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* http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD
Compact Disc
A Compact Disc (CD) is an optical disc
used to store digital data
The CD, available on the market in late
1982, remains the standard physical
medium for commercial audio recordings
as of 2006.
Compact Disk Physical
Details
made from a 1.2 mm thick disc of
very pure polycarbonate plastic.
A thin layer of Super Purity
Aluminium (or rarely gold, used for its
data longevity, such as in some
limited-edition audiophile CDs) is
applied to the surface to make it
reflective, which is protected by a film
of lacquer.
Compact Disc shapes and
diameters
Standard CDs are available in two
sizes:
120 mm in diameter, with a 74 or 80-
minute audio capacity and a 650 or
700 MB data capacity
80 mm discs ("Mini CDs") were originally
designed for CD singles and can hold up
to 21 minutes of music or 184 MB of
data.
CD Data Format
a block of 8-bit data transformed into
a 14-bit symbol using an error-
correction method (Hamming code)
A frame is made of 42 symbols(14
bits/symbol)
A sector is made of 96 frames
CD Data format
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HDD Anatomy I
The main parts of a hard disk are:
• Platters
• Read/Write Heads
• Head Actuator
HDD Anatomy II
*www.storagereview.com
HDD Anatomy: Platters
The platters are the actual disks inside the
drive that store the magnetized data.
They are composed of two substances:
A substrate material that forms the bulk of
the platter and gives it structure and
rigidity
A magnetic media coating which actually
holds the magnetic impulses that represent
the data
Each platter is magnetized on each side.
HDD Anatomy: Platters
(Tracks and Sectors)
Tracks are concentric circles placed on the
surface of each platter on which all
information stored on a hard disk is
recorded.
Each track is broken into smaller units called
sectors.
*www.storagereview.com
HDD Anatomy: Platters
(Cylinders)
A cylinder is the
set of all tracks
that all the
heads are
currently located
at.
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HDD Anatomy: Spindle and
Spindle Motor
The platters are clamped to a spindle
that rotates all the platters in unison.
The spindle motor is built right into
the spindle or mounted directly below
it.
The motor spins at a constant set rate
ranging from 3,600 to 10,000 RPM.
The motor is attached to a feedback
loop to ensure that it spins at
precisely the speed it is supposed to.
HDD Anatomy: Read/Write
Heads
The read/write heads are the interface
between the magnetic physical media on
which the data is stored and other electronic
components of the hard disk (and the PC).
The heads convert bits to magnetic pulses
and store them on the platters, and then
reversing the process when the data needs
to be read back.
Only one head can be active at one time.
There is one head per platter side.
HDD Anatomy: Head
Actuator Assembly
The heads are
mounted on head
sliders, which are
suspended over the
surface of the disk
at the ends of the
head arms.
The head arms are
all mechanically
fused into a single
structure that is
moved around the
surface of the disk
by the actuator.
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Data Access
Data is accessed by moving the heads
from the inner to the outer part of the
disk, driven by the head actuator.
There are several interface standards
for passing data between a hard disk
and a computer. The most common
are IDE and SCSI.
Hard Disk Performance
Specification: Seek Time
The seek time of a hard disk measures
the amount of time required for the
read/write heads to move between
tracks over the surfaces of the
platters.
3 types of seek time specification:
average, track to track, full stroke.
Hard Disk Performance
Specification: Settle Time
The settle time specification
(sometimes called settling time) refers
to the amount of time required, after
the actuator has moved the head
assembly during a seek, for the heads
to stabilize sufficiently for the data to
begin to be read.
Hard Disk Performance
Specification: Command
Overhead Time
Command overhead refers to the time
that elapses from when a command is
given to the hard disk until something
actually starts happening to fulfill the
command.
Hard Disk Performance
Specification: Latency
Latency is defined as the time it takes
to position the proper sector under the
read/write head.
The faster the disk is spinning, the
quicker the correct sector will rotate
under the heads, and the lower
latency will be.
Hard Disk Performance
Specification: Access Time
Access time in general is the time a
hard disk takes to locate a single piece
of information and make it available
for processing.
Access Time = Command Overhead
Time + Seek Time + Settle Time +
Latency
Questions & Answers
from “Monkey Book”
Overview
INPUT/OUTPUT (B.51)
- Improve efficiency of I/O
- Model I/O
CD (B.52)
- Differences among CD’s
- CD-ROM Speed
HardDisk I (B.53)
- Time Latency
B.51. INPUT/OUTPUT
a. Briefly explain at least 6 principles to
improve the efficiency of I/O!
Several principles to improve the
efficiency of I/O:
Reduce the number of context switches
Reduce the number of times that must be
copied in memory while passing between
device and application
Reduce the frequency of interrupts by using
large transfers, smart controllers and polling
(if busy waiting can be minimized)
B.51. INPUT/OUTPUT(Cont’d)
The creation Using a master disc Using a master disc No master disc No Master Disc
Reading Low laser beam Low laser beam Low laser beam Low laser beam
1 revolution = 10 ms