Professional Documents
Culture Documents
BASIC
COLD WEATHER
MANUAL
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FM 31-70
Cl
CHANGE HEADQUARTERS
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
No. 1 WASHINGTON , D.C., /7 December /968
BASIC COLD WEATHER MANUAL
FM 31-70, 12 April 1968, is changed as follows: mately 15 F to 15 F). The term moderately
Page 53, paragraph 3-51 b, In line 16 (LOW) is cold is used only as a descriptive term. What is
changed to read (LAW or Lubricant, Semi- termed as moderately cold to one person, may be
Fluid, MIL--L--46000A(LSA)). extremely cold to another. The windchill factor
Page 165, paragraph D-2 a. In line 10 (LOW) must also be considered, a moderate cold could
is changed to read (LAW or Lubricant, Semi- change momentarily to extreme cold by the addi-
Fluid, MIL-L-46000A(LSA)). tion of high winds. Therefore, the commander
Page 166, paragraph D-3a (2). In line 21 LOW should use the type loads for planning only and
is changed to read "LAW or Lubricant, Semi- should adjust them accordingly to fit a given situa-
Fluid, MIL-L-46000A(LSA).
Page 166, paragraph D-3 a (3), In lines 3 & 4 tion and temperature condition.
wwtsia
-
LOW is changed to read LAW or Lubricant,
Semi-Fluid, MIL-L-46000A(LSA).
Page 166, paragraph D-3 b (4). In line 7 LOW is J{GJIUGCb IA\73116L 9 00
changed to read LAW or Lubricant, Semi- flhJqGLeJflL' 2o\2o 0' s
DLWJLGL2' 20\20 0' 20
Fluid, MIL--L-46000A(LSA). 2OC' C"2J'1" OJG 0' 10
Page 170, paragraph E2 a. In line 14 Cap, Cold nabGnqGL 0' 32
Weather is changed to read Cap, Insulting, 1L0112GL21 conou y4?.JWJ ThU 3' 10
Helmet Liner-Helmet. 2P!L1' 11s001 L4AIOIJ 00 120
Page 171, paragraph E 2c. Entire page 171 is c ccc" jOu m1 9' So
F!UGL' C''r Yi':l" flJL6q 0' 32
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E-3. Type Load WJ cdenbwn io' 23
The loads shown below are type loads which could
be worn during moderately cold weather (approxi-
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0 30
0 12 the individual during moderately cold weather.
o. o These items are normally carried in the duffle bag
joD. I.
HIJ!LC
JJ,QIJ Ei1Jt4.(.I?. 0I on unit transportation and should be available to
the individual when needed:
0.
Undershirt, 50/50
Io1vl J,!RpUR o1q. ' 02 Drawers, 50/50
Socks, Cushion Sole (3 pr)
to3;. Trousers, Cotton Nylon, WR
HncJtrcc' AIo1J D'1 OC-- - 2' 00 Shirt, Wool Nylon, OG
LOnoRJe (OUJ mc O. mrctcpoqio Parka, Cotton Nylon
po Luicjmicjc: Liner, Parka, Nylon Quilted
D1J 2IcGbw (QnL) - . 00
B' J0c!!JJ (InvoL)
nommiic - 2 00
Mitten Set, Arctic
- Page 184, paragraph G-6a. In line 1 (LOW) is
c' JL17GL gGbcJJIJ
-
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20CJ CnJJ?0JJ 2016 ( bL)
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JOF J
W. C. WESTMORELAND,
General, United States Army,
Official: Chief Of Staff.
KENNETH G. WICKHAM,
Major General, United States Army,
The Adjutant General.
Distribution:
To be distributed in accordance with DA Form 12-11 requirements for Basic Cold Weather Manual.
TAGO 649A
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1-1. Purpose and Scope These include, among others, erecting and
a. This manual is designed to prepare the striking tents, performing maintenance, con-
individual soldier and small unit commander structing roads, starting and warming engines,
to conduct military operations for extended movement of supplies, and hundreds of other
periods of time under the most severe and small tasks that must be performed while
varying cold weather climatic conditions. The wearing bulky cold weather clothing.
doctrine and techniques in the manual are e. Insofar as possible illustrations used in
applicable in any area that has cold weather this manual reflect Standard A items of cloth-
and snow with their accompanying opera- ing and equipment. However, because of non-
tional problems. Troops properly trained in availability of some items at time of publica-
this doctrine and these techniques will be able tion, some illustrations show Standard B or C
to fight; live; and move in any cold weather items of clothing (para 2-7).
area of the world. f. Measurements in this manual to the ex-
b. The provisions of SOLOG Agreement 23R, tent practicable, reflect both the Metric and
Arctic Doctrine are implemented in this U.S. systems; however, in some cases figures
manual. will show only the U.S. system. For ease in
transposition, meters have been converted to
c. The material contained herein empha- yards on a one for one basis. For more exact
sizes that cold, with its attendant problems measurements use the conversions shown in
affects military operations but does not pre- appendix H.
vent them. The proper use of authorized equip-
ment and field expedients will, to a major g. Users of this manual are encouraged to
degree, overcome any problems encountered as submit recommendations to improve its clarity
a result of the cold. It is the commanders or accuracy, Comments should be keyed to the
responsibility to train his men so they can specific page, paragraph, and line of the text
make the environment save military opera- in which the change is recommended. Reasons
tions, not hinder them. The material presented should be provided for each comment to insure
herein is applicable, without modification to understanding and complete evaluation. Com-
nuclear and nonnuclear warfare, employment ments should be forwarded direct to Com-
of, and protection from, chemical, biological, manding General, United States Army, Alaska,
and radiological agents, and internal defense APO Seattle 98749. Originators of proposed
and development operations. changes which would constitute a significant
modification of approved Army doctrine may
d. Throughout this manual reference is send an information copy, through command
made to the additional time required to con- channels, to the Commanding General, United
duct various tasks in cold weather operations. States Army Combat Developments Command,
This requirement cannot be overemphasized Fort Belvoir, Virginia 22060, to facilitate re-
and must be included in all planning. In addi- view and followup.
tion to the increased amount of time con-
sumed in actual movement, allowance must be 1-2. Relation to Other Manuals
made for other time consuming tasks that are This manual is prepared with the assump-
not present in temperate zone operations. tion that normal individual and basic unit
AGO 8641A 3
training have been completed. The manual beyond the treatment given in this manual on
should be used in conjunction with the basic the operation and maintenance of equipment
field manuals of the arms and services as well during cold weather operations. Appendix A
as FM 31-71and FM 3l-72. Appropriate tech- contains a list of supplementary manuals and
nical manuals contain detailed information references.
4 AGO 8641A
CHAPTER 2
INDIVIDUAL CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT
Section 1. GENERAL
2-1. Basis of Issue mal winter conditions, 65 to 70 pounds is the
a. As used in this manual, individual cloth- maximum weight a man can normally wear
ing and equipment are those items issued or and carry and still be effective on reaching his
sold to a soldier for his personal use, and in- destination.
clude certain organizational equipment utilized b. The weight of individual clothing and
by the individual. The basis of issue of cold equipment is covered in appendix E. Com-
weather clothing and equipment may be found manders should give particular attention to
in TA 50-901. Mandatory items of personal additional organizational equipment required
clothing are listed in AR 70084001. for a given operation. Some of the more com-
b. The U.S. Army, through continuous re- mon items are also listed in appendix E. Since
search and development, endeavors to main- the individual soldiers combat load in cold
tain the best clothing and equipment in the weather operations exceeds that of a temperate
world. When properly fitted and properly util- climate load by more than 20 pounds, these
ized this clothing will provide adequate pro- organizational items (such as binoculars, com-
tection from the elements and will enable passes, radios and batteries, pioneer tools, crew
trained, well disciplined troops to carry out served weapons, etc. ) become major consider-
year-round field operations under cold weather ations and must be included at all levels of
conditions, wherever they may be encountered. planning.
c. To utilize fully the protection afforded by c. In addition to the individual combat load,
the present standard cold weather clothing and another 45 to 55 pounds of clothing and equip-
equipment, it is necessary to understand the ment is required for the protection and com-
principle involved and the correct function of fort of each individual under conditions of ex-
each item. This chapter covers basic principles treme cold. Transportation must be provided
and provides general guidance on the purpose for this additional load whenever possible.
and use of cold weather clothing and equip- d. The commander must take positive action
ment. to insure that a balance exists between what
the individual is wearing and what he is
2-2. Commander's Responsibilities required to carry in the way of equipment. He
a. Many factors will influence the command- must also insure that troops dress as lightly
ers decision as to what items of clothing and as possible consistent with the weather in
equipment his troops should wear or carry. order to reduce the danger of excessive per-
These include the weather, mission at hand, spiring and subsequent chilling. The complete
actual duties to be performed, overall physical cold-wet or cold-dry uniform for the applica-
condition of individuals and their degree of ble environmental conditions must be readily
proficiency. If a movement is involved he must available. A large proportion. of cold weather
consider the distance to be traveled, the casualties results from too few clothes being
method of travel, and how the troops will be available to individuals when a severe change
fed en route, if applicable. If the movement is in the weather occurs. Because of the differ-
on foot, he must bear in mind that under nor- ences in individual metabolism, commanders
AGO 8641A 5
must not be arbitrary in delineating strict muddy and slushy. During these periods troops
uniform requirements, but must allow some should wear clothing which consists of a
personal choice of undergarments. water-repellent, wind-resistant outer layer and
inner layers with sufficient insulation to pro-
2-3. Cold Weather Conditions vide ample protection in moderately cold
The use of cold weather clothing is affected weather (above 14F.).
by two types of weather conditions: wet and b. Dry Conditions. Cold-dry conditions occur
dry. These conditions are amplified by humid- when average temperatures are lower than
ity coupled with temperature and wind veloc- 14F. The ground is usually frozen and snow
ity; high humidity (wet conditions), low is usually dry, in the form of fine crystals.
humidity (dry conditions). Strong winds cause low temperatures to seem
a. Wet Conditions. Cold-wet conditions occur colder and increase the need for protection of
when temperatures are near freezing and vari- the entire body (windchill) (fig. F-1). During
ations in day and night temperatures cause these periods, troops should have available
alternate freezing and thawing. This freezing additional insulating layers of clothing. This is
and thawing is often accompanied by rain and particularly true when entering static situa-
wet snow, causing the ground to become tions form a period of strenuous exercise.
II
H 1i'
Figure 21. Basic components of cold-wet uniform.
and upon requisitioning some Standard B (12) Glove Shells. Leather Black with
clothing may be issued. Although not shown as Glove Inserts; Wool and Nylon Knit,
basic items of the cold weather uniforms, light OG 208, or Mitten Shells; Trigger
cotton underwear may be worn under the Finger Leather Palm and Thumb
winter underwear (para 2-6 b (l)). with Mitten Inserts; Wool and Nylon
a. Cold-Wet Uniform. The basic components Knit, OG, Trigger Finger, or Mitten
of the cold-wet uniform are illustrated in fig- Set Arctic; Gauntlet Style Shell with
ure 2-1 unless otherwise indicated. Leather Palm (fig. 2-5).
(1) Undershirt Mans. 50 Cotton 50 Wool, (13) Hood Winter. Cotton and Nylon Ox-
Full Sleeve. ford, OG 107, with drawcord and fur.
(2) Drawers Mens. 50 Cotton 50 Wool, (14) Poncho. Coated Nylon Twill, OG 207
Ankle Length. (not illustrated).
(3) Socks Mens. Wool Cushion Sole, OG b. Cold-Dry Uniform. The basic components
408, Stretch Type. of the cold-dry uniform are illustrated in fig-
(4) Suspenders Trousers. Scissors Back ure 2-2 unless otherwise indicated.
Type. (1) Undershirt Mens. 50 Cotton 50 Wool,
(5) Trousers Mens. Wool Serge, OG 108. Full Sleeve.
(6) Shirt Mans. Wool Nylon Flannel, OG (2) Drawers Mens. 50 Cotton 50 Wool,
108. Ankle Length.
(7) Trousers Mens. Cotton Nylon, Wind (3) Socks Mens. Wool Cushion Sole, OG
Resistant Sateen, 8.5 oz, OG 107. 408, Stretch Type.
(8) Boot Insulated Cold Weather. Mens (4) Suspenders Trousers. Scissors Back
Rubber Black (or Boot Combat: Type.
Mens Leather Black 8" high with (5) Shirt Mans. Wool Nylon Flannel, OG
Overshoe: Rubber Mans High 108.
Cleated 5 Buckle). (6) Trousers Mens. Cotton Nylon, Wind
(9) Coat Man. Cotton and Nylon Wind Resistant Sateen, 8.5 oz, OG 107.
Resistant Sateen, 8.5 oz, OG 107, (7) Liner Trousers. Nylon Quilted, 6.2 oz,
with integral hood. OG 106.
(10) Liner Coat Mens. Nylon Quilted 6.2 (8) Boot Insulated Cold Weather. Mens
oz, OG 106. Rubber White, w/release valve.
(11) Cap Insulating, Helmet Liner-Helmet. (9) Coat Man. Cotton and Nylon Wind
Cotton Nylon Oxford, OG 107. Resistant Sateen, 8.5 oz, OG 107.
AGO 8641A 9
J
AGO 8641A 11
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b. Cold-Dry.
(1) Inner Layer. Same as cold-wet.
(2) Intermediate Layer. The wool OG
shirt is worn as the basic upper body
garment. The wind resistant sateen
trousers with the quilted nylon liner
are worn as the basic lower body gar-
ment. In extreme cold weather, the
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12 AGO 8641A
The parka is a three-quarter length, ener on the back. A neck strap is
unlined coat with adjustable cuffs. attached to both mittens to prevent
It has a combination slide and snap loss. The neck strap permits the
fastener front fly closure, waist and mittens, when not required for
hem drawcords and a split lower warmth, to be conveniently carried
back. The parka has a detachable snapped together behind the back.
quilted nylon liner. The arctic mitten set is carried
(4) Headgear. Same as cold-wet. whenever there is the possibility of
(5) Handwear. See c below. the onset of severe cold weather,
(6) Footwear. See d below. regardless of the mildness of the
c. Handwear. weather when setting out.
(1) Gloves. (3) Utilization.
(a) Standard black leather gloves are (a) The general rules concerning the
worn in mild weather or when use of clothing apply also to hand-
work must be done that requires wearkeep it clean, avoid over-
more freedom of finger movement heating, wear loose in layers, and
than can be acquired with heavier keep it dry.
handwear. In colder weather the (b) The outer shells should always be
same gloves are worn with wool in- worn with the minimum insulation
serts (fig. 2-5). Gloves may be necessary to provide protection,
worn with either the cold-wet or thus avoiding perspiration. Inserts
cold-dry uniforms when the should never be worn by themselves
weather is not cold enough to re- because they wear out quickly and
quire the use of mittens. provide little warmth alone. Trig-
(b) Personnel engaged in delicate fin- ger finger inserts are designed to
ger operations, such as instrument fit either hand. Changing them to
adjustment may be issued light- opposite hands frequently will in-
weight cotton work gloves. These sure even wear.
gloves allow for finger dexterity, (c) Tight fitting sleeves should be
have leather palms, and prevent avoided. They may cut down cir-
the skin from sticking to cold culation and cause hands to be-
metal. They will provide protection come cold.
against cold for only a very short (d) When handling cold metals, the
period. hands should be covered to prevent
(2) Mittens. cold burns (immediate freezing of
(a) The trigger finger mitten shells the flesh in contact with cold
(fig. 2-5), are worn with wool trig- soaked metals).
ger finger inserts during periods of (e) To keep hands warm when wear-
moderate cold. The mittens may be ing mittens, the fingers should be
worn with either the cold-wet or curled (inside the mittens) against
cold-dry uniform. Figure 2-5 the palm of the hand, thumb under-
shows the Standard B mitten. The neath the fingers, or flexed inside
Standard A item, although identi- the mitten whenever possible to in-
cal in outward appearance has had crease the blood circulation. Hands
the trigger finger loop deleted and may be exercised by swinging the
is lined on the inside upper surface arms in a vertical circle. Frost-
with lightweight quilted nylon. bitten hands can be warmed by
(b) During periods of extreme cold the placing them next to the skin un-
arctic mitten set is worn (fig. 2-5). der the armpits.
The mitten has a liner, a leather (f) An extra pair of mitten inserts
palm, a cheek warmer and a fast- should be carried.
AGO 8641A 13
d. Footwear. boots all require muscular action,
(1) General. The feet are more vulner- produces heat, and will help keep
able to cold than are other parts of the feet warm. The feet should be
the body. Cold attacks feet most often massaged when changing the
because they get wet easily (both ex- socks.
ternally and from perspiration) and (e) Boots are designed to permit at-
because circulation is easily re- tachment to individual oversnow
stricted. Footgear is therefore one of equipment (skis and snowshoes).
the most important parts of cold BINDINGS MUST BE AD-
weather clothing. JUSTED CAREFULLY. If they
(2) Principles. are too tight, the circulation of
(a) The rule of wearing clothing loose blood is restricted and feet will get
and in layers also applies to foot- cold. Improperly adjusted bindings
gear. The layers are made up by may soon chafe feet or badly wear
the boot itself and by the socks. and tear the boot.
Socks are worn in graduated sizes.
The instructions pertaining to fit- (3) T ypes.
ting of footgear, as outlined in TM (a) Boot, insulated, cold weather:
10-228, must be carefully adhered mens, rubber, black. These boots
to. If blood circulation is re- (l, fig. 2-6) are particularly useful
stricted, the feet will be cold. in snow, slush, mud, and water
Socks, worn too tightly, might (cold-wet conditions), but are not
easily mean freezing of the feet. adequate for prolonged wear in
For the same reason: AVOID temperatures below 20 F. They
LACING FOOTGEAR TIGHTLY. are specifically designed for com-
(b) Since the feet perspire more read- bat personnel who may not have
ily than any other part of the body, the opportunity to frequently
the rules about avoiding overheat- change to dry socks. Insulating
ing and keeping dry are difficult to material is hermetically sealed into
follow. Footgear is subjected to be- the sides and bottoms of the boots.
coming wet more often than are The insulation takes the place of
other items of equipment. The in- removable innersoles and the sec-
sulated boots with release valve ondary layer of socks worn in other
(white, cold-dry and black, cold- types of cold weather boots. Pers-
wet) are designed to contain pers- piration from the feet and water
piration within the interior of the spilling over the tops of the boots
boots. A change of dry socks should cannot reach the insulating mater-
be carried at all times. Whenever ial because it is sealed-in and al-
the feet get wet, dry as soon as ways remains dry. Moisture from
possible and put on a pair of dry outside sources or from perspira-
socks. Also, the inside of the boots tion may make the socks damp;
should be wiped as dry as possible. this dampness is not harmful to
(c) Footgear should be kept clean. the feet, provided they receive
Socks should be changed when they proper care such as frequent dry-
become dirty. Socks and feet should ing and massaging. If socks are not
be washed frequently. This washing changed and feet dried regularly
will help keep feet and socks in (at least twice daily) the skin be-
good condition. comes softened and is more readily
(d) The feet should be exercised. chaffed or blistered. These effects
Stamping the feet, double-timings are occasionally mistaken for su-
few steps back and forth, and flex- perficial frostbite. Only one pair of
ing and wiggling toes inside the cushion-sole socks are worn with
14 AGO 8641A
p.
1
--
2-12. Sleeping Equipment the foot with the loops and tie straps provided
a. The complete sleeping bag for use in cold and the cover laced over the outer bag.
climates consists of three parts: a case, of c. When the bag is used, it is first fluffed up
water-repellent material; an inner bag (moun- so that the down and feather insulation is
tain type), of quilted tubular construction, evenly distributed in channels, thus preventing
filled with a mixture of down and feathers; matting. Since cold penetrates from below,
and an outer bag (arctic bag), of the same and the insulation inherent in the bag is com-
material as the inner bag. In addition, an in- pressed by the weight of the body, additional
sulating air mattress and a waterproof bag insulation is placed under the bag whenever
into which the sleeping bags are packed are possible. Added insulation can be obtained by
issued. placing ponchos, extra clothing, backboards,
fiber ammunition or food containers, or
b. When temperatures are normally above boughs between the sleeping bag and the
14 F., only one bag is used. It is placed in and ground. The insertion of a waterproof cover,
laced to the cover. When temperatures are be- such as a poncho, between the sleeping bag
low 14 F., both bags are used. The inner bag and air mattress will prevent the mattress
is placed inside the outer bag and secured at and bag from freezing together at very cold
16 AGO 8641A
temperatures. This is caused by condensation 2-13. Manpack Equipment
on the mattress due to the difference in tem- a. Rucksack-Nylon, OG 106 (fig. 2-7).
peratures between the lower side touching the (1) The nylon rucksack consists of the
ground and the upper side touching the rela- following:
tively warm sleeping bag. Care must be taken (a) A lightweight aluminum alloy
to prevent puncturing the mattress or damag- frame to which all other compo-
ing sleeping bags. In general, the more insula- nents are attached.
tion between the sleeping bag and the ground,
the warmer the body. (b) A lightweight aluminum alloy
cargo support shelf provided as op-
d. If the tactical situation permits, individ- tional equipment for attachment to
uals should avoid wearing too many clothes in the frame when the frame is used
the sleeping bag. When too many clothes are as a packboard.
worn they tend to bunch up, especially at the (c) A pouch fabricated from 4-ounce
shoulders, thereby restricting circulation and nylon fabric.
inducing cold. Too many clothes also increase (d) Nylon left and right shoulder
the bulk and place tension upon the bag, thus straps. The left shoulder strap has
decreasing the size of the insulating airspaces a quick-release device designed to
between layers and reducing the efficiency of facilitate rapid doffing of the ruck-
the insulation. In addition, too many clothes sack. The right shoulder strap has
may cause the soldier to perspire and result in a rapid adjustment buckle for
excessive moisture accumulating in the bag, a lengthening the strap which allows
condition which will likewise reduce the bags the wearer to fire his rifle while in
insulating qualities. the prone position. The two straps
e. The sleeping bag is equipped with a full are interchangeable to accommo-
length slide fastener which has a free run- date left-handed soldiers.
ning, nonlocking slider. In an emergency, the (e) A nylon webbing waist belt de-
bag can be opened quickly by grasping both signed to prevent the rucksack
sides of the opening near the top of the slide from swinging to either side or
fastener and pulling the fastener apart. As a bouncing during body movements.
safety precaution, bags should be tested at (f) A rifle carrier consisting of a rifle
frequent intervals to insure that the slide fast- butt pocket, constructed of nylon
webbing, with a double hook and
ener operates freely and will function properly. a rifle strap.
f. The sleeping bag should be kept clean (2) The nylon rucksack is the normal
and dry. It should be opened wide and venti- pack equipment used for operations
lated after use to dry out the moisture that in northern areas and replaces the
accumulates from the body. Whenever possi- rucksack, with frame (Standard C).
ble, it should be sunned or aired in the open. It should be noted that this item may
The bag always should be laced in its water- be issued in lieu of the nylon ruck-
repellent case and carried in the waterproof sack. It should also be noted that the
bag to prevent snow from getting on it. The plywood packboard may be issued in
warmth of the body could melt the snow dur- lieu of the nylon rucksack. The sol-
ing the night and cause extreme discomfort. dier using the rucksack can carry ex-
Individuals should avoid breathing into the tra clothing and rations in the nylon
bag. If the face becomes too cold it should be pouch and can also carry one sleep-
covered with an item of clothing. Sleeping ing bag (in waterproof bag). When
bags should be drycleaned at least twice a the nylon pouch is removed and cargo
year. As a safety precaution, bags should be support shelf attached, the rucksack
thoroughly aired prior to use to prevent possi- may be used as a packboard for car-
ble asphyxiation from entrapped drycleaning rying loads weighing approximately
solvent fumes. 50 pounds (TC 10-8).
AGO 8041A 17
j job poL1SO1J4J UL 2 }flU6 a;Lub LBCJCG4 8 K!U6 psi;; boGJc6;
S C apaba e cotsJPUc lrncjc 10 mu a;Lvb
9 JLBW6 2;J.b 11 BY ap.uba
4 5JJOflJq6L R;LBba 8 HIU6 a;Lb pflc]CJ6 13 HIU6 e;tvb joob Gnq
5A5tt ts? WCY%C\ 3!3\S045 OC 1O%
18 AGO 8641A
b. Suspenders and Belt, Individual Equip- protective case to avoid scratching or breaking
ment. The suspenders and belt of the M-56 the lens. If sunglasses are lost or broken, a
standard load-carrying equipment is worn be- substitute can be improvised by cutting thin,
neath the nylon rucksack to carry ammunition 3 cm (l) long slits through a scrap of wood
pouches, first aid or compass case, and the or cardboard approximately 15 cm (6) long
entrenching tool. The suspenders and belt and 3 cm ( 1 ) wide. The improvised sun-
should be adjusted to fit loosely over the cold glasses (fig. 2-8 ) can be held on the face with
weather clothing, to allow for proper ventila- strips of cloth if a cord is not available.
tion. The suspender belt combination is de- b. Canteens.
signed so that the belt can be worn unbuckled (1) Canteen, water; cold climatic (fig.
while on the march, if additional ventilation 2-9), This canteen is a vacuum-in-
is required. sulated canteen of one quart capacity
2-14. Miscellaneous Equipment with an unpainted dull finish steel
exterior. The inner and outer stain-
a. Sunglasses, Sunglasses always should be less steel vessels are welded together
worn on bright days when the ground is cov- at the top of the neck. A nonmetallic
ered with snow. They are designed to protect mouthpiece at the neck prevents lips
the eyes against sunglare and blowing snow. from freezing to the metal neck. A
If not used, snow blindness may result. They plastic cap seals and protects the
should be used when the sun is shining mouthpiece. A nesting type metal cup
through fog or clouds, A bright, cloudy day is with a capacity of one pint is pro-
deceptive and can be as dangerous to the eyes vided for eating and drinking bever-
as a day of brilliant sunshine. The sunglasses ages. The canteen with cup is carried
should be worn to shade the eyes from the in a canvas cover which fastens to
rays of the sun that are reflected by the snow. field equipment in a manner similar
Snow blindness is similar to sunburn, in that to the conventional canteens. Care
a deep burn may be received before discomfort must be taken to insure that the
is felt. To prevent snow blindness, sunglasses mouthpiece or cap are not lost. A
must be used from the start of exposure. sharp blow to the canteen may result
Waiting for the appearance of discomfort is in denting or rupture with conse-
too late. The risk of snow blindness is in- quent loss of insulating capabilities.
creased at high mountain altitudes because the (2) Conventional metal and plastic can-
clear air allows more of the burning rays of teens. Conventional canteens are car-
sunlight to penetrate the atmosphere. When ried in a fabric carrier; however,
not being used, they should be carried in the this will not keep the liquid in the
canteen from freezing in extreme
cold. When possible, the canteen
should be carried in one of the pock-
ets or wrapped in any woolen gar-
ment and packed in the rucksack. If
available, warm or hot water should
be placed in the canteen before start-
ing an operation. During extreme
cold the canteen should never be filled
over two-thirds full. This will allow
room for expansion if ice should
form, and will prevent the canteen
from rupturing. Insure that the gask-
ets are in the cap at all times. This is
an important precaution and will pre-
vent the liquid from leaking out and
% 1bo4e rut*.t. dampening the clothing in the ruck-
AGO 8641A 19
I 'I __________
ius.t
AGO 8641A 21
CHAPTER 3
SMALL UNIT LIVING
Section 1. GENERAL
3-1. Characteristics of Operations in Cold for cold weather operations. Under normal op-
Weather erating conditions they will work together,
Unlimited space and a sparse, widely scat- cook and eat together, and share the same tent
tered population are dominant features of most or other shelter. These small units should be
of the colder regions of the world. Such condi- formed at the beginning of training and, if
tions permit unrestricted maneuver for troops possible, kept intact. The standard to be
properly trained and equipped for cold weather achieved is a unit which can make or break
operations. Warfare under such circumstances camp quickly, efficiently, and silently under all
is characterized by, widely dispersed forces conditions; one in which each man knows the
operating at great distances from other units tasks to be completed and does them without
or their parent organization. Units must be having to be told.
highly mobile and have the ability to sustain b. Small units operating in cold weather
themselves while carrying out independent op- must be thoroughly familiar with the special
erations over extended periods of time. equipment required and the techniques in-
volved in living away from their parent orga-
3-2. Composition of Units nization for extended periods of time. Equip-
a. Small units (squad, gun crew, tank crew, ment, and the techniques of using it, are dis-
wire team, etc.) form the basic working group cussed in this chapter.
\\ /_ WlLEIU bOE
bibE ObElliltO
.\ Jy/
rulE
AGO 8641A 23
/:,
3$t
c. Tent, Hexagonal, Lightweight (fig. 3-2). heated by one tent stove M1941. The heavier
This tent is also six-sided, pyramidal, and sup- weight of this tent restricts its normal use to
ported by a telescopic tent pole. It is designed permanent or semipermanent base camps. It
to accommodate four to five men and their in- could be used for forward elements under
dividual clothing and equipment. Under emer- stabilized conditions.
gency conditions one tent may provide shelter
for a rifle squad or other similar unit when
rucksacks are placed outside the tent. The tent
has one door; ventilation is provided by two
built-in ventilators located on opposite sides
and near the peak of the tent. Three lines are
provided for drying clothing and equipment.
Total weight of the tent, including the pins
and center poles, is 48 pounds. The tent is
heated by an M1950 Yukon stove.
d. Tent, Frame-Type, Sectional (James-
way). This 16 by 16 frame-type tent (fig.
3-3) is a lightweight unit that offers protec-
tion for one squad. It has wooden floor units, bst %%
a frame, a rounded roof, and comfortable head
clearances along the centerline of the shel- e. Tent, General purpose, Small (fig. 3-4).
ter. The roof and ends of the tent are fabri- This tent is a six-sided pyramidal tent fabri-
cated from insulated, coated, fabric blankets. cated of cotton duck cloth. A liner is available
The structure is fastened to the ground with to insulate the tent furing cold weather. The
tent pins or snow with improvised devices. An
optional vestibule may be erected at one or tent is equipped with slide fastener doors,
both ends. Additional floor sections may be screened doors, screened ventilators, and stove-
added to each other lengthwise for creating pipe opening. It has a front and rear entrance,
larger buildings. Extra end sections may be each with a lacing flap arrangement to permit
installed along any rib as interior partitions. attachment of the vestibule or erection of tents
It weighs approximately 2,250 pounds and is in tandem. The tent is supported by eight ad-
24 AGO 8641A
1!st %-1 St.bO& wt
justable aluminum poles around the eave line tain a lower silhouette and gain ad-
and a standard telescopic magnesium pole at vantage of ground temperatures
the peak. The tent is used for command posts, which are generally warmer than air
fire direction centers, battalion aid stations, or temperatures. Coniferous boughs or
for any general purpose use. Although similar similar material should then be
in appearance to the Tent, Arctic, 10-man, placed on the ground for insulation
the tent has an eave height of 152.40 cm (60) and comfort. When it is impractical
compared to 91.44 cm (36) for the 10-man to remove snow to ground level, an
tent. The complete tent, with liner, pins and adequate tent site may be made by
poles weighs 186 pounds. packing the snow with skis or snow-
shoes until a firm base is provided
3-6. Pitching and Striking Cold Weather for pitching. In this case, the tent
Tents pole is placed on a log or other suit-
a. With proper training, small troop units able support to keep the pole from
will be able to pitch tents in 15 to 30 minutes. sinking into the snow. Support is also
Additional time will be required to complete needed for the stove under similar
the camouflage of the tent. Pitching and strik- conditions.
ing of the tents are performed in a routine (2) In open terrain, with a strong wind,
drill manner in accordance with instructions it may become necessary to build a
contained in FM 20-15. snow wall on the windward side of
b. The following must be considered when the tent to protect it from the wind.
pitching or striking the tents in snow or on The snow wall also makes it easier
frozen ground: to heat the tent and less likely that
(1) Whenever possible snow should be the tent will blow down. The tent is
cleared to the ground surface to ob- pitched with the entrance 45 down-
AGO 8641A 25
bEAYIMG MIlID DIbEC.UOM
aio '' a,o Mvrr
1.," 1Ii.i11t1Jt'11
EU$V1E . DOMMMIIID
t % ' ' cw pu
wind (fig. 3-5). Variable winds may through the ice. A short stick or pole
require construction of a windbreak with a piece of rope or wire tied in
at the entrance. High winds in cer- the middle of it is pushed through and
tain cold areas necessitate anchoring then turned across the hole under-
the tent securely. When the tent is neath the ice (c, fig. 3-6). If the ice
set up, the snow cloth should be flat is very thick a hole 30 to 60 cm (1' to
on the ground outside the tent. 2') deep is cut in it, the deadman
Stones, logs, or other heavy objects inserted and the hole filled with slush
should be placed on the snow cloth in or water (d, fig, 3-6). When the slush
addition to the snow to assist in or water is frozen, an excellent an-
anchoring the tent. If this is not done, chor point is provided. When the
the tent will be drafty and very diffi- deadman is placed underneath or
cult to keep warm. into the ice, a piece of rope or wire
(3) Tents may be pitched rapidly and should be fastened to the rope or wire
anchored securely by attaching the after the deadman is secure. This
tent lines to trees, branches, logs or may prevent the tent line from being
stumps whenever possible. If these accidentally cut or damaged when be-
natural anchors are not available, ing removed from the ice.
suitable holes are dug into the snow
for the purpose of using deadmen.
This is accomplished by digging a
hole into the snow large enough to
insert a pole or log approximately one
/
.c\\\\ \\"\\\\\\\\
\\ bVCk(D
meter (3') long with the tent line at- MO
tached. The hole is then filled with
snow, well packed, and in a short pe-
riod of time the packed snow freezes
and the tent will be securely anchored 114E
'I AP
(a, fig. 3-6). Driving metal pins into i4OfQ Ct MISC
roM o DbVL
c. The vestibule attached to the basic
frame-type tent (Jamesway) helps reduce heat % \o
loss when the door is frequently used. The
main door of the tent opens inward, and thus
cannot be blocked by drifting snow if the oc- 3-8. Heating Tents with Stove, Yukon,
cupants are equipped with a shovel or impro- Ml950, 60,000 BTU
vised digging equipment. However, the vesti- a. General. The Yukon stove (1, fig. 3-8) is
bule door opens outward and can be blocked by used to heat the 10-man, 5-man, and GP Small
drifting snow during a violent storm. A safe tents. In addition to providing heat, the top
practice is to install the vestibule only at one surface of the stove and, to a small degree, the
end facing the prevailing wind and to use no area beneath the stove, may be used to cook
vestibule on the more leeward end where rations or heat water. The Yukon stove utilizes
drift will probably accumulate. Rapid exit in standard leaded motor fuel as its normal fuel,
case of fire or other emergency is then assured. but may also be operated with white gasoline,
Where severe winds are expected the tent kerosene, light fuel oil, naptha, or JP-4 fuel,
should be sited crosswise to the anticipated without modification (2, fig. 3-8). During low
wind direction since the curved roof tolerates temperatures the stove will burn five gallons
the wind load better than the flat ends, and of gasoline every 8 to 12 hours. When solid
buffeting is reduced. A vestibule should not be fuels (wood, coal, etc.) are used, the stove must
used on a tent intended for aid station use, be modified by removing the oil burner from
since a standard litter cannot negotiate the the top of the stove, closing the opening where
right angle turn required in the short vestibule. the burner was installed, and turning over the
3-7. Ventilation wire grate so that there is space below the
grate for draft and ashes. A piece of plywood
a. Tents are pitched to protect-occupants slightly larger than the base of the stove
from the elements and to provide necessary should be carried as part of the tent group
warmth and comfort. When the bottom of the equipment. The plywood is covered with alumi-
arctic tent is properly sealed and the doors are num foil and is used to provide a firm base
zipped shut, moisture will form on the inside for the stove and to prevent it from melting
of the tent and accumulate on clothing and down into the snow.
equipment, thereby causing dampness and b. Operating Procedures. The compact, light-
hoarfrost. In addition, carbon monoxide, car- ly constructed, 33-pound Yukon stove permits
bon dioxide, and fumes from the stoves may all accessory parts to be packed within the
soon accumulate to a dangerous degree. To stove body for convenient portability in a sled
offset these factors, the built-in ventilators or on a packboard. A draft diverter is issued
near the peak of the tent must be kept open. as a component part of the stove. It shields the
b. To improve ventilation, a draft channel top of the stovepipe from the wind and pre-
AGO 8641A 27
(6') in length; the poles are tied about two-
thirds of the way up using wire from ration
cases, string, rope, or emergency thong, and
then spread out to form a tripod. The fuel can
should be at least one meter (3') higher than
the stove. The lowest part of the inverted gaso-
line can should be a minimum of 30 cm (1')
above the level of the needle valve of the Yukon
stove. It should not be higher than 1.50 meters
(5') if the valve is to operate smoothly. If
the fuel can is wobbly or if there is some wind
the can must be tied to the tripod for addi-
tional protection. Make certain that the can
is tilted so that air is trapped in the upper-
most corner. The stove is assembled, operated,
and maintained in accordance with TM 10-
i B0 735.
c. Precautions. The following precautions
must be observed when the Yukon stove is
used:
(1) Burning liquid fuels.
(a). All stovepipe connections must be
s srrCsS CV
tight and necessary tent shields ad-
justed properly.
c1 JMSI
(b) Stove must be level to insure that
the burner assembly will spread an
even flame within the stove.
(c) The fuel hose must be protected so
it cannot be pulled loose accident-
ally. If necessary, a small trench
may be dug and the hose imbedded
where it crosses the tent floor.
(d) The fuel line must not be allowed
to touch the hot stove.
(e) When adjusting the fuel flow, the
drip valve lever must be turned
carefully to prevent damage to the
threads.
(f) Rate of fuel flow must be checked
at regular intervals. The rate of
S Ia;uJiv;ou ae;nb flow will change as fuel supply level
drops and will require some ad-
'k_$fl. %% O4 JStyOM %Si justment. The stove should never
be left unattended. Maintaining a
vents a backdraft from forcing smoke or gases hotter fire than necessary may
into the stove and tent. Three, 4.5 meter (15') cause the stove body to become
guylines tied to the draft diverter serve to overheated and warp.
anchor the stovepipe in strong winds. These (9) If the flame is accidentally extin-
guylines must be anchored to the tent or tent guished, or if the fuel can is being
ropes, not to the ground or nearby trees. A changed, the drip valve must be
simple method of erecting a tripod for the fuel closed. When the stove has cooled,
can is to obtain three poles about 2 meters any excess fuel inside the stove
28 AGO 8641A
must be wiped up and 2 or 3 min- Tent Stove will burn five gallons in 3 to 4
utes allowed for gas fumes to es- hours. Prior planning must be accomplished to
cape before relighting the burner. reduce the number of stoves required, espe-
The burner must be cool before re- cially for operations that are some distance
lighting stove. If stove lit before from a road net. Wood should be used as fuel
burner is cool, the fuel will vaporize whenever possible. Cooking and heating are
prior to ignition, causing an explo- combined and, when extra heat is required to
sion. dry clothes, all individuals should dry clothes
(h) All fuel supplies must be kept out- at the same time, when possible.
side the tent. Spare cans of gaso-
line or other fuel should never be 3-11. Lighting Tents
stored inside the tent. Fuels used Candles will provide light in forward areas.
in combat areas in the north are In rear areas, gasoline lanterns or lighting
normally low temperature fuels equipment sets may be used.
which will flow freely.
3-12. Tools
(2) Burning solid fuels.
(a) Fuel should be fed a small amount a. Handtools are needed by small units for
at a time until the bed of coals is several purposes such as erection and striking
burning brightly. the tent, building ski and weapon racks, build-
(b) Stove should not be allowed to ing field latrines, chopping firewood, etc. Tools
overheat. are also needed for trailbreaking, preparation
(c) Oil or gasoline should not be poured of positions, and similar tasks. Because en-
on the fire. trenching tools are lightly constructed, they
(d) Ashes should not be allowed to ac- are of little value for work in heavy timber or
cumulate below the grate. frozen ground. The following tools are needed
by squad sized units to accomplish routine
(e) Clinkers should be removed to pre- tasks in cold regions, regardless of the season
vent grate from becoming blocked. of the year:
3-9. Heating of Semipermanent Tents With (1) One axe, chopping.
Tent Stove, Ml941 (2) One saw (Buck or Swede).
Stoves of this type normally are used to pro- (3) Two machetes with sheaths.
vide heat for the semipermanent, frame-type, (4) One shovel, general purpose.
sectional tent. The stove may be operated with b. Tools must be kept sharp, clean, oiled and
wood or coal or with various types of oil and in good condition. Care must be taken to pre-
gasoline. This stove has the same general char- clude small tools and items of equipment from
acteristics and safety features outlined for the being left in the snow or thrown aside where
Yukon stove in paragraph 38. they may become buried and lost in the snow.
Particular care must be exercised while wear-
3-10. Fuel Economy ing gloves because ice or frost may form on the
The minimum daily fuel consumption per gloves and cause the tools to slip from the users
Yukon stove approximates five gallons of gaso- hands, resulting in injury to nearby person-
line per 8 to 12 hours of operation. The M1941 nel and/or loss of equipment.
'-HOOD
IE IVD tV.LJILD
k
-
r OME WH 3HEr.LEB S .LMO - VVK 2HEr.LEb
I. U nirgnr titciQ
30 AGO 8641A
3-15. Lean-To using snowblocks instead of a heavy
a. Materials. The lean-to shelter, used in for- log. Stringers approximately 3 meters
ested areas, is constructed of trees and tree (10') long and 5 to 8 centimeters
limbs. String or wire helps in the building, (2" to 3") in diameter are then
but is not necessary. A poncho, a piece of can- placed, approximately 46 cm (18")
vas, tarpaulin, or a parachute, in addition to apart, from the crosspiece over the
the baughs, may be used for covering. top of the log in the rear of the shel-
ter. Material such as cardboard, can-
vas or ponchos may be placed over the
011 1.1,
,Iuu' framework to preclude falling or
0-u. I'
melting snow, warmed by the fire,
from dropping through. One or both
sides of the lean-to and the roof are
then thatched.
(2) Double lean-to (fig. 3-11). Two sin-
gle lean-tos are built facing each
other and approximately 1.50 to 2
meters (5' to 6') apart. The space be-
IITI tween single lean-tos must be suffi-
cient to permit the occupants to move
__
SSIS
II
freely around the log fire placed along
tII IS the centerline of this space and to al-
low the smoke to get out through the
$t %O opening instead of gathering under
the roofing. If desired, one end of the
middle space may be covered by a
b. Size. The lean-to is made to accommodate wall made of boughs or other mate-
a variable number of individuals. It may be rials for additional protection from
built for one man only, teams, gun crews, pa- the draft and wind.
trols, or similar small groups. From a practical
point of view, a rifle squad is the largest ele-
ment to be sheltered in one double lean-to.
c. Types. Depending on the number of indi-
viduals to be sheltered, two types of lean-tos,
single and double, are used.
d. Construction.
(1) Single lean-to (fig. 3-10). To save
time and energy, two trees of appro-
priate distance apart, and sturdy
enough to support the crosspiece ap-
proximately 1.50 meters (5') off the
ground, are selected when operating
in forested areas. It may be necessary
ii V EI3S-O
to cut two forked poles of desired
height, or construct two A-frames to
hold the crosspieces, or use a combi- e. Heating. In heating a lean-to, any kind of
nation of these supports when bivou- oven fire may be used. The best type for large
acking in sparse wooded or semi-open size lean-tos, however, is the log fire, so the
areas. A large log is then placed to heat will be evenly distributed over the entire
the rear of the lean-to for added length of the lean-to, see paragraph 3-21 d. In
height. Other methods that may be employing open fires for heating, precautions
used are packing the snow down or must be taken to prevent the fire from burning
AGO 8641A 31
154-616 0 - 94 - 2
too hot and burning down the shelter or setting 3-18. Snow Wall
the roof on the with sparks. In open terrain with snow and ice, a snow
wall (fig. 3-13) may be constructed for protec-
3-16. Tree Shelter tion from strong winds. Blocks of compact
a. Tree-Pit Shelter. In wooded areas, the snow or ice are used to form a windbreak.
deep snow and tree-pit shelter (fig. 3-12) fur-
nishes temporary protection. To construct a
tree-pit shelter a large tree is selected with
thick lower branches and surrounded with deep
snow. The snow is shaken from the lower *IO DI1IOI
branches and the natural pit is enlarged
around the trunk of the tree. The walls and
floor are then lined with branches and the roof
thickened. Canvas or other material on hand
may be used for the roof.
/ / -I
'W rq 8OS( Stctfl
biOM ekSYIICHE3
dttu. %1
_____
s LIJL66i0 111.6
%% 'O 3.6*
/
DWflA. lIONS U UVUSOSUOD DID r.o OWl III SOUL
UDLI UNILIMS UNUISOCININIOUN NUllS UN
VU UNOlU SO VUANT NIL IVIUN 00
10110101 rUNS UN Old UN 1 OlIUSO rlbUN lb
VIII VU UOIb U AINUNIDMI IlDOVULL VU
vWI IOSl NE V SONIObI VU 101
LIPID DL IlbSU lb LVU I bU0111101 U ODNILOD
Ltd III V SOIL LID SO*UUL(
Lr lbs 10155
ost
C*MSJ. i.C -
c. The tactical situation dicates whether or
i 3fl \o o not sleeping bags are used. The amount of
clothing to be worn when sleeping on a bough
bed or in the sleeping bag can be best judged
3-54. Sleeping Arrangements in Bivouac by experience and will depend on temperature
a. When arranging the sleeping procedures and the tactical situation. As a minimum,
in a tent or improvised shelter, the position outer clothing is usually removed when the
of every man, especially the position of reliefs sleeping bag is used. The removed clothing is
for sentries, is planned. Each man must know placed beneath the individual for additional
AGO 8641A 55
insulation and instant availability. In an emer- thus melt the snow with less risk of cold injury
gency it may be necessary to dress in the dark. to hands or lips. A glass bottle or plastic bag
In the morning all ice and frost is removed can be used in place of an uninsulated canteen.
and the bag ventilated before rolling it up.
Time permitting, it is hung up by the strings 3-56. Bough and Firewood Areas
and thoroughly dried. The areas for cutting boughs and firewood
d. When sleeping in a heated tent without should be immediately designated when a biv-
a sleeping bag, boots are usually removed, sit- ouac site is selected.
uation permitting. The parka is used like a a. Bough Area. The area for cutting boughs
blanket. The rucksack makes a good pillow. for bedding as well as for construction of im-
The clothing is always loosened. provised shelters should be common to all in-
dividuals of the group. It is selected in a dense
3-55. Water Points and Snow Area area of woods in which springy, unfrozen
Locations boughs are available, and should not be too
During the winter it may be necessary to close to the bivouac site. It is advisable to use
obtain water by melting snow or ice. When sleds in hauling material to the shelter site.
such a source is utilized for drinking purposes, Due to the camouflage and track discipline,
an area should be set aside and restricted to only one well-concealed trail is used. When
this purpose only. A preferable site is one up- cutting boughs, the unnecessary felling of
wind from the bivouac and isolated from the trees should be avoided because trees lying on
latrine and garbage disposal areas. If such an the ground can be easily observed from the
area is not available, then snow should be air. Instead of felling trees, only the lower
gathered from the branches of trees or lightly branches should be used.
skimmed from a carefully isolated area adja- b. Firewood Area. It is advisable to have the
cent to the individual shelters. Water obtained firewood area nearby the area designated for
in this manner must be boiled for one minute bough cutting so that the same track can be
or chemically treated. Chemical sterilization of used. Dry, dead pine trees make the best fire-
water under freezing conditions requires a wood. If no dead trees are available, green
longer period because the disinfecting com- birch trees may be chopped; they possess ex-
pounds act with retarded efficiency under such cellent burning qualities even when frozen.
conditions. The time allotted for contact with The top parts of dead trees should be burned
purification tablets should be two to four times during the daytime, as they give off lighter
the normal period of one-half hour. Eating ice colored smoke. The lower part of the trunk
or snow is unsatisfactory and may result in has more resin and tar, and burns better, but
injury to lips or tongue. Contamination may makes more and much darker smoke.
also be a hazard. If no other water source is
available, as in a survival situation, snow can
be eaten but it must first be brought to the 3-57. Storage
melting point by holding it in the bare hand. Storage problems in winter are increased by
It may then be eaten slowly and in small snow, low temperatures, thaws, limited stor-
amounts. This is best done during periods of age space, and the increased problems of trans-
temporary heat excess, as during marching, or portation. Space in any shelter is limited. Only
while in the sleeping bag. The risk of frostbite items which are affected by cold, or which
to the hand must be considered and balanced must be immediately available, should be
against the need for fluids. Should some water stored inside. All other stores must be con-
be available in an uninsulated canteen during centrated, well marked, covered, and left out-
a survival situation, this should be warmed side. On the other hand, some perishables
under the clothing or in the sleeping bag. Then which are difficult to preserve in summer may
snow may be added to the canteen after each be kept during the winter months in a natural
drink to replace the water consumed. Body deepfreeze over an extended period of time.
heat stored in the slightly warmed water will In areas where permafrost exists, a hole can
56 AGO 8641A
be dug or blasted out and then covered with as empty cardboard boxes, tent or sled covers,
insulating material, such as boughs. A con- waterproof bags or ponchos can be utilized to
stant low temperature can thus be maintained. protect the weapons from rain, dust, and fall-
a. Rifle Stand and Hanging of Weapon. In ing or drifting snow. When weapons are hung
wooded terrain a weapon rack may be built outside on stacked skis, or suspended above
from poles placed in a horizontal position and the snow in some other manner, they are hung
covered with boughs (fig. 3-24). When boughs with the muzzle down to keep falling or blow-
are not available, various other materials such ing snow out of the barrel and working parts.
1'S.Q % $\Q l3
b. Ski Racks and Stacking of Skis. Care of been secured between two growing trees
skis in the field is highly important because horizontal position (fig. 324). In open areas,
unit and individual mobility depends upon skis are simply stuck upright or stacked in
them. If left lying on the snow in the bivouac the snow as described in appendix C.
area the bindings and running surfaces will c. Sleds. Sleds are placed on their sides or
freeze and render the skis unusable for a long on end outside. If loaded sleds are left on the
period of time, or they may be entirely lost snow, sticks, poles, or branches are laid under
under drifting snow. Therefore, the skis and the runners to prevent them from freezing to
ski poles are placed on an improvised ski rack the snow. Heavy cargo sleds, 1-ton or larger,
made of one or two long poles which have must be placed on top of heavy poles or logs
TAGO 8641A 57
-1.
MIUE
2o-eocw
StSc3. rQ
due to the fact that sled runners remain hot colder regions is based on the same principles
after extensive usage and tend to settle into as in temperate climates. The extremes in cli-
the snow and become frozen, making move- mate and weather, however, make the problem
ment of the sled difficult the following day. more acute. The wastes that present constant
d. Vehicles. Vehicles are driven under a big and real problems are human excreta, gar-
tree or in lee of a shelter or snowdrift. Ve- bage, and trash.
hicles should be parked so the least amount of (1) In bivouac areas, pit or cross-tree
snow can get into the engines and parked on type latrines are used for the disposal
brush, logs, dry ground, or other surfaces not of human waste (fig. 3-25). One la-
liable to thaw from heat of tires and tracks trine will usually serve the needs of
and refreeze. individuals occupying 3 to 4 shelters,
e. Ammunition and Fuel. Ammunition and or a unit of platoon size. The latrine
fuel are stored separately outside. Ammuni- is placed downwind from the bivouac,
tion boxes should be stacked off the groung in but not so far from the shelters as
a dry place and covered with canvas or boughs. to encourage invididuals to break
In order to locate stacks if snow-covered, a sanitary discipline. Ration boxes or
pole should be erected near them. Boughs or similar material should be used to
poles are placed under fuel containers to pre- collect waste. A urinal, designated for
vent them from freezing to the snow. each shelter, should be located within
4 to 5 meters (4 to 5 yards) of the
3-58. Field Sanitation shelter. A windbreak of boughs, tar-
a. Waste Disposal. Field sanitation in the paulins, ponchos, or snow wall should
58 AGO 8641A
be constructed to protect the latrine (2) All trash and garbage dumps should
from the wind. be marked with appropriate signs to
warn troops who might occupy these
(2) When breaking bivouac, the human disposal sites at a later time.
waste that has accumulated in the
latrine will be burned or buried. All (3) Strict camouflage of all trash and
closed latrine sites, tactical situation garbage is essential. Dark trash on
permitting, will be clearly marked. the white snow is easily seen from
the air. Glittering tin cans or bottles
b. Trash and Garbage Disposal. may be seen by the enemy. Trash
(1) In winter the edible portion of food and garbage should be placed under
waste may be collected in receptacles any available cover and camouflaged
and disposed of by burial in the snow with snow, branches, or other ma-
at a safe distance from the bivouac. terials.
Every effort should be made to burn c. Rats and Mice. Rats and mice will be
the bulk of the trash and garbage. found in most of the habitable cold regions
During seasons and in locations of the earth. They are a definite menace to
where bears are found, all edible health and property and should be kept under
garbage should be burned to avoid strict control. Rat poisons or traps should be
attracting bears to campsites. used when available.
AGO 8641A 59
CHAPTER 4
Section I. INTRODUCTION
4-1. Purpose and Scope
By using snowshoes, individual mo-
a. The purpose of this chapter is to provide bility will be restored to a point ap-
information concerning proximately equal to that of foot
(1) Techniques used in military skiing movement on hard ground. Skis, on
and snowshoeing. the other hand, provide individual mo-
(2) Application of these techniques to fa- bility usually exceeding that possible
cilitate the oversnow mobility of on foot.
troops engaged in military operations. b. Need for Certain Techniques.
b. This chapter also describes- (1) During cross-country marches and in
combat the soldier on skis or snow-
(1) Equipment available for military ski- shoes will be required to negotiate
ing and snowshoeing. various types of terrain conditions.
(2) Maintenance and care of that equip- He will be moving and operating in
ment. different weather and snow condi-
tions. Carrying a rucksack-and a wea-
4--2. General Considerations pon, he will be required to move in
a. The Need for Individual Mobility. forests, over open terrain, uphill and
(1) Warfare in snow-covered areas re- downhill, and often while pulling a
quires oversnow mobility off the sled.
roads. Well-trained ski and snowshoe (2) In order to execute his mission with
troops are a definite asset on the the least wasted effort, the soldier
snow-covered battlefield. In deep snow must apply the proper techniques of
(61 cm (2') or greater in depth) the skiing and snowshoeing required for
individual has almost no mobility the various conditions under which
without the aid of skis or snowshoes. he will operate.
Troops on skis attain mobility, are not c. Use of Oversnow Equipment to Achieve
roadbound, and are able to move cross- Mobility.
country over all types of snow- (1) The means available to the individual
covered terrain. They are ideally soldier for obtaining oversnow mo-
suited for reconnaissance, security bility are skis and snowshoes. When
missions, and deep penetration patrols operating in snow-covered terrain the
conducting unconventional type op- soldier must be equipped with either
erations. Aggressive action can be skis or snowshoes at all times. Using
carried out with advantage against skis, he is normally able to execute
the enemy flanks, rear, or communi- long marches with less effort and in
cation lines by lightly equipped, fast- less time than when using snowshoes.
moving troops on skis. Cross-country movement by soldiers
(2) Deep snow hinders movement on foot. on skis can be facilitated by towing
60 AGO 8641A
the skiers with tracked vehicles or gently rolling terrain while individu-
animals (skijoring). Snowshoes are als are carrying a rifle and loaded
more suitable than skis in confined rucksack.
areas, when working close to heavy 3W .Ot3S I.Oq
weapons, or when training time is joo (JGa JJULI 30GW 1-3 why 1i3 why
limited. 0 2JJOM)
(2) Rates of movement over snow-covered uo auoit)
(1%)
tooc (0A6L 30GW (i) j why iis why
terrain cannot be given in exact time ?UO1A2J10611J j why s-si why
requirements. They vary in each situ- 2JcnIJ - i.Pv
I3I why asi why
ation. However, as a guide, the fol- avfloLwt
- 212 why
lowing rates are listed. Rates are (q6h6uqpJt
given for movement over flat or 011 6LLB11)
' cSQ.%
s%zn.Q tw 8 ob
mostly found during the spring, as well as in spring, when abnorm-
but it may also occur in the fall ally low temperatures occur. This
or late winter, particularly in re- snow is light and fluffy. It cannot
gions of moderate climate. This be compressed into a snowball un-
type of snow can be readily made less the snow is made moist by
into a heavy, solid snowball. In ex- holding it in the hand. At extreme-
treme conditions, wet snow will be- ly low temperatures, such as those
come slushy and contain a maxi- found in the far northern regions,
mum amount of water. this snow is like sand, and has very
(b) Moist snow. This type of snow is poor sliding qualities.
generally associated with early (d) New snow. This is snow which is
winter, but may also occur in mid- still falling or has recently fallen
winter during a sudden warmup on the ground, but has not been
period. This type of snow can be subject to changes due to the sun
made into a snowball, but will not or temperature variation. It can be
compress as readily or be as heavy wet, moist, or dry in nature.
as a wet snowball. It will have a c. Proper Selection and Application of
tendency to fall apart. Waxes. Cross-country ski waxes are formulated
(c) Dry snow. This type of snow is gen- to provide optimum sliding and climbing char-
erally associated with winter at its acteristics for various types of snow conditions.
height, but it can occur in late fall Each type is labeled with appropriate instruc-
68 AGO 8641A
tions on its intended use, i.e., wet, moist or used. Do not place the running sur-
dry snow conditions. Since the types of wax faces of skis on snow immediately
vary between manufacturers, no particular after waxing if heat is used or if wax-
type of wax can be prescribed for each classi- ing is done in a heated room or shelter
fication of snow; however, the instructions on as the snow may stick and freeze to
each container specifies the weather conditions the running surface. For the same
and type of snow where performance of the reason protect the running surfaces
wax is best. Proper application of all waxes against wind driven snow. To insure
is important to achieve desired results whether that wax is properly chosen and ap-
they be traction or sliding action. As a general plied, the skis should be tested before
rule, the wax that gives the best sliding sur- being used on an extended march.
face for all types of snow provides an excellent
base for application of other waxes. To pro-
vide traction, varying amounts, combinations,
and methods of application of other waxes are
used. When pulling a sled or carrying a heavy
load, thicker coats of wax may be required to
insure traction.
d. Waxing Procedure.
(1) Whenever possible, the waxing of
skis should be done before the march
when shelter and heat are available,
as the running surface of the ski
should be warm and dry to obtain
best results. When on the march, ski
wax should be carried in the pockets,
if possible, so that body heat will
keep the wax soft and easy to use.
If the skis need waxing during the
march, the running surfaces are
dried as much as possible by the use
of paper or dry mittens. Whenever
possible, old wax should be removed
before rewaxing skis particularly
when a different type of wax is being
used. Refer to paragraph 4-9 b (1) for
proper method for removing old wax.
(2) To apply, cover the running surface
with wax. Next, smooth the wax by
rubbing it with the hand, using the
heel of the palm or the fingers (fig.
4-7), a waxing cork, or a heated iron.
When heat is available, this process
can be made easier by warming the
wax that has been applied. It is norm-
ally best to work progressively on a _st $\. ooI 1u oottQ o\ xir
section at a time, from the ski tip
towards the heel. If the waxing is
done in a shelter, or heat is used, the 4-11. Care of Ski Equipment
skis should be allowed to cool to out- a. General.
side air temperature before being (1) A broken ski or binding may put a
AGO 8641A 69
soldier at the mercy of the enemy and ditions are determined in the morn-
the elements and prevent him from ing or shortly prior to departure.
accomplishing his mission. If the After maintenance of skis is com-
soldier keeps his skis and equipment pleted, they should be placed in-
in good condition, he will find that doors, preferably in a ski rack (fig.
ski marches are easier and less tiring 4-8). Under field conditions, skis
and that he will not be the cause of are placed in an improvised ski
any unnecessary delays and halts by rack, planted upright in the snow
his unit. Care of ski equipment is the or stacked.
responsibility of the individual sol- (b) Bindings. Insure that all straps,
dierhe must check it before start- buckles, screws and rivets are pres-
ing out on a mission, during breaks, ent and in good condition. Replace
and when in bivouac. At least once a parts which are unserviceable. If
week the ski equipment should be necessary, readjust the fit of the
thoroughly checked by unit leaders. bindings.
During combat the inspection must (c) Poles. Check wrist straps, hand-
be done whenever the situation per- grips, shafts, baskets, and points to
mits. insure that they are in good con-
(2) Skis must be checked for proper base dition. Broken parts should be re-
of pine tar, evidence of possible warp- placed at the first opportunity.
ing and splitting, loss of camber, de- Temporary repairs can be made
fective edges, and broken steel edge with wire, cord, or tape.
sections or screws. At the same time (2) When snow cover is comparatively
bindings must be checked for worn thin, be careful not to damage the
straps, missing rivets and screws, and skis while skiing in rocky or stumpy
proper adjustment. Ski poles should terrain. Sometimes there is water
be checked to insure that wrist straps, under the snow cover on frozen rivers
handgrips, baskets, and points are or lakes. Try to cross them at a dry
firmly fastened and that no breakage place; make an improvised hasty
has occurred. bridge from trees or boughs, if time
b. Daily Care. permits. If the skis become wet dur-
(1) After each day's use, the skis and the ing a crossing of water, the ice which
skiing equipment should be checked forms on the skis must be removed
and necessary repairs made by the in- after reaching the bank. A long
dividual as follows: march or sudden change in tempera-
(a) Skis. Remove any snow or ice that ture may require rewaxing of skis
has frozen to the ski. This may be during the march. When skis are re-
done with heat. If heat is not avail- moved, do not leave them on the snow.
able, this can be done with a mit- It may stick and freeze on the run-
ten, wooden stick, or piece of metal. ning surface. Remove the snow from
Check the heels and tips of the skis the skis and stack them beside the ski
for cracks. Badly cracked skis must tracks or lean the skis against a tree.
be replaced, as they are weakened A ski stack can be built by each squad.
and break easily. At the same time, c. Repair.
check for and replace defective or (1) General. Repair of unserviceable ski
missing edges and screws. The con- equipment requires qualified person-
dition of ski bottoms is then nel with necessary tools and facili-
checked and, if needed, additional ties, Therefore, the soldier will only
pine tar or base wax is applied. The be permitted to make emergency re-
surface waxing for the next days pairs such as replacing bindings,
march is deferred until snow con- screws, and steel edges.
AGO 8641A
YIUAtVI tu
.iwI1flWi
I __________________________________
io Itb o\
(2) Emergency repair. The repair of ski
equipment under field conditions is
emergency repair. In many cases
broken skis or worn out parts of ski
equipment must be replaced. To fa-
cilitate this, the following arrange-
ments are necessary:
(a) Every unit should have replace-
ment skis, bindings, and poles.
There should also be available, ski
repair kits, pine tar or lacquer, and
waxes.
(b) Every squad should have one emer-
gency ski tip (fig. 4-9 ) and each
platoon, one ski repair kit.
(c) Every man should have the follow-
ing in his possession at all times:
1. Emergency thong.
2. Pocketknife.
3. Piece of light wire (malleable) or
nylon cord.
(3) Combat repair. During combat, the
most suitable time for maintenance s%zn. t' *U '
and repair of skis and ski equipment
is when the unit is in reserve. procedures will damage this equip-
d. Storage. ment, making it unserviceable.
(1) Proper storing of skis and skiing (2) When the skiing season is over, skis
equipment is most important , during and poles are turned in by the using
off seasons. Improper care in storage unit for storage. Before doing so, the
AGO 8641A 71
skis must be cleaned and old waxes
removed.
218Yb
(3) Skis and poles are then checked
thoroughly. Those in good condition
are separated from those in need of 'c Ii
repair or salvage. Necessary repairs
are made. Ski bindings are not re-
moved. All skis should be pine-tarred II
or lacquered. If needed, skis are re-
painted. Skilled personnel are needed
for repairing skis and poles and for
escw-fl
preparing them for storage.
(4) In further preparation, the skis are LJ\
tied together by matching pairs ac-
cording to their factory markings not
unit markings. A piece of string or 11 't'
cord is used to tie the skis at their
tips and heels with running surfaces II\\
facing each other. A wooden block
(waxing cork may be used) is then
placed-between the skis at the metal
toe plates. The correct spread is about
6 to 8 cm (2 to 3). After being
Mocked, the skis are stored in a verti-
cal position, with the tips down. If
1
the skis must be stored horizontally,
they should be supported at both ends ocvt *tI
and at the middle, with the end sup-
ports on the top side of the ski and the I
middle support beneath and arranged
so that tension is maintained on the
camber. Each ski should be supported
individually when stored horizontally.
The storage room should be dry with
V
an even temperature and good venti-
lation (fig. 4-10).
(5) After ski poles are checked, repaired,
and reconditioned, they should be
placed in the same storage area as
the skis.
4-12. Basic Movement
a. General. In moving on skis for the first ;
time, most beginners find that skis are awk-
ward to handle due to the difficulty of obtain-
ing the necessary balance and coordination. To
overcome these difficulties, the first instruc-
tional phase is devoted to step turns and walk-
ing on level ground in order to obtain the bal-
ance, correct body position, coordination, and
7LOW W6 bOJf1OU JIG LjJ1
bscsq bbLox!wvJ p. p; N 'llI PG
rhythm necessary in skiing. In addition, this w 'tb ucur
72 AGO 8641A
1
TI
k
r 1
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st&
this reason, it is important that he practice
all techniques with and without the use of ski
poles. This is especially important in the begin-
ning stages of skiing, as practice without ski
poles will aid in learning proper transfer of
body weight, balance, timing, and control of
the skis.
4-13. Step Turn
a. Use. The step is the simplest means of
changing direction from a standing position.
It is particularly valuable in brushy and
wooded terrain (fig. 4-11).
b. Technique.
(1) From the standing position the right
(left) ski tip is raised, the ski is ro-
tated to the right (left) side, using
3 ya 4JJ6 jq jq boJG uJj pony u jouaq the heel of the ski as a pivot.
4}J6 J6I JJG GCJ6 i cowbJGsq (2) The ski is placed on the snow and
tcoJJu1,6q the body weight shifted onto it.
(3) The left (right) ski is moved along
basic movement is a means of forming the side the right (left) in the same man-
foundation for further instruction. Ski drill ner.
techniques are covered in appendix C. (4) Each pole is raised, moved, and placed
b. Skiing Without Poles. The soldier will with the corresponding ski (i.e., right
find that in performing duties, especially in ski, right pole).
combat, he will be required to ski either with (5) The same movement is repeated until
poles carried in one hand or without poles. For the desired direction is obtained.
AGO 8641A 73
(6) In confined areas it may be necessary
to use the tip of the ski instead of the
heel as a pivot point. In turning to
the right (left) the heel of the left
(right) ski is raised off the snow and
moved to the left of its original posi-
tion. Then the right (left) ski is
moved alongside the left (right) ski
and this sequence repeated until the
desired direction is achieved.
4-14. Kick Turn
a. Use. The kick turn is a method for re-
versing the direction of a skier when in a
standing position. It is used on both flat and
steep terrain. In combat, it is also useful to
conceal a change of direction in a ski track jp6 J4p4 jq 4JJ6II aMnU OLML uq p6 pej
(fig. 4-12). bc6q ii
ajq ;ib
uo sbbLox!wJ 6AGIJ !CJ' tp6
b. Technique.
(1) Beginning in the standing position
with skis level, the left (right ) pole
is placed alongside the left (right)
ski approximately 45 to 60 cm (18"
to 24") in front of the toe of the foot.
At the same time the right (left) pole
is placed alongside the right (left)
ski about 45 to 60 cm (18" to 24")
behind the heel of the foot.
t% Q3 8Qb
4'(O dY
leg, in a continuous rhythmic motion, ing from alternate feet. The step is made in
to produce a long glide on the right the same manner as the two step except that
ski. two walking steps are taken before each lunge.
(3) While gliding on the right ski, the
left ski is brought slowly forward and 4-18. Variations and Applications of Ski
even with the other ski to complete Steps
the first two step and in preparation a. In long, cross-country movement, parti-
of the next two step. This action cularly when skiing with pack and rifle, it is
should be started before the momen- most important to apply techniques properly
tum of the glide has been lost. according to the terrain to insure that energy
(4) As the first step is made, both ski is spent wisely and conserved as much as possi-
poles are brought straight to the front ble. To this end, the individual must attempt
in a comfortable reach and set into to obtain as much glide as possible from his
the snow alongside the skis in coordi- skis during each step. Although lasting only
nation with the lunge of the second for a short moment, the glide will allow the
step. skier to rest temporarily. In addition, all
(5) The pushing action with the poles is movements must be made in a relaxed manner,
applied in the same manner as de- which necessitates continuous individual train-
scribed above in using one pole. As ing. The constant use of the same step is monot-
the poles leave the snow, they are onous and increases fatigue. To avoid this,
brought forward in a straight line in various steps are used temporarily. The same
preparation for the execution of the effect is also necessary in poling. In order to
next step. It is most important to time relax arm and shoulder muscles, a series of
this motion properly to coordinate steps may be made without poling. In the one
with the next lunge. step, for instance, the first two steps can be
c. Three Step. In addition to the two step, made without using the poles. Any additional
the three step may be used anytime when combination of steps and poling may be made
changing ski steps and when sliding is poor. at ones discretion for the same reason, placing
The initial steps are intended to produce more more emphasis on leg rather than arm work,
initial power. It has an advantage over the or vice versa.
two step since it allows double poling and lung- b. In bumpy terrain, ski steps and poling
AGO 8641A 77
may be used individually or in various com- quick stop to avoid hitting an object.
binations to provide a strong pushoff to provide When properly used, it can be accom-
the skier with sufficient glide for a continuous plished without injury to the indi-
motion through a dip and over a bump. When vidual.
a series of bumps and dips is encountered, the (2) Unintentional falls. Unintentional
poling action is generally applied on the crest falls are undesirable and may cause
of the first bump in order to obtain sufficient serious injury. Other undesirable re-
momentum to reach the top of the next bump sultsof an unintentional fall are in-
in a continuous glide. A step supported by creased fatigue, possible frostbite, and
double poling may be applied when skiing holes in the snow which may cause
through the dip. There are other situations other skiers to fall. Factors which
where double poling may be applied to gain may contribute to unintentional falls
or increase forward motion of the ski without are poor skiing ability, lack of con-
taking a step. trol, snow conditions, fatigue, and ex-
cessive speeds.
4-19. Falling b. Technique of Falling.
a. General. In military skiing there are two (1) If a fall is imminent, an attempt is
types of falls, controlled and unintentional. made to relax, lower the body, and to
(1) Controlled falls. The controlled fall land sideways and to the rear.
has definite value. It can be used to (2) While falling, an attempt should be
avoid excessive speed or to avoid hit- made to stretch the body, to extend
ting obstacles if other means are not the arms and to keep the ski poles
possible. The controlled fall can be to the rear (fig. 4-15). Care should
done safely only at slow to moderate be taken to keep the knees from dig-
speeds. It is used to take cover quick- ging into the snow, as such action is
ly, assume a firing position or for a a major cause of injury.
(3) The impact of the fall should be ab- (2) If necessary, the pack and other re-
sorbed by the hips or buttocks. strictive loads are removed.
(4) The unintentional fall is avoided as (3) Skis are untangled and brought paral-
much as possibie. It is often prevented lel, feet together. Knees are pulled up
by the correction of a faulty ski or to bring the skis close to the body.
body position. The body is then moved forward and
(5) Landing directly on a knee or hand raised, pushing with the pole if as-
must be avoided since the resulting sistance is needed.
blow may cause serious injury. This (4) To use the ski poles, both hands are
is especially serious in heavy wet first removed from the straps. The
snow or breakable crust because the poles are then placed together with
extended arm or knee may penetrate baskets in the snow slightly to the
and be locked firmly in place before rear, grasped with one hand above
the body has lost momentum. the basket, palm facing downward,
(6) Although falling or sitting down and with the other hand close to the
with the skis facing downhill is the top, palm facing upward.
preferred method, occasionally a fall (5) The procedure for recovery from a
over the tips cannot be avoided. The fall on a slope is the same except that
important thing to remember is RE- the skis are placed below the body
LAX. and perpendicular (at right angles)
to the fall line. To obtain this posi-
c. Recovery. tion it may be necessary to roll onto
(1) To recover from a fall, the skier the back, lifting the skis in the air
must first figure out what to do before and then in the proper position. Poles
attempting to rise. A little planning are then used as described on the up-
will save time and energy. hill side (fig. 4-15).
AGO 8641A 79
4-20. Straight Uphill Climbing weight placed upon it. The upper ski
a. Use. Straight uphill climbing is a method pole is moved at the same time and
of ascending gentle and moderate slopes. placed above and alongside this ski.
b. Technique.
(1) Take the first step as in walking the
body leaning forward with knees well
bent.
(2) On gentle slopes, slide the skis for-
ward without lifting them from the
snow. On steeper slopes, more knee
bend is required which causes a trans-
fer of body weight. It may become
necessary to lift the ski as the step
is made, and to place it with a stampi-
ng action upon the snow. This will
give the ski wax better holding quali-
ties because it will not break down
the snow crystals by first sliding over
them.
(3) Use the ski poles to assist the body
in its uphill movement and to mini-
mize backslip.
(4) The degree of slope which may be
ascended using this method is limited
by the holding characteristics of the
wax used. With repeated backslapping
of the skis, the slope should be tra-
versed thereby decreasing the angle
of climb, or a different method of 5t.Q
climbing should be used.
The lower ski is then moved up as
4-21. Sidestep close as possible to the uphill ski,
a. Use. The sidestep is an effective method while the skier is supported by a push
of climbing a short, steep slope, where space on the lower pole. This pole is then
is confined; it may be the only practical means brought up and placed alongside the
of ascending slopes. It is also useful for step- lower ski. This completes one cycle
ping sideways over logs, stumps, and other of the sidestep. Merely repeat until
obstacles. the desired elevation is reached.
b. Technique.
4-22. Uphill Traverse
(1) The skis are placed together and per-
pendicular (at right angles) to the a. Use. This method of climbing is used
slope (fall line). To prevent slipping when the slope becomes too steep for going
sideways, the uphill edges of both skis straight uphill. Although a traverse generally
are forced into the snow by pushing involves a zigzag route, it will often be the
both knees forward and toward the least tiring method of ascending, thereby con-
slope. Avoid leaning into the slope. serving time and energy.
Initially, the weight of the body is b. Technique.
placed on the lower ski. (1) An angle of ascent is selected which
(2) The uphill is lifted in a sideways step will allow climbing without backslip.
up the slope (fig. 4-16) and the body (2) The skis are edged into the slope on
80 AGO 8641A
each step with the ski poles used as
in straight uphill climbing.
(8) In changing the direction of ascent
a kick turn or a herringbone turn,
(para 4-24d) can be utilized. Long
traverses should be used whenever
possible, since elevation is gained
more effectively and with less expen-
diture of energy in this manner.
4-23. Sidestep Traverse
a. Use. This step is a combination of a side-
step and the uphill traverse. It allows greater
vertical climb in each traverse.
b. Technique.
(1) The movement is the same as in the
uphill traverse, except the ski is
raised slightly and placed uphill as it
is brought forward with each step.
(2) The skis are kept parallel and edged,
as in the sidestep.
(3) The ski poles are moved in the same
sequence as in the sidestep. I .IJ4UpOUG
4-24. Herringbone
a. Use. The herringbone is used to climb
short, moderate, or steep slopes. It provides
a quicker ascent than the sidestep. It is more
tiring and should be used only for relatively
short ascents.
b. Technique.
(1) The body is faced uphill with skis
spread to form a wide V. This is ob-
tained by spreading both ski tips out-
ward. The skis are edged sharply in-
ward, to prevent backslip, by bending
the knees forward and inward (fig.
4-17).
(2) The first step is made by placing the
weight on one ski, raising the other
slightly above the snow and moving
it forward and upward. This ski is
then placed in the snow, edged in-
ward, and the body weight trans-
ferred to it. The other ski is then
moved in the same manner and
placed slightly ahead. H'1 pGJJ1JJpOU6
(3) The ski poles are used in the same
manner as the sidestep, except they asbI.t.Q th -!Q3..flS%9O3tS
b. Technique.
(1) The basic position is that of straight
downhill running, except that the up-
hill shoulder and ski is always slightly
advanced and most of the weight is
on the lower ski.
(2) Stand directly over the skis and avoid 'tw osboi
leaning into the slope. Both skis be-
ing edged into the slope.
forward in the direction of the ski
(3) If more edging is needed, it is con- tips, causing the skis to be edged
trolled by knee and ankle action, and slightly inward. The heels are kept
is kept even and constant. constantly on the skis while con-
(4) The ski poles are held as in the tinuous outward heel pressure upon
straight downhill positions. the skis is applied.
4-27. Snowplow (c) The upper part of the body and the
ski poles are held as in the straight
a. Use. The snowplow is a means for con- downhill running position.
trolling and slowing down forward motion in (d) To increase the braking action,
all types of terrain. In gentle or moderate ter- the skis are moved into a wider V
rain it can be used for-stopping. The snowplow and edged more.
uses fundamental positions which are employed
for furthering other skiing techniques (fig. 4- (2) Half snowplow.
20). (a) When only one ski is brought into
snowplow position, this is referred
b. Techniques. to as a half snowplow. The half
(1) From straight downhill running. snowplow is used in confined areas
(a) To move into a snowplow, both and in traversing where a full
heels are pushed outward evenly, snowplow is impractical for brak-
keeping the ski tips even and close ing action. It is also used in con-
together, forcing the skis to form junction with basic and advanced
a wide V. turns.
(b) The body weight is kept even on (b) This motion is executed by pushing
both skis. The knees are bent well only one ski outward in the snow-
AGO 8641A 83
plow position described above. fined areas where ability to control descent is
Braking action is controlled by the limited by snow conditions, terrain features,
degree of weight placed on this ski or obstacles. Two different methods are used
and the amount of edging applied. (fig. 4-22).
It is important that the ski be edged
to a pronounced degree on the in-
side to eliminate the possibility of
catching an outside edge.
(3) The snowplow while traversing down-
hill.
(a) To move into a snowplow from a
downhill traverse, the body weight
is shifted momentarily to the up-
hill ski. The lower ski is then moved
downhill into a half snowplow po-
sition by dropping the tail and
keeping the ski tips in the same
relative positions and edging slight-
ly. The body weight is then trans-
ferred back onto this lower ski. Ad-
ditional braking action can be ob-
tained by increasing the edging of
this ski and placing more weight
on it. To complete the snowplow,
the upper ski is flattened and push-
ed uphill in full V (fig. 4-21).
I 2cLJPI qoupj
-.------.%-' --=--.=.
right ski is then raised and placed on
the snow in the new direction. The
weight is transferred to this ski by
moving the body in the new direction
while pushing off from the left ski.
The unweighted left ski is then lifted
off the snow, and placed close to the
right ski to complete the turn. Comp-
lete transfer of body weight is es-
sential, and the movements must
"I,, follow smoothly and almost simul-
taneously. The ski poles are held to
the rear (fig. 4-25). The higher the
speed, the more the center of gravity
is lowered by bending the knees and
ankles. This adds stability and aids
in keeping up with the turn.
k
90 AGO 8641A
the right ski and the turn completed b. Technique.
from the fall line as in the uphill (1) The turn is started by applying either
christiania.
of the methods described for chris-
(2) As more skills and balance are ac- tiania turns, except that the speed is
quired, the snowplow christiania may adjusted to suit the circumstances.
be done at higher speeds with the
angle of turn kept closer to the fall (2) For a turn to the left as the skier
line. In this method only a half approaches the fall line, the left ski
snowplow with the upper or lower ski pole is placed in the snow forward
is used in the preparatory position, and down the slope, but not directly
or skis are kept parallel and the fall in front of the left ski tip. The reach
line is reached with a pronounced should not be overextended. The right
knee bend and forward lean of the pole is held in the normal manner.
body while the turn is completed with Weight is then applied to the left ski
an uphill christiania. pole, using it for means of support
and as a pivot point.
4-35. The Lifted Christiania (3) Body weight is then shifted to the
a. Use. The lifted christiania turn is very right ski. Since it is difficult to turn
useful in adverse snow conditions and in con- the left ski in such a short radius,
fined terrain where a short radius turn is neces- this ski is lifted and placed parallel
sary. It is also useful for skiing at night and to, and slightly ahead of, the right
with heavy loads, since it is a slow turn made ski, and the turn completed as in the
with one ski pole being used to increase uphill christiania.
lateral stability.
tW
(2) Bearpaw. This type of snowshoe is 4-37. Care and Storage of Snowshoes
short, wide, and oval in shape, with
no frame extension (fig. 4-30). The a. Care. Snowshoes must always be kept in
bearpaw snowshoe is preferable to the good condition. Frequent checks are necessary,
trail type for close work with weapons particularly of webbing and binding, because
and vehicles, in heavy brush, and in individual strands may be ripped or worn out.
other confined areas. Carrying or Repairs must be made immediately, otherwise
storing is also easier. the webbing will loosen and start to unravel. If
(3) Magnesium. The magnesium snow- unvarnished, the rawhide webbing on wooden
shoe is the lightest and most durable snowshoes will absorb moisture, stretch and
of the three types (fig. 4-31). The turn white, particularly in wet snow. It should
snowshoe has a magnesium frame be dried out slowly, avoiding direct flames, and
with the center section made of steel, be revarnished at the first opportunity. Wooden
nylon-coated wire. The magnesium frames may fray from hard wear and should
snowshoe is 17.70 cm (approx 7") be sanded and varnished. When needed, other
shorter than the standard wooden minor repairs should be made as soon as
trail snowshoe but is 9.50 cm (approx practicable. When snow cover is shallow, care
4") wider giving it approximately must be taken not to step on small tree stumps,
the same flotation characteristics. branches, or other obstacles, since the webbing
may be broken or damaged. Stepping into wa-
e. The trail and bearpaw snowshoes have ter is to be avoided; the water will freeze and
their own individual bindings, however, the, snow will stick to it. When not in use in the
92 AGO 8641A
4. uum
JGL AJ6JA
vLc db ponjq 6 qonpjq pvcjc flU6L
ssc ' Ic66b6L
AGO 8641A 93
field, snowshoes are placed in temporary
racks, hung in trees, or placed upright in the
snow. They should be kept away from open
fires and out of reach of rodents.
b. Storage. In off-seasons, wooden snowshoes
are stored in a dry, well-ventilated place so
that the rawhide will not mildew or rot and
the frames warp. Each snowshoe is closely
checked for possible damage, repaired if need-
ed, and revarnished. As in the field, snowshoes
are protected against damage and from rodents.
Magnesium snowshoes are cleaned and repaint-
ed if necessary. Webbing is examined and re-
paired or replaced if needed.
snowshoe.
b. On gentle slopes, ascent is made by climb- %st ' c cui o
ing straight upward. Traction is generally
very poor on hard-packed or crusty snow. snow there is danger of catching and tearing
Steeper terrain is ascended by traversing and the webbing on tree stumps or snags which
packing a trail similar to a shelf across it. are only sightly covered. Wet snow will fre-
When climbing, the snowshoe is placed as hori- quently ball up under the feet, interfering with
zontally as possible in the snow. On hard snow, comfortable walking. This snow should be
the snowshoe is placed flat on the surface knocked off with a stick or pole as soon as
with the toe of the upper one diagonally uphill possible. Although ski poles are generally not
to get more traction. In the event the snow is used in snowshoeing, one or two poles are
sufficiently hard-frozen to support the weight desirable when carrying heavy loads, especially
of a person, it is generally better to remove the in mountainous terrain. The bindings must
snowshoes and proceed temporarily on foot. In not be fastened too tightly or circulation will
turning around, the best method is to swing be cut off, and frostbite may occur. During
the leg up and turn in the new direction, as halts, bindings should be checked for fit and
in making a kick turn on skis (fig. 4-33). possible readjustment.
c. Obstacles such as logs, tree stumps,
ditches and small streams should be stepped 4-39. Training
over. Care must be taken not to place too much Snowshoe training requires little technical
strain on the snowshoe ends by bridging a skill. However, emphasis must be placed on the
gap, since the frame may break. In shallow physical conditioning of the individual and the
94 AGO 8641A
development of muscles which are seldom used ing the distance covered and weight carried or
in ordinary marching. The technique, as such, pulled. Overcoming obstacles such as dense
can be learned in a few periods of instruction. brush, fallen timber, and ditches should be
Stiffness and soreness of muscles are to be ex- emphasized during training. Trailbreaking,
pected at first. The initial training should be with frequent change of lead man, should also
gradual with regard to loads carried and be stressed. Snowshoe training can be accom-
distances covered. It should be progressive, plished concurrently with other training re-
with ample time allowed for the individual to quiring individual cross-country movement.
acquire physical proficiency, gradually increas-
154-616 O - 94- 4
position. However, if the slope is rutted snow- be reduced if skis are removed while overcom-
plowing may become hazardous because the ing the obstacles.
tips tend to get caught. To control speed under b. Fences and Windfalls. Low fences and
these conditions, sideslipping and pole riding windfalls 30 to 60 cm high (1'to 2') are
may be used. Pole riding is less effective and in crossed by skiing or snowshoeing beside the
extreme cases the use of sideslipping may be- obstacle so that the skis or snowshoes are
come necessary. On icy snow the skis may parallel and alongside it, then stepping over
chatter in a turn. To correct this, body weight first with one foot then the other, or a kick
is kept well forward and the edging of the turn may be made over the obstacle. In the
skis carefully controlled as the turn is made. case of rail fences or large diameter windfalls
Crusty snow which will not support the skiers it may sometimes be easier to sit on the ob-
weight (breakable crust) is the most difficult stacle and swing both feet simultaneously to
to cope with. Speed is kept slower while mak- the other side. High barbed wire fences can be
ing all turns. It may become necessary to use crossed by removing pack and rifle and crawl-
the step turn in motion or a kick turn to change ing underneath (fig. 4-35).
direction.
c. Ditches or Small Streams. These are
d. Forest. Due to the limited skiing room crossed by stepping over them sideways, using
in wooded terrain, movements for changing the ski poles for support (fig. 4-35). If the
direction must be rapid and of shorter radius ditches are deep and wide it is better to descend
than in open terrain, especially during down- to the bottom either by sidestepping or side-
hill movement. In addition, the skier must be slipping and then climb the other side by
more alert so that obstacles may be quickly sidestepping. However, care must be taken to
overcome with a minimum of delay. The step avoid rocks or other obstacles which might
turn in motion is a very useful technique for damage the skis or snowshoes.
changing direction in this type of terrain, but
speed must be reduced to use this technique. d. Steep Slopes. When it is necessary for
In descending narrow trails in wooded terrain troops to descend or ascend slopes which are
or during night movements, the half snowplow too steep for their ability, or where traversing
or pole riding are useful for control of speed. is not practical, the sidestep should be used or
During unit movement in wooded terrain, one the skis should be removed and the slope ne-
man falling can block the progress of all per- gotiated on foot whenever snow depth will per-
sonnel behind him. If an individual falls he mit.
should remove himself from the track in the
fastest way possible, even if this results in los- 4-42. Skiing With Pack and Weapon
ing his original position in the column. The a. General. When skiing with pack and
baskets of ski poles have a tendency to snag weapon the same techniques apply. However,
branches during movement in wooded terrain, the added weight carried, changes the center
resulting in loss of balance. To avoid this as of gravity and will affect the manner in which
much as possible, the shafts of the ski poles movements are made.
should be pointed directly to the rear.
b. Effects on Movements.
4-41. Obstacles (1) Lunges are shorter and pushes with
a. General. Snow-covered terrain will contain poles less powerful.
many small obstacles such as fences, tree (2) To aid in maintaining balance when
windfalls, and small streams or ditches. The skiing downhill over rough terrain, the
individual must be skilled enough to cross them leading ski is advanced farther and
easily to save time and energy. Crossing ob- the knees kept more flexible than
stacles can be very time consuming for a unit. when skiing without a load.
Wherever possible, the men should be dis- (3) Speed of descent is reduced and tech-
persed so as to enable them to cross on a broad niques are applied more cautiously.
front. In some cases the overall time needed can (4) Rotation of arms and shoulders is
96 AGO 8841
N"'
r11 (11
made with less vigor and emphasis. methods of hauling sleds apply to both skiers
(5) Slopes are climbed with a more and snowshoes.
gradual traverse. b. Preparation for Sled Pulling.
(6) When skiing through woods or in (1) The tow ropes must be of the proper
brushy terrain, care must be exercised length and also properly laid out and
in order to prevent any protruding fastened by snap buckles in tandem
parts of the weapon from catching system (fig. 4-36 ). The sled harnesses
on branches, causing loss of balance. are adjusted to fit loosely on the in-
(7) In the event of a fall it is sometimes dividuals.
more efficient to remove the pack and (2) If skis are to be used for pulling, they
weapon before attempting to regain must be properly waxed. More empha-
footing. sis must be placed on insuring good
holding capacity of the wax on the
4-43. Sled Pulling snow. However, sliding capacity
should not be entirely forfeited.
a. General. Pulling a sled is hard work, but
it will be easier if proper techniques are used, (3) Proper loading and lashing of sled
The movements and techniques used should be must be checked before moving out.
within the ability of all members of the team, c. Pulling on Varied Terrain. When pulling
and, where possible, teams should be formed a sled over comparatively flat terrain, skiers
with this in mind. Generally speaking, the normally use the one step ski technique. When
AGO 8641A 97
r : I.!
,
Aoc
21Vb 8flCKT(
the men to move far enough ahead before the
turn is made, the pullers must start the turn
by gradually making as gentle a curve as possi-
2
ble while the two men nearest the sled (in
front and behind) guide, lift, and otherwise
a assist in turning the sled. While turning, the
pullers must watch the movements of each
other in order to avoid confusion.
d. Uphill Climbing. To pull a sled uphill the
following methods can be applied:
Vb flCKfE 1DM Ob (1) On short, gentle slopes the herring-
bone can be used.
D
(2) On a steep, short slope the pullers can
use the sidestep (fig. 4-37). In this
case the rear man moves to the front
. WJJ" LLIJGW6IJ4
P HLUG2b uiiia 2J6q
and side of the sled and, while side-
stepping, assists in pulling the sled by
ss'c '%ou;pJrz6q' using the rope fastened to the front
end.
crossing small ditches, the sled is stopped in (3) On very gentle slopes and in snow
the ditch while the pullers go as far as the with good traceability an uphill tra-
two ropes allow. Then, by a simultaneous pull, verse may be employed. Ski climbers
the sled is brought up out of the ditch. To can be used if the length of the slope
change direction in woods, the pullers con- justifies the time required to put
tinue to move straight forward until the sled them on.
comes to the desired turning point. The pullers (4) In difficult terrain a relaying tech-
then move in the new direction with the turn nique may be used when the necessary
being controlled by the puller nearest the sled, equipment is available. In this tech-
assisted, if necessary, by the man behind. When nique a climbing rope, 36.50 meters
the forest is dense and space does not allow (120') long, or similar item, is fas-
98 AGO 8641A
I q66b
relay method described in d (4) above, of twos, are spaced at equal intervals
and is a very practical method for behind the vehicle and outside the
evacuating wounded. ropes. A gap of approximately 4
meters (12') is left between indivi-
4-44. Skijoring duals.
a. General. Skijoring, as used in this manual, (2) Several methods of towing can be
is the term applied to moving men on skis used according to the situation, the
over snow by towing them with vehicles. This terrain, and the distance of move-
provides a faster and less tiring method for ment:
individual movement than is possible under (a) The skier grasps a bight of rope
their own locomotion. Oversnow vehicles, track and makes a 25 cm (10") loop by
and wheeled vehicles can be used for pulling tying an overhand knot. The loop
skiers (fig. 4-39 ). The best routes for skijor- is held with one hand and poles
ing are snow covered roads and trails, frozen are held in the other, or a long
lakes, rivers, or paths made by tracked ve- loop can be formed by tying an
hicles. Speeds up to 24 KmPH (15 MPH) may overhand knot in a 1.50 to 2 meter
be maintained on level ground by trained (5' to 7') bight of rope. The skier
troops, depending on weather and trail condi- leans against the loop after placing
tions. Normally, one rifle squad can be towed it around the buttocks. He does not
behind a light carrier and two squads behind place the body through the loop
a squad carrier. Towing more than two squads (1, fig. 4-40).
by one vehicle is impractical, due to the in- (b) Using the ski pole method (2, fig.
creased length of the column, difficulty in mak- 4-40), the skier rests both arms
ing turns, and the limitations of the vehicle and body and can arrive at the
and the skiers using the technique over steep destination in better physical con-
or wooded terrain, and during poor or spotty dition. Another advantage in this
snow conditions. method is that a skier can easily
exercise his hands to prevent frost-
b. Use of Tow Rope. (For a description of bite during movement in extreme
knots see FM 31-72.) cold.
(1) Two ropes 36.50 meters (120') long (c) When being towed through dense
are used for towing a rifle squad be- wooded areas, or when contact with
hind a vehicle and for the purpose of the enemy is imminent, skiers may
securing sufficient space between the simply grasp the rope without ty-
individuals. The skiers, in columns of ing a knot or using the ski poles as
AGO 8641A 101
a rest. Thus, they can maneuver being used, individuals must never be
through narrow trails and are more allowed to fasten themselves to the
ready for immediate combat. tow rope. In case of a fall they must
(3) No matter what method of towing is be able to release their hold imme-
diately to avoid serious injury to
themselves or other skiers. The ski
poles are usually held in one hand
and available for instant use. During
training and in combat situations
when contact with the enemy is not
probable, the ski poles may be loaded
on the vehicles to avoid accidents.
c. Skijoring Technique.
(1) The track is made as simple as the
terrain permits. Steep slopes, obsta-
cles, and sharp turns are avoided.
When these cannot be bypassed the
speed must be reduced in order that
the skiers can maneuver. A high
degree of cooperation between the
driver of the towing vehicle and the
skiers is necessary. One man, usually
the assistant driver, is responsible for
stopping or slowing the vehicle in or-
der to prevent casualties due to speed
or obstacles. He constantly observes
i roua oAGLpvuq JC1J0 the skiers and other vehicles, gives
the driver orders, and signals the
skiers when the vehicle will slow
down, speed up, or stop.
(2) When the vehicle begins its forward
movement each man on the rope
should move forward under his own
power for a few steps, gradually plac-
ing tension on the towing rope to
prevent being suddenly jerked into
motion, causing a fall. When under
way, the skiers body is leaned
slightly backward, the knees are bent
slightly, and the upper body is nearly
straight. Skis may be farther apart
than in normal skiing. One ski is kept
slightly ahead. The position should be
one in which the skier can relax but
still be alert to sidestep quickly in
order to avoid obstacles and maintain
misbalance. If a skier falls, he should
release the towing rope immediately.
aJci bo1e ua V L64 (3) When approaching a sharp curve
where the area for movement is con-
St.Q tW o\ oi% o. fined, the vehicle should be slowed
102 AGO 8641A
down or, in some instances, stopped. snowplow, if space allows, to prevent
When negotiating a sharp turn, the overruling the vehicle or, if condi-
vehicle should be slowed to a walking tions warrant it, they may move to
speed and skiers walk around the the side of the track where the softer
curve being careful not to drop or snow will decrease their speed. If the
step on the tow rope. Normal speed terrain will not allow for controlled
is resumed after the last man has braking and collision with the vehi-
made the turn. Failure to do this may cle seems imminent, the individuals
result in being pulled off balance by should release the rope and disperse
the rope as the vehicle completes the to the sides of the track. On short
turn and proceeds in the new direc- downhill slopes the vehicles should in-
tion. Vehicle stops and starts must be crease speed temporarily so that the
in a gradual manner which allows for skiers need not brake. On long, steep
a smooth rather than a jerky ride for slopes the men can descend independ-
the skier. ently of the vehicle and reattach
(4) When descending hills the men can themselves after the slope has been
brake by using the snowplow or half negotiated.
'
a
hicles remain under company control
or with the higher echelon. The trail-
)
iso
breaking party consists of its organic
rifle squads, called Trailbreaking -
(ais I _SW 1i_ isisTi
S SISS.
is i_S
Squads. A trailbreaking party is ex- _ __s_ - is it
pected to break trail approximately iSW
a half a day at a time, but may be
S
I cais w)
rotated sooner depending on local T
conditions. Trailbreaking squads, in 7 f
it 5$ * list O U1 Wa
tWis
turn, are normally rotated as often
U
mana na'
vat Vt man
ma a sa a atairaten a ma a
.puucs'
as necessary in order to maintain the
mats mis sass' vs
speed necessary to complete the mis-
sion in time. Tat wa mama' vs
d. Trailbreaking Squad. The organization,
duties, and special equipment of the trailbreak-
ing squad are indicated in figure 5-2. Squad
leaders must insure that their men have a suf-
icient number of tools of proper size before 1A%1t 'as' 4 u9aUy%f% sdstw'
moving out. The tools are part of the tent
group equipment and are used in preference nated as the base squad and is re-
to entrenching tools. To conserve energy and to sponsible for navigation and the gen-
assure an uninterrupted march, the leading eral direction to be followed. The
man (breaker) of the squad is regularly re- platoon leader and the navigation de-
lieved. In very deep and heavy snow a relief tail directly under his control will
may become necessary every 150 meters (150 follow the base squad. When dead
yds). When the change is ordered by the team reckoning is required, the base squad
leader, the man to be relieved steps sideways breaks the center trail and works
out of the path and falls in at the rear of the slightly ahead of the other squads for
team. The man following him then becomes the purpose of maintaining the proper
the breaker. Special equipment is exchanged direction of the squads which are
by passing it to the next man in line during moving on both sides of the track
the rotation. The breaking team will be re- made by the base squad (fig. 5-3).
lieved by the reserve team as directed by the In cases where the party follows
squad leader whenever the point team tends to easily recognizable terrain features,
slow down due to fatigue. such as small creeks or the edge of
e. Trailbreaking Party. The trailbreaking open terrain, the base squad follows
party consists of two or more trailbreaking next to this terrain feature, making
squads. Normally a rifle platoon will be as- navigation easier. The other squads
signed this mission, especially if the snow is are echeloned to the right or left, and
heavy and the weather severe. their breaker (the first man) to the
right or left of the last man of the
(1) One of the squads is always desig- squad ahead (fig. 5-4).
AGO 8641A 109
bers of the weapons squad may be
assigned to the navigation detail, to
flank security missions, to assist the
vehicles in breaking their trail off the
ski trails, and similar duties. The
ii
weapons squad may follow and im-
prove the trails being established, as
directed by the leader of the trail-
I breaking party. From the area where
I vehicles are temporarily halted due to
I
I the close proximity of the enemy, one
II II track may be widened into a triple
track to facilitate the movement of
I I
heavy weapons, ammunition, and
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made by the fourth man. This creates lows. When several squads are operating,
a trail with three tracks, a triple marking by the base squad is usually sufficient.
trail (2, fig.5-5). This provides the The marking is simple, and recognizable by
proper type of trail for pulling man- night as well as by day. Temporary trails
drawn sleds. Due to the fact that through new snow need simple markings only
sleds tend to destroy the ski trails, where the trails or roads are crossed by other
only one of the ski trails will be pre- trails. Trails that are frequently used for long
pared as a triple trail and this trail periods are more permanently marked. The
will be used for man-drawn sleds only. following can be used as trailmarkers:
(2) Ski trails must be kept separate from (1) Twigs on trees and shrubs broken in
the trails and roads established for a predetermined manner, or blazes
vehicles and cargo sleds, due to the (nicks) in tree trunks made by using
fact that the vehicles tend to destroy a hatchet or machete.
the ski trails and, conversely, the ski- (2) Poles or guiding arrows planted in
ers on the winter road tend to harass the snow.
the vehicular traffic. Signal wire (3) Markers made of rags or colored
layed alongside the ski trail must be paper.
located far enough to the side so as (4) Trailmarkers (willow wands).
not to become entangled with skis and b. Snowfalls, fog, poor observation, and uni-
ski poles. When crossing the ski trail formity of the terrain necessitate thorough
the wire must be buried well below and frequent markers spaced at uniform inter-
the trail or secured overhead, which- vals and numbered successively in the direction
ever is most desirable. of march. To avoid the destruction of trail-
markers by traffic, the markers are placed
5-6. Marking the Trails about 1 meter (3') off the trail. When strange
tracks cross the trail of the unit they are ob-
a. The trailbreaking squad marks its trails literated at the point of crossing. Guides are
as uniformly as possible. The types of mark- posted at crossings, if necessary, to direct units
ings used must be known to the unit that fol- that follow.
112 AGO 8641A
Section IV. LAND NAVIGATION
5-7. Effects of Environment marks, both on the ground and in
a. General. Basically, mapreading, as well as aerial photos.
navigation under cold weather conditions, fol- (6) Magnetic disturbances are encoun-
lows the same principles as in the temperate tered, making magnetic compass
zones. In addition to the normal procedures, readings difficult and sometimes un-
every individual must be most familiar with reliable.
certain conditions peculiar to the cold weather (7) Magnetic declination in different lo-
regions and the techniques applicable to navi- calities varies considerably, and must
gation. Due to the fact that a technical failure be taken into consideration when
or human error may easily, and especially in transposing from a map to a compass.
the winter, be fatal to the individual or to a
unit, great care must be exercised when navi- (8) Handling maps, compass, and other
gating in low temperatures. navigation instruments in low tem-
peratures with bare hands is difficult.
b. Navigation Problems. The following con- Removing handgear may often be
ditions, characteristic of the cold weather re- possible for a very short period of
gions, will make accurate navigation very time only.
difficult:
(1) Lack of adequate large scale maps in 5-8. Methods of Land Navigation
the sparsely populated areas which a. The normal methods of land navigation
will increase the requirements for and under cold weather conditions remain the same
the use of aerial photographs. as anywhere else. Maps and aerial photos may
(2) Photos of many areas will be difficult be used alone during daylight in terrain which
to read and interpret because of the offers enough distinctive terrain features to
absence of relief and contrast, and serve as useful landmarks. They may also be
absence of manmade works for use used in conjunction with a compass, especially
as reference points. in terrain which contains insufficient land-
marks or under circumstances when visibility
(3) Dense forests and wildernesses offer is limited. However, in most instances, utiliz-
few landmarks and limit visibility. ing the map and compass together will provide
Also, barren, monotonous tundra for the surest land navigation in northern
areas north of the tree line are char- areas of operation.
acterized by lack of landmarks as aids
for navigation. b. Depending on various conditions, certain
(4) In winter, short daylight, fogs, snow- supplementary methods, such as position of the
fall, blizzards, drifting snow, espe- sun in daytime, North Star and Big Dipper at
cially in the barren areas, drastically night, as described in FM 21-26, may be used
limit visibility. At times an overcast to aid in land navigation. Where possible, these
sky and snow-covered terrain create methods should be employed in conjunction
a phenomenon called whiteout which with the normal methods described above.
makes recognition of irregularities in c. It is obvious that on vast barren grounds
terrain extremely difficult. as well as in wide forest, navigation by dead
(5) Heavy snow may completely obliter- reckoning often becomes the only practical
ate existing tracks, trails, outlines of method. Dead reckoning is the process by
small lakes, and similar landmarks. which position at any instant is found by ap-
Because the appearance of the ter- plying to the last determined position the di-
rain is quite different in winter from rection and distance of the course traveled.
that in summer, particular attention This method should also be used in areas where
must be paid to identifying land- landmarks are very limited or totally nonex-
AGO 8641A 113
istent. It is also desirable when the landmarks preferably 50 meters long (50 yds) used by
are obliterated by the limited visibility. two navigators.
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area. The tractor train is a means of moving 5-14. The Full Track Personnel Carried
large quantities of supplies cross-country. The The full track cross-country carriers are con-
trains are composed of cargo sleds drawn by sidered to be the best vehicles for use by com-
construction type tractors and normally, due bat troops in the North. The armored and
to their size and slow rate of march, are not unarmored carriers are capable of transporting
used forward of the brigade support area. The a complete rifle squad together with its equip-
tractor train in no way takes the place of ment and impedimenta. In an emergency these
wheeled cargo carriers that may be able to vehicles can furnish limited heat, shelter, and
operate on roads or trails. sleeping accommodations. The design of these
116 AGO 8641A
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118 AGO 8641A
for any appreciable distance to insure against characteristic of tanks. Tank tracks may pro-
frostbite. Tanks may also be used to pull cargo vide routes of advance for troops, especially
sleds; however, damage can be caused to sled in the assault phase of the attack.
tongues by the fast, jerky starting which is
5-16. Man Hauled Sleds guns in deep snow and are particularly useful
in the evacuation of casualties. Sleds are sel-
a. Sled, Scow-Type 200-Pound Capacity. dom used by small reconnaissance patrols be-
(Ahkio). Man-hauled sleds are necessarily cause of the decreased speed of the individuals.
light. They can carry a load of 200 pounds over Strong combat patrols, however, frequently
difficult terrain and are used for carrying use them for carrying their equipment or for
tents, stoves, fuel, rations, and other necessary evacuation in cases when faster means are not
items of each tent group. They are also used available. Sleds are provided with white canvas
for carrying weapons and ammunition. They covers for camoflauge, to hold the contents in
may be used as a firing platform for machine-
COMBAT TECHNIQUES
%'a. uq bosor
n the mens possession should be used to insure e. Automatic weapons may be fired from the
a solid base; e.g., branches, skis, snowshoes, prone position using a snowshoe or ski pole
or sleds. basket as a rest for the biped (fig. 6-8). A
b. Skis and ski poles can be used in a variety fairly wide strip of canvas maybe permanently
of ways to form weapons rests while firing on attached to each leg of the biped. On opening
the move. Figure 6-3 illustrates the standing the biped, the canvas will stretch out between
position. Use this position only in hasty situa- the legs over the snow and stop the legs from
tions, as when surprised by enemy fire. sinking.
f. To prevent weapons from sinking in deep
c. Ski poles may be used as an elbow rest snow, machineguns may be fired from sleds in
or as weapon support when firing from a case of emergency (fig. 6-9). The weapons can
kneeling position in shallow crusted snow be mounted either with regular or improvised
(fig. 6-4). For firing in deep, soft snow the mountings. However, it is essential that weap-
position of the poles can be reversed for added ons be placed in a dug-in position as soon as
stability. possible.
d. When firing from the prone position, the
skis or ski poles may be used as an elbow rest 6-10. Strength of Snow, Ice, and Frozen
or as supports for the weapon (figs. 6-5, Ground for Cover
6-6, and 6-7). a. General. The soft, spongy ground of the
126 AGO 8641A.
"
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North in the summer, and the snow surface ground or ice, when not covered with snow,
in the winter, have a smothering effect on fire greatly increases the number of ricochets and
from all types of weapons. Hard frozen, bare fragmentation effects. The resistance or pro-
AGO 8641A 127
154-616 94 - 5
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c. The quick-release feature of the All-
Terrain ski binding provides the means to
quickly dismount from skis when hostile fire
;;rNTha ': :
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4fl3 % 'av tR
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c.
AGO 8641A 135
f. As soon as the objective has been seized, 6-15. Additional Techniques
the skis, ski poles or snowshoes may be re- a. In deep, loose snow under hostile fire it
covered and brought forward. A two-man team may be more advantageous to advance in a
can quickly make a ski bundle (fig. 6-20) and high crawl position by holding the skis with
drag the skis of an entire squad at one time. hands through the toe straps and taking full
p
p1 1%
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advantage of snowdrifts and bushes. A position
such as illustrated in figure 621 should be
adopted. Snowshoes may be used in the same
manner.
b. Sliding forward in a low crawl on skis is
another method of advancing, especially over
firm snow (fig. 622). The rifle can be slung
over the shoulder or laid on the skis directly
in front of the individual. The latter is possible
:1 :
only when the snow is hard so that it cannot
get into the rifle.
c. In deep snow, trenches may be dug in the
snow leading in the direction of the objective
when it is too difficult to be reached by over-
snow movement. Snow trenches are dug on a
r
rrr
:
'!
zigzag course (fig. 6-23 ) by throwing the snow
out under cover of darkness or, in an emer-
gency, the digging may be masked by smoke-
screens. The snow shoveled from the trench
should be placed on the enemy side of the
trench to allow the individuals to crawl along
the trench without being observed by the
enemy.
136 AGO 8041A
d. Snowdrifts and vehicle tracks may be all 35) ; often they may represent a longer
utilized when found in the battlefield. Snow but safer route.
fills in ditches and rolling ground and tends to
flatten the terrain in general. The wind builds g. An early fall frost will form a layer of ice
up snowdrifts and cornices and can change on creeks or streams when the water level is
the contour of the ground a great deal. Snow- high. Later, when the flowing water becomes
covered terrain must be continually studied and lower and reaches its winter level, the top
every feature utilized. On the downwind side surface will again freeze so that there are two
of every obstacle, tree, house, and bush there layers of ice. This is called shell ice or overflow
is always a hollow which may provide an ice and is not always safe.
excellent observation point or firing position h. Certain swampy areas do not freeze
(fig. 6-24) . solidly during the coldest periods of winter.
They are often covered with snow, hiding the
water underneath and making the swamps an
obstacle. Only experience and the knowledge
that they exist in the local area, will prevent
accidents. Suspected areas should be avoided
and bypassed with no attempt made to cross.
\cos e\
i. Snowbanks beside plowed roads and tracks
often provide excellent cover in wintertime.
e. The wind, particularly in open areas, may These banks or drifts will remain far into the
form long, wavy snowdrifts which are almost spring thaw period, especially in areas of heavy
natural snow trenches. They may at times be snowfall.
used as an approach to the objective.
j. The tracks left by tanks and oversnow
f. Frozen streams or sunken riverbeds may vehicles in snow may provide routes of advance.
be used as another means of advance (fig. 6 Continuous traffic packs the snow and may
allow movement on foot without skis or snow-
shoes. In the advance, infantry may utilize
ICE tracks left by their advancing armor.
k. In static situations the ski equipment be-
comes vulnerable to small arms fire and shell
fragments. When troops are expected to remain
in the same position for an extended period of
time, skis, poles, and snowshoes should be
placed in a covered position.
t&s r
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j?ttu.Q fl O' ob
AGO 8641A 139
154-616 94 - 6
be camouflaged. Contrasting equipment worn improved by constructing an overhead cover of
on the camouflage suit will increase the possi- suitably camouflaged materials such as
bility of enemy detection. Loose items such as branches, nets, blankets, etc. (fig. 6-28).
grenades or fieldglasses should be kept con-
cealed inside the suit.
6-23. Camouflaging Equipment
Skis, rifles, and sleds may be painted white
prior to issue. If they are unpainted, white
camouflage paint or improvised local materials
can be used. Sleds will be issued with white
covers for concealing the load. Finally, indi-
vidual weapons can be camouflaged with strips
of white garnish or white adhesive tape. The
tape also provides protection for the hands
when handling the weapon in extreme cold. Q% CO$. I
6-24. Camouflage and Concealment of d. The tent is one of the largest items to be
Small Groups camouflaged (fig. 629 ). Although large, by
a. In selecting a position, enemy ground careful site selection using both artificial and
and air observation must always be considered. natural camouflage material, it can be readily
A location which requires the least amount of hidden. A decreased number of tents and
modification is the most suitable, since there stoves, due to tactical reasons, will automati-
is less requirement for disturbing its natural cally assist in keeping the bivouac area cam-
appearance. The camouflaging of a position ouflaged. Occasionally, the camouflage of the
commences before occupation of the position. tents in sparse vegetation, barren tundra, and
The most suitable covered approaches must be especially under winter conditions becomes
used and tracks, if not hidden, must be kept very difficult. Use white materials such as in-
to a minimum. Where possible, approaches dividual overwhites or snowblocks to protect
should be made under the concealment offered the dark material from observation. In emer-
by trees or bushes, behind snowdrifts or slopes, gencies the white inside liner may be removed
and in shaded areas. Poor camouflage at this and placed on the top of the tent. Frequently
point may make position camouflaging in- all fires in the stoves as well as the open fires
effective. If tracks cannot be concealed, then must be extinguished and the warming factor
tracks should lead through the position to one sacrificed for camouflage and safety reasons.
or more dummy positions. On occupation of a
position, disturb its appearance as little as
possible. Snow or earth removed from the po-
sition should be thrown to the enemy side. If
the position is of snow or ice construction, it
must be rounded off in order to avoid reflec-
tion and marked shadows. Overhead tarpaulins
or camouflage nets should be used to cover any
extensive digging in snow or earth.
__j
b. In placing the individual and the weapon I
it is most important that he is not silhouetted
or contrasted with his background. Low posi-
tions that Mend into the background is the
tc s MOK
secret.
6-25. Camouflage of Vehicles
c. If time allows, positions can be greatly a. In winter all vehicles should be painted
AGO 8641A
white to fit the predominantly white terrain.
In forested areas it is relatively easy to darken
a white vehicle with issued or improvised cam-
ouflage material. In areas with definite con-
trasts, for example in the wooded areas, or
during breakup and freezeup periods, a mottled
effect should be used. See FM 31-71.
b. In addition to the vehicle painting, each
vehicle should be equipped with an all seasonal
camouflage net to be used when required. Con-
cealment will be more effective if vehicles are
parked close to dark features or in shaded
areas. Always try to break the silhouette and
avoid vehicle shadows. Try to make it appear
flat when observed from the ground or air.
c. In wooded areas lean-tos can be built to U %.Uo
IUflI
conceal vehicles. In a static situation a snow
shelter can be constructed to provide cover and
concealment.
d. In extreme cold consideration must be however, can be made from snow, branches,
given to the exhaust from vehicles since it will canvas; and any other available material.
form ice fog and provide the enemy with ad- Dummy weapons, positions, tents, and vehicles
ditional means of detection. of all kinds can be constructed (fig. 6-31).
They must not appear obvious but should ap-
pear camouflaged and only discovered as a
6-26. Deception result of a camouflage violation. A dummy
a. More opportunities for unit or individual bivouac area must appear to be ocupied. Small
deception exist in the North during winter gasoline or oil flames may be used to simulate
than possibly in any other areas. However, stoves or idling engines. In a bivouac area the
deception measures are not sufficiently effec- place must appear to look occupied; a fire or
tive to lessen the requirement for good con- smoke could easily be used to produce this
cealment. Unless unit and individual camou- effect.
flage is effective, the value of any deception
plan will be greatly reduced. Deception must
be based on well-coordinated plans which must
be logical and not too obvious. Dummy posi-
tions must be positioned to follow the tactical
plan, but far enough removed from actual po-
sition so that fire directed at the dummy po-
sition will not endanger the real position
(fig. 6-30).
b. A few skiers or oversnow vehicles can
create a network of trails or tracks to mislead
the enemy as to direction, strength, location,
and intentions.
c. Regular pneumatic deception devices are
inoperable and should not be used in tempera-
tures below zero degrees. Improvised devices, jbrn.Q q ou qt3 o t .cyq
AGO 8641A 141
Section VI. MINES AND OBSTACLES
6-27. Use of Antitank Mines with snow or dirt, but not buried too deeply;
otherwise the top layer may accept the weight
a. Antitank mines must be placed on a and not detonate the mine. A piece of card-
solid base, otherwise when pressure is applied board over the mine will protect it from
they will sink into the soft ground or snow moisture which may freeze and hinder the
and lose much of their effectiveness. In shallow working parts.
snow a hole may be dug and the mine placed
on the frozen ground. In deep snow they must b. In snow-covered terrain, the mines
be supported. Additional charges will help should be painted white to aid in concealment.
overcome the smothering effect of deep snow. All minefield must be marked and recorded.
The snow may be tamped down or frozen, or
the mine may be placed on a plank or something 6-28. Antipersonnel Mines
similar to provide the required firm support a. Antipersonnel mines are adaptable to
(fig. 6-32). In all cases they must be covered northern operations. If using pressure-type
ecu OVD ED
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(2) The normal thickness of fresh water charges does limit the use of elec-
ice is approximately 120 cm (4') or trical means of firing. An ice demoli-
less. In extremely cold areas 150 cm tion may consist of several blocks of
(5') of ice is not uncommon. At the charges echeloned in width and
time the minefield is established, it is depth and has at least two rows of
difficult to determine how thick the ice mines, each row alternating with the
will be at the time the ice demolition one before it. Blowing a demolition
is detonated. As a rule of thumb, if such as this creates an obstacle for
the ice is expected to be 120 cm (4') enemy armor and vehicles for ap-
thick the charges should be approxi- proximately 24 hours at 24 F (FM
mately 10 pounds. In the event the 5-25).
depth of the ice is expected to exceed (3) Great care must be exercised when
120 cm (4'), an addition of 2.5 handling electrical firing devices un-
pounds per additional 30 cm (1') of der winter conditions. Because of im-
thickness should be emplaced. Elec- proper grounding of an individual
trical firing devices are attached to caused by the snow and ice covering
three charges in each underwater on the ground, the static electricity
demolition, one in each end charge that builds up might possible det-
and one in the middle charge. The onate the device. Individuals must in-
rest of the charges may be primed sure that they are properly grounded
with concussion detonators or elec- prior to handling any type of elec-
trically primed. The large number of trical firing devices. Care should be
144 AGO 8641A
taken to insure that no radio trans- (7) After a snowfall, detection of the
mitters are operating in the immedi- demolitions by the enemy is ex-
ate area. The type of radio signals tremely difficult.
emitted by this type of equipment d. Disadvantages.
can detonate electrical firing devices.
(1) Emplacing the explosives requires
c. Advantages. considerable time even when ice cut-
(1) Long sectors of the frontline may be ting equipment is available.
cut off at a critical moment from (2) The charges can be set off when hit
enemy infantry and armor. by artillery fire.
(2) Number of personnel and AT weap- (3) The gaps blown in the ice tend to
ons needed to defend a given sector freeze over rapidly in low tempera-
is reduced. tures.
(3) Friendly troops may advance or (4) Continued exposure of the demoli-
withdraw at any place over the tion firing system to weather reduces
charges without being restricted to the reliability of the system.
the cleared lanes.
(4) Charges laid under thick ice are e. Tactical Use. Ice demolitions are used for
difficult, and often impossible, to de- protection from frontal or flanking attacks.
tect by use of mine detectors. Normally, one or more sets of charges are laid
close to the friendly shore and others farther
(5) When the holes over the charges out in the direction of the enemy (fig. 6-36).
have refrozen, the field is very diffi- If desired, the enemy may be allowed to ad-
cult for the enemy to breach. vance past the first set of charges and then
(6) The charges are not affected by both detonated at the same time. The enemy
weather or snow conditions. thus will be marooned on an ice floe, unable
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AGO 8641A 145
to continue to advance or retreat, and can be against avalanche hazard are covered in FM
destroyed. The same trapping method may be 31-72.
used against enemy armor, or the charges may
be detonated directly under the advancing 6-31. Artificial Obstacles
tanks. Ice demolitions must be kept under ob- a. Barbed Wire. There are many types of
servation and secured by friendly fire. artificial obstacles used under summer condi-
tions which are appropriate for winter use.
6-30. Natural Obstacles Barbed wire normally employed makes an ef-
a. Snow-Covered and Icy Slopes. A steep fective obstacle in soft, shallow snow. Triple
slope is an obstacle to troops and vehicles even concertina is especially effective since it is easy
under normal conditions. When covered by to install in addition to being difficult to cross.
deep snow or ice, it becomes much harder to As the snow becomes deeper and more com-
surmount. The bogging-down action and the pacted, a point is reached where it is possible
loss of traction caused by deep snow frequently to cross the barbed wire on top of the snow.
create obstacles out of slopes which might be One type of barbed wire obstacle built to over-
easily overcome otherwise. Pads of track-lay- come this problem is known as the Lapland
ing vehicles should be removed when en- fence (fig. 6-37). Types of wire entanglements
countering this type terrain. and winter obstacles are covered in FM 5-15.
b. Lapland Fence. The Lapland fence uses a
b. Windfalls. Occasionally, strong winds floating type of anchor point or one which is
knock down many trees in a wooded area. not sunk into the ground. Poles are used to
These fallen trees are known as windfalls. form a tripod. The tripod is mounted on a
They are very effective obstacles when covered triangular base of wood. Six strands of wire
with snow, especially to personnel wearing are strung along the enemy side of the fence,
skis or snowshoes. four strands along the friendly side, and four
c. Lakes and Streams. Not all natural ob- strands along the base. As the snow becomes
stacles are equally effective in the winter as in deeper, the tripods are raised out of the snow
the summer. Normally, bodies of water are with poles or by other means to rest the obsta-
considered natural obstacles, but under winter cle on top of newly fallen snow. The base of
conditions the ice which forms may turn these the tripod and the base wires give enough
former obstacles into excellent avenues of ap- bearing surface to prevent the fence from
proach. This illustrates an important reason sinking into the snow.
for reevaluating defensive positions before c. Abatis. An abatis is similar to a windfall.
cold weather arrives. Trees are felled at an angle of about 415 to
the enemys direction of approach. The trees
d. Avalanches. An avalanche makes an ex- should be left attached to the stump to retard
cellent obstacle for blocking passes and roads. removal. Along trails, roads, and slopes, abatis
Since it occurs in mountainous country where can cause much trouble for skiers and vehicles.
there are few natural avenues of approach,
an avalanche can have a far-reaching influence d. Iced Road Grades. A useful obstacle can
over combat operations. The problem with be made by pouring water on road grades. The
those avalanches which occur naturally is ice that forms will seriously hamper vehicular
that, unless their timing and location are just traffic.
right, they may be of help to the enemy. It is
possible to predict in advance where an ava- 6-32. Means of Improving Obstacles After
lanche can and probably will occur. Then by Heavy Snowfalls
the use of recoilless rifle or artillery fire, a. Knife Rests. Knife rests are portable
bombs, or explosives it is possible to induce barbed wire fences, usually constructed prior
the avalanche to slide at the desired time. This to the snowfall. The fences are constructed by
type avalanche is an artificial obstacle in the tying two wood poles at their center, forming
technical sense. Generally it will be of more an X. A similar X is made out of two other
value than the natural type. Precautions poles and then the two Xs are lashed at either
146 AGO 8641A
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end of a 3 meter (10) to 3.50 meter (12) b. Concertina Wire. Concertina wire is an-
pole. This forms a framework to which barbed other quick way to improve on snow-covered
wire is fastened on all four sides. The obstacle obstacles. The concertina comes in 15 meter
can be stored until needed and then easily
transported to the desired location (fig. 6-38). (50) sections which can be quickly anchored
to the top of existing obstacles.
c. Additional Barbed Wire. The possibility
of using additional barbed wire strands should
not be overlooked. Frequently, obstacles will
have protruding poles to which extra barbed
wire strands can be tied. Also, additional
strands placed underneath such floating obsta-
cles as Lapland fences and knife rests will
help prevent the enemy from tunneling under
_J$t _3% yt$\ c
these obstacles.
AGO 8641A 147
CHAPTER 7
SMALL UNIT LEADERS
Section I. General
7-1. Leadership Traits stamina. Extremes of climate and the
a. The traits, qualities, and abilities requisite vastness of the area increase the
to good leadership in any theater of operations necessity for strong mental and phys-
ical endurance. These conditions may
assume their greatest importance during op- cause early physical and mental fa-
erations in cold weather areas. Leaders must tigue, but can be overcome by deter-
be impressed with and made clearly aware of mination, forcefulness, and aggres-
this fact. With proper training, leadership, and siveness.
discipline, few men will be unable to meet the
rigid standards and the difficult service re- (3) Unselfishness. This is exemplified by
quired of northern operations. the leader who does not take advan-
tage of a situation for personal gain
b. Military leadership is the art of influenc- or safety at the expense of the unit.
ing and directing men to an assigned goal in The physically competent, vigorous
such a way as to obtain their obedience, con- leader who can resist the natural de-
fidence, respect, and loyal cooperation. The sire of first providing for his own
individual who demonstrates the traits of a comfort will be a successful and re-
leader and applies the fundamental principles spected leader of his unit.
of leadership will be a successful leader of men
in cold weather areas. 7-2. Leadership Principles
c. All leadership traits as outlined in FM As in leadership traits, all leadership princi-
22-100 are of importance to the leader assigned ples as outlined in FM 22-100 apply to leaders
to units operating in cold weather areas. Pe- directing operations in cold weather latitudes,
culiar conditions of cold increase the necessity with particular emphasis placed on the follow-
for certain traits to a marked degree. Traits ing:
of utmost importance to the leaders are- a. Know the Job. Every leader must know
(1) Initiative. The energy or aptitude dis- thoroughly the job at hand. The leaders ac-
played in the initiation of action, self- tions must demonstrate to his subordinates his
reliance, enterprise and self-initiated capabilities as a leader and his genuine desire
activity must be an outstanding char- to accomplish the mission with a minimum of
acteristic of leaders who are involved effort expended by the men. The leader should
in such operations, especially when frequently visit isolated units in adverse
units may become isolated. This re- weather and show the men that he is a member
quirement is more pronounced in the of the team. He must earn the respect of the
North than in other theaters of opera- men and the right to command by a thorough
tion. In all training of leaders, initia- understanding of the technical and tactical
tive and improvisation must be care- aspect of the task.
fully encouraged. b. Know the Men and Look Out for Their
(2) Endurance and mental and physical Welfare.
148 AGO 8641A
(1) The small unit leader must know the tion. Continuous individual supervi-
mental and physical capabilities of sion on the part of the leader is
each of his men. Knowing this, he mandatory.
will be able to utilize them effectively. (4) Under adverse conditions the stand-
As an example, a strong stable soldier ards of personal hygiene and group
should be matched in the buddy sys- sanitation will gradually become
tem to guide and assist a weaker lower if not carefully supervised.
soldier. These lowered sanitation standards
(2) In isolated areas recreation facilities are a sure indication that supervision
normally are not available. It will be is lacking and that morale is slipping.
the leaders responsibility to insure Men must not be allowed to become
that, during periods of rest or off- lazy about their personal habits. Rules
duty hours, men are not allowed to of personal hygiene and sanitation
become psychological casualties. A must be enforced by the leader at all
good leader will gainfully employ his times.
men, but not run the risk of hound- c. Insure That the Task is Understood, Su-
ing them. The good leader will, with
pervised, and Accomplished. Orders issued
ingenuity, devise projects which will must be well thought out. When required the
occupy their minds and at the same leader must be prepared to take the leading
time improve their professional quali- part in carrying them out. Issuing an order is
fications as soldiers during periods of only the first and relatively small part of the
inactivity in isolated places. leaders responsibility. The principal responsi-
(3) In cold weather areas the problem of bility lies in supervision to insure that the order
obtaining supples assumes major is properly executed. Cold regions can be
proportions. Supply economy must be friendly, but at the same time do not allow for
enforced at all times. Clothing and errors or carelessness. An effective commander
equipment must be checked frequently leads, not drives, therefore he must be able to
and maintained in first class condi- differentiate between the two.
Section II. PECULIAR PROBLEMS OF LEADERS
REFERENCES
B-1. General parties), and who have need for medical as-
Experience has shown the requirement for sistance, food, information regarding the route
simple visual signals for use in an emergency to be followed, etc. Three types of such visual
by personnel who have become lost, crashed, signals are contained in figures B-l, B-2, and
or parachuted (or who are members of search B-3.
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B-2. Visual signals structions will be adhered to with respect to
The use of one or more of these signals or the signals contained in figures B-1, and B-2:
types of signals will depend on individual cir- a. Form signals by any available means.
cumstances and availability of signal material. (Some of the means usually available in an
However, as far as possible, the following in- emergency situation are strips of fabric, para-
154 AGO 8641A
AGO 8641A
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chute material, pieces of wood, stones, boughs, dividuals and/or small units which are re-
or by marking the surface by tamping snow quired to accomplish independent or semi-in-
or staining with oil, etc.). dependent missions.
b. Make signals not less than 3.5 meters
(10.5) in length. B-3. Conveying and Acknowledging
Information
c. Take care to lay out signals exactly as
depicted to avoid confusion with other sym- a. When it is necessary for an aircraft to
bols. convey information to individuals who have
become lost or isolated, or to search parties,
d. Provide as much color contrast as possible and two-way radio is not available, the crew
between material used and the background. will, if practicable, convey the information by
e. Make every effort to attract attention by dropping a message or by dropping commu-
nication equipment that will enable direct con-
other means such as radio, flares, smoke, or re- tact to be established.
flected light. Smoke is one of the best attrac-
tion methods, because it can be seen for a great b. When a signal has been displayed and is
distance and will be investigated by all pilots, understood, the pilot will acknowledge by
both military and civilian, as a routine mat- dipping the aircrafts wings from side to side
ter. Be sure to give your signal while the air- or by other prearranged signals.
craft is approaching you. Do not wait until
the aircraft is straight above or has passed by. c. When a signal has been displayed and is
NOT understood, the pilot of the aircraft will
f. The emergency signals included in this so indicate by making a complete right turn
manual should be reproduced for use by in- or by other prearranged signals.
156 AGO 8641A
APPENDIX C
SKI DRILL
I I
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the pole hangs from the wrist by the strap than a face to the left in marching. The in-
until after the salute is executed. terval is measured as described above. If it is
desired to straighten the ranks after ski in-
C-21. Ski Interval terval has been taken, the command AT SKI
(fig. C-7) INTERVAL, DRESS RIGHT DRESS is given.
Maneuvers on skis are done at ski interval.
If skis are already mounted, ski interval will
be taken by each individual when falling in,
unless otherwise specified. The ski interval is
approximately 3 meters (9) and is measured
by extending both the right arm and right-
It
ski pole and the left arm with the left pole
hanging from theorist. When skis are mount-
ed in ranks while at normal interval, the com-
mand is TAKE SKI INTERVAL TO THE
RIGHT (LEFT). On this command, interval
is taken as described in FM 22-5, except that
the step turn to the left is executed rather i.
AGO 8641A 161
C-22. Right or Left Face The command is ABOUT FACE. At the com-
When mounted on skis, this movement is mand FACE, the left pole is placed alongside
executed in four counts. The command is the left ski approximately 45 to 60 cm (18 to
RIGHT FACE. At the command FACE, the 24) in front of the toe. At the same time, the
right ski is raised slightly and rotated 45 to right pole is placed alongside the right ski
the right, using its heel as a pivot. (TWO) . approximate y 45 to 60 cm (18 to 24) in the
The left ski is moved alongside the right ski. rear of the toe. (TWO) The right ski is raised
(THREE) The first movement is repeated. until it is perpendicular, with its heel alongside
(FOUR) The second movement is repeated. the tip of the left ski. (THREE) Using the heel
Each ski pole is raised, moved, and placed as a pivot, the right ski is rotated and placed
with the corresponding ski. Left Face is exe- alongside the right pole and pointing in the
cuted in the same manner except the 450 move- opposite direction. (FOUR ) The left ski and
ment is made to the left with the left ski. ski pole are then brought around simultane-
ously and the left ski placed in the new direc-
C-23. About Face tion alongside the right ski, with the left ski
This movement is executed in four counts. pole placed by the toe of the left foot.
third step, the next man starts his first step. has been completed the command FORWARD
This procedure is followed by each man in MARCH is given.
line. When the last man has finished this
movement, the unit will be marching in the C-27. Column Movement
new direction at ski intervals. Flanking to the When mounted on skis, the commands are
left is executed in the same manner, except COLUMN RIGHT (LEFT), MARCH. At the
that the left flank man starts the movement command MARCH, the leading man takes a
with his left foot. full step forward, then turns as in facing on
skis, except that at each step a short slide
C-26. Flanking Movement From Ski Interval forward is made. The fourth step is of full
This movement is made by first commanding length in the new direction. Succeeding men
RIGHT or LEFT FACE. When this facing follow in his trace. For COLUMN HALF
AGO 8641A 163
RIGHT (HALF LEFT) the same procedure is
followed except that the second step is of full
length in the new direction.
C-28. To March to the Rear
For this movement, when mounted on skis,
three separate commands are given, allowing
each movement to be completed before the
next command is given. These commands in
order are HALT, ABOUT FACE, FORWARD
MARCH. The about face is executed as de-
scribed in paragraph C-23.
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AGO 8641A
164
APPENDIX D
EFFECTS OF COLD WEATHER ON WEAPONS
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c. Supplemental Existence Load. The follow-
ing are items of clothing not immediately
E-3. Type Load needed by the individual during moderately
The loads shown below are type loads which cold weather. These items are normally carried
could be worn during moderately cold weather in the duffle bag on unit transportation and
(approximately 15 F to 15 F). The term should be available to the individual when
moderately cold is used only as a descriptive needed:
term. What is termed as moderately cold to Undershirt, 50/50
one person, may be extremely cold to another. Drawers, 50/50
The windchill factor must also be considered, Socks, Cushion Sole (3 pr)
a moderate cold could change momentarily to Trousers, Cotton Nylon, Wind Resistant
extreme cold by the addition of high winds.
Therefore, the commander should use the type Shirt, Wool Nylon, OG
loads for planning only and should adjust them Parka, Cotton Nylon
accordingly to fit a given situation and tem- Liner, Parka, Nylon Quilted
perature condition, Mitten Set, Arctic
AGO 8641A 171
154-616 94 - 7
APPENDIX F
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
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Section III. EFFECTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT ON FACILITIES
F-9. Industry incident to operation. Rubber heater hoses,
some hydraulic lines and the fuel hose on the
To provide industrial needs, man must solve Yukon stove may break if they are suddenly
certain engineering problems in an acceptable bent during periods of extreme cold. Rubber,
time frame and in an economical manner. A rubber compound seals and O-rings tend to
major problem which must be solved is the warp and break.
effect of permafrost. During construction, any
disturbance of the established temperature b. Water freezes and expands; while it is
balance of the ground, without provision of expanding in a restricted space (as in an
compensating factors, will change the founda- engine) it has tremendous power, enough to
tion characteristics. Subsurface strengths and crack the toughest of iron.
drainage patterns change and affect entire c. Canvas becomes stiff much the same as
structures. The solution to the permafrost does rubber and it becomes difficult to fold or
problem is costly and time consuming and can unfold without damaging it.
involve the use of insulation, drainage, flotat-
ion, excavation, refrigeration, or complicated d. Glass, being a poor conductor of heat,
combinations of these. will crack if it is exposed to any sudden in-
crease in temperature. As an example, the
F-10. Agriculture windshield on a vehicle may break if intense
Permafrost, combined with low evaporation defroster heat is suddenly applied.
rates, low temperatures, sporadic precipitation, e. Gasoline will not freeze but becomes more
and irregular seasons, prevents extensive agri- difficult to vaporize. Since only vapor will
cultural development. However, as permafrost burn, combustion of gasoline inside an engine
prevents precipitation loss by normal drainage is more difficult and unburned gasoline dilutes
processes, many areas having a semiarid cli- the oil in the crankcase contributing to the
mate support luxuriant natural vegetation. formation of sludge.
This vegetation, by insulating the underlying
permafrost, prevents deep thawing, depresses f. Oils have a tendency to become thick, and
soil temperatures, and prevents deep root sys- consequently retard the flow through the oil
tems. This prevents agriculture in continuous pump to places where it is needed for lubrica-
permafrost zones. In discontinuous and spo- tion. Thickened oils also increase the drag on
radic zones, only hardy plants which mature the entire engine, thus making it more diffi-
in one short growing season can be planted. cult to turn over.
F-11. Materials g. Grease, which is a semisolid to begin
Low temperatures change the strength, elas- with, becomes hard and loses a great amount
ticity, and hardness of metals and generally of its lubrication properties.
reduce their impact resistance. Leather fabrics h. Leather cracks unless properly treated
and rubber lose their pliability and tensile with neats foot oil.
strength. Plastics, ceramics, and other syn-
thetics are less ductile. Items composed of i. Paint tends to crack very easily when ex-
moving parts and of differing types of mate- posed to extreme cold for any great length of
rials operate with reduced efficiency. time.
a. Rubber, in warm weather, is flexible; j. Dry cold weather produces great amounts
during extreme cold it becomes stiff, and of static electricity in the layers of clothing
bending will cause it to break e.g., when a worn by personnel and in liquids being trans-
vehicle is parked for several hours during ported. Extreme caution must be exercised
subzero weather, flattened-out areas develop in when refueling vehicles, stoves, lanterns, etc.,
tires; these flattened-out areas have little re- because the spontaneous discharge of static
siliency until after the tires have warmed up, electricity may ignite these inflammable fuels.
AGO 8641A 177
Static electricity should be drained off by should ground themselves by touching a ve-
grounding vehicles or fuel containers prior to hicle or container (away from vapor openings)
starting refueling operations. Personnel with the hand.
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F-14. Driving They will increase traction for both
a. General The basic rules for driving dur- movement and stops.
ing cold weather include all of the rules that (2) Place brush or burlap under wheels
apply under normal conditions. However, the to aid in movement through deep
necessity to adhere to these rules with the snow and on ice.
increased hazards of ice and snow is magni- (3) The correct method for applying
fied. All drivers must be trained in proper brakes is especially important. Never
winter driving techniques before they engage jam on brakes as this will lock the
in cold weather operations. wheels and cause the vehicle to skid
b. Visibility. Good all-around visibility is and require more distance for stop-
the first requirement for safe driving. ping. The correct method for braking
a vehicle on snow and ice is to release
(1) Remove all ice, snow, fog, etc., from accelerator slowly and apply brakes
all windows and keep the windows with a feathering action.
clear at all times to give all-around
vision. (4) Keep pioneer tools on all vehicles
(2) Use defrosters to keep windshield ready for use in removing excess
free from ice. snow and for cutting brush.
(3) Clean and adjust rear view mirror. (5) Full tracked vehicle drivers must be
(4) Use lights during snowstorms, while prohibited from using neutral steer
driving in light dry snow or just when the tactical situation permits.
Use of the neutral steer capability
prior to dusk and dawn, and at all places avoidable stress and abuse on
other times when visibility is re- the suspension system and related
duced, providing the tactical situa- power and drive components.
tion permits.
(5) Allow for additional distance between d. Additional Hints for Safe Cold Weather
vehicles when exhaust is causing ice Driving.
fog. (1) Never sleep in the cab or passenger
(6) Use a guide when backing up or carrying compartment of a vehicle
where a guide can assist in picking a with engine or heater running. Ex-
trail in deep snow. haust gases may cause death by
asphyxiation.
c. Traction for Driving and Stopping. (2) Always adjust speed to road condi-
(1) Use chains in deep snow and on ice. tions.
AGO 8641A 179
(3) Keep proper interval and compensate truck, be certain to instruct them to
for road conditions (three to eleven wait for the driver to assist in their
times greater stopping distance may off loading.
be needed on snow and ice). (10) Never overcrowd the cab of a vehicle
(4) Slow down before going around a with extra personnel or extra equip-
curve. ment. This cramps the driver, cuts
down on his vision, and prevents him
(5) Make slow, steady turns and stops. from maneuvering freely.
(6) Keep windows open slightly when (11) During halts, always check the ve-
heaters are being used. hicle for any troubles which may have
(7) Never stop in the center of a road. occurred during operation.
(8) Never pull off to the side of a road (12) Remove frost from headlights and
unless the shoulder has been checked. stoplights.
Large ditches covered with snow give (13) Above all, use good judgment, be
the appearance of a firm shoulder. alert for other drivers errors, and
(9) When hauling troops in the rear of a obey all traffic rules and regulations.
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AGO 8641A
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