DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 4.6 Once the the zygote is formed, what characteristics of the offspring are determined?

The particular combination of chromosomes received from the two parents creates the genome, the total genetic pattern or script. Many characteristics are set at the moment of conception, including gender; skin color; eye color; height and weight tendencies: the development of the nervous system, organs, and glands; and in some cases physiological characteristics which will eventually appear as birth defects. Many psychologists also believe that personality tendencies can be passed from parent to child, but specific behaviors learned by the parent cannot. 4.7 Some hereditary characteristics are described as dominant, and others as recessive. What does this mean? What determines whether the characteristics are evident in the offspring? Each chromosome contains pairs of genes. The paired genes in one chromosome may or may not be alike. In general, if the pair members are not alike, one of the pair (the dominant gene) will determine the trait that appears, while the other trait (from the recessive gene) does not appear. Recessive characteristics sear only when the recessive genes from both parents are joined in the zygote. For example, eye color is determined in this way: Suppose both parents are brown-eyed but carry the blue, recessive gene. (Both parents are Bb, where B = brown and b = blue.) The children of such a couple should follow the pattern shown in Fig. 4.2

On average, three of every four children would be brown eyed. while the fourth would have blue eyes. wever. three of four could pass on the recessive characteristic to successive generations. Only one child four, the BB, would not carry the recessive gene.

4.8 Are human birth defects always the result of genetic transmission? Birth defects may be the result of hereditarily determined characteristics or an environmental condition that affects the prenatal development of the child. For example. Down syndrome (called mongolism in the past because of the shape of the eyes in these children) is caused by a chromosomal defect. Instead of inheriting the normal complement of 46 chromosomes. The child has 47 chromosomes with the extra chromosome in the twenty-first pair. The result is mental retardation and certain physical characteristics, including stubby fingers, small ears, and eyelids with an unusual configuration. The effects of some drugs (such as thalidomide) and diseases (such as German measles) also may produce birth defects. Although chromosomally correct at conception, the child is born with a defect because of environmental influences on development during the pregnancy. 4.9 suppose a couple wants advice about possible genetic problems. What kind of counseling is available? Biologists, medical doctors, and psychologists working together have developed techniques for indentifying potential genetic effects. Before a couple conceives a child, their chromosomes can be analyzed to determine whether their germ cells might carry abnormal characteristics. During pregnancy, fetal cells in the amniotic fluid of the woman can be tested for the presence or absence of abnormal chromosomes. Using such knowledge, genetic counseling allows the couple to weigh the probabilities of genetic influences on the structure and / or behavior of a child they might have. Such pre- or postconception counseling can relieve much anxiety and allow planning for eventualities the couple will experience.

4.10 Is it possible for two individuals to have exactly the same hereditary characteristics? Two or more individuals may have exactly the same hereditary characteristics, Identical twins, for example, result when a single zygote divides and, in the process, the resultant cells separate. Each separate cell continues to develop and becomes an individual. These individuals have identical hereditary characteristics. The possibility that two different conceptions will result in exactly the same hereditary characteristics is exceedingly small. The chances of such an occurrence are less than 1 in 70 trillion because of the vast number of combinations of chromosomes each parent may proside in the germ cell. 4.11 Explain the difference between identical and fraternal twins. Is it possible for identical and nonidentical siblings to be born at the same time? When a single zygote splits completely and develops as two separate individuals, identical twins are produced. Because they come from a single conception, they carry the same hereditary pattern. Fraternal twins are the result of two separate conceptions occurring at about the same time. They are independent individuals from the moment of conception and may or may not he of the same gender. Identical and nonidentical siblings may be born at the same time. For example, one highly publicized set of quintuplets consisted of three identical girls. one fraternal girl, and one fraternal boy. 4.12 What have "twin studies" shown about the likelihood of shared personality or behavioral characteristics in children who share some or all of the same hereditary characteristics? In general. it has been found *that higher proportions of shared genetic characteristics are associated with higher correlations of personality or behavioral

characteristics whether the children live together or apart. Determining whether this is a function of hereditar influence or environmental variables has proven very difficult: most psychologists believe that the effects of "nature and "nurture are interwoven. 4.13 What use do humans make of the knowledge that the characteristics of adult organisms are important in determining the characteristics of their offspring? Selective breeding of nonhuman organisms has been a common procedure for many years. The results of such breeding often yield obvious benefits, such as cows that produce more milk, thoroughbred horses that run faster, and chickens that lay more eggs. Humans usually do not practice selective breeding. Although the science of eugenics has been proposed as the way of "improving" the human species, social standards, ethical questions, and the lack of certainty about what characteristics ought to be encouraged through selective breeding have combined to discourage such practices. Note, however, that many humans are somewhat selective in choosing mates, with religious, racial, or social class preferences serving as examples of considerations that affect choices. 4.14 How do the study of evolution and the study of genetics differ? Why are psychologists interested in evolution? Genetics is the study of the transfer of characteristics from one generation to the next. Evolution looks at the gradual changes in species that occur over very long periods and may involve many generations. Understanding evolution helps psychologists comprehend the heritage of human behavior. Humans have developed unique patterns of behavior in the same way they have developed unique configurations of physiological characteristics. These patterns of behavior are species-specific and are comparable to the behavior patterns found in other organisms.

4.15 who is given creuit for initiating the study of evolution? What primary considerations were set forth in his theory? Charles Darwin, an English naturalist, published The Origin of Species in 1859. This work was the initial statement of his theory of evolution. Darwin's primary considerations were variability, in which changes in the genetic makeup of an organism lead to adaptation to the environment; adaptation, or the ability to adjust and survive within the environment: and selection, the tendency for adaptive characteristics to persist and for other characteristics to disappear. 4.16 Darwin's theory has been summarized in a single, well-known phrase. What is this phrase, and hat does it imply? The phrase often used to summarize Darwin's viewpoint is "survival of the fittest." The implication is that the characteristics that best help an organism adjust to the environment are those which persevere through natural selection and appear in succeeding generations. While the most fit characteristics continue to develop, the less fit tend to disappear. 4.17 How do ethologists conduct their research? What kinds of behaviors receive their attention? Ethologists study the behaviors of organisms in their natural habitat. Thus. ethologists employ naturalistic observation when conducting research. The behavior patterns most likely to be studied are those which are species-specific. that is, common to all the members of that species and only that species. 4.18 If a behavior pattern is called an instinct, why may it be possible for tha: behavior to be modified by conditions in the environment or to involve learning? An instinct is a species-specific predisposition for a complex behavior pattern that is completely controlled by hereditary factors. However, instincts are susceptible to environmental influences and may require learning to show they have occurred. An excellent example of instinct that illustrates both influences is

imprinting. Newly hatched ducklings or chicks will follow a moving object in the environment. although this object is usually the mother, if the baby birds are placed in an environment where the parents are absent and another moving object (for example, the researcher) is present, they learn to follow the human. Imprinting is illustrated by the following responses the birds show after being exposed to the moving stimulus. Thus, both learning and the conditions of the environment influence the expression of an instinct in all members of the species. 4.19 what is the difference between "maturation" as used in developmental psychology and being mature" as it is used popularly? Is maturation the only concern of developmental psychology? In developmental psychology. "maturation" refers specifically to physical growth, whereas "being mature" is a colloquial phrase used to describe a person (usually a child or adolescent) who acts more like an older individual than like his or her age mates. "Being mature" is not dependent on physical growth. developmental psychology includes the study of maturation processes but is more encompassing lying characteristics throughout the entire life span including physical development, cognitive development, and social development may be part of developmental psychology. 4.20 how much of the human life span is studied by developmental psychologists? As a group, developmental psychologists are concerned with the entire life span, including both prenatal and postnatal development. An individual psychologist may be interested in only a part of the life span or a single behavior within the life span. The study of developmental psychology begins at the moment of conception and continues until death.

4.21 What are the periods of prenatal development? How do they differ from one another? Three identifiable periods of prenatal development exist. The germinal period covers the first two weeks after conception. During this period, there is initial cell division but there is no physical attachment between the fertilized ovum and the mother. At the beginning of the third week attachment occurs. From then until the end of the sixth week, very rapid growth continues during what is called the embryonic period. At the end of this period, the cell development of the embryo has progressed to a point where the basic physical features of the future child are identifiable. The time from the end of the embryonic period until birth (usually about the thirty-eighth week if the pregnancy is full-term) is called the fetal period. During this time. physical growth continues at a very rapid pace, although not as rapidly as in the previous periods. 4.22 What is the age of viability? How has technology affected this age? The age of viability is the point during pregnancy at which a baby can survive if it is born prematurely. Medical technology has provided sass to sustain life for babies born in exceedingly frail states, making the age of viability much earlier in pregnancy. 4.23 Professor Graskool is interested in studying the changes in social behaviors that occur during the elementary school years. Describe the differences between longitudinal studies and cross-sectional studies performed for this purpose. If Professor Graskool conducted a longitudinal study. she would use the same children throughout the study. Assuming she started with first-grade. She would measure social behaviors at that age and then again, for the same children. during the next five years of school. The study would take nearly six years to complete but would reveal the patterns of change in a consistent group of subjects.

However, many of the children might move during the five-year period, resulting in a high dropout rate. A cross-sectional study could he conducted in a matter of weeks. Professor Graskool might test the social behaviors of all the children in an elementary school. and then compare the results obtained from the children in one grade to those of the children in the other grades. She would have to assume that the overall characteristics of each class did not differ significantly from those of the children in the other classes. Cross-sectional studies are relatively inexpensive and have a low dropout rate. Professor Graskool would have to weigh the advantages and disadvantages of each of these techniques before deciding which to use in conducting her study. 4.24 The directors of a community preschool program wish to help parents, teachers, and other adult leaders recognize those situations which encourage and those which hinder child development. To this end, they hire a developmental psychologist to speak to them. The psychologist titles the presentation "Deprivation and Enrichment." What would be the basic points of the talk? The psychologist points out that deprivation means "doing without" and that research studies have shown that depriving children of opportunities to develop usually results in an incomplete or reduced level of accomplishment. The psychologist indicates that all children should be supported so that motor. cognitive, and social skills will develop. For example, the psychologist may suggest that the parents not use "baby talk" when speaking to their children. ("Baby talk" deprives children of the chance to hear and learn from models of standard language.) The talk continues with the suggestion that something more than minimal support may be very beneficial for children. The psychologist refers to this as enrichment of the environment and informs the audience about the vast potentials children have that may be developed if opportunities exist. The caution is given

that heredity may place some limits on the characteristics that will develop, but the benefits of enrichment are stressed. The psychologist may suggest, for example, that storytelling and conversational activities be provided to give children opportunities to develop their verbal skills.