subgrades and pavement courses chausses Contexte hydrogologique Hydrogeological context Nappes, zones humides, sources Water tables, wetlands, springs
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Map 1: humidity distribution in France. Map based on Mto France study [16]. The value of climatic indices on a particular site may be calculated more accurately when neighboring meteorological readings are available. However, this greater accuracy can only be illusory, as the climate at a given point undergoes major fluctuations and is not reproduced identically every year.
Lgende Key trs humides avec de fortes variations very humid with major seasonal variations saisonnires
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humide avec de fortes variations saisonnires sche avec de fortes variations saisonnires trs humide avec variations saisonnires modres sche avec variations saisonnires modres trs humide sans variations saisonnires
humid with major seasonal variations dry with major seasonal variations very humid with moderate seasonal variations dry with moderate seasonal variations very humid with no seasonal variations
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In conclusion, drainage is necessary in the majority of cases, except for dry zones with moderate seasonal variations (southern Corsica, part of the Bouches-du-Rhne and part of Alsace (see map 1).
Map 2: variation of atmospheric frost index*. Map based on Mto France study [16]. I 250 : regions marked by long winters with low temperatures (frost). The frost front penetrates in depth in the soil, hence damage during the thaw. 100 I 250 : regions where the temperature fluctuates around 0C. Some years the frostthaw cycles can affect the road foundation materials. I < 100 : regions marked by mild winters. Moderate frosts only have an
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Photo 1: water accumulated in the central island exists by the lowest point and flows onto the pavement. (Photo CETE Normandie - Centre/LRPC Blois)
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There are three stages in a new road project: the earthworks; the formation levels (upper earthworks and capping layer); the pavements. This chapter gives the general dimensioning rules and describes the draining requirements and specific dimensioning rules for each stage.
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- "1.1.0. Sounding, borehole, building of shaft or underground structure not intended for domestic use, created for the purposes of research or monitoring or groundwaters or for temporary or permanent sampling in the groundwaters, including in the water course water tables D".
- "1.1.1. Permanent or temporary samples taken from a borehole, shaft or underground structure in an aquifer system excluding water course water tables by pumping, draining, diversion or any other process: 1. Total, Reminder: creating a drainage network alters the water maximum capacity of sampling facilities greater content in the surrounding soils and diverts or interrupts than or equal to 80 m3/hour A underground flows. These disturbances modify the site ecology. These headings are designed to protect and 2. Total, maximum capacity of sampling preserve groundwater bodies which are potentially major, facilities greater than 8 m3/hour but less than 80 fragile water resources. Similarly, protecting wetlands is a m3/h. D national priority (environments with huge diversity and ecological wealth). It is therefore important to prevent or - 4.1.0. Drying, priming, surface sealing, filling limit their degradation. of wetlands and marshes, the dried or primed Overall, drainage culminates in water originating from zone being: varying points of the land being concentrated towards the outlet. Water inputs are therefore greatly increased at a 1. Greater than or equal to 1 ha A given point and there is no harm in assessing this action particularly in sensitive ground to avoid disorders 2. Greater than 0.1 ha but less than 1 ha D" appearing downstream. - 4.2.0*. Creation of drainage networks to drain Ideally, the discharge point chosen or found on the site is a surface area of: a natural, already-existing flow zone, with no sign of disorder and capable of absorbing the drained water. 1. Greater than or equal to 100 ha A It is also useful to channel the drainage water from the outlet to the natural receiving flow for a few meters to 2. Greater than 20 ha but less than 100 ha D prevent in particular problems of erosion or the effect of - 4.3.0. Structures, installations, works allowing natural deposits. full water sampling in a zone where constant In the event of accidental pollution, the manager must quantitative distribution measurements, in monitor the outlets and discharge points. particular under Article 8-2 of the Law of 3 January 1992 on water, have provided for the Waste management lowering of thresholds: This involves materials extracted during work which in an 3 ideal scenario will be re-used. Excess cuts from the site 1. Capacity greater than or equal to 8 m /hour A footprint must be evacuated in accordance with the Waste Evacuation and Management Organization Scheme 2. In other cases D" SOGED (see CCTP type earthworks).
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Diagram 3: water table flow rates according to soil permeability Diagram 4: flow rates according to the permeability of the for a trench side and a length of 100 m medium, the depth of the water table and the drawdown.
Diagram 3 Dbits en l'heure pour 100 ml Epaisseur de la nappe Diamtre drain rabattement Permabilit des sols en m/s Diagram 4 Dbits Rabattement Aquifre Epaisseur de la nappe Impermable
Diagram 3 Flow rates in one hour for 100 ml Water table thickness Drain diameter drawdown Soil permeability in m/s Diagram 4 Flow rates Drawdown Aquifer Water table thickness Impermeable
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Pavement drainage
(see Appendix 3.2 Assessment of flow rates to be drained through the pavement). FT : transverse crack PL : longitudinal crack P : rainfall
Diagram 5: schematic diagram of the various types of flow rates under pavements and shoulder. Qe, through the surface course; Qft, via the transverse cracks and Qfl via the longitudinal cracks; Qr, at the pavement-shoulder interface; Qa, corresponding to inputs from the shoulder and the lateral catchment area; Qi flow rates transiting at the interfaces; Qs flow rates feeding the subgrade.
The estimation by excess of the infiltration water flow rate is given by the sum: Q = Qe + Qfl + Qft + Qr + Qa
New or repaired pavement Minimum assessed flow rate Maximum assessed flow rate Theoretical maximum flow rate(1)
Designation
Qe Qfl
Flow rate resulting from the permeability of the asphalt (changing with age and t ) Flow rate proportional to the number of transverse cracks and their opening Flow rate proportional to the number of longitudinal cracks (including Qr axis and edge) and their opening Flow rate proportional to the permeability of the shoulder materials Total flow rate evacuated by the pavement per linear meter Total flow rate evacuated by the pavement per 100 linear meters
Qfl
1.00 l/h
15 l/h
150 l/h
Qa
Table 1: assessment of infiltration water flow rates. (1) this scenario assumes that all the water from falling rain infiltrates a half-pavement of 3.50 m
The flow rate assessment culminates in a range of 400 to 6,000 l/h for 100 linear meters; for new and repaired pavements the use of drains or drainage systems equivalent to 100 to 150 mm should suffice.
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2.2 - Earthworks
In the earthworks phase, the difficulties (machine progress, compacting, roadbed and bank stability) more often than not relate to excessive water. It is therefore obviously a distinct advantage to carry out this phase in dry periods. Drainage in this phase can in part remedy the difficulties encountered, but when this need for drainage appears during the work phase and has not been scheduled in the project it is frequently too late to take effective action: the improvement actions will have a bearing on costs and timescales. Drainage hypotheses should therefore be defined accurately during project design in conjunction with meteorological and hydrogeological forecasts for the site (see chapter 1-2 Criteria to be considered during a drainage study and Diagram 6). The following objectives are pursued with drainage techniques during this work phase: 1 - Site bearing capacity and traffic; 2 - Improvement in the hydric state of materials to be extracted; 3 - Interception of water ingress in cut; 4 - Interception of water ingress in fill (stabilization of cutting banks and sometimes natural slopes).
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Diagram 6: the three main causes of a need for drainage in the earthworks phase
Mtorologie dfavorable Circulation d'eau libre (zones humides, nappe phratique) en surface ou dans un dblai BESOIN DE DRAINAGE Matriaux en tats hydriques humides
Unfavourable meteorology Free water circulation (wetlands, water table) on the surface or in a cut NEED FOR DRAINAGE Materials in humid hydric states
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Disadvantages
Generates cut materials for evacuation or storage. Site safety organization (restricted access, signaling, suitable bank slope, etc.) Reduction in overall volume of reusable cut. Not suitable for easily-eroded materials. Needs specific equipment and material resources which must be planned in advance. Needs as-built drawings and scheduled maintenance.
Deep ditch
Preferred system when long-term cutting bank stabilization or reduced interstitial pressure is also an issue. Suitable for stabilizing homogeneous materials and lowering a water level. Design for common structures up to 6 or 7 meters deep and up to 20 meters with special equipment (cutting machine). Suitable for all longitudinal section slopes. Generates little cut and integrates discreetly with the project. Can operate temporarily without gravity outlet (vacuum pump). Suitable for drawdown of water table located in alternating permeable and barely permeable layers. Above all suitable for very permeable soils where flow rates are high. Suitable for water table drawdown in sandy
Needs specific equipment and material resources which must be planned in advance. Site restrictions.
Needs specific equipment resources which must be planned in advance. Site restrictions.
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Diagram 7: interception of the water table, lateral damproofing and stabilization of cutting banks by damproof course or damproof retaining structure
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the final project, intercepting water ingress circulating at the interface between sands and a clay substrate (A85 Romorantin Theillay)
(1) The water tables vary the most frequently with the seasons; the "high waters" occur most often in winter-spring and the "low waters" in summer and early autumn.
Diagram 7 Ecran non arm au coulis argile-ciment Niveau d'eau Drainage des eaux rsiduelles Niveau impermable Ecran rigide (parois arme, palplanches) Fiche
Diagram 7 Non-reinforced fin with clay-cement slurry Water level Drainage of residual water Impermeable level Rigid fin (reinforced wall, sheet piling) Sheet
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a by the pavement or miscellaneous networks b by the cut and fill transition zone c by resurgences on the slope flank underneath the fill d by capillary rises e via low points in the longitudinal section
Case f by stopping on an obstacle (structure pier*) Diagram 8: identification of potential water supply routes to the fill
CUT Altered zone Pavement or miscellaneous networks Structure Water table FILL
Suggested systems (no dimensioning)
Cut and fill transition The transition zone made up of altered, frequently permeable materials encourages water infiltration and the formation of water traps. Surface resurgences The geotechnical study must list water appearances or resurgences on the slope flank. These zones found underneath the fill are the cause of slow, continuous infiltrations which can "undermine" the fill base.
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This zone can be replaced by draining materials combined with drains at the bottom of the cavity linked to an outlet.
These zones are drained via a draining course and a drain linked to an outlet.
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Outcropping water table zone Fill in compressible materials like silts or fly ash can encourage capillary water rises in the body of the fill when the fill subgrade is in a compressible zone or outcropping water table. This phenomenon is all the more apparent when the material used is made up of compressible soils in a dry state. Low points in longitudinal section The low points in longitudinal section are drained in traditional fashion to prevent water accumulating in water-sensitive materials. Obstacles and friction points such as engineering and retaining structures must be drained to prevent water accumulating in contact with the fill, on the uphill side of the slope.
It suffices to intercept the rising water with a draining course of a thickness greater than the estimated settling and of at least 1 meter. Wetlands can also be drained to evacuate the water from the subgrade and improve the bearing capacity by trenches/fin drains or deep ditches.
If the material making up the technical fill is insensitive to water, the drainage will be by gravity; otherwise, solutions using a geocomposite could be envisaged.
Table 3: drainage solutions for the various interception cases for water ingress in fill
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plates-formes
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roadbeds
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Plate-forme support de chausse Accotement Chausse roulement, base, fondation Arase terrassement partie suprieure des terrassements 1 m en dblai ou remblai
Formation level Shoulder Surface course, base, foundation Subformation level subformation (below capping level) 1 m in cut or fill
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Type of soil
Water table
Washed by the water table
Initial PST-AR
Drainage structures
Final PSTAR
zero
Very low
PST0AR0
PST1-AR1
Natural soil sensitive to water state h Natural soil sensitive to water state m Intermittent water table
Very low
Very low
PST1
Drainage pointless
Good
Low
PST2-AR1
PST3-AR1
Good
PST3AR1
PST3-AR2
Variable
PST4AR2
PST4-AR2 (2)
Good
Good
PST 5 and 6
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(1) see 2.3.2: as the aim is to avoid humidification of the pavement subgrade, this will be the preferential domain for edge of pavement fin drains (EDRC). Note that the drainage systems at the base of the capping layer (for capping layers comprising very permeable materials) such as drains and draining courses, although essential cannot guarantee no infiltration. (2) drainage remains necessary to reduce the structure's sensitivity to frost and improve earthworks conditions.
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in fill: no PST drainage (except for special cases); when drainage is necessary for the PST and capping layer, it could be wise to plan a joint structure independently of the surface drainage system, as shown in schematic Diagram 10. If appropriate, attention should be paid to installing support anchoring (see 4.1.2) in relation to the drainage network to avoid perforations. The structures are miscellaneous, longitudinal drains, trenches, EDRC, draining courses, draining Diagram 10: cutoff drain installed at the foot of the cutting bank to drain the PST stacks, etc. (see Chapter 4). If necessary the drainage system may be supplemented by: transverse drains in the subformation (below capping level) (see Diagram 11); drains slanting from the axis ("fishbone"), so that they flow into longitudinal drains an axial longitudinal drain (see Diagram 12). The distance between two drains and the drain depth must be dimensioned according to the hydrogeological and geotechnical characteristics of Diagram 11: sample complex draining system (slope the site and the project.
subformation level)
Diagram 10 Cunette Regard de visite Accotement ou bande d'arrt d'urgence Chausse Couche de forme Diagram 11 Talus Axe chausse Collecteur principal tranches latrales - tranche axiale - tranch transversale Diagram 12 DRAINS LATERAL, AXIAL, TRANSVERSAL VUE EN PLAN DRAINS LATERAL, AXIAL, OBLIQUE AXE CHAUSSEE
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Diagram 10 Trickle channel Inspection chamber Shoulder or emergency hard shoulder Pavement Capping layer Diagram 11 Bank Pavement axis Main collector lateral trenches - axial trench - transverse trench Diagram 12 LATERAL, AXIAL AND TRANSVERSE DRAINS PLAN VIEW LATERAL, AXIAL AND OBLIQUE DRAINS PAVEMENT AXIS
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Diagram 14: sample use of drains in cut and fill transition zone plan view
Diagram 15: schematic diagram of positioning transverse drains every section or every two sections at the earthworks subformation level - cross-sectional view
Diagram 13 Arase de terrassement DEBLAI REMBLAI Couche drainante Captages ventuels sur la pente zone de transition distance dfinir en fonction profondeur de la zone altre Matriau drainant Drain reli un exutoire Diagram 14 foss de pied foss de crte REMBLAI POSITION DU DRAIN EN EPI
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Diagram 13 Subformation level CUT FILL Draining course Any inflows on the slope transition zone la distance to be defined based on the depth of the altered zone Draining material Drain connected to an outlet Diagram 14 ditch at foot ditch on crest FILL POSITION OF DRAIN IN STACK
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DEBLAI Sens de la pente Regard dans la berne Diagram 15 DEBLAI Zone de transition dblai - remblai Epi drainant Arase de terrassement REMBLAI
CUT Direction of slope Inspection chamber in soft verge Diagram 15 CUT Cut and fill transition zone: Draining stack Subformation level FILL
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Diagram 17: in cut or skimming profile in zone under drained water table
Couche de forme Tranche axiale complmentaire si ncessaire Tranche drainante latrale continuit hydraulique Diagram 18 Couche de forme drain dispos sur le fond de la couche de forme drain dispos en encoche au fond de la couche de forme ( privilgier) Diagram 19 Gotextile Encoche Sillon Sur arase ( viter) Diagram 20 CAS A EVITER
Capping layer Additional axial trench if necessary Lateral cutoff drain hydraulic continuity Diagram 18 Capping layer drain laid on the bottom of the capping layer drain laid in slot at the bottom of the capping layer (preferred) Diagram 19 Geotextile Slot Groove On subformation level (to be avoided) Diagram 20 TO BE AVOIDED
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2.4 - Pavement
The mechanical characteristics and performances of a pavement structure can diminish very clearly over time in the presence of water which is frequently the cause of normally irreversible pathologies: appearance of depressions*, edge subsidence, crazing, rising mud and slab rocking. Methods of draining the pavement itself are therefore also sought.
Drainer les interfaces de chausses dans le Drain the pavement interfaces in the median TPC Drainer le TPC Drain the median Drainer les interfaces de chausses en rive Drain the pavement interfaces at the edge exutoire outlet pente slope Couches d'assise Road foundations Drainer sous la chausse Drain underneath the pavement Sens de circulation de l'eau Water circulation direction Infiltration de l'eau Water infiltration
The pavement structure drainage needs are closely linked to the type of materials and singular points (median and emergency hard shoulder). Refer to Chapter 3 for a description of disorders encountered in pavements if there is no drainage and for a list of singular points in the pavement in terms of drainage.
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Drainage requirements
No drainage requirement in the strict sense (except for porous asphalts), but protective role for underlying courses through: pavement maintenance and repair, damp-proofing, etc.; checks on joint compacting and course bonding. evacuation of water infiltrating in the cracks. maintenance and repair: damp-proofing of surface pavement; prevention: pre-cracking of courses treated with hydraulic binders: solution 1: lateral drainage in the height of the course at the pavement edge shoulder or median side (depending on cross-section slope), by trenches or fin drains solution 2: lateral drainage by the shoulders or the median (depending on the cross-section slope), made up of draining material and evacuation of water through drains towards an outlet. prevention: damproofing of cracks with seals made from impermeable products (shut-off joint, construction joint, longitudinal and transverse joints, contacts between the slab and the median, the emergency hard shoulder or the shoulder); creation of a draining course under the concrete structure; for reinforced concrete structures, lateral drainage via: - solution 1: longitudinal structures such as trench or fin drain; - solution 2: shoulders in draining material and evacuation of water through drains to an outlet.
Concrete
evacuation of free water, reduction in interstitial pressures; elimination of accumulated water in the low points.
prevention and maintenance and repair: damp-proofing of surface pavement; choice of a porous untreated graded aggregate: - solution 1: lateral drainage in the height of the course at the pavement edge shoulder or median side (depending on crosssection slope), by trenches or fin drains; - solution 2: lateral drainage by the shoulders or the median (depending on the cross-section slope), made up of draining material with greater permeability than untreated graded aggregates and evacuation of water through drains towards an outlet; transverse drainage of low points by draining stacks.
couche drainante bton arm continu bton maigre matriau drainant tranches ou crans drainants
draining course continuously reinforced concrete lean concrete draining material cutoff or fin drains
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Median
It must be possible to offset the drainage structure from the median axis to allow the installation of brackets for rails. lampposts and run-off water collection systems. The drainage system must carry the collected water through the cut and fill towards a semi-crossing or upstream of an underground passage structure (portal frame, frame or metallic duct) also towards a semicrossing. The drain must be deep enough in all circumstances to bear the site traffic without damage (see Chapter 4.3.1, crossing characteristics). It should be position to be able to collect water circulation above a level with low permeability (normally the formation level). For pavements with reversed crossfalls, the waters tend to concentrate in the median. Provision must therefore be made for an underground drain above the collector (see Diagram 22).
Roundabout
Safety regulations specify underground systems rather than lateral ditches.
Diagram 22: installation of a cutoff drain in the median the drain is therefore particularly vulnerable to being pierced blind before being installed Inspecting this drain once work has finished seems an elementary precaution
Impermabilisation Regard de visite construire en deux tapes Chausse future Couche de forme Evacuation latrale sous-chausse Drain
Damproofing Inspection chamber to be built in two stages Future pavement Capping layer Lateral sub-pavement evacuation Drain
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Excessive water content in the pavement courses due to infiltration from a variety of sources (run-off water, subsurface water, etc.) causes a marked acceleration in pavement ageing. This damage is even greater with the addition of frost and thaw phenomena. The pavement surface courses let through not inconsiderable quantities of water, especially when they show early signs of ageing. This chapter describes the damage noted for each type of pavement and suggests an approach in putting together the analysis so that possible drainage solutions can be envisaged.
Photo 3: sample rutting of a flexible pavement caused by the untreated foundation and the subgrade (photo Stra)
Photo 4: erosion developed around a crack in the hydraulic aggregates of reinforced structures, RN 59 at St. Di (photo J.L. BIETH, CETE de lEST - LRPC Strasbourg)
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Photo 5: sample damage in a concrete pavement (photo Stra) Photo 6: resurgences from central islands (photo CETE
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3.2 - Analysis
The analysis must distinguish between water-related damage and damage pertaining to structure underdimensioning or another structural quality problem.
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Table 6: sample synopsis of marks on an itinerary (mark 0 = no problem, mark 2 = major problem).
LEGENDE sablons alluvions ruisseau rivire, fleuve mergence de la nappe coulements naturels Profil en long remblai dblai profil mixte Etanchit du revtement Assainissement superficiel Environnement hydrogologie Drainage de la chausse Sol support Matriaux de la chausse Note de risque global
KEY very fine sands alluvial deposits stream river water table emergence natural flows Longitudinal section fill cut mixed profile Pavement damproofing Surface drainage Hydrogeological environment Pavement drainage Subgrade Pavement materials Overall risk mark
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Marking systems
A risk mark is attributed to each section identified in an analysis and observation table. By adding the risk factors together, the itinerary scheme can identify the sensitive zones theoretically requiring drainage. The most sensitive zones are given the highest mark. The hydric conditions of the itinerary are assessed by "homogeneous" 200 m-long sections for each of the parameters r, a, h, d, s and m described below and by using a three-level marking system: 0 = conditions not propitious to damage from water (and frost); 1 = average conditions potentially contributing to the appearance or rapid development of damage from water (and frost); 2 = determining conditions for the appearance or rapid development of damage from water (and frost);
Table interpretation
Pavement damproofing, r r = 0: bituminous asphalt surface course in good condition (asphalt compactness > 93% in 95% of measurements); r = 1: asphalt surface course not compact enough or made up of a surface dressing in good condition; -7 r = 2: relatively permeable surface course >10 m/s with unsealed cracks. Surface drainage, a a = 0: surface drainage maintained and effective (ditches in good condition, damproofed shoulders or excellent run off from shoulders to the ditches, etc.), topographic context propitious to run off (road in fill > 1 m in height). The longitudinal profile provides satisfactory flow for run-off water; a = 1: ineffective surface drainage, average run off water flow (vegetation in the ditches), water course on edge of pavement despite the shoulders being flush, permeable shoulders with plant growth. The road (or the section in question) is a mixed profile or cut and fill in succession; a = 2: totally ineffective surface drainage, non-existent ditches or in poor condition, raised or highlydamaged shoulders retaining the run-off water. The road (or the section in question) is on flat ground. The water flows in the ditches and the drainage structures is very mediocre and the outlets are not functioning. Hydrogeological environment of the pavement, h h = 0: the water table does not exist or is very deep (more than 5 m below the pavement). The pavement does not intercept water circulation nor permanent or temporary resurgence; h = 1: potential supply in subsurface waters from lateral water catchment; h = 2: mixed profile with upstream feed, cut and fill transition zone, very powerful lateral water catchment (pavement fed with water by circulation through cracks in the rock or by more permeable layers in the natural geotechnical profile). The water table varies in a range which cuts across the PST, even the capping layer and the pavement foundation. Pavement drainage, d d = 0: an internal drainage system in good condition exists. Its position in the cross section means that it evacuates water circulations in the pavement structure and in the subgrade, more especially in the critical zones; d = 1: a drainage system exists, it is satisfactorily located in the cross section, but the state of maintenance of the drainage network is such that it is not totally effective; d = 2: no drainage system or system not functioning or unsuitable for the local context. Subgrade sensitivity, s s = 0: soil insensitive to water or treated subgrades (with effect lasting over time); s = 1: soils assumed sensitive to water, but showing no signs of this; s = 2: water-sensitive soils. Sensitivity of pavement foundation materials, m m = 0: Continuously reinforced concrete, bitumen graded aggregate (base and foundation); m = 1: hydraulic graded aggregates, concrete, mixed structure; m = 2: Untreated graded aggregates.
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Decision model
The summary mark is established by elementary sections at least 100 meters long. It corresponds to the hydric risk mark = r + a + h + d + s + m. This mark is the risk from a combination of unfavorable factors and is used to assess an itinerary regardless of its state. The risk mark varies between 0 and 12 and shows up the sensitive zones based on the following risk scale: no risk of change: 0 to 3 low risk: 4 to 7 major risk of change: 8 to 12. Highlighting sensitive zones under the procedure described above defines the intervention sections when the following converge: zones with the highest risk marks: high risk mark between 8 and 12; analysis of the structural pavement state: deflections dm > 200/100 mm, significant damage survey of disorders (slab rocking, mud rising, longitudinal rutting, etc.).
Where a high risk mark and a poor structural condition of the pavement converge, this means that the pavement damage is due to water or is aggravated by it and that the drainage work is justified. No convergence means that the damage is caused otherwise (structure under-dimensioned for the traffic, poor quality materials, etc.). In these circumstances, installing drainage systems will not alone provide the expected solution.
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3.4 - Dimensioning or assessment of flow rates to be drained through the old pavement
(see Appendix 3.2).
The drainage system in an old pavement must evacuate the excess water in the pavement structure and possibly the subgrade up to 1 m under the pavement structure (PST); it would be possible to make do with drains or equivalent systems of 100 to 150 mm for a maximum flow rate well below 10000 l/h for 100 linear meters: a drain 100 to 150 mm will nearly always be sufficient. The other cases will be studied specifically: water table drawdown, major cracking or severely-damage surface state. Parameter
Pavement damproofing (r) Surface drainage (a) Drainage requirements Damproofing the pavement
Interception of water inflows, water table drawdown beneath the PST level, creation or maintenance and repair of outlets. Depending on how complex the situations are, a hydrogeological study may be necessary to dimension the structures and define their characteristics. Overhaul or repair of drainage network
Protection of water-sensitive subgrades from possible infiltrations. Improvement in hydric state of soils when they lend themselves to this (see Table 14, Appendix 2) is a difficult objective and sometimes takes a long time. In some cases (very unfavorable soils), drainage provides no improvement. Evacuation of subsurface waters, protection of underlying layers by maintenance and/or repair of the surface course.
creation of drains at pavement edge; damproofing of the surface and cracks, reprofiling, programming maintenance and repair campaign.
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The purpose of this chapter is firstly to describe the most common drainage systems and their main characteristics. This description should assist the designer in ensuring that his planned drainage method is clearly suitable and to define the corresponding specifications. The second section is devoted to stipulations over the materials used in these structures.
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Standard schemes
Final structure: (see Diagram 23). For a deep ditch to be effective in draining pavement courses and the subgrade, it must be positioned as close as possible to the pavement (1 to 2 m from the pavement edge) and combined with a shoulder in draining material. For the national road network and given road safety constraints, it is almost impossible these days to use the deep ditch as a final drainage structure for the pavement subsurface water. Safety regulations impose a minimum safety zone of seven meters for new, multi-function roads and four meters for existing roads. Even when installing safety rails, there must be a recovery zone 2 meters wide between the edge of the pavement and the straight line of the rail [18] [19] and [20]. Therefore, at very best, the deep ditch axis will be more than four meters from the pavement, which makes it virtually impossible for it to fulfill its role as drainage structure. It is therefore preferable to replace the deep ditch with a buried drainage system (cutoff drain). Provisional structure during earthworks: (see Diagram 24). One possible variant is creating cuts per half roadbed. Natural ground fill is used at the foot of the bank. The longitudinal slope of the ditch must be between 0.5% and 2.5% (watch out for stagnation or gullying problems). The gutter will be located at least 0.20 m below the capping course at the edge or 1 m below the subformation level (for the earthworks phase). The deeper the ditch, the more effective it will be.
Diagram 24: changes in profile as the earthworks become deeper (temporary structure)
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Operating method
A mechanical shovel is used most of the time. The side slopes are sometimes too steep: the stability of the slope of the ditch bank must be checked (obvious condition for its effectiveness); this must not exceed what is allocated to this material in the cutting bank. Where the soils are sensitive to erosion, the banks may be covered with a permeable stabilizing layer: riprap or geotextile-based synthetic materials. The deep ditch often is the least onerous solution for a temporary drainage structure in earthworks phase and the easiest to achieve. One variant is to create cuts per half roadbed, thereby providing the cut with more advantageous drainage conditions. The ditch must be at least one meter below the planned formation level for the earthworks to drain the PST also. The water is evacuated from the end of the ditch by gravity via the gutter or by pumping at the ditch end when unavoidable.
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Standard schemes
Several standard schemes can be proposed depending on the installation depth and objectives sought: Shallow cutoff drains (maximum of about 2.5 m). (see Diagram 25). A geotextile is used as a filter if the draining material is liable to clogging by the surrounding soil. Deep cutoff drains (2.5 to 6 m) (see Diagram 26). These structures are used above all when creating a cut where the water table has to be lowered and the banks are very high. In this case, installing a geotextile is difficult, if not to say impossible. The drain alone is therefore protected by a geotextile coating. Cutoff drains installed sufficiently early before work commences can lower the water table level and make earthworks easier. Their location at this time is such that they help stabilize the cutting bank in the final phase.
Operating method
Shallow trench
This is dug with a mechanical shovel (most frequently) or a mechanical ditcher. Its width varies according to the tool used: 0.30 to 0.50 m, even more (see Photos 8 and 9). It is filled with draining material (with a permeability higher than the surrounding material), which may be surrounded by a geotextile filter to make this structure long-lasting. At its base, a drain is normally laid on the correctly-shaped trench bottom. The installation of a drain will be mandatory if the materials are likely to be carried along in the presence of water. The draining material can in some cases be made up of porous concrete.
Deep trench
This alternative to ditches takes up less land (less footprint, less extracted material and therefore less evacuation or storage) and reaches greater depths, with a maximum in the order of six meters when mechanized ditchers can be used1. The trench has the advantage of inserting discreetly into the landscape and can be used as a final drainage structure for future banks or the PST in skimming profile. It will go at least one meter underneath the provisional earthworks subformation level so that it also drains the PST. (see Diagram 27).
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(1) The use of such high-output machines, capable of digging 1 km of trench per day in good conditions, is however limited to loose compressible soils, without blocks and with sufficient bearing capacity.
Diagram 25 hauteur drainante avec gotextile sans tuyau drainant remblai gotextile matriaux drainants avec gotextile sans tuyau drainant intrieur tuyau drainant Diagram 26 sans enveloppe gotextile avec drain prenrob matriaux drainants tuyau drainant gotextile
Diagram 25 draining height with geotextile without cutoff drain fill geotextile draining materials with geotextile without inside cutoff drain cutoff drain Diagram 26 without geotextile envelope with pre-coated drain draining materials cutoff drain geotextile
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Table 8 below specifies the various implementation possibilities depending on installation depth. These structures should not collect surface and subsurface water at the same time: the load placed on the network by the surface water produces the reverse effect from the one sought; the pollution risks and loads are not the same, which complicates the treatment chains prior to discharge into the natural environment.
Yes Yes no
no no Yes Yes
no no no Yes
Deep (2.5 - 6 m)
no
Photos 8 and 9: cutoff drain installed with a ditcher in a motorway roadbed (photo CETE Nord-Picardie, LRPC Lille)
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(1) Average value, the actual frequency should be based on the results of the annual inspection
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Limite d'emprise Tranche drainante DEBLAI Arase terrassement Niveau de nappe Niveau de rabattement
Footprint limit Cutoff drain CUT Subformation level Water table level Drawdown level
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The drain stack is a variant of the transverse grip installed under the roadbed. Its role is normally to recover the water from the low or singular points (for example change from a cut to a fill). It can also occasionally reinforce the draining course Other survey elements are useful in ensuring, amongst other things, the regularity of the future (prescreening the water table). cavity bottom and the lack of elements likely to attack the geotextile. Standard schemes (see Diagrams 28, 29 and 30) These systems are fairly shallow (normally 0.3 to 0.6 m) with potentially variable widths (0.3 to 1 m); they are produced in draining material and may or may not contain a perforated drain to speed up the water evacuation. Their transverse cross sections thus lend themselves to a shallow cutoff drain (see previous paragraph). A geotextile envelope is necessary in Diagram 28: lateral grip linked to the capping layer clogging, compressible soil.
Operating method
As they are fairly shallow they do not normally pose any special problem (dug with a mechanical shovel). It is however important to make sure that slopes are regular (above all if they are very long, case of draining stacks). Diagram 29: longitudinal grip with drain
Diagram 28 chausse couche de forme saigne latrale pente minimum 4% paisseur minimale foss latral Diagram 29 chausse couche de forme saigne longitudinale drain
"Tools" Collection Stra
Diagram 28 pavement capping layer lateral groove minimum 4% slope minimum thickness lateral ditch Diagram 29 pavement capping layer longitudinal groove drain
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foss latral Diagram 30 Pente longitudinale variable Pente transversales > ou = 5% Espace variable selon les sols 5 20m
lateral ditch Diagram 30 Variable longitudinal slope Transverse slope > or = 5% Variable space depending on the soils 5 to 20 m
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Objective
A soil drained efficiently becomes a non-saturated soil; its water content stays at a level that is dictated by its suction characteristics and water movements in such a soil are complex. The main objective of EDRC is to improve the hydric state of materials in the pavement and subgrade, over a thickness dependent on the pavement type, to evacuate water which has penetrated the pavement and limit water ingress from shoulders. Unlike the cutoff drain, EDRC cannot be installed very deep (1.5 m maximum) and must not be used to lower a water table.
Whereas the normal goal is to improve the overall bearing capacity of the pavement, using the EDRC can also be advisable to control dessiccation* and when draining the PST, the installation depth can be limited to 50 cm underneath the subformation improve protection from frost-thaw. level when the aim is preventive protection against water infiltration and improved hydric states of soils.
in a median axis; at the pavement edge in contact with pavement structure in semi-rigid or possibly rigid structure, when the material in the shoulder is less permeable than in the pavement. Depending on circumstances, the EDRC can vary in installation depth depending on whether the project involves just the pavement or includes its subgrade: when draining flexible pavement, an improved hydric state is sought over the entire pavement height and over at least the upper 0.30 m of the subgrade; for rigid or semi-rigid pavements, the depth of the system will be limited to the pavement with the essential role of evacuating the infiltration water at interfaces, cracks and/or joints without damproofing; to evacuate interstitial over-pressures during the thaw, the installation must be deeper than the depth of frost corresponding to the frost warning index depending on the pavement type in question;
Standard schemes
The EDRC is a product which is either manufactured and installed on site with specific machines, or is constructed on site. It is basically made up of a geotextile filter, enveloping a draining core, possibly with a collecting system in its lower section (see Photo 10). A manufactured fin drain is far thinner than a fin drain constructed on site (2 to 4 cm for the first and 15 to 25 cm for the second. The functions vary depending on whether the road is new or old and whether the pavement is flexible or rigid. Diagram 31: standard cross section of a pavement fitted with The EDRC is normally positioned an EDRC located where the shoulder meets the pavement where the shoulder meets the road structure structure (see Diagrams 31 and 32). It can be installed: laterally at the foot of the cutting bank; laterally under the extreme edges of the capping or foundation layers for flexible pavements;
Photo 10: sample manufactured fin drain (photo CETE Nord-Picardie, LRPC Lille) Diagram 32: installation of an EDRC at the pavement edge
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Diagram 31 hauteur de recouvrement de l'EDRC (> 0,06 m) hauteur de l'EDRC hauteur drainante profondeur de pose profondeur sous le corps de chausse L'EDRC comporte un systme d'vacuation des eaux infiltres. Il est plaqu contre le bord de la chausse dans une tranche troite dont la partie suprieure est tanch aprs remblaiement. Le foss latral est rduit un rle de cunette pour l'limination des eaux de ruissellement. Diagram 32 Cot chausse Cot accotement enveloppe gotextile filtrante remblai me intrieure fort indice de vide drain ou zone drainante
Diagram 31 EDRC recovery height (> 0.06 m) EDRC height draining height laying depth depth beneath the pavement body The EDRC has an evacuation system for infiltrated water. It is set against the edge of the pavement in a narrow trench whose upper part is sealed after backfilling. The lateral ditch simply plays a trickle channel role to eliminate the run-off water. Diagram 32 Pavement side Shoulder side filtering geotextile envelope fill inside core with high vacuum index drain or draining zone
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Operating method
An EDRC can be installed in one of two ways - manual after digging the trench or mechanized (recommended). It is normally installed in a narrow trench at a depth of between 30 cm and 1 meter. The width of the cavity depends on the mechanical shovel or ditcher used (30 to 50 cm). The space is subsequently backfilled with compacted extracted material. It is advisable to use a laser to shape the slope and make it more regular. When installed manually, the EDRC must be held in place on the vertical wall pavement side during backfilling. The EDRC is placed automatically during mechanized installation by the box section which holds it against the wall pavement side. Site material is used for the backfilling. However, it is important to remove the largest blocks (max. 100 mm) as far as possible. Whenever possible, the trench should be partially backfilled, alternating with compacting in accordance with the stipulations in the guide Backfilling Trenches [11].
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Standard schemes
(see Diagrams 33 and 34)
Diagram 33 Gotextile Couche drainante Collecteur Exutoire Pente Diagram 34 Cote des plus hautes eaux Pente Gotextile Couche drainante Collecteurs
Diagram 33 Geotextile Draining course Collector Outlet Slope Diagram 34 Dimension of highest waters Slope Geotextile Draining course Collectors
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Operating method
Made up of aggregate draining materials, the draining courses are laid by traditional blade earthwork machines. The courses must be laid on a soil with sufficient bearing capacity and well shaped to avoid depressions and ruts (on a soil with little bearing capacity, shaping takes place afterwards whereas the draining material is pushed forwards in a single layer, sufficiently thick to avoid being deformed under the weight of machines). To create draining courses which can be assimilated with special capping layers, the specifications in the guide Creating fills and capping layers [9] will be applied. The thickness depends on the flow rates to be collected (drains can be inserted for major flow rates), but above all on the transient role played by this course during the earthworks phase (road) or its incorporation in the capping layer which it can replace partially or totally. When faced with compressible soils with low permeability, the thickness required to evacuate the flow rates could be reduced (< 0.10 m), but the implementation conditions (insufficient bearing capacity, deformability) frequently impose a thickness of > 0.40 m. Laying a geotextile at the base is necessary when the percentage of fines is > 5%. A geosynthetic variant can nevertheless be envisaged: if the flow rates are limited; if the mechanical role of this layer is reduced (sufficient subgrade bearing capacity to support the site traffic); and if the differential settling of the subgrade does not exceed a few centimeters. This then involves geocomposites* which may include a draining core or mini-drains.
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Standard schemes
(see Diagram 36).
(1) In certain special cases, draining panels can be used (boring with grab or cutter), where the depth can be considerably more than the 6 m of current mechanized trenches.
Diagram 35
"Tools" Collection Stra
Diagram 35
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Rayon d'influence du rabattement Pompe Niveau de la nappe initial (statique) Niveau de la nappe rabattu (dynamique) Impermable Diagram 36 Puits exhaure Pointes filtrantes Vers pompe vide Aquifre Pompe En vert : Tubage plein En jaune : tubage perfor (crpine) niveau impermable
Drawdown influence radius Pump Initial water table level (static) Lowered water table level (dynamic) Impermeable Diagram 36 Shaft dewatering Filtering points Towards vacuum pump Aquifer Pump In green: Full piping In yellow: perforated piping (perforated casing) impermeable level
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Operating method
Know-how and specific equipment adapted to each individual case is required to create these structures: hole boring by jetting, pipe ramming, hammering and rotation with or without boring fluid (water, mud, air); metal or PVC tubing, perforated casing pieced on (manufactured) or not, perforation type and density, filter in natural (sand or gravel) or manufactured (sand+resin filter, geotextile) material; pump types and power; shaft spacing (and number of lines for a linear structure) to be determined; installation of a temporary collector up to the outlet.
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Standard schemes
The shield (see Diagram 38) replaces the existing soil with a soil mass draining and applying friction over an extended length (in the entire potentially unstable zone). Except where the draining material could act as a filter for the surrounding soil (infrequent), the mass is laid on a filtering geotextile and closed at the foot by a drain pipe intended to facilitate and accelerate the evacuation of the water collected. It is essential for this drain pipe to be plugged upstream. The stack (see Diagram 39) is based on an analogue principle and in this case the substitution is perpendicular to the cut axis. The stack system is preferable to the shield system when short-term bank stability (when laying the draining system) is truly critical or when there are random water ingress. Other parameters such as the flow rate quantities, bank aesthetics, grass seeding problems and the volumes of materials to be moved must also be taken into account, but can vary from one site to the next. Special techniques are used to stiffen the shield slope itself (mix of sand and synthetic threads, nailing with piles or angle irons.
Operating method
By principle intended to stabilize very unstable banks, these structures are often created under difficult site conditions (critical stability, water ingress, soils with little bearing capacity). For shields, progressing using limited-length pins are used to improve stability during the site duration. A slow-rate mechanical shovel is most frequently used for the earthworks and to lay the mass. Given the frequently difficult conditions, there is little need to focus on the regularity of the sides or the bottom of the extraction zone, which can be and stay irregular (above all, do not reprofile with extracted materials). On the other hand, the regularity of the slope of the collection and evacuation drain pipe is essential; to overcome problems of accuracy, avoid adopting slopes of less than 5 cm per meter for the stacks and 2 cm for the shields. Any necessary planting can be made by slotting in a geotextile filter and using a honeycomb geosynthetic* or a geogrid*. Note that in some special cases, a geocomposite* can be used instead of or in addition to the draining material (see Diagram 40).
Obturation en amont Vers exutoire Collecteur - drain longitudinal Diagram 39 Eperon obturation amont Drain transversal vers exutoire Gotextile Collecteur- drain longitudinal
Upstream plugging Towards outlet Collector - longitudinal drain Diagram 39 Stack upstream plugging Transverse drain towards outlet Geotextile Collector - longitudinal drain
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Filtering power
The filtering power of a material over another material is assessed via particle size characteristics and rules based on these characteristics. In most cases it can be tricky to apply these rules, as they are established for homogeneous soils and call on materials that are frequently very elaborate and costly. A geotextile is therefore more often than not used for this role. Under these conditions the addition material simply has to evacuate the water rapidly and therefore has a draining role only. For "rustic" structures with no geotextile and which are therefore both filtering and raining (in earthworks phase, for example, or when it is impossible to use a geotextile), a road aggregate with 0-30 or 3-40 continuous grading1 (a hollow aggregate is easier to clog) may be used, with: less than 5% fines under 80 m; a sand equivalent (ES) higher than 50, or VBS 0.1; a passing fraction at 2 mm of less than 10% for a porous concrete drain coating and less than 15% for a PVC drain pipe coating. (see Diagram 41). Note that for deep mechanized trenches, where it is rarely possible to lay an envelope geotextile, the filter is placed direction around the drain ("geotextile sock") and the aggregate is simply used to fill the trench. The only requirement is ease of installation and self-tightening and the following will thus be requested: rolled rather than crushed aggregate; continuous grading; particle size (D) limited to 20 mm (narrow trench); a percentage of fines of less than 80 m limited to 5%.
Draining power
This is the ease with which the water flows within the material, or more specifically the reduction in head losses (of energy) by friction. The greater the voids the better the water flow, the ideal being to reduce the friction to the minimum as in the pipes. Incompatibility with the filtering power becomes clear.
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(1) Each grading class is represented and the shape of the curve tends towards the diagonal. The reverse is true of the discontinuous grading where the curve is very hollow.
Pourcentage des refus cumuls SABLE FIN GROS SABLE GRAVIERS CAILLOUX GALETS MOELLONS BLOC granularit continue courbe "creuse" Dimensions des tamis en mm
Percentage of accumulated rejections FINE SAND COARSE SAND GRAVELS PEBBLES SHINGLE RUBBLE BLOCK continuous grading "hollow" curve Sieve dimensions in mm
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As an indication, the characteristics of a draining only aggregate (behind a filter) could be as follows: hollow aggregate (see above); ES (sand equivalent) > 50 or VBS 0.1 g of blue per 100 g of soil; passing fraction at 2 mm < 10%; a percentage of fines of less than 80 m limited to 5%. Other criteria may also be adopted to take the limits relating to the structure into account, in particular: the installation (D far below 3 or 4 times the layer thickness); damage risks for the textile filters (it is preferable to reduce the grading with crushed materials); a very clean material (without filler with a percentage of fines < 1% for a draining only material.) The most commonly used gradings are less than 30-40 mm. Table 9 suggests a classification for untreated granular materials based only on their drainage capability from three parameters: D: the dimension of the largest components f: the fines content (passing fraction at 80 m) d10 the particle dimension corresponding to the 10% passing fraction
Other criteria
For the soils: the mechanical strength and above all the sensitivity to the attrition* (in the first instance, LA and MDE coefficients below or equal to 45); frost resistance (in principle respected with the mechanical characteristics); resistance in terms of the aggressivity of the waters in the medium or the water used for declogging (incompatibility of limestone aggregates and acid media). For GNT developed materials (category C aggregates, even D with conditions): the values are stated in standard XPP 18-540 [3]/
Permeability
in m/s
Type
0/D according to NF P 98-129 (14 < D < 31.5 mm) 0/D, (14 < D < 31.5 mm) d/D ( D 40 mm)
<5
0.1
10-6< K 10-5
draining GNT
2 1
0.8 8
10-5 10-1
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Drainage function
Flow rate capability in the plane (equivalent to the transmissivity). It must correspond to the minimum transmissivity required to evacuate the flow rates affected by a coefficient. This coefficient, which is also found in standard G38-061, can vary from 3 to 100.
Mechanical characteristics
Apart from damage when being laid, the resistance to traction, deformation under maximum load, resistance to dynamic perforation and other parameters not taken up in Table 10, can be added to the list of required parameters, if necessary.
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Diagram 42 masque drainant couche drainante par gocomposite tranche drainante couche drainante granulaire gotextile Diagram 43 SOL EN PLACE Zone de rarrangement des grains GEOTEXTILE
Diagram 42 draining shield draining course by geocomposite cutoff drain granular cutoff drain geotextile Diagram 43 EXISTING SOIL Particle re-arrangement zone GEOTEXTILE
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It is impossible to define value ranges given the variability and specific features of the possible scenarios. Overall, the conclusion will be drawn that the values must tend towards an optimum which can vary depending on the uses. Thus: there must be maximum flexibility at the irregular cavity bottoms, particularly in the cutoff drains; this is less important in shaped and compacted cavity bottoms; resistance to traction and deformation under maximum load will be chosen based on the deformability and bearing capacity of the subgrade, with an extension of at least 50% in loose or irregular soils; the resistance to static puncturing and the resistance to dynamic perforation limit the risk of damage in contact with irregularities; the thickness and the compressive creep can alter the transmissivity.
Filtration Sparation Renforcement Rsistance la traction Dformation sous charge maximale Rsistance la traction des coutures et joints Poinonnement statique (essai CBR) Rsistance la perforation dynamique (chute de cne) Caractristiques en frottement Fluage en traction Endommagement la mise en uvre Ouverture de filtration caractristique Permabilit perpendiculairement au plan Durabilit Conformment l'annexe B Rsistance aux agents climatiques Rsistance au vieillissement Rsistance au vieillissement chimique Rsistance la dgradation microbiologique Pertinence : essentielle pour l'harmonisation s'applique toutes les conditions d'utilisation s'applique des conditions spcifiques d'utilisation indique que les caractristiques ne sont pas applicables la fonction en question Il convient de considrer avec attention la validit de ces essais dont le principe peut de pas tre applicable certains types de produits (par exemple les gogrilles). Si les proprits mcaniques (traction et poinonnement statique) sont indiques H cela signifie que le producteur doit fournir les donnes pour ces deux proprits. L'emploi d l'une seulement (rsistance en traction ou poinonnement statique) est suffisant dans la spcification.
Filtering Separation Reinforcement Resistance to traction Deformation under maximum load Resistance to the traction of welts and seals Static puncturing (CBR test) Resistance to dynamic perforation (falling cone) Characteristics under friction Creep in traction Damage on laying Characteristic filtering opening Permeability perpendicular to the plane Durability In accordance with Appendix B Resistance to climatic agents Resistance to ageing Resistance to chemical ageing Resistance to microbiological degradation Relevance: essential for harmonisation applies to all conditions of use applies to all specific conditions of use indicates that the characteristics are not applicable to the function in question It is important to pay particular attention to the validity of these tests, where the principle may only be applicable to certain types of product (for example the geogrids). Mechanical properties (traction and static puncturing) indicated H mean that the producer must provide data for these two properties. Using one only (resistance under traction or static puncturing) is sufficient in the specification.
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standard NF G 38 061 is currently being revised as it refers to obsolete French standards replaced by the CEN standards listed in Table 10 and which are not strictly equivalent. Caution is advised, therefore, when using it to determine geotextile characteristics, particularly the filtering opening and even more the permeability, as there is no possible correlation between the old "permittivity" and the CEN "permeability" standard.
Photo 11: flexible, ringed drain with plant coating (coconut) (photo CETE Nord-Picardie/LRPC)
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Photo 12: flexible, ringed drain with synthetic geotextile coating (photo CETE Nord - Picardie/LRPC)
Photo 13: rigid, ringed drain with trickle channel (photo CETE Nord - Picardie/LRPC)
Photo 14: "road" drain with trickle channel (photo CETE Nord - Picardie/LRPC)
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Variable, 0.5 to 1 m 75 to over 1000 mm Variable, up to 13 mm Circumference or upper part Heavy and brittle
Preferred use
Use to be avoided
Mechanized laying with considerable depth (at least 3) > 1 m)( Shallow depth
Shallow depth (risk of being flattened) Heterogeneous soils with perched water tables
Upper part
High flow rates Erosive soils (risk of carrying fines along) Erosive soils (risk of carrying fines along)
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(3) The choice of the drain based on installation depth depends on the mechanical resistance of the material and the general laying context: any surface rolling load, width of the cavity, backfill material and compacting method.
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Laying depths for road drains are defined by standard NFP 16-351: without surface rolling load and from 0.8 m deep, ND category drains will be used. SD category drains will be chosen for all other circumstances. No standard gives guidance on agricultural drains: in this case a minimum depth of about a meter will be accepted.
Pre-coating
Pre-coating (before laying via a filter fixed on the drain) is always stipulated, as it reduces the risk of carrying fine particles from the soil considerably and thus the risks of internal obstruction in the drain and surface disorder (settling). A suitably-dimensioned geotextile is used for this purpose (rules in previous paragraph, especially regarding the filtering opening). The use of plant fibers (coconut) which is often suggested is to be avoided due to the risks of putrefaction, particularly if the drain is laid in a zone alternates between flooding and dewatering.
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Diagram 44: flow rate for ringed drains based on the slope and diameter
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4.3.1 - Crossings
Crossings are buried pipes channeling the water so that it can cross the pavements underground. In particular, they connect drainage structures located in a median or on one side of the pavement (mixed profiles or pavements with a single crossfall) to collectors or an outlet located towards the downstream side of the cross section. These structural parts will be designed as traditional connections (non-draining pipes) or as extensions to drainage structures (trenches, grips, stacks and fin drains). The draining part (steel ducts, PVC drain, etc.) will ideally comprise a single element guaranteeing a continuous flow downstream. Particular attention must be paid to the downstream connection in works phase, as joint dislocations can generate disorders relating to water which infiltrates instead of flowing.
4.3.3 - Outlets
These are points where water is discharged from the footprint and more generally anything that evacuates water collected (ditch, piping, etc.). It is normally marked by an inspection chamber connecting the overall drainage network and the specific drainage network from the roadbed. For safety reasons, regardless of the longitudinal evacuation capacity of systems, there is every advantage in not leaving too much distance between outlets. They can share a joint position with inspection chambers. Wherever possible, the distance between a high point of the drain and an outlet located immediately downstream or between two outlets located in the same flow must not exceed 500 m. A specific collector must be installed if the configuration of the ground makes this impossible. Water is normally discharged into a ditch, which must have a safety head if placed along a lane open to traffic. In all circumstances, the drain exit must be marked by a concrete outlet head with an anti-rodent grill. The drain head must be raised in the ditch bank so that it does not hinder mowing.
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It can be useful to channel discharges in natural flow zones for a few meters at least, or even better as far as the natural receiving flow. The most commonly used outfalls are components fitting together (tiles) or arc of circle components (metallic half-ducts). The first system frequently ages poorly (joint dislocation) more often than not due to incorrect installation.
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Chapter 5 5 - Execution of work, application of quality assurance, completion of drainage work, operation and maintenance
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Managing interfaces
Most traditional drainage systems - grips, draining stacks, draining courses and cutoff drains - do not lend themselves to construction which changes as work progresses from the earthworks phase to the construction of the pavement itself. This scenario can, however, be envisaged with some types of manufactured EDRC. The laying of pavement edge drains varies according to whether or not the pavement and shoulder have already been built. This aspect of site phases is a factor in the choice of longitudinal structures (cutoff drain, manufactured fin drain, fin drain built on site). Contract or contractor interfaces will be covered by hold points* when there are at least two contractors, to check the continuity of the drainage structure.
Photo 15: poor site organization creating water stagnation at the low point of the road, despite the presence of ditches on either side (photo CETE Normandie-Centre, LRPC Blois)
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Surface maintenance
It is primordial to maintain surfaces that have been or are going to be regraded, in both cut and fill. There are many justifications for this operation which benefits contractor and project owner alike, for: it encourages run off, thereby reducing infiltration at the same time; it maintains the hydric state of materials and the bearing capacity of soils; it is favorable to machine traffic; it reduces the volume of soils to be processed; the work execution timescales are shortened. Maintenance normally consists of: creating and maintaining a transverse slope of at least 4% (single crossfall or rooftop), regular leveling with a blade (grader or bulldozer) to remove the excess materials and reduce rutting throughout the day, to ensure continuous run off, shaping and daily settling of surfaces by compacting preferably with tires, however insignificant, in cut and in fill.
Evacuation of rainwater
Temporary structures are installed for this purpose; they are maintained on a daily basis in both rainy and dry spells. In cut, a continuous flow of water must be maintained at the foot of a bank connected to an outlet. In fill, to prevent uncontrolled run off and gullying along banks, a ridge of earth at the edge of the bank channels the water to a (temporary or final) outfall at the low point and carefully connected. The banks of both cuts and fills must be protected against run-off water. In anticipation of a final structure (if appropriate), temporary drainage outfalls can be installed. A ditch at the crest of the bank is frequently dug for cuts: it will be important to remember it is there when the site comes to an end to avoid any water stagnation at the top of a bank. Water collected on the site must be returned to the natural environment in compliance with regulations in the law on water and undertakings made the water policing file [15]. Materials in suspension (mineral pollution at least from site mud) must be eliminated from the site water via settling tanks and possibly straw dams or other before being returned to the natural environment.
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Photo 16: sample cut without outlet. The accumulation of rainwater has created a "swimming pool" effect [the red arrow marks a common point] (photo CETE Normandie-Centre, LRPC Blois)
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5.1.3 - Checks
Depending on the details in the control, miscellaneous checks are possible and may be carried out under the responsibility of the contractor or the project engineer. This technical guide does not suggest a standard distribution of checks between these two entities (Contractor-Project Engineer). Refer to Chapter 5.2.2 Quality Assurance plan for the list of checks with the hold points* and critical points*, given as an indication, to be performed during and after the work has been carried out (see Table 13).
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- checks and tests performed (type, frequency); - hold points* and critical points* in addition to those defined in the CCTP; follow-up and result sheets, one sheet per basic task and/or per work day; these sheets prove to the project engineer that the contract stipulations have been met. They also serve in establishing the as-built file. Table 13 gives some hold points* (PA) and critical points* (PC). Certain tasks common to earthworks (signaling, safety, etc.) are not repeated in this table.
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Approval of prefabricated components Checking the conformity with the contract specifications (manufactured EDRC, outlet equipment, inspection chambers, geotextile, drains, piping, etc.). Approval of materials Checking material characteristics and approval: composition of porous concrete, untreated graded aggregates, granular filling materials, etc. Site safety Work under traffic, bank stabilization, verticality of trench walls, etc. Checks on implementation They include checking the following points at least: - structure installations at the desired position in the cross section; Greater rigor must be applied in the installation of structures at the end of the earthworks phase - structure width; - structure depth and the regularity of the longitudinal slope: this can require an accurate leveling reference system (laser, wire, etc.). All low points should be avoided when building the structure; - cleanliness and regularity of the cavity bottom; - need for purges; - connection of drains, channels and geotextiles in the cutoff drains, manufactured stacks or filter envelopes of EDRC built on site, the integrity of assemblies once passed through the box section; - continuity of guiding systems, connections to inspection chambers and outlets and checking they are working correctly, unless it is impossible to provide for structure acceptance in this PA scenario; - installation of ancillary structures in general (outlet exits, anti-rodent grills, etc.); - verticality of longitudinal structure installation (fin in the box section, in the trench) and their positioning against the interfaces to be drained; - cleaning the structure surrounds; - shaping the surface of the shoulder; - conformity of the compacting material; - compacting quality of courses laid (number and thickness of fill layers, type and condition of materials, number of compacting passes, compacting width, compactor speed) [11] after building a convenience area which is marked by a hold point; - regularity of supplies, their conformity and the absence of material segregation; - filling regularity of trenches.
PA
PA
PC
PC
PC PC
PC PA PC
PC
PC PC PC PC PA PC PC PA PC PC
Table 13: a few hold points (PA) and critical points (PC).
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Initially, the contract documents will provide information on the planned drainage solutions. Their existence must subsequently be checked in the field. As the systems are underground, an indication of their presence can be given by the inspection chambers and outlets which must be located accurately. It is thus possible to have an overall view of the systems. structure geometry and accessibility; slope of drain water flows; system connections to outlets; position of inspection chambers, diameters of drains, etc.; protection of outlet heads. Secondly, and if necessary to understand the drainage system, recourse may be possible to openings as indicated in 5.3.1. The zero point must specify the state of repair of all parts of the system so that a list of first maintenance work essential for the structure to work correctly may eventually be drawn up. The following in particular will be checked: that water is flowing in the ditches or channels or outfalls after a rainy spell and is being evacuated (check on water flow levels in ditches compared with the drainage system outlets); that there are no mudslides at the outlets (their presence is a sign of a damaged geotextile filter in the drainage system or even worse that it is missing). All these observations must be indicated on the drainage network "zero point" drawing, so that priorities can be set for repair activities depending on the extent of damage observed. Whereas such provisions are not very restrictive for a specialist department in charge of expressway or motorway maintenance, there is no guarantee that the same applies for departments in charge of current networks in national or departmental roads. This task is nevertheless primordial and must be carried out by any means possible.
Monitoring
Monitoring must be regular and carried out jointly with the clean-up drainage monitoring [10]. Note that the most propitious periods to detect functioning anomalies are during or immediately after a rainy period.
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Appendices
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A1, B5, some B6 B1, B2, B4, D1 D2, D3, B3, R11, R21, R22, R32, R33, R41, R42, R61, R62, R12, R13, R23, R31, R34, R43, R63
Silts, fine clay sands Fine sands, aggregates with little clay Clean aggregates, scree, cracked and micro-fissured rock (limestone, clay schist, puddingstone sandstone, magmatic and metamorpic rock) Chalk, rocks altered under the influence of water (soft limestone, clay rock, silts, altered hard rocks)
Materials lending themselves with difficulty to improvement through drainage except specific study taking account of the cracking, microfissuring and intrinsic permeability of materials on site
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C1, C2
Soils with large elements (Dmax > 50 mm) Clays, marls, sandy clays, salty rock, changing clay rock, unfissured rock 10-9 to 10-13
Refer to the characteristics of the 0/50 mm fraction Materials not lending themselves to improvement by drainage
Table 14: identification of soils (according to standard NF P 11-300) which can be drained
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Shown below are diagrams on the flow rates depending on the drawdown, the thickness of the water table and the permeability of soils for a cutoff drain. These diagrams attempt to show that the flow rate (and therefore the soil permeability) is not, in the main, dimensioning with respect to the drain pipe, as far greater permeabilities (1E-3 et 1E-2) must be reached before encountering evacuation problems with common drains. The dimensioning will depend on other parameters (risk of obstruction, crushing or settling) which require a high safety coefficient. Thus, in the most common scenarios (silty clays or sandy clays with fine sand), a 150 mm pipe could be adopted without major risk. However, as soon as soils with high permeability (more than 1E-5) come into play, a specific hydrogeotechnical study is highly recommended, to dimension the drainage network.
Permeability scale (reminder): Inf to 1E-9: clays 1E-7 to 1E-9: clay silts, clay sands, clay graded aggregates 1E-5 to 1E-7: silts, silty sands, silty graded aggregates 1E-5 to 1E-4: clean sands more than 1E-4: fissured rocks (including chalk) and clean graded aggregates In black: water table dewatering* flow rates according to soil permeability for one trench side (for the total trench flow rate, double the figure obtained) and a length of 100 m. The four diagrams correspond to different water table depths (idle): 5, 10, 15 and 20 m. In red: maximum flow rate of a ringed drain with a 2.5% slope, based on drain diameters 100, 150 and 300 mm.
Epaisseur de la nappe rabattement Diamtre drain Dbits en litres/heure pour 100 ml Permabilit des sols en m/s
Water table thickness drawdown Drain diameter Flow rates in litres/hour for 100 ml Soil permeability in m/s
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Diagram 45: schematic diagram of the various types of flow rates under pavements and shoulder
Diagram 46: relationship between the surface layer compactness and rain infiltrating the pavement
Diagram 45 fissure transversale fissure longitudinale prcipitations Diagram 46 Coefficient d'infiltration moyen Compacit moyenne en %
Diagram 45 transverse crack longitudinal crack rainfall Diagram 46 Average infiltration coefficient Average compactness as %
(1)
Compactness (%)
(2)
Permeability coefficient (m/s)
(3)
Theoretical infiltration (l/h) under constant feed
(4)
Average annual infiltration coefficient m (in % rainfall)
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1.10-5
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92 93 95
60 30 <5
Table 15: infiltration through an non-fissured, asphalt surface course for 1 linear meter of 7 m-wide pavement.
(1) Average of three standard rainfalls: 4 mm in four hours, 4 mm in twelve hours and 40 mm in twelve hours. These three cases are an accurate simulation of a typical southern French climate. Higher rainfalls in the North can increase the values in columns (4).
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3 5 10
0.1 1 (15%)
0.4 10 (70%)
Table 16: infiltration via transverse cracks, in liters/hour, for one linear meter of a 7 m-wide pavement based on the distance between cracks (percentage of infiltrated water with respect to rainfall)
Table 17: infiltration via a longitudinal crack or by an edge joint for one linear meter of pavement in liters/hour (in brackets, percentage of infiltrated water with respect to rainfall)
Conditions
3.10 -7 Non-fissured With 0.1 mm transverse cracks every 3 m With 0.4 mm longitudinal crack at edge 60% 80% 100%
Table 18: combined impact of surfacing compactness and the presence of cracking on the percentage of water infiltrating through a pavement surface course
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l/s
The nomographs (supplier documentation) show that a 90 mm-diameter drain, with 2% slope, evacuates 15,000 l/h, i.e. 4.2 l/s. The distance between neighboring outlets could be 1 km (for 15,000/11 > 1,000 m), but a limit of 500 m will be set.
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1.3 - Work not included in the contract 1.4 - References to drawings extracted from the capital investment project
2 - Quality assurance
Service conditions for the drainage structure General provisions for controlling quality Degree of PAQ development Type of site Dealing with anomalies Quality Assurance Plan Critical points Hold points Organization of external check Organization of internal check
Geotextile certified, not certified for (destination of geotextile), inspection Geotextile characteristics to be determined: - Resistance to traction - Deformation under maximum load - Resistance to dynamic perforation - Permeability to the water normally to the plane - Filtering opening, Of, and resistance to water penetration Drains - Drain destination, drain type, hydraulic characteristics, chemical stability, stability in terms of atmospheric agents, collecting system for edge of pavement fin drain, etc. Edge of pavement fin drains - Destination of the EDRC, hydraulic characteristics, thickness, height, etc. - Prefabricated EDRC or manufactured on site. - Related geotextile (Of), draining materials, porous concrete, characteristics of draining core, material properties, hydraulic characteristics, flexibility and mechanical stability.
4.2. - Acceptance and storage of supplies and materials 4.3 - Trench execution method
- Width (depending on process adopted), depth - Preparation, opening the trench, characteristics of cavity bottom, any lagging
Appendix 5 - Bibliography
Standards:
[1] NF P 11-300: Earthworks execution. Classification for materials that may be used in the construction of fills and capping layers in road infrastructures. AFNOR, September 1992. [2] NF U 51-101: Agricultural drainage. Ringed pipes in unplasticised polyvinyl chloride. Specifications. AFNOR - December 1987. [3] XPP 18-540: Aggregates - definitions, conformity and specifications. AFNOR, October 1997. [4] NF 94-500: Geotechnical missions - classification and specifications. AFNOR, June 2000. [5] NF P 16-351: Plastics. Plastic piping systems for buried drainage. Civil engineering specification. AFNOR, July 1998. [6] NF G 38 061: Recommendations for the use of geotextiles and related products. Determination of hydraulic characteristics and laying in drainage and filtering systems. AFNOR, February 1993 (currently being revised). [7] NF EN 13252: Geotextiles and related products - required characteristics for use in drainage systems. AFNOR, November 2001. [8] CCTG travaux (General Technical Clauses for works) fascicule 2: General earthworks. AFNOR, March 2003.
Technical documents:
[9] Creating fills and capping layers - Technical guide. Fasc. 1 and 2. Stra LCPC, September 1992, Ref. D9233. [10] Common road drainage maintenance and repair - Practical guide. Stra, 1998, Ref. D9841. [11] Backfilling trenches and repairing pavements - Technical guide. Stra LCPC, 1994, Ref. D9441. [12] Edge of pavement fin drains - Technical guide. Stra LCPC, 1992, Ref. D9237. [13] Quality assurance organization in earthworks - Technical guide. Stra LCPC, 2000, Ref. D.9923. [14] Creating fills in compressible soils - Technical guide. Stra LCPC, 2000, Ref. D.0034. [15] Water and the road - systems for dealing with rainwater - volumes 3 and 7 - Stra guide, 1992, Ref. B 9741. [16] Climate characterization for pavement drainage. C. Devreton, 1997, study conducted by the Central Department for Meteorological Exploitation. Mto-France. [17] Stabilization of landslides - LCPC Technical guide - LPC technique and method, 1998. [18] Development of main roads (ARP) - Technical guide. Stra, 1994, Ref. B9668. [19] Instruction on the Technical Development Conditions for Link Motorways (ICTAAL) - Technical guide. Stra, December 2000, Ref. B0103. [20] Dealing with lateral obstacles - Technical guide. Stra, 2002, Ref. E0233.
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For information:
Law 92-3 of 3 January 1992 on water and its application decrees Assistance in choosing draining and drainage solutions for existing roads (ACSARE) - Technical guide. Stra, 1993, Ref. D9232. Designing and dimensioning pavement structures - Technical guide. Stra LCPC, 1995, Ref. D9511. Preventive maintenance of the national road network - Technical guide. Stra LCPC, 1979, Ref. D7905. Considering motorcyclists in infrastructure development and management - Technical guide. Stra CERTU, 2000, Ref. E 0026.
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SOGED : Waste Evacuation and Management Organization Scheme (Schma dOrganisation de Gestion et dvacuation des Dchets) SOPAQ : Quality Assurance Plan Organizational Scheme (Schma Organisationnel du Plan dAssurance Qualit) SDQ TPC VBS : Quality Master Plan (Schma Directeur de la Qualit) : Median (Terre-Plein Central) : methylene blue value of a soil (valeur de bleu dun sol)
6.2 - Glossary
Terms in the glossary are marked with a * in this guide. Aquifer: water-bearing zone which may be partially driven by gravity Attrition: phenomenon modifying the grading layer due to the reduced size of certain particles. It may be seen when the particles collide with each other or other obstacles. Soft verge: the non-drivable section of the shoulder, between the stabilized structures and the banks or trickle channels. Block size distribution: size of rubbly components of a material. Boiling: the boiling phenomenon is observed in certain soils when the normally upwards water pressure is likely to liquefy this soil by placing particles in suspension in water and canceling out the effective stress quicksand is an example of this phenomenon. External check: checking that the contractor's Quality Assurance Plan is applied and assessing the reliability of the internal check by the Project Engineer. Internal check: includes the internal check (by the Site Manager) and the external check (by the contractor's Quality Manager).
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d85: grading criterion determined on the particle size analysis curve: d85 is the diameter of soil components, like 85% in weight of components in this soil are less than this diameter. Cut: below the natural level of the ground Dessiccation: loss of water contained in the soil. Hydrogeological study: study providing information on the circulation of groundwaters and water table behavior. Geo-technical study: study of soils from all aspects of interest to the Civil Engineer. Dewatering: drainage water Depression: circular depression away from edge Geocomposite: manufactured assembly of materials, where at least one component is a geosynthetic product. Geospacer: three-dimensional, polymer-based structure designed to create an air space in the soil and/or other materials in the geotechnical and civil engineering fields. Geogrid: flat, polymer-based structure comprising an open, regular network of tensile strength components which may be assembled by extrusion, bonding or interweaving and where the openings are larger than the constituents. Geosynthetics: geotextile, geomembrane and related products. Honeycomb geosynthetics: three-dimensional honeycomb or similar structure, permeable, polymerbased, made up of interlinked geosynthetic strips. Geotextile: flat textile material, permeable and polymer-based (natural or synthetic) which may be unwoven, knitted or woven, used in contact with the soil or with other materials in geotechnics and civil engineering. Frost index: measurable quantity characterizing the hardness of a winter for pavement structures. It is defined as being the absolute value of the sum of average below-zero daily temperatures for a given place and period. Blue line: line depicting the water surface in a profile Red line: line depicting the surface of the pavement Karstic network: karstic phenomena are the result of limestones being dissolved by infiltration water. These phenomena manifest themselves on the surface and underground by creating networks of cavities of varying degrees of continuity and size. Subformation (below capping level): this is made up of material(s) located about 1 m below the capping layer (or below the foundation layer if there is no capping layer) Pier: vertical upright holding up the arches of a structure Formation level: flat surface on which is laid the first pavement foundation; it is the formation level for the capping layer or subformation level if there is no capping layer. Hold points: points defined in an appropriate document, beyond which an activity must not proceed without the approval of a designated organization or authority. Critical points: situations for which it has been decided to perform an internal check on a participant, with the external check being advised formally of the time of its execution and/or result. Mixed profile: cross section of the roadbed, where one side is located in fill and the other in cut. Skimming profile: cross section of the roadbed nearly at natural ground level. Fill: volume of earth brought in to fill or raise the natural ground level. Compressible soil: (or soft soil) is a soil that deforms easily such as loose sands, peats, loess, loams, soft clays and certain clay silts.
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This Road Drainage technical guide is the first methods document to encourage taking drainage needs in road works systematically in account. It suggests solutions based on the type of structure, installation, dimensioning and maintenance for new road projects, including earthworks and for existing pavements. This guide is intended for Project Engineers and Clients, managers, Design Offices and public works contractors involved in studying, creating and maintaining road drainage.
Photographers:: Alis (A28-Rouen/Alenon en construction) - Yasmina Boussafir (Cete NormandieCentre - Lrpc Blois) - Marc Valin (Cete Nord-Picardie) - Francis Vanlaethem (Cete Nord-Picardie Lrpc Lille) The Stra authorization is required for reproduction of this document (all or even part) 2007 Stra - Reference: 0743A - ISRN: EQ-SETRA--07-ED40--FR+ENG
The Stra belongs to the scientific and technical network of the French Public Work Ministry (RST)