Chapter one

Fundamentals of Cutting
1.1 Introduction Parts manufactured by casting, forming, and shaping processes, often require further operations before the product is ready for use. Moreover, in many engineering applications, parts must be interchangeable to function properly and reliably during their expected service lives, as in case of automobile parts. Thus we have to obtain certain dimensional accuracy. Machining is the broad term used to describe removal of material from a workpiece in the form of chips. In terms of annual dollars spent, machining is the most important of the manufacturing processes. Machining is necessary where tight tolerances on dimensions and surface finishes are required. We can summarize why material-removal processes are desirable or even necessary in Closer dimensional accuracy may be required than is available from casting, forming, or shaping processes alone; Parts may have external and internal profiles, as well as sharp corners and flatness, that cannot be produced by forming and shaping processe; Some parts are heat treated for improved hardness and wear resistance. Since heat treated parts may undergo distortion and surface discoloration, they generally require additional finishing operations, such as grinding, to obtain the desired final dimensions and surface finish. Machining the part may be more economical than manufacturing it by other processes, particularly if the number of parts desired is relatively small. Against these advantages, material-removal processes have certain limitations: Removal processes inevitably waste material and generally require more energy, capital, and labor than forming and shaping operations. Thus they should be avoided whenever possible. Removing a volume of material from a workpiece generally takes longer time than it does to shape it by other processes; manufacturing operations as follows:

Unless carried out properly, material-removal processes can have adverse effects on the surface quality and properties of the product. 1.2 The mechanism of cutting

Cutting processes remove material from the surface of a workpiece by producing chips. In order to analyze this process in detail, Fig.1.1 presents the basic geometry of two-dimensional chip formation. The model is two-dimensional for simplicity.

Fig.1.1 Schematic illustration of a two dimensional cutting process (orthogonal cutting).

The material immediately in front of the tool is bent upward and is compressed in a narrow zone of shear which is shaded on the drawing above. For most analyses, this shear area can be simplified to a plane. As the tool moves forward, the material ahead of the tool passes through this shear plane. If the material is ductile, fracture will not occur and the chip will be in the form of a continuous ribbon. If the material is brittle, the chip will periodically fracture and separate chips will be formed. It is within the shear zone that gross deformation of the material takes place which allows the chips to be removed. The chips are produced by the shearing process and that shearing takes place along a shear zone, which is usually reffered to as the shear plane. Below the shear plane the workpiece is

undeformed, and above it is the chip, already formed and moving up the face of the tool as cutting progresses. Next we can begin to consider cutting forces, chip thicknesses, etc. First, consider the physical geometry of cutting (Fig.1.2):

where, t1 = undeformed chip thickness; t2 = deformed chip thickness (usually t2 > t1);

= tool rake angle.

If we are using a lathe, t1 is the feed per revolution.
Fig.1.2 Schematic illustration of the basic mechanism of chip formation in cutting.

In the Fig.1.3 are illustrated basic types of chips produced in metal cutting.

Fig.1.3 Basic categories of chips.

Continuous chips (Fig.1.3 -1) are usually formed with ductile materials at high cutting speeds and/or high rake angle. A built-up edge (BUE) may form at the tip of the tool during cutting (Fig.1.3 - 4). This edge consists of layers of material from the workpiece that are gradually deposited on the tool (hence the trem built-up). As it become larger, the BUE becomes unstable and eventually breaks up. Part of the BUE material is carried away by the tool side of the chip; the rest is deposited randomily on the workpiece surface. The process of BUE formation and destruction is repeated continuously during the cutting operation. A built-up edge, in effect, changes the geometry of the cutting edge. Because of work hardening and deposition of successive layers of material, BUE hardness increases significantly. Although BUE is generally undesirable, a thin, stable BUE is usually regarded as desirable because it protects the tools surface and reduce wear. As cutting speed increases, the size of the BUE decreases or, it doesnt form at all. The tendency for BUE to form is also reduced by decreasing the depth of cut, increasing the rake angle, and using a sharp tool and an effective cutting fluid.

Serrated chips (also called segmented or nonhomogeneous chips), are semicontinuous chips, with zones of long and high shear strain (Fig.1.3 -5). Metals with low thermal conductivity and strength that decreases sharply with temperature, such as titanium, exhibit this behaviuor. The chip have a sawtooth like appearance. Discontinuous chips, consist of segments that may be firmly or loosely attached to each other (Fig.1.3 -6). Discontinuous chips usually form under the following conditions: - brittle workpiece materials, because they do not have the capacity to undergo the high shear strains developed in cutting; - workpiece materials that contain hard inclusions and impurities or have structures such as graphite flakes in gray cast iron; - very low or very high cutting speeds; - large depths of cut and low rake angles;

1.3 Chip breakers As stated earlier, long chips are undesirable because they tend to become entangled and interfere with cutting operations and can become a safety hazard. This situation is especially troublesome in high-speed automated machinery and in untended machining cells using computer numerically controlled machines. If all the independent machining variables are under control, the usual procedure to avoid this situation is to break the chip intermittently with a chip braker (Fig.1.4).

Fig.1.4 Chipbreakers, as part of the insert geometry, are designed to work at different feed/depth of cut areas.

Chip can also be broken by changing the tool geometry, thus controlling chip flows, as in the turning operations shown in Fig. 1.5.

Fig.1.5 Chips are broken on their own accord (A), against the tool (B) or against the workpiece (C).

In interrupted cutting operations, such as milling, chip breakers are generally not necessary, since the chips already have finite lengths resulting from the intermittent nature of the operation. In drilling and boring, chip control is vital because of the limited space inside holes being machined. Also in modern high-performance drilling, chips have to be of exact form so as to be evacuated efficiently from the cutting zone - any congestion, quickly leads to tool breakdown. 1.4 Force calculations Knowledge of the forces and power involved in cutting operations is important for the following reasons: a) Power requirements must be known to enable the selection of a machine tool with adequate power; Data on cutting forces is required for: The proper design of machine tools to avoid excessive distortion of the machine

elements and maintain the desired tolerances for the finished part, tooling and toolholders, and workholding devices. b) To determine, in advance of actual production, if the workpiece is capable of withstanding the cutting forces without excessive distortions.

The forces acting on the tool in orthogonal cutting are shown in Fig1.6.

where, Fc = cutting force; Ft = tangential force; R = resultant of Fc and Ft.

where, F = friction force between tool and chip; N = normal force between tool and chip.
Fig.1.6 Forces acting on a cutting tool in two dimensional cutting.

The cutting force Fc acts in the direction of the cutting speed and supplies the energy required for cutting. The tangential force Ft acts in the direction normal to the cutting velocity, that is, perpendicular to the workpiece. These two forces produce the resultant force R. The resultant force can be resolved into two components on the tool face: a friction force F along the tool-chip interface, and a normal force N perpendicular to it. The forces and angles involved in cutting are drawn below (Fig.1.7):

where, Fs = shear force; Fn = force normal to shear plane;

= tool rake angle (positive as

shown);
Fig.1.7 Forces and angles in cutting mechanism.

= friction angle.

The resultant force is balanced by an equal and opposite force along the shear plane and is resolved into a shear force, Fs , and a normal force, Fn. The shear force Fs can be expressed as follows: Fs =Fccos -Ftsin and Fn = Fcsin +Ftcos where is the shear angle, and The resultant force is: F = Ftcos +Fcsin (1.3) (1.2) (1.1)

is tool rake angle.

The ratio of F to N is the coefficient of friction at the tool-chip interface, and cab be expressed as:
=

Ft + Fc tan F = Fc Ft tan N

(1.4)

where 8

N = Fccos - Ftsin

(1.5)

A final note, the forces Fc and Ft, are used to find R, from that two other sets of equivalent forces are found:
R = Fc2 + Ft 2 = Fs2 + Fn2 = F 2 + N 2

(1.6)

The coefficient of friction in metal cutting generally ranges from about 0,5 - 2,0, thus indicating that the chip encounters frictional resistance while moving up the face of the tool. Although the magnitude of forces in actual cutting operations is generally on the order of a few hundred newtons, the local stresses in the cutting zone and the pressures on the tool are very high because the contact areas are very small. The chip-tool contact length, for example, is typically on the order of 1 mm. Thus the tool is subjected to very high stresses, which lead to wear, and sometimes chipping and fracture of the tool. 1.5 Power consumed in cutting There are a number of reasons for calculate the power consumed in cutting. These numbers can tell us how fast we cut, or how large the motor on a machine must be. Power is the product of force and velocity. The power input in cutting is (Vc is the cutting velocity [m/min]):
P = Fc Vc

(1.7)

This power is dissipated mainly in the shear zone (because of the energy required to shear the material) and on the rake face (because of the tool-chip interface friction). The Metal Removal Rate (mrr) is:
Q = A0 Vc

(1.8)

where, A0 is the Area of Cut. From these basic relationships we can a simple relationship that is the ratio between the energy consumed, and the volume of metal removed,
P Fc Vc Fc = = Q A0 Vc A0

ps =

(1.9)

This result is a force over an area, which is a pressure. As a result ps will be called the Specific Cutting Pressure. The cutting force will vary, thus changing ps, as the cutting velocities are changed (Fig.1.8)

Fig.1.8 The cutting forces according with the cutting velocities.

This curve turns downward for two reasons: 1. The tool experiences edge forces that are more significant at lower cutting speeds; 2. As the velocity increases, the temperature increases, and less energy is required to shear the metal. Tool hardness is degraded by temperature, as shown in the diagram below:

1.6 Temperatures in cutting

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As in all metalworking operations, the energy dissipated in cutting operations is converted into heat which, in turn, raises the temperature in the cutting zone. Knowledge of the temperature rise in cutting is important because: The rise in temperature adversely affects the strength, hardness, and wear resistance of the cutting tool; Increased heat causes dimensional changes in the part being machined, making control of dimensional accuracy difficult; Heat can induce thermal damage to the machined surface, adversely affecting its properties; There are three main sources of heat when cutting (Fig.1.9): 1. Heat is produced as the tool deforms (works) the metal; 2. Friction on the cutting face; 3. Friction on the tool flank.

Fig.1.9 Heat source in orthogonal cutting.

Heat is mostly dissipated by: 1. The discarded chip carries away heat; 2. Coolant will help draw away heat; 3. The workpiece acts as a heat sink; 4. The cutting tool will also draw away heat. ** factors 1 & 2 dissipate 75 to 80%, factors 3 and 4 dissipate 10% each. 1.7 Tool life: Wear and failure

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Tool life is the time a tool can be reliably be used for cutting before it must be discarded/repaired. Some tools, such as lathe bits are regularly reground after use. A tool life equation was developed by Taylor, and is outlined below:
V T n = C

(1.10)

where, V = cutting velocity in m/min; T = tool life in minutes; n = a constant based on the tool material; C = a constant based on the tool and wear.
For example, if we are turning a 25 mm bar, and we have a carbide tool, we want to have the tool last for 1 shift (8 hours) before a change is required. We know that for carbide tools n = 0, 2, and when the bar was cut with a velocity of 120 m/min, the tool lasted for 2 hours. What RPM should the lathe be set at? First find the C value for the equation,

120 ( 2 60 )
Next, find the new cutting speed required,

0,2

=C =? =?

V ( 8 60 )
Finally, convert cutting velocity to RPM,

0, 2

RPM =
V T n = C

12 V =? D

log V T n = log C log V + log T n = log C log V + n log T = log C log V = n log T + log C

Fig.1.10 Relationship between cutting speed and tool life.

An important relationship to be considered is the relationship between cutting speed and tool life. This function can be plotted on log scales as a linear function (Fig.1.10). We can find the slope of the line with a two point interpolation:
n= log V1 log V2 log T2 log T1

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Some examples of values are, (note that this is related to n): - High Speed Steel Tool : n = 0,10 to 0,25; - Carbide tool: n = 0,125 to 0,25; - Ceramic tool: n > 0,25. Although the previous equation is fairly accurate, we can use a more complete form of Taylor's tool life equation to include a wider range of cuts.
V T n d x f
y

=C

(1.11)

where, d = depth of cut: f = feed rate; x, y = calculated constants.

Tool wear is still a significant problem in cutting. This wears controls tool life, and will change work dimensions. Typical types of tool wear include: 1. Flank wear; 2. Crater wear. Flank wear the point of the tool degrades (Fig.1.11).

Fig.1.11 Flank tool wear.

Crater wear also decreases tool life (Fig.1.12).

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Fig.1.12 Crater tool wear.

Tool failure can typically grouped under one of the following categories: 1. Complete Failure - the tool is unusable; 2. Flank Failure - this can be estimated with maximum lw values: a) Roughing Cuts: - 0,76 mm for carbide tools; - 1,52 mm for high speed steel. 3. Work surface finish is inadequate; b) Finishing Cuts: - 0,25 mm for carbides; - 0,38 mm for high speed steel.

4. Work dimension outside tolerance; Flank wear can be discussed as a function of time (Fig.1.13), where, V1, V2, V3 = cutting velocities where V3 >V2>V1; #1 In this region the tool point is starting to dull; #2 A typical tool wear region; #3 This zone is temperature sensitive.

Fig.1.13 Flank wear as a function of time.

General notes of concern are: 1- The main factor in tool wear is temperature;

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2 - The main factor in tool life is cutting speed; 3 - Critical temperatures for High Speed Steels are 1150F and for carbides it is 1600F; 4 - A higher velocity will increase temperature more than an increase in feed for the same mrr; 5 - A higher feed will increase the tool forces. 1.8 Cutting tool materials These materials generally need to withstand high temperatures, high forces, resist corrosion, etc. The List below shows some commercial tool materials 1. CBN - Cubic Boron Nitride; 2. Ceramic; 3. HSS - High Speed Steel; 4. PCD - PolyCrystalline Diamond; 5. WC - Tungsten Carbide; 6. Coated WC - Tools coated with Tungsten Carbide. 1.8.1 A short list of tool materials 1. Carbon Steels - Limited tool life. Therefore, not suited to mass production; - Can be formed into complex shapes for small production runs; - Low cost; - Suited to hand tools, and wood working; - Carbon content about 0.9 to 1.35% with a hardness about 62C Rockwell; - Maximum cutting speeds about 7,8 m/min. dry; - The hot hardness value is low. This is the major factor in tool life.

2. High Speed Steel

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- An alloyed steel with 14-22% tungsten, as well as cobalt, molybdenum and chromium, vanadium; - Appropriate heat treating will improve the tool properties significantly (makers of these steels often provide instructions); - Can cut materials with tensile strengths up to 75 tons/sq.mm. at speeds of 15-18 m/min; - Hardness is in the range of 63-65C Rockwell; - The cobalt component gives the material a hot hardness value much greater than Carbon Steels; - Used in all type of cutters, single/multiple point tools, and rotary tools. 3. Stellite - A family of alloys made of cobalt, chromium, tungsten and carbon; - The material is formed using electric furnaces, and casting technique, and it cannot be rolled, or worked; - The material has a hardness of 60-62C Rockwell without heat treating, and the material has good hot hardness properties; - Cutting speed of up to 25- 30 m/min can be used on mild steels; - The tools that use this method either use inserts in special holders, or tips brazed to carbon steel shanks. 4. Tungsten Carbide - Produced by sintering grains of tungsten carbide in a cobalt matrix (it provides toughness); - Other materials are often included to increase hardness, such as titanium, chrome, molybdenum, etc. - Compressive strength is high compared to tensile strength, therefore the bits are often brazed to steel shanks, or used as inserts in holders; - These inserts may often have negative rake angles; - Speeds up to 90 m/min are common on mild steels; - Hot hardness properties are very good; - Coolants and lubricants can be used to increase tool life, but are not required; - Special alloys are needed to cut steel.

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5. Ceramics - Sintered or cemented ceramic oxides, such as aluminum oxides sintered at 1800F; - Can be used for turning and facing most metals, except for titanium. Mild steels can be cut at speeds up to 450m/min: - These tools are best used in continuous cutting operations; - There is no occurrence of welding, or built up edges; - Coolants are not needed to cool the workpiece; - Very high hot hardness properties; - Often used as inserts in special holders. 6. Diamonds - A very hard material with high resistance to abrasion; - Very good for turning and boring, producing very good surface finish; - Operations must minimize vibration to prolong diamond life; - Also used as diamond dust in a metal matrix for grinding and lapping. For example, this is used to finish tungsten carbide tools. 7. Cemented Oxides - Produced using powder metallurgy techniques; - Suited to high speed finishing; - Cutting speeds from 90 to 2250 m/min; - Coolants are not required; - High resistance to abrasive wear and chattering.

1.9 The Economics of Metal Cutting

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As with most engineering problems we want to get the highest return, with the minimum investment. In this case we want to minimize costs, while increasing cutting speeds. Efficiency will be the key term - it suggests that good quality parts are produced at reasonable cost. Cost is a primarily affected by: 1. - tool life; 2. - power consumed. The production throughput is primarily affected by: 1. - accuracy including dimensions and surface finish; 2. - mrr (metal removal rate). The factors that can be modified to optimize the process are: 1. - cutting velocity (biggest effect); 2. - feed and depth; 3. - work material; 4. - tool material; 5. - tool shape; 6. - cutting fluid. We previously considered the loglog scale graph of Taylor's tool life equation, but we may also graph it normally (Fig.1.14). This graph is representative for most reasonable cutting
Fig.1.14 Tool life as a function of cutting velocity.

to

emphasize

the

effects

speeds. The

velocities at the high and low ranges do not necessarily exhibit the same relationship.

There are two basic conditions to trade off (Fig.1.15):

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1. - Low cost - exemplified by low speeds, low mrr, longer tool life; 2. - High production rates - exemplified by high speeds, short tool life, high mrr; *** There are many factors in addition to these, but these are the most commonly considered.

Fig.1.15 Total cost as a function of cutting cost and tool cost.

Dictionary 19

Cutting aschiere Shear forfecare Casting turnare Chip - aschie Hardness duritate Wear uzura Grinding rectificare Bending indoire Ductile maleabil, elastic Brittle casant, fragil Rake angle unghi de degajare Lathe strung Feed rate avans Depth of cut adancimea de aschiere Build-up edge depunere pe tais Serrated in zig-zag Strain solicitare, efort Sawtooth dinte de fierastrau Flake lamela, foita Cast iron fonta Entangled ncolacit Machining cell celula de fabricatie Chip breaker spargator de aschii Mild steel otel carbon (nealiat)

Insert placuta amovibila Drilling gaurire Boring largire, alezare Workholding device dispozitiv de prindere a piesei Toolholder suport de scula Cutting velocity viteza de aschiere Tool life durabilitatea sculei Lathe bit - cutit de strung Reground reascutire Carbide carbura metalica Rpm - rotatii pe minut Lapping lepuire Rough cut degrosare Finishing cut finisare High speed steel otel rapid Dull tocit Tensile strength rezistenta la intindere Alloy aliaj Furnace cuptor Brazed - lipit

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