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Social Work Education

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Social Work Education in Nepal: Major Opportunities and Abundant Challenges

Bala Raju Nikku

Online publication date: 05 November 2010

To cite this Article Nikku, Bala Raju(2010) 'Social Work Education in Nepal: Major Opportunities and Abundant

Challenges', Social Work Education, 29: 8, 818 830 To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/02615479.2010.516984 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02615479.2010.516984

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Social Work Education Vol. 29, No. 8, December 2010, pp. 818830

Social Work Education in Nepal: Major Opportunities and Abundant Challenges

Bala Raju Nikku

This paper discusses the evolution of social work education in Nepal. The history of social work education and training in Nepal is rather nascent. Imparting social work education and training is a challenging task in Nepal due to the ongoing political instability, multicultural issues and lack of social work educators, and the lack of a professional association, in addition to the lack of government recognition for the social work profession in the country. The paper is divided into four sections. After a general introduction, Section 2 discusses the evolution of social work education in the context of the development of higher education in Nepal. The paper describes Nepal and its changing social context, the challenges for social work and how social work education is meeting these challenges. Nepals efforts to realize indigenous and international practices of social work education are discussed in the third section. The paper indenties these gaps and a Nepalese model of social work is presented in Section 4. The paper is written on the basis of the authors personal narrative of many years work in Nepal in order to start a discussion on indigenous and international social work perspectives along with challenges for social work education in the context of the current global climate of social, political and economic changes in order to draw lessons for Nepal and South Asia. Keywords: Social Work Education; Nepal; South Asia; Indigenous Social Work; International Social Work

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1. Introduction Since the beginning of the twentieth century, social work education has grown worldwide, including throughout the South Asia Region. The imperatives of the internationalization of social work education and indigenous practice methods and research are both

Correspondence to: Bala Raju Nikku, Head, Department of Social Work, Kadambari Memorial College of Science and Management, Purbanchal University Afliate, Kathmandu, Nepal. Tel.: 00977-9851004578. Email: nikku21@yahoo.com, www.nepalschoolofsocialwork.org

ISSN 0261-5479 print/1470-1227 online q 2010 Taylor & Francis DOI: 10.1080/02615479.2010.516984

Social Work Education 819

challenging and rewarding. The communication revolution not only made the world into a global village, it has also resulted in a digital divide. While addressing these global and local challenges, social work today is rightly striving to become an international profession. In one form or another, social work is taught and practiced in most of the regions and countries of the world, but one needs to realize that
the universality of social work does not mean that the pattern of social works organisation, roles, and elds of service, modes of educational preparation or degree of social recognition are uniform throughout the world . . . Yet there are impressive commonalities in the professions roles and functions. (Hokenstad et al., 1992, p. 181)

Gray et al. (2008) have claimed that twenty-rst century social work represents a number of parallel and related discourses that co-exist, which many social work educators are unaware of (see Table 1). Midgley (1990, 1997) described international social work as a two way street. Professor Midgley might have meant that social work educators who are involved in international issues (like human trafcking) have beneted by learning from their international partners and vice versa. Asamoah et al. (1997) argued that despite the increasing global changes, the social work curriculum in many parts of the world remains narrowly focused on domestic perspectives. Thus a rst step toward preparing students for practice in the new millennium is the internationalization of the social work curriculum (cited from Johnson, 2004, p. 7). Xu (2006) has argued that while social work educators and researchers have thoroughly discussed and dened international social work, and have documented the importance of internationalizing social work, they have focused very little on the international social work practice involved in real world settings (p. 680). International social work is dened as international professional practice and the capacity for international action by the social work profession and its members (see Cox and Pawar, 2006). In addition, there are debates over the international and local standards of social work education and practice. Sungkawan (2009) argues that
in order to set standards of social work education and practice, one needs to recognize the concept of cross-cultural social work or international social work. The concept allows us to view social work education and practice could be transferable among countries with different cultures. (p. 118)

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Lyons (1999) analyses the development of international social work, both as offering an important perspective on practice at the local level and as a distinct form of cross-border and supra-national activity. The literature on indigenization in social work, which is essentially about importing social work from the West to the rest of the world, supports Midgleys notion of professional imperialism. Some authors have nevertheless argued about whether social work practice can be truly international in nature (Drucker, 2003; Webb, 2003). Indigenization and indigenous social work are not the same but two separate discourses. The politics of international social work play out as Western perspectives continue to dominate and local cultures continue to resist the onslaught, as is evident in the statement by Gray and others (2008) that Localization is the antithesis of

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B.R. Nikku Parallel and Related Discourses in Social Work

International Emerging Cross social work discourse on cultural; social work with culturally immigrants sensitive; and refugees cultural competence, and rest in the West Anti-oppressive discourse on non-dominant and minority cultures

Table 1

Indigenization Indigenous West to the rest social work: sovereignty, land, cultural, and human rights, and decolonization discourses Source: Gray et al. (2008).

internationalization. Indigenous social work is essentially about the development of culturally relevant social work for, with and by indigenous peoples. Taking these discourses as its framework, this paper presents the evolution of social work education, opportunities and challenges in Nepal to further strengthen the social work profession there.
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2. Evolution of Higher Education and Social Work Education in Nepal 2.1. Nepal: A Land Locked Country in Transition Nepal is one of the poorest countries in the world with about 27 million people. It is a country of ethnic, linguistic and cultural minorities; a country of 82 languages, 100 castes and ethnic groups, and 10 religions. Out of 75 districts, certain ethnic groups have a relative majority in 14 districts, whereas no particular group has a majority in the remaining 61 districts (Shrestha, 2009). The country has gone through a series of transitions and is currently rewriting its constitution. The hope is that the new federal state will address the issues of inclusion, decentralization, balanced and sustainable regional development and a sense of national unity. This context provides ample opportunities and challenges for a young profession like social work to take root in Nepal. 2.2. Development of Higher Education in Nepal The development of higher education gained momentum in Nepal only in 1951 as it entered its rst democratic era. Until then access to higher education was restricted to a few elite families. Nepal had only two colleges in 1952 but, three years later, the number had increased to 14; a total of 915 students and 86 teachers attended. The situation changed after 1951 and several government and private colleges were established (Hachhethu, 2004). The situation in the higher education sector has further changed after the restoration of multi-party democracy in 1990. The opening and expansion of new universities and research organizations outside the purview of both the government and Tribhuwan University had a crucial impact on the development of education in general and social sciences in particular. The post-1990 period witnessed the mushrooming of private research centers and NGOs due to the availability of foreign funds (Hachhethu, 2004, p. 229). In this context of higher education in Nepal, a young profession like social

Social Work Education 821

work began to grow due to the initiation of a few committed individuals and colleges afliated to universities in Nepal. 2.3. Evolution of Social Work Education in Nepal This section discusses the evolution of social work education in Nepal over the last one and half decades. Currently, three universities out of ve, i.e. Tribhuwan, Kathmandu and Purbanchal universities, have given permission to their afliated colleges to offer social work programs. Table 2 provides a brief idea of the evolution of higher education in Nepal. The evolution of higher education in Nepal suggests that access for the masses was only realized after the beginning of democracy in 1990. The growing number of international agencies, increasing poverty, regional imbalances, and the need for professional social workers might have inuenced the initiation of the rst bachelors program in social work in 1996 under the aegis of Kathmandu University. This was the only Bachelor of Arts in Social Work program in the whole of the country, until 2005 when Purbanchal University initiated a Bachelor of Social Work (BSW) program at Kadambari College and a Masters in Social Work (MSW) program at St Xaviers College. Kadambari College became a member of the APASWE in 2007 and of IASSW in 2010. Since 2005 the Master of Social Work (MSW) degree from Purbanchal University has been offered at St Xaviers college and is afliated to Purbanchal University. This college has also offered a BA in Social Work degree since 1996 and a one year Post Graduate Degree in Social Work initiated in 2010, both recognized by the Kathmandu University. Ten afliated colleges of Tribhuwan University currently offer Bachelor of Arts with social work as a major subject. Both Purbanchal and Katmandu universities offer a three year, semester and credit based social work program, whereas the Tribhuwan University offers an annual and non-credit based examination system. The minimum qualication to enter a bachelors program is completion of a higher secondary degree (12 years of education) from a recognized institution. All these afliated colleges are located in Kathmandu, the capital city of Nepal, and are thus not accessible to those living outside the city. There was some effort made to introduce social work at the higher secondary level so as to spread social work education far and wide throughout the school system. However, this proposal has not yet been accepted.1 3. Opportunities and Challenges for Social Work Education and Practice in Nepal

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3.1. Historical Roots Social work in Nepal can be traced back through many forms of voluntary work by religious and cultural institutions such as guthi (clan based association), dharmashala (free residences for the poor) and patipauwa (public resting place) in Nepal. Alms giving to the poor and disabled is widely practiced even today. This practice is rooted in the concept of Dan (charity) in order to please the gods and to seek a better life both at present and in the next life.

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Table 2 Important Policy Milestones in the Evolution of Higher Education and Social Work in Nepal
Year 1953 1955 1959 Policy development Formation of the Education Committee The National Education Planning Commission (NEPC) was created Tribhuwan University (TU) was established Main focus The committee stressed a need to formulate a national plan for introducing changes in national education A major breakthrough was made in the development of education sector National Education Planning Commission (NEPC) played an important role in the establishment of TU. Major purpose was to meet Nepals requirements for skilled human resources Political changes took place in the country The commission reviewed the basic features of the National Education System. As a result, in 1982 the Mahendra Sanskrit University was established 11.7% growth rate registered 10.5% growth rate registered. In 1971 the number of students enrolled in higher education was 17,000 which increased to 103,290 in the year 2000 Political changes took place due to rst Jana Andolan (peoples movement) in 1990. The commissions objectives were to give a new direction to the education system in the changed context of the country following the restoration of multi-party democracy Kathmandu University, a private university, receives state funding The rst BA in social work program introduced at St Xaviers College with an afliation from Kathmandu University. Technical support extended by Nirmala Niketan School of Social Work in India Tribhuwan University introduced social work as one of the two major courses at BA level. The course is offered at Padmakanya Campus with access available to women students only Located in Birat Nagar with the idea to serve students from the Eastern development region of Nepal. Currently this university provides afliations with about 100 colleges spread all over Nepal (continued)

1960 1981

Comprehensive Education Committee was formed A Royal Higher Education Commission was appointed Compared to other levels of education, higher education expanded most rapidly Higher education registered as the fastest growing sector National Education Commission (NEC) was created

1980s
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1990s

1992

1992 1996

Formation of Kathmandu University Introduction of BA in Social Work program at afliated college of Kathmandu University

1997

Introduction of social work as a major subject

1996

Formation of Purbanchal University

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1997 Formation of Pokhara University Located in Pokhara with the idea to serve the western region. The idea of Pokhara University was conceived in 1986 but it was established only in 1997 under the Pokhara University Act, 1997 These courses were introduced at afliated colleges of Purbanchal University

2005

Introduction of Bachelor of Social Work (BSW) and Master of Social Work (MSW) at afliated colleges of Purbanchal University

Source: adapted from Nikku (2009).

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In addition to cultural and religious practices, social reforms initiated during the 1950s have had a profound impact on current social work practice in Nepal. The Nepal Gandhi Charka Pracharak Trust was founded by Tulsi Meher, known as Gandhi of Nepal, in the 1950s. Its importance for social organizations and voluntary institutions was felt with the launching of National Development Plans beginning in 1956. The initiation of the Social Service Act in 1978 and the establishment of the Social Service National Co-ordination Council (SSNCC), now known as the Social Welfare Council, were important milestones in Nepal. After the restoration of multi-party democracy in 1990 many non-governmental organizations were begun by different individuals. They were known as social workers though they did not have degrees in social work. However, since the start of social work education in 1996 there is now a distinction made between professionally trained social workers (known as professional social workers or trained social workers) and those who do not possess degrees in social work, who are known as social service practitioners. This distinction is yet to be recognized by the state.

3.2. Diversity in Social Work Curricula The social work curricula developed over a period of time under three different universities in Nepal show evidence of indigenous efforts to train social workers who are relevant for Nepal and its growing needs. Past reports suggest that Nirmala Niketan School of Social Work in India helped St Xaviers college in Nepal to prepare a three year Bachelor of Social Work program, which was subsequently approved by Kathmandu University in 1996. Similarly Tribhuwan University Curriculum Development Centre renamed their major course, which originally had the title social service as social work and added supervised eld-work hours as a requirement. In 2005, Purbanchal University created a subject committee to prepare the social work curricula for both bachelors and masters programs. The subject committee (the author of this paper is a member of this committee) was aware of the discourses on indigenous and Western models of social work and utilized the opportunity to reect on such models. After many discussions and debates, a curriculum that is suitable for the countrys current needs was prepared and approved by the university (see the Appendix). Analysis of the three social work curricula shows that Purbanchal University adopted a social

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development model based on rights-based social work, Kathmandu University focused on clinical social work and Tribhuwan University concentrated more on social service. The social work curriculum of Purbanchal University shifted from a clinical social work focus to a rights-based model. This social work curriculum would serve as the rst comprehensive resource available in the country for other colleges, training centers, government and non-government organizations for the planning and programming of rights-based training in Nepal and beyond. The course structure, including the relevant principles, guidelines and references, could be easily adapted to the specic situations on the ground and the target groups to be trained. To provide further evidence of this, the subject committee members invited practitioners, researchers and academics to provide their inputs and views on the social work curriculum. As a result, child rights professionals from Save the Children Sweden and government ofcials from the Central Child Welfare Board (CCWB) provided inputs on preparing and inducting courses such as Child Rights and Juvenile Justice and Family and Social Work. Further links were established with other donor agencies. As a result Save the Children commissioned two studies and published the research, which strengthened the research capacities of the social work faculty and enhanced their contribution to teaching (Nikku and Karkara, 2006; Nikku et al., 2006). The above process suggests that the diversity of social work curricula in Nepal keeps the core values of social work in focus whilst providing opportunities to further indigenize social work teaching in the best interests of students. At the same time, the lack of coherence and the absence of a Council on Social Work Education has led to confusion and different quality standards among the schools of social work. 3.3. Recognition for the Social Work Profession and Professionals The lack of formal recognition for professional social workers by the government is a major issue. However, due to years of lobbying by child welfare organizations, the Children Act states that, in cases dealing with children in conict with the law, a social worker has to be present along with a psychologist and a judge. The act is, however, silent in its denition of who is a social worker. There are not many social work positions that are legally recognized (e.g. medical social workers or school social workers). Graduate social workers cannot even compete for many government jobs, as the training is not yet recognized by the Service Commission of Nepal. There is a need to create a National Association of Social Workers of Nepal which could be a registered union of social workers. This union could then negotiate with the government to recognize the profession and also to protect the rights of social workers and ensure accountability. 3.4. Nepal Council of Social Work Education (NCSWE) The lack of an agreed-upon curriculum and its enforcement by a Council or similar professional body is a major issue in a transition country like Nepal. As explained in an earlier section, there are three universities offering a social work course in their

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afliated colleges which each have their own focus and quality standards. A crosssectional analysis of the curricula shows a huge variation in terms of composition and approaches to social work education and eld practicum. To achieve minimum standards and to ensure the quality of social work training, the formation of a Council of Social Work Education in Nepal is urgently needed. The Department of Social Work at Kadambari College has made a request to the University Grants Commission of Nepal to take the lead in forming such a body. Once such a body has been formed and is active in Nepal, the colleges offering social work courses will have to collaborate and improve their teaching standards. This body will also help to lobby the state authorities to create designated social work jobs in various service sectors. 3.5. Building Alliances The schools of social work in Nepal are trying hard to build alliances with the media, universities, bureaucrats, donors and with other schools of social work globally. Social work educators have realized that building alliances is an important feature of the internationalization of social work in Nepal; however, an association of schools of social work in Nepal is yet to take shape. 3.5.1. Celebrating World Social Work Day to raise public awareness In 2008 and 2010 various colleges offering social work courses came together under the leadership of Kadambari College and implemented different activities to mark the World Social Work Day celebrations. The objectives were to share and publicize the work of the social work students and faculty in these colleges and to build solidarity among different stakeholders. Another objective was the translation of international social work values into local practices. The global theme for the 2010 day was Making Human Rights Real: The Social Work Agenda. Under this broad international theme the social work colleges in Nepal came up with a theme entitled Social Work in Nepal: Quest for Identity. The organizing committee was able to bring the Minister for Education to the inaugural ceremony and a member of the National Human Rights Commission of Nepal for the closing ceremony. In addition, the committee sought support from many organizations and as a result Nepal Scouts, a national organization (established in 1952), and TDH Foundation, an international organization, came forward and supported different activities. The committee also received a message from David Jones, the President of the IFSW, expressing solidarity and wishing Nepali social workers success in their endeavors.
I am very pleased to send the greetings of the International Federation of Social Workers (IFSW) to social workers in Nepal and my best wishes for a successful Conference. I am well aware of the social challenges faced by the people of Nepal but also the great beauty of your country! I have own over your country several times but hope to be able to visit you on the ground one day . . . Please accept my best wishes for this World Social Work Day 2010. I hope that the conference helps to strengthen the profession in Nepal, enabling you to celebrate this day with dignity

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and condence, motivated by a commitment to make human rights real and to build the social work agenda for a condent professional future. (Dr David N. Jones, IFSW President, Northampton, UK, 10 March 2010)

One of the reviewers of this paper has raised an important question that:
Nepalese colleagues and youngsters have made a timely and strategic use of ritual activities to promote social work. This leads to a question as to whether social work students are equipped with both the traditional and modern intellectual resources to initiate the collective expression of solidarity? Examples to promote public awareness at the grassroots level are important illustrations of indigenizing efforts which are culturally relevant and effective to produce changes.

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The above observations made by the reviewer of this paper are relevant. The timing of 2010 World Social Work Week (16 19 March 2010) in Nepal interestingly coincided with the historical and socio, economic and political changes that were taking place in the country. At that moment the lawmakers of the Constituent Assembly were working to re-write the constitution for the republic of Nepal. Taking this opportunity the committee presented a signed appeal and a draft social work policy paper to the Honorable Member of the National Human Rights Commission of Nepal, Mr Gauri Pradhan, to recommend that the Nepal government develop a social work policy which will regulate the conduct of social workers, secure their rights and bring recognition to social work as a profession. 3.6. Many Voices but One Vision As is evident, since social work education in Nepal is controlled by a few universityafliated colleges, there are different views regarding ways to strengthen social work education there. Few are of the opinion that social work education in a country like Nepal should be based on the countrys priorities and should not import Western models. Some scholars state that social work education is conned to students from elite families and is only available in Kathmandu city, and hence social work education should be offered as a course within higher secondary education to provide access to a wider audience. Interviews with social work graduate students suggest that social work in Nepal should meet international standards and criteria so that they can gain employment even in developed countries. Interviews conducted with different stakeholders and speeches at different occasions suggest that there are diverse views but the common goal is to craft a vibrant social work profession in Nepal by creating opportunities for social work education in different universities. 4. Conclusion and Way Forward The world is linked in many ways that are difcult to separate. Professional social work in Nepal is in its infancy and is linked with both international and local events. Social work must be seen as a new, developing and relevant profession in/for Nepal. Thus social work educators, practitioners, and policy makers must dene and develop the profession within both the changing economic and political environment in the

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country and changing international trends in human services. The timeline of social work education in Nepal suggests that indigenous and international social work practices are not isolated perspectives but are complementary to each other, as in the case of Nepal in crafting its own model of social work education and practice within the South Asian Region. The Nepalese experience suggests the use of a two way street as mentioned by Professor Midgley. The activities that are being implemented are rooted both in local and international spaces, not as sporadic events but as strategies to strengthen the social work profession in Nepal. Further growth of the social work profession in Nepal will be a function of the traditions, aspirations and political transitions that are inuencing the roles and functions of trained social workers. Under-utilization of social work talent due to its low societal recognition in the country will have an impact on the overall development of the profession. On the positive side, social work education has begun but it is yet to gain a full university-level educational status. The paper concludes that there is an urgent need for self-reection among trained social workers, practitioners and policy makers. A critical evaluation of current social work training is urgently needed. Social work training in Nepal should progress from clinical and community development approaches of social work to macro social work issues using rights-based approaches. The rationale is that the traditional individual centered model of social work practice is only of limited relevance in poor, conictstricken and transitional countries like Nepal. 4.1. In Search of a Nepalese Model of Social Work Nepal is a land-locked country which has suffered from a recent decade-long Maoist insurgency and many decades of autocratic and monarchical regimes. Due to social, economic, political and cultural transitions, every sector in the country has been affected directly or indirectly. Children, women, elder citizens and persons with disabilities have become the most vulnerable. To address this, social work education needs to prepare social workers who are equipped with appropriate skills. Signicant challenges are ahead but ample opportunities are also in hand. It is too early to claim a Nepalese model of social work. The broader aim is to develop such a model based on both indigenous and international social work as two pillars to create robust social work education and training opportunities in Nepal. Social work educators in Nepal, though few in number, are condent that social work as a profession will ourish. They have been constantly reecting on a model that is suitable for Nepal. As a result, in addition to the core courses of social work, courses like child rights, family and social work, and law and social work were included in the Bachelor of Social Work course curriculum of Purbanchal University. The guiding principle behind this inclusion is the belief that the traditional individual centered model of social work practice is only of limited relevance in poverty- and conict-stricken countries like Nepal. The efforts to internalize the indigenous and international approaches of social work in Nepal can be justied on the basis that social work is and should be a contextual profession.

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Social work as a young profession in South Asia certainly requires new orientations, directions, solutions and actions to become more effective in meeting the ever-growing challenges in the region. There is a need for the integration of new ideas, concepts and knowledge into social work training. It will take time for social work in Nepal to grow and mature, but the help of the international social work community will go a long way to ensuring this. Social work educators in Nepal do not need to reinvent the wheel but should continue to develop high practice standards and professional identity. I conclude that promotion of social work education and practices should not only be the concerns of colleges and universities within Nepal but should also concern other academic institutions, and more importantly international associations like the International Association of Schools of Social Work (IASSW), the International Council on Social Welfare (ICSW) and the International Federation of Social Workers (IFSW) and regional associations like the Asian and Pacic Association for Social Work Education (APASWE) and the International Consortium for Social DevelopmentAsia Pacic (ICSDAP). These international and regional organizations can play a vital role in strengthening indigenous social work models in countries like Nepal, and can facilitate their internationalization. Healy (2008) writes that although indigenization has increased local variations in method and increased attention to local problems, globalization has heightened professionals awareness of common issues and increased opportunities for communication and exchange (p. 201). The evidence suggests that countries like Nepal can and should benet from crafting an indigenous and international model of social work education. The justication for this model of social work is based on the fact that social work is and should be an indigenous and an international profession. For the few social work educators that are working in Nepal teaching social work is a science, an art form and a passion (East and Chambers, 2007).

Acknowledgements This paper is a revised version of the paper presented at the National Conference on Professional Social Work in India: Contributions to Welfare and Development, organized by the Department of Social Work, Bharathidasan University, Khajamalai, Tamil Nadu, India on 11--12 February 2010.

Note
[1] The Department of Social Work at Kadambari College submitted a proposal in 2009 to include a course on social work under the higher secondary (10 2) system managed by the Higher Secondary Education Board of Nepal. The Higher Secondary Education Board (HSEB) was established in 1989 under the Higher Secondary Education Act. The report of the Nepal National Commission of Education (1992) reiterated the earlier recommendation to include the 10 2 program in the education system, and also viewed it as the rst step towards specialization.

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References
Asamoah, Y., Healy, L. & Mayadas, N. (1997) Ending the international domestic dichotomy: new approaches to a global curriculum for the millennium, Journal of Social Work Education, vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 389 401. Cox, D. & Pawar, M. (2006) International Social Work: Issues, Strategies, and Programmes, Vistaar Publications, New Delhi, India. Drucker, D. (2003) Whither international social work? A reection, International Social Work, vol. 46, no. 1, pp. 53 81. East, J. & Chambers, R. (2007) Courage to teach for social work educators, Social Work Education, vol. 26, no. 8, pp. 810 826. Gray, M., Coates, J. & Yellow Bird, M. (2008) Indigenous Social Work around the World. Towards Culturally Relevant Education and Practice, Ashgate, Burlington, VT. Hachhethu, K. (2004) Political science in Nepal, Studies in Nepali History and Society, vol. 9, no. 2, Mandala, Kathmandu. Healy, M. L. (2008) International Social Work: Professional Action in an Interdependent World, Oxford University Press, USA. Hokenstad, M. C., Khinduka, S. K. & Midgley, J. (1992) Social work today and tomorrow: an international perspective, in Proles in International Social Work, eds M. C. Hokenstad et al., NASW Press, Washington, DC, Chapter 13. Johnson, K. A. (2004) Increasing the level of internationalisation in social work programs: the use of Healys continuum as strategic guide, International Social Work, vol. 47, no. 1, pp. 7 24. Lyons, K. (1999) International Social Work: Themes and Perspectives, Ashgate, Aldershot. Midgley, J. (1990) International social work: learning from the third world, Social Work, vol. 35, no. 4, pp. 95 301. Midgley, J. (1997) Social Work in a Global Context, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA. Nikku, B. R. (2009) Social work education in South Asia: a Nepalese perspective, in Social Work Education: Voices from the Asia Pacic, eds C. Noble et al., The Vulgar Press, Australia, Chapter 16, pp. 341 362. Nikku, B. R. & Karkara, R. (2006) Child Rights: An Annotated Bibliography with Reference to South Asia, Nepal, Save the Children Sweden, Nepal. Nikku, B. R., Sah, N., Karkara, R. & Sibghatullah, A. (2006) Child Rights Perspective in Response to Natural Disasters in South Asia: A Retrospective Study, Save the Children Sweden, Nepal. Shrestha, S. (2009) Nepals multi-ethnic future: a purely ethnicity-based federal structure will not work, Nepali Times, no. 443, pp. 20 26 March, Kathmandu. Sungkawan, D. (2009) Towards Asian social work standards in education and practice, in Towards Asian Social Work Standards in Education and Practice, Social Work Research Institute, Japan College of Social Work. Webb, S. (2003) Local orders and global chaos in social work, European Journal of Social Work, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 191 204. Xu, Q. (2006) Dening international social work: a social service agency perspective, International Social Work, vol. 49, no. 6, pp. 679 692.

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Appendix
Table A1 BSW Curriculum, Purbanchal University
Semester II (15 credits) Introduction to Nepali Society (INS 123) (3 credits) Social Case Work and Social Group WorkII (SCG 123) (3 credits) Community Organisation (COM 123) (3 credits) Academic English (ACE 122) (2 credits) Neighbourhood Camp (NHC 121) (1 credit) Social Work Practicum and Skills Lab (3 credits) (SWP 123) Semester IV (15 credits) Social Work Research (SWR 243) (3 credits) Rural and Urban Community Development (RUD 243) (3 credits) Family and Social Work (FSW 242) (2 credits) Development Communication (Lab) DEC 242 (2 credits) Rural Camp (RUC 232) (2 credits) Social Work Practicum and Skills Lab (SWP 243) (3 credits) Semester VI (15 credits) Social Work in Industry (SWI 362) (2 credits) Juvenile Justice (JJS 362) (2 credits) Research Dissertation and Seminar (RDS 366) (6 credits) Block Field Work (BFW 363) (2 credits) Social Work Practicum and Skills Lab (SWP 362) (3 credits)

Semester I (15 credits) History and Philosophy of Social Work (HPS 112) (2 credits) Sociology for Social Work (SSW 113) (3 credits) Social Case Work and Social Group WorkI (SCG 113) (3 credits) Human Growth and Behaviour (HGB 113) (3 credits) Academic English (ACE 112) (2 credits) Social Work Practicum and Skills Lab (SWP 112) (2 credits) Semester III (15 credits) Psychiatric Social Work (PSW 233) (2 credits) Social Welfare Administration (SWA 233) (3 credits) Social Action (SOA 233) (2 credits) Child Rights (CHR 232) (2 credits) Nepali (NEP 233) (3 credits) Social Work Practicum and Skills Lab (SWP 233) (3 credits) Semester V (15 credits) Social Development (SOD 352) (3 credits) Management of Voluntary Organisations (MVO 353) (3 credits) Law and Social Work (LSW 352) (2 credits) Introduction to Gender Studies (IGS 352) (2 credits) Urban Study Camp (UCS 352) (2 credits) Social Work Practicum and Skills Lab (SWP 343) (3 credits)

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