EXPERIMENT 3

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS - I : SOLUTION OF LOAD FLOW AND RELATED

PROBLEMS USING GAUSS-SEIDEL METHOD

3.1 AIM
(i) To understand, the basic aspects of steady state analysis of power systems that are
required for effective planning and operation of power systems.

(ii) To understand, in particular, the mathematical formulation of load flow model in

complex form and a simple method of solving load flow problems of small sized
system using Gauss-Seidel iterative algorithm

3.2 OBJECTIVES
i. To write a computer program to solve the set of non-linear load flow equations using
Gauss-Seidel Load Flow (GSLF) algorithm and present the results in the format
required for system studies.

ii. To investigate the convergence characteristics of GSLF algorithm for normally

loaded small system for different acceleration factors.

iii. To investigate the effects on the load flow results, load bus voltages and line /
transformer loadings, due to the following control actions:

a. Variation of voltage settings of P-V buses

b. Variation of shunt compensation at P-Q buses
c. Variation of tap settings of transformer
d. Generation shifting or rescheduling.

3.3 SOFTWARE REQUIRED

GAUSS – SEIDEL METHOD module of AU Powerlab or equivalent

3.4 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

3.4.1 Need For Load Flow Analysis
Load Flow analysis, is the most frequently performed system study by electric utilities.
This analysis is performed on a symmetrical steady-state operating condition of a power
system under “normal” mode of operation and aims at obtaining bus voltages and line /
transformer flows for a given load condition. This information is essential both for long
term planning and next day operational planning. In long term planning, load flow analysis,
helps in investigating the effectiveness of alternative plans and choosing the “best” plan for
system expansion to meet the projected operating state. In operational planning, it helps in
choosing the “best” unit commitment plan and generation schedules to run the system
efficiently for the next day’s load condition without violating the bus voltage and line flow
operating limits.

3-1
3.4.2 Description of Load Flow Problem

In the load flow analysis, the system is considered to be operating under steady state
balanced condition and per phase analysis is used. With reasonable assumptions and
approximations, a power system under this condition may be represented by a power
network as shown by the single-line diagram in Annexure 3.1.

The network consists of a number of buses (nodes) representing either generating stations
or bulk power substations, switching stations interconnected by means of transmission lines
or power transformers. The bus generation and demand are characterized by complex
powers flowing into and out of the buses respectively. Each transmission line is


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-nominal tap ratio is
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represented as shunt susceptance.

Load Flow analysis is essentially concerned with the determination of complex bus
voltages at all buses, given the network configuration and the bus demands. Let the given
system demand (sum of all the bus demands) be met by a specific generation schedule. A
generation schedule is nothing but a combination of MW generation (chosen within their
ratings) of the various spinning generators the total of which should match the given
system demand plus the transmission losses. It should be noted that there are many
generation schedules available to match the given system demand and one such schedule is
chosen for load flow analysis.

The “Ideal” Load Flow problem is stated as follows:

Given: The network configuration (bus admittance matrix), and all the bus power injections
(bus injection refers to bus generation minus bus demand)

To determine: The complex voltages at all the buses.

The steady state of the system is given by the state vector X defined as
T
X=pq 1 q 2 rsrut N V1 V2 …….VN)T = (v VT)T

Once the ‘state’ of the system is known, all the other quantities of interest in the power
network can be computed.

The above statement of Load Flow problem will be modified later after taking into account
certain practical constraints.

3.4.3 Development of Load Flow Model

The Load Flow model in complex form is obtained by writing one complex power
matching equation at each bus.

3-2
 PIk +jQIk = (PGk - PDk) + j (QGk - QDk)
PGk+ jQGk G PDk+ jQDk

k Vk
k Vk
(Pk + jQk) Ik
(Pk+ jQk) Ik

(a) (b)
Fig 3.1 Complex Power Balancing at a Bus
Referring to Fig 3.1 (b) the complex power injection (generation minus demand) at the kth
bus is equal to the complex power flowing into the network at that bus which is given by

PIk + JQIk = Pk + jQk (3.1)

In expanded form

(PGk - PDk) + j (QGk - QDk) = VkIk* (3.2)

The network equation relating bus voltage vector V with bus current vector I is

YV = I (3.3)

Taking the kth component of I from (3.3) and substituting for Ik* in (3.2) we get the power
flow model in complex form as
N
PIk + jQIk = Vk w x km* Vm*; k=1,2,………… N (3.4)
m=1

In (3.4) there are N complex variable equations from which the N unknown complex
variables, V1,……V N can be determined.

Transmission line / Transformer Flow Equation:

In a Load Flow package after solving equation (3.4) for complex bus voltages using any
iterative method, the active and reactive power flows in all the lines/ transformers are to be
computed. A common y{z|9}5~@€2z‚Mƒe„~…„}5~ƒ_†‡9…ˆƒO…€‚Š‰‹c~2‰Œ‰7~O‡9‚c2~"‚$z€‚$Ž>ƒO…€‚5‰7†‡…‹cz…~‘‰n’@~@z‚“~‚
Fig 3.2. For a transmission line set the variable “a” equal to unity and for a transformer set
variable bc equal to zero. The expression for power flow in line / transformer k-m from the
kth bus to the mth bus, measured at the kth bus end is given by (refer Fig 3.2)

Vk a:1 Pmk + jQmk Vm

Ik Pkm + jQkm Vt
. It ykm
Im

t
k jbc jbc m

Fig 3.2 PI Equivalent Circuit of a Transmission Line / Transformer

3-3
Pkm + jQkm = Vk Ik* = Vt It * (3.5)

Noting that

Vk / Vt = a (3.6)

It = (Vt -Vm) ykm + Vt (jbc) (3.7)

Substituting equations (3.6) and (3.7) in equation (3.5) we get

Pkm + jQkm = (Vk/a) [(Vk * /a) – V m *)] y km * + (Vk/a)2 (jbc)* (3.8)

Similarly the power flow in line k-m from the mth bus to kth bus measured at the mth bus
end is

Pmk + jQmk = VmI m * = Vm[Vm * – (V k * /a)] y km * + V2m (jbc)* (3.9)

The complex power loss in line / transformer k-m, PLkm + jQLkm, is given by the sum of
the two expressions (3.8) and (3.9)

3.4.4 Classification of Buses

From the Load Flow model in equation (3.4) and from the definition of complex bus
voltage, Vk as

Vk = |Vk| ” • k

one can observe that there –—˜“™š9›@—œ@–—ž&–Ÿ 2˜¡Œ¢e£U¤¢0¥¦¤3¢ˆ§ ¨©ª¬« ­;«$¨¯®Œ®7°M±²2¨

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Any two of these four may be treated as independent variables (that is specified) while the
other two may be computed by solving power flow equations. The buses are classified
based on the variables specified. Three types of buses classified based on practical
requirements are given below:

Slack bus: While specifying a generation schedule for a given system demand, one can fix
up the generation setting of all the generation buses except one bus because of the
limitation of not knowing the transmission loss in advance. This leaves us with the only
¨½"³‘´¾©¨³k²"¿@´À°MÁ®Ã$´±²&ÁkIJ"©Åc³OµK°Æ¿@¨¾²&¨¸½&´®*Ç s and |Vs| pertaining to a generator bus (usually a
large capacity generation bus is chosen and this is called as slack bus) and solving for the
remaining (N-1) complex bus voltages from the respective (N-1) complex load flow
equations. Incidentally the specification of |Vs| helps us to fix the voltage level of the
®Ċ®3³´Èɨ©ª=³O¶$´¦®Ã@´±²2Á²2±¨³k²&°9©{°@Á0Ç s as zero, makes Vs as reference phasor. Thus for the slack
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solution of bus voltages is completed.

P-V buses: In order to maintain a good voltage profile over the system, it is customary to
maintain the bus voltage magnitude of each of the generator buses at a desired level. This
can be achieved in practice by proper Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) settings. These
generator buses and other Voltage-controlled buses with controllable reactive power source
such as SVC buses are classified as P-V buses since PG and |V| are specified at these buses.
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3-4
at this bus which is a dependent variable is also to be computed to check whether it lies
within its operating limits.

P-Q buses: All other buses where both PI and QI are specified are termed as P-Q buses

 
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Hence the “Practical” Load Flow problem may be stated as:

Given: The network configuration (bus admittance matrix), all the complex bus power
demands, MW generation schedules and voltage magnitudes of all the P-V buses, and
voltage magnitude of the slack bus,

To determine: The bus voltage phase angles of all buses except the slack bus and bus
voltage magnitudes of all the P-Q buses.

Hence the state vector to be solved from the Load Flow model is
X = ( 1  2 343  NP V1V2 ……..V NQ) T
where NP = N-1
NQ = N-NV – 1

and the NV number of P-V buses and the slack bus are arranged at the end.

3.4.5 Solution to Load Flow Problem

A number of methods are available for solving Load Flow problem. In all these methods,
voltage solution is initially assumed and then improved upon using some iterative process
until convergence is reached. The following three methods will be presented:

(i) Gauss-Seidel Load Flow (GSLF) method

(ii) Newton-Raphson Load Flow (NRLF) method
(iii) Fast Decoupled Load Flow (FDLF) method

The first method GSLF is a simple method to program but the voltage solution is updated
only node by node and hence the convergence rate is poor. The NRLF and FDLF methods
update the voltage solution of all the buses simultaneously in each iteration and hence have
faster convergence rate. They are treated in the experiment 4.

Taking the complex conjugate of equation (3.4) and transferring Vk to the left hand side,
we obtain
N
Vk = [(PIk – jQIk) / Vk* - 576 km Vm] / Ykk;
m=1
89

k = 1,2, …..(N -1) (Slack bus excluded) (3.10)

Define Ak = (PIk – jQIk) / Ykk (3.11)
Bkm = Ykm / Ykk (3.12)

3-5
The voltage equation to be solved during the hth iteration of G.S method is obtained from
(3.10), (3.11) and (3.12) as
k-1 N
(h+1) (h)
Vk(h+1) = (Ak / Vk(h)* ) – : ; kmVm –< ; kmVm (3.13)
m= 1 m= k+1

3.4.6 GSLF Algorithm

The algorithm for GSLF is given in the flow chart Fig 3.3

Convergence Check:

Referring to Flow chart Fig 3.3, during every iteration h, the maximum change in bus
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‹OŠ,ŒJ k(h+1) Œ
* ŒŽŠ k(h+1) ‘R’”“ k(h+1) = Vk(h+1) - Vk(h)
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Additional Computation for P-V Bus

The flow chart in Fig.3.3 does not have provision for voltage – controlled buses.
However , if the link between X and Y in Fig.3.3 is removed and the P-V bus module
in Fig.3.4 is introduced, then P-V buses can be handled.

Referring to Fig.3.3 and Fig.3.4, for each P-V bus during the hth iteration, before
updating bus voltage, the following computations are made:

Step 1:
Adjusting the complex voltage Vk(h) ¸º¹ k
(h)
+j fk(h) to correct the voltage

magnitude to the scheduled value,|Vk|sch as follows:

»
(h)
k = arc tan(fk(h) / ek(h)) (3.15)

V k(new) (h) = | Vk|sch e¼ ½ k(h) (3.16)

Step 2: Compute the reactive power generation using the V k(new) (h) as

QG k (h) = QDk + Q k (h) (V(h)) (3.17)

k-1 N
Q k (h) (V(h)) = -Imag V k(new) (h)* ¾ Ykm Vm(h+1) + Ykk V k(new) (h) + ¾ ¿ km Vm (h)
m=1 m=k+1

(h) max
If the inequality QGkmin ÀÂÁÃ k ÀtÁ*Ã k is satisfied, then Vk(h) is set as V(h) k(new).

3-6
Go to step 3.
If QGk(h) > QGkmax , then set QGk(h) = QGkmax, go to step 3.
If QGk(h) < QGkmin , then set QGk(h) = QGkmin, go to step 3.

Step 3: Recompute Ak using (3.11) and the updated QG(h)k

Acceleration Factor
Experience has shown that the number of iterations required for convergence can be
considerably reduced if the correction in bus voltage computed at each iteration is
multiplied by a factor greater than unity (termed as acceleration factor) to bring the voltage
closer to the value to which it is converging.

For example, during the hth iteration the accelerated value of the voltage at kth bus is
calculated using

V k, acc (h+1) = V k (h) Ä Å%Æ)Ç k (h+1) – V k (h)) (3.18)

ÈpÉÊ!ËOÊ ÊTÐbÊ!Ë Ë
Å ÌÎÍ0Ï!Ï Í
ÑÓÒbÔ
Õ¥ÖOÍ!ÏÑÓÔ

V k (h) = accelerated value obtained in the (h-1)th iteration

V k (h+1) = value computed during hth iteration using equation (3.13)
Then set V k (h+1) = V k,acc (h+1)

3-7
 Start

Read data

Form Y

Compute Ak and Bkm;

k = 1,2,…….N; ×ÙØ
m = 1,2,…….N
using equations (3.11) & (3.12)

Set iteration count

h=0

Set Bus Count

k=1

Yes
Is k = s?

No

Update Voltage Vk(h+1)

using equation (3.13)

h=h+1 k = k+1

Yes
Is k ÚJÛÝÜ

No
No
Check
ÞÓß à á{convergence
âtã{äæå ç è

Yes

Compute line flows, line loss, slack

bus power and print results

Stop

Fig.3.3 Flow chart for GSLF ( P-V buses – not present)

3-8
 X

A P-V bus ?
Yes

éGê&ëRì
í&îbï ð (h)
k using (3.15)
(h)
Compute V k(new) using (3.16)
(h)
Compute QGk using (3.17)

Yes No
Is QGk (h) > QGk max ?

No
QGk(h) = QGkmax Is QGk(h) < QGkmin ?
Yes

Vk(h) = V(h) k(new) QGk(h) = QGkmin

Recompute Ak using (3.11) and

QGk(h)

Fig.3.4 P-V Bus Module for GSLF Algorithm.

3.5 EXERCISES
3.5.1 Write a program in C language for iteratively solving non-linear Load Flow
equations using Gauss-Seidel method for small and medium sized power systems.
The program should have three sections i.e. input section, Compute section and
Output section.

I. Input section
Pre-requisite:
Before creating the input data file, draw a single- line diagram showing the buses,
lines, transformers, shunt elements, bus generation and loads (Refer Fig in
Annexure 3.1). Bus ID numbers are serially given from 1 to NB where NB is the
total number of buses comprising P-V buses (which includes the slack bus) and P-Q
buses.

The data to be read from an input file should contain general data, bus data, line
data, transformer data and shunt element data in the following sequence.

3-9
 (i) General Data
The following data are read in one line
(a) Total number of buses
(b) Number of P-V buses
This includes all the voltage-controlled buses such as generator buses
(including slack bus),
synchronous condenser buses and SVC buses for which a specified voltage
magnitude is to be maintained.

(c) Number of P-Q buses.

This includes all load buses, dummy(zero generation and zero load) buses
and generator buses in which voltage magnitude is not controlled.

(d) Number of transmission lines.

(e) Number of transformers.
(f) ID number of slack bus.
(g) Number of shunt elements.
(h) Maximum number of iterations to be performed.
(i) System MVA base.
(j) Convergence tolerance in p.u. voltage.
(j) Acceleration factor to be used.

(ii) Bus Data

The following data are read for each bus in one line.
P-V Bus Data
(a) ID number of bus
(b) Active power generation in MW
(c) Active power load in MW
(d) Reactive power load in MVAR
(e) Maximum limit of reactive power generation in MVAR.
(f) Minimum limit of reactive power generation in MVAR.
(g) Scheduled voltage magnitude of the bus in p.u.

P-Q Bus Data:

(a) ID number of bus
(b) Active power load in MW.
(c) Reactive power load in MVAR.
(d) Initial voltage magnitude assumed in p.u.
(iii) Transmission line data
(iv) Transformer Data
(v) Shunt elements data
The data to be read and the sequence in which it is to be read for (iii), (iv) and (v) are the
same as that given in exercise 2.5.1 under Experiment 2.
3-10
II Compute Section
Starting from the initial bus voltage solution (usually a “flat start” is assumed), update the
voltage solution iteratively using Gauss-Seidel method until the convergence criteria on bus
voltage magnitude is satisfied. Typical value of tolerance for voltage magnitude
convergence is 0.001 p.u

Using the values of converged bus voltages compute:

(i) Forward and reverse real and reactive power flows in lines and transformers
(ii) Real and reactive power losses in lines and transformer
(iii) Reactive power absorbed / generated by shunt elements
(iv) Reactive power generated at the P-V buses
(v) Real and reactive power generations at the slack bus

Note:
i. Real power to be printed in MW
ii. Reactive power to be printed in MVAR

III Output section

Create an output file in a report form comprising the following:
(i) Student information: As specified in exercise 2.5.1. under experiment 2.
(ii) Input data: with proper headings.
(iii)Results obtained with proper headings, in the following sequence:

System details
Total No of Buses: No of P-V Buses:
No of P-Q Buses: No of Lines:
No of Transformers: No of Shunt elements:
Slack bus ID number: System base MVA:

Convergence details
Maximum iterations prescribed:
Maximum iterations taken:
Convergence tolerance prescribed:
Convergence limit reached:

Bus Results

The results are to be printed under the following headings:

Bus Generation Demand Bus Voltage Compensation
Id.No MW MVAR MW MVAR Magnitude Angle MVAR
p.u. degrees

3-11
 For each one of the buses, whether it is a P-V bus or a P-Q bus, one line covering the
above information is to be printed.

Transmission line / Transformer Results

The results are to be printed under the following headings.

Sending Receiving Flow Flow Flow Rating P loss Q loss

Bus No Bus No MW MVAR MVA MVA MW MVAR

For each one of the lines / transformers, two lines are to be printed. The first line printed
should have all the above information pertaining to the forward direction including Rating,
Ploss and Qloss. The second line to be printed should have the above information,
pertaining to the flow in the reverse direction excluding Rating, Ploss and Qloss.

System Performance
In this section following details must be provided:
(i) Total active power generation in MW
(ii) Total active power load in MW
(iii) Total system active power loss as a percentage of generation
Repeat (i) (ii) and (iii) for reactive power and in addition include total reactive power
generated / absorbed by shunt elements

3.5.2. Using a text editor create, an input data file in the sequence given in Exercise 3.5.1
for Load Flow solution of the 6-bus system given in Annexure 3.1 run the program
developed in Exercise 3.5.1 using an acceleration factor of 1.0 and print the output
file. Check the results obtained using the available software.

3.5.3. Solve the base case in exercise 3.5.2 for different values of acceleration factor, draw
the convergence characteristic “Iterations taken for convergence versus acceleration
factor” and determine the “best” acceleration factor for this 6 -bus system.

3.5.4. Solve the base case in exercise 3.5.2. after removing the two shunt capacitors and
comment on the results obtained especially on voltage magnitude of load buses and
transmission system losses.

3.5.5. Solve the base case in exercise 3.5.2. for different voltage specified for generator
G1&G2 (1.0, 1.01, 1.02, 1.03 and 1.04 per unit) and comment on the voltage
magnitude of the load buses and transmission system losses.

3.5.6. Solve the base case in exercise 3.5.2. for different tap settings (0.85, 0.90, 0.95,
1.05 and 1.1) of the transformer T1 and T2 and comment on the voltage magnitude
of load buses and transmission system losses.

3.5.7. Solve the base case in exercise 3.5.2. by shifting bulk generation from slack bus to
bus 2 and comment on the line/transformer loadings obtained.
3-12
 ANNEXURE 3.1
6-BUS, 7-LINES / TRANSFORMER POWER SYSTEM
Single-Line Diagram

G
S1 3
L2 4 T2
1

L3 a:1
L1 L5

T1 L4

6 5 2
S2
a:1
G

Buses : 6, numbered serially from 1 to 6

Lines : 5, numbered serially from L1 to L5
Transformers : 2, numbered serially as T1 and T2
Shunt Load : 2, numbered serially as s1 and s2
Base MVA : 100

Bus Data – P-V Buses:

Bus ID Generation, MW Demand Gen. Limit Scheduled

No. MVAR Volt (p.u)
Schedule Max Min MW MVAR Max Min
1 ? 200 40 0.0 0.0 100.0 -50.0 1.02
2 50.0 100 20 0.0 0.0 50.0 -25.0 1.02

Bus Data – P-Q Buses

Bus ID No Demand Volt. Mag.

MW MVAR Assumed (p.u)
3 55.0 13.0 1.0
4 0.0 0.0 1.0
5 30.0 18.0 1.0
6 50.0 5.0 1.0

3-13
Transmission Line Data:

Line ID. Send Bus Receive Resist Reactance Half Line Rating
No No. Bus No. P.U P.U. charging MVA
Suscept.
P.U
1 1 6 0.123 0.518 0.0 55
2 1 4 0.080 0.370 0.0 65
3 4 6 0.087 0.407 0.0 30
4 5 2 0.282 0.640 0.0 55
5 2 3 0.723 1.050 0.0 40

Transformer Data:

Transformer Send (*) Receive Resist. Reactance Tap Ratio Rating

ID.No Bus No. Bus No. P.U P.U. MVA
1 6 (*) 5 0.0 0.300 1.000 30
2 4 (*) 3 0.0 0.133 1.000 55

(*) Note: The sending end bus of a transformer should be the tap side.

Shunt Element Data:

Shunt ID No. Bus ID. No. Rated Capacity

MVAR (*)
1 4 2.0
2 6 2.5

(*) Note: Sign for capacitor : +ve

Sign for Inductor : -ve

3-14