Networking

Course Introduction
Pre-course Assessment
Module 1: Ethernet Overview

1.1: What is Ethernet?
1.2: Ethernet Development
Module 1 Exercise
Module 2: Ethernet Basics

2.1: Transmitting and Receiving Data
2.2: Ethernet and the OSI Reference Model
2.3: The Physical Layer
2.4: The MAC Sublayer
2.5: Repeaters, Switches and Bridges
Module 2 Exercise
Module 3: Ethernet Operations

3.1: The CSMA/CD Algorithm
3.2: Maximum Distance between Stations
3.3: Exponential Backoff Algorithm
3.4: Collisions and Performance Considerations
3.5: Network Segmentation
Module 3 Exercise
Module 4: Ethernet Frame Composition

4.1: Basic Ethernet Frame Composition
4.2: Preamble/SFD
4.3: Destination Address and Source Address Fields
4.4: Type/Length Field
4.5: Data Field
4.6: Frame Check Sequence
4.7: Interframe Gap
Module 4 Exercise
Module 5: Ethernet Frame Types

5.1: Overview
5.2: Ethernet II Frame
5.3: IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Frame with IEEE 802.2 LLC Header
5.4: IEEE 802.3 Frame with SNAP Encapsulation
5.5: Novell 802.3 Frame
Module 5 Exercise
Module 6: Full-duplex Ethernet

6.1: Full-duplex and Half-duplex Compared
6.2: The Benefits of Full-duplex Ethernet
6.3: Full-duplex and Distance Limitations
6.4: Full-duplex Mode and Gigabit Ethernet
Module 6 Exercise
Module 7: Ethernet Operation at 10Mbps
7.1: 10Base-5 and 10Base-2
7.2: 10Base-T
7.3: 10Base-FL
7.4: Implementation: 10Mbps Ethernet Configuration Guidelines
Module 7 Exercise
Module 8: Fast Ethernet

8.1: The Growth of Fast Ethernet
8.2: 10Mbps Ethernet vs. Fast Ethernet
8.3: 100Base-TX
8.4: 100Base-FX
8.5: Implementation: Fast Ethernet Configuration Guidelines
8.6: Auto-negotiation
Module 8 Exercise
Module 9: Gigabit Ethernet

9.1: Why Gigabit Ethernet is Needed
9.2: Gigabit Ethernet Defined
9.3: Implementation of Gigabit Ethernet
9.4: Gigabit Ethernet and CSMA/CD
9.5: Considerations for Early Adoption
Module 9 Exercise
Module 10: Ethernet and Other Physical-layer Technologies

10.1: Overview: Ethernet and Other Technologies
10.2: Ethernet Compared
10.3: Specific Examples
Module 10 Exercise
Module 11: Ethernet and the Upper-layer Protocols

11.1: The OSI Model Revisited
11.2: Running Multiple Protocols
Module 11 Exercise
Post-course Assessment
Course Evaluation
Fundamentals of Ethernet Technology
Course Description
This web-based course teaches the fundamentals of Ethernet networking. It contains eleven
modules, which can be selected individually. Each module contains a number of lessons that
discuss Ethernet concepts, generic implementation types, definitions and basic processes.
The course does not include hands-on lab exercises, nor 'how to' directions for specific Intel
products.
This course begins with a brief overview about what Ethernet is and, also, describes the
historical setting in which Ethernet was developed and delineates the reasons for the
tremendous success of Ethernet products in the marketplace. The second module of the
course serves as a comprehensive introduction to basic methods used by Ethernet to facilitate
communication between computers.
Following the high-level overviews of Ethernet that comprise the first two modules, the
remaining modules of the course each focus on a specific aspect of Ethernet technology
ranging from Ethernet's collision detection system and data transfer methods to specific types
of Ethernet, including 10Base-T, Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet. General configuration
guidelines for each Ethernet type are also discussed.
Following a description of Gigabit Ethernet operations, the course discusses Ethernet's

relationship to other physical-layer technologies, such as Token Ring, ATM and FDDI. The
course concludes with an examination of Ethernet's relationship to the upper-layer protocols
that Ethernet serves, reinforcing the concept of Ethernet as an Open Systems technology.
Recommended Prerequisites
Knowledge of networking fundamentals
Course Goal
After completing this self-study course, students should understand the fundamentals of
Ethernet technology. Subsequent Intel certification courses are based on the assumption that
students understand the basic concepts covered in this course. Certification courses will not
attempt to cover these topics. This will minimize the amount of time students will spend outside
of their work environment in advanced technical/sales training.
Course Objectives
● Identify the characteristics of the layers in the OSI layering model for data
communications, with particular emphasis on the functionality included in OSI layers
one (physical layer) and two (data link layer)
● Identify the communication process that Ethernet standards define
● Identify common terminology used in the IEEE set of Ethernet standards
● Identify the role of the Ethernet bus and the concept of collision domains
● Identify the function and characteristics of Ethernet NICs, hubs, repeaters, bridges and
switches
● Identify the operation of the CSMA/CD algorithm
● Identify each field in an Ethernet frame and its purpose, as well as the construction of
specific Ethernet frame types
● Identify the similarities of and differences between Ethernet running at 10Mbps and
100Mbps
● Identify the basic specifications for Gigabit Ethernet and the basic configuration
guidelines for 10Mbps, 100Mbps and 1000Mbps Ethernet
● Identify the basic operation and characteristics of Ethernet over copper media and
optical fiber media, as well as the differences between the Cat 3, 4 and 5 UTP cabling
certifications
● Identify the concepts of half-duplex and full-duplex Ethernet operation, auto-negotiation
of speed and duplex operation
● Identify Ethernet's relationship to other networking technologies
Duration
The course consists of an introduction and eleven separate course modules. Estimated time of
completion is six hours, depending on your reading speed and the level of detail you desire.
* Legal Information © 1998 Intel Corporation

Fundamentals of Ethernet Technology
Welcome!
Welcome to the Fundamentals of Ethernet Technology course!
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ETHERNET OVERVIEW
Module Description
In addition to providing a high-level overview of the role Ethernet plays in network computing,
this module also provides an historical perspective on the development of Ethernet. Lesson
1.1 defines Ethernet's relationship to upper-layer network protocols and introduces some of the
basic components of an Ethernet network. Lesson 1.2 focuses on the historical development
of Ethernet, and concludes by identifying the reasons for Ethernet's success in the
marketplace.
Module Objectives
● Identify Ethernet's basic role in computer networking

● Identify the components used on an Ethernet LAN
● Identify the key milestones in the historical development of Ethernet
● Identify the benefits of distributed processing
● Identify the benefits of Open Systems solutions
● Identify the reasons for Ethernet's success in the marketplace

What is Ethernet?
Lesson Objectives
● Identify Ethernet's basic role in computer networking

● Identify the components used on an Ethernet LAN
Ethernet Defined
Ethernet is a highly popular and internationally standardized networking technology that
enables computers to communicate with each other. Ethernet's role in the landscape of
network communication is limited, however, to the hardware-level transfer of data from one
point to another.
Beyond the hardware-level, or physical layer, of networking, data transport is handled by

software protocols, such as TCP/IP, IPX, NetBEUI, DECnet and others. Network operating
systems, such as Windows NT*, UNIX, NetWare* and others, along with the applications that
run on them, use these protocols, which in turn use Ethernet, to provide the broad range of
networking services that people depend upon.
Ethernet equipment is manufactured by a wide variety of vendors. Today, nearly every brand
of modern computer can be equipped to communicate on an Ethernet network. Ethernet
technology can provide network speeds from 10Mbps (10 megabits per second) to 1Gbps (1
gigabit per second), which makes Ethernet equally suitable for both small and large networks.
What is Ethernet? (Continued)
Course Introduction
The basic concepts of Ethernet are very easy to understand. Like all inventions, Ethernet
originates from a series of innovations on older technologies. The basic concepts of Ethernet
evolve directly from the basic concepts behind telegraph, telephone and radio technology. As
you work through the modules of this course, you will learn that just like the communication
technologies that have come before it, Ethernet is nothing more than a practical solution to
practical problems.
The basic components of an Ethernet network include cabling, network interface cards (NICs),
clients, servers, hubs and switches. The figure on the previous page shows you these basic
components of an Ethernet network and how they fit together. By the end of this course, you
will understand how each of these components works and how the Ethernet standard as a
whole works to make communication between computers, printers and other office devices
possible.

Ethernet Development
Lesson Objectives
● Identify the key milestones in the historical development of Ethernet

● Identify the benefits of distributed processing
● Identify the benefits of Open Systems solutions
● Identify the reasons for Ethernet's success in the marketplace
Overview
Understanding a little about the history of Ethernet is important for two reasons:
1. It gives you a foundation for understanding the practical and technical computing
problems that Ethernet addresses.
2. It gives you the cultural background you need to feel competent when discussing
network technology with advanced systems administrators and engineers.
The High Cost of Mainframe Computing

In the 1970's and 1980's, mainframe computing began to present a number of significant
limitations for large and small businesses alike. First, mainframes are not easily scalable.
Companies must either plan to continually upgrade an entry-level mainframe, or they must
make a significant, capital investment in a large mainframe (and later upgrade it as well, as
technology improves). Both options are expensive. Second, the demand for advanced word
processors, window-based graphical user interfaces, computer-aided design programs and
statistical analysis tools requires an amount of computing power and quick response time that
mainframes simply cannot not provide at any cost. Third, and finally, because most mainframe
solutions from different vendors are incompatible with each other, once a company chooses a
particular vendor, it is generally cost prohibitive to change vendors later on.
As an alternative to the mainframe-centric world of the 1970's, the search for a decentralized,
distributed and multivendor approach to data processing, now known as Open Systems,
becomes the driving force behind the development and adoption of Ethernet, as well as other
LAN technologies.

Ethernet Development (Continued)
The Development of Ethernet Standards

In September 1980, Digital, Intel and Xerox jointly published the first commercial Ethernet
standard for connecting computers together. This original Ethernet standard, sometimes
referred to as the DIX standard (D[igital] I[ntel] X[erox]), evolved directly from the Xerox Palo
Alto Research Center's (PARC) experimental networks of the 1970's. Prior to the joint
publication of this standard, it was generally not possible to network computers manufactured
by different vendors. By publishing the first Ethernet standard jointly, Digital, Intel and Xerox
made openly available an easy-to-understand, easy-to-implement and easy-to-maintain
technology for high-speed communication between computers from either the same or
different manufacturers.
In 1985, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) published the first
internationally approved set of Ethernet standards under the somewhat obscure title IEEE
802.3 Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) Access Method and
Physical Layer Specifications. Shortly thereafter, this standard was adopted by the
International Standards Organization (ISO), which effectively positioned Ethernet technology in
a way that enabled it to become the most widely used method for connecting Local Area
Networks (LANs).
The widespread adoption of distributed computing and Open Systems (the concept of a
modular, vendor-independent set of "open" interoperability standards) offers companies an
economical way to purchase additional computing power in the form of file servers and PC
workstations on an as needed basis, and from whatever vendor they believe will deliver the
best value for their money. Open communications technologies like Ethernet provide the basis
for a modular solution that:
1. Gives users mainframe-like access to shared information.

2. Distributes the processing load required for advanced applications.
3. Allows companies to network a mixture of hardware and software solutions from
different vendors.
4. Provides a scalable network architecture at an affordable cost.

In 1973, Robert Metcalfe (later founder of 3Com*) designed the first Ethernet network, named
the Alto Aloha Network, while working for Xerox at the now famous Palo Alto Research Center
(PARC). In the mid- to late 1970's a number of exciting things were happening at PARC,
including the development of a graphics-based monitor, the windowed display concept, the
mouse, the laser printer, the desktop workstation and even something called the Worm, which
was originally a software management and network maintenance strategy, yet later became a
prototype for the modern computer virus.
Somewhere along the line, the name Alto Aloha (derived from the FM radio-based ALOHA
Network System built at the University of Hawaii) was dropped in favor of the slightly more
mystical sounding, Ethernet. The ether of Ethernet is a reference to the hypothetical element,
"lumeniferous ether," which from the 18th century up until Einstein's theory of relativity, many
physicists believe to permeate the entire universe, holding it together and providing a medium
for electromagnetic (light) waves. The abstract concept of an Ethernet is, then, of a network of
wires that can serve as a binding medium across which all the different parts of the computer
universe can communicate.

Ethernet Development (Continued)
Ethernet Today
Today, Ethernet technology has achieved commodity status and is available from a wide range
of manufacturers and distributors, generally leaving consumers free to pick and choose from a
variety of alternatives.
1997 shipments of network interface cards by technology.

Source: IDC 1997 PC NIC Market Forecast Summary, 1995-2001.
Since the first Ethernet components appeared on the market in the beginning of the 1980's,
Ethernet has gone on to become the most successful LAN technology in the marketplace. As
the figure above shows, Ethernet dominates the market today and is likely to continue to do so
for the foreseeable future. There are several reasons why:
● Ethernet interfaces are available for almost any type of computer, from laptops to
mainframes.
● Ethernet devices are relatively easy to design and manufacture, and as a result,
relatively inexpensive.
● Ethernet is easy to install, maintain and troubleshoot, keeping the cost of ownership
down.
● Ethernet has proved capable of meeting demands for higher LAN speeds in a cost-
effective manner. 100Mbps Fast Ethernet, only recently introduced, has been highly
successful, and an IEEE standard for Gigabit Ethernet is expected to be finalized by the
end of 1998.
ETHERNET BASICS
Module Description
This module describes details of Ethernet operation and is the largest module of the course.
Lesson 2.1 introduces the Ethernet Bus wire, and describes the roles that network interface
cards (NICs) and data frames play in Ethernet communications. Lesson 2.1 also describes
Ethernet's method for controlling access to the shared broadcast medium by drawing an
analogy between Ethernet and two-way radio. Lesson 2.1 also introduces and explains the
CSMA/CD algorithm, and illustrates the importance of configuration guidelines. Lesson 2.2
describes the place Ethernet occupies in the OSI reference model, and identifies the basic
network services that Ethernet provides. Lesson 2.3 describes in general terms Ethernet
cabling schemes, and explains the difference between physical and logical topologies. Lesson
2.4 identifies the role of the MAC sublayer and the Ethernet operations that take place at the
MAC sublayer. Lesson 2.5 concludes Module 2 with an explanation of repeaters, switches and
bridges.
Module Objectives
● Identify the basic characteristics of the Ethernet bus

● Identify the function of network interface cards
● Identify the basic components of the Ethernet frame
● Identify the fundamental process of Ethernet communication
● Identify the basic concepts of the CSMA/CD algorithm
● Identify the importance of configuration guidelines
● Identify the place Ethernet occupies in the OSI model
● Identify Ethernet's relationship to the upper layers of the OSI model
● Identify Ethernet bus and star topologies
● Identify the difference between physical network topology and the logical topology
● Identify the role of the MAC sublayer
● Identify the roles that repeaters, switches and bridges play

Transmitting and Receiving Data
Lesson Objectives
● Identify the basic characteristics of the Ethernet bus

● Identify the function of network interface cards
● Identify the basic components of the Ethernet frame
● Identify the fundamental process of Ethernet communication
● Identify the basic concepts of the CSMA/CD algorithm
● Identify the importance of configuration guidelines
The Ethernet Bus

Computers on an Ethernet network communicate with each other by broadcasting packets of
data on a shared wire, called an Ethernet bus. The Ethernet bus is a single, continuous length
of wire that serves as a medium for packet broadcasts. Each computer that participates in the
network must connect directly to the Ethernet bus.
In the hypothetical small office environment shown in the figure below, the Ethernet bus winds
through the entire office, passing closely by each computer. Each computer's physical
connection to the network is composed of a network interface card (NIC), a short drop line and
a connector that taps directly into the bus-wire.
Bus-type, coaxial cabling scheme for a small office.
Network Interface Card (NIC) Addresses and Ethernet Frames

Ethernet distinguishes one computer from another by a unique address assigned to each NIC.
Each NIC is both a sender and receiver of packets of data called Ethernet frames. When a
communication technology, like Ethernet, packages or frames, data, it means simply that
routing information is being added to the beginning and the end of the original data. Once the
data has been routed successfully, the routing information is discarded, just like a postal
envelope is often discarded once its contents have been extracted.
Furthermore, like postal envelopes, Ethernet frames can transport only a certain amount of
data at a time. (For a standard frame, the maximum size of the data field is 1500 bytes.) Like
sending a large letter in a series of envelopes, Ethernet transports larger amounts of data in
multiple frames. Upon receiving each frame, the receiving computer discards the routing data
and puts the original data back in order.

Transmitting and Receiving Data (Continued)
Unlike postal envelopes, however, which arrive all at once, an Ethernet frame arrives one bit at
a time. Each Ethernet frame contains a structured series of data fields that identify:
1. The beginning of the frame

2. The address of the intended receiver
3. The address of the sender
4. The type of data being sent
Immediately following this information, the Ethernet frame includes the original data, or the
"content" of the frame. The frame ends with a mathematical value (called a cyclic redundancy
check, or CRC) that the receiving NIC uses to verify the frame has been received correctly.
The figure below illustrates the structure of a standard Ethernet frame.
Structure of a standard Ethernet frame.
Listening, Sending and Receiving

Ethernet was designed to be a relatively simple communications protocol. As a result, Ethernet
bears many characteristics similar to common technologies such as telephone, telegraph and
radio. Though recent advances in Ethernet switching technology have allowed Ethernet to
operate more like a telephone system, the original Ethernet bus actually operates more like a
two-way radio network of taxicab drivers.

Listening, Sending and Receiving (Continued)

Taxicab fleets often use two-way radios to share information about changing traffic patterns,
pick-up locations, destinations and emergencies. All radio operators on the taxicab network
hear all messages that are broadcast. Most messages, however, are intended for use by only
one out of the many drivers. A typical radio message might sound as follows: "Message to Taxi
99. This is Central. Pick-up at 144th and Broadway. Reply." Very much like an Ethernet frame,
the routing data ("Message to Taxi 99. This is Central") frames the core message (" Pick-up at
144th and Broadway"). There may be thousands of messages like this broadcast over the
radio each day.
A taxicab operator becomes accustomed, however, to overhearing all of the messages on his
or her radio, yet paying close attention, or "processing," only those messages specifically
addressed his or her taxicab. Computers on an Ethernet network function essentially the same
way.
Like the two-way radio network of taxicab drivers, all computers connected to the Ethernet bus
hear all broadcasts. Whenever one computer sends a frame (or message) to another
computer, the frame is broadcast over the entire length of the bus-cable, which all computers
share. As the frame arrives at each computer, the network interface card (NIC) checks the
frame's address information. If the destination address of the frame matches the NIC's
address, the NIC processes the frame by checking the data packet's integrity and removing
the routing information. If the frame's destination address does not match the NIC's address,
the NIC does not process any of the information and waits for the next frame to arrive. Just like
a taxicab driver, each NIC "listens" to all messages, but only processes those messages
specifically addressed to it.

Collisions
On the taxicabs' radio network, if no one is currently speaking, all operators are free to contend
for the open channel. Because only one radio operator can be heard at a time, if one driver is
already speaking, every other driver must wait until that person finishes before broadcasting a
message of his or her own. If two operators begin to speak at the same time, both messages
are garbled, and each operator must stop speaking and wait until the channel is free. One of
the operators may not realize that his or her message was garbled; in which case, a third
operator will ask him or her to restate the message. Once again, Ethernet communication
takes place in essentially this same way.
When a computer's NIC has a frame ready to send, it first listens to the network for any frames
from other computers already being broadcast. If there is a frame already being transmitted on
the bus, the NIC waits until that frame is completed and the bus is free. It is possible, however,
that two or more computers with frames to send will listen to the network at the same time and
thinking that the bus is free, broadcast their frames simultaneously. The resulting garbled
transmission is called a collision. The first NIC to detect the garbled transmission, sends out
what is called a jam signal that informs all the computers on the network that a collision has
occurred. The computers whose frames collided must then wait for a random time before
trying again to resend their frames. Because the time to wait is randomly chosen, one
computer's wait time will likely be shorter than the other. The computer with the shorter wait
time will gain access to the open bus first, and the second computer will then wait until the first
computer's broadcast is completed.
Collisions are a normal part of Ethernet operations. The set of rules by which Ethernet handles
collisions is called the CSMA/CD algorithm. CSMA/CD stands for "carrier sense multiple
access with collision detection," which simply is a technical way to refer to the sense-to-see-if-
the-line-is-free-before-you-send method that the multiple computers on an Ethernet network
use to share access to the broadcast channel. The collision detection part of the CSMA/CD
algorithm defines many of the physical limitations of Ethernet and directly affects how Ethernet
networks must be configured.

The Fundamental Rule

The fundamental rule of all Ethernet configuration guidelines is that collisions must be detected
before a sending station completes the transmission of its frame. Basically, this means that the
network connection between the two computers with the greatest distance between them must
be short enough, and the frame transmission long enough, so that if one of these two
computers happens to begin a transmission the instant before a transmission from the other
computer arrives, the consequent collision can be detected before either transmission is
completed.
Once a sending station completes its frame transmission, without having been interrupted by a
jam signal, it assumes that the frame has been received intact and that it has been processed
correctly.
If a jam signal is received by a sending station after it has completed its transmission, the
sending station will assume that the collision belongs to a set of stations elsewhere on the
network. The importance of Ethernet stations being able to detect collisions before the
completion of each frame transmission cannot be understated. If the jam signal that results
from a collision is not detected by the sending station before the sending station completes its
transmission, the sending station has no way of knowing that it must retransmit its frame.
Properly configured Ethernet networks ensure that the distance between the two stations
farthest apart on the network is short enough that when a collision occurs neither of these two
stations will have had time enough to finish its transmission before being interrupted by the
jam signal.

Usually, the upper-layer protocol responsible for the frame's data packet will expect a reply
from the same upper-layer protocol on the receiving station. If the upper-layer protocol does
not receive the expected reply within a certain time frame, it will use Ethernet to resend the
data. But as far as Ethernet is concerned, once the Ethernet NIC has been able to transmit its
frame without the interruption of a jam signal, Ethernet assumes the frame has arrived intact
and has been processed correctly.

Ethernet and the OSI Reference Model
Lesson Objectives
● Identify the place Ethernet occupies in the OSI model

● Identify Ethernet's relationship to the upper layers of the OSI model
Though Ethernet plays a critical role in network communications, this role is limited to a
specific set of services that combine with upper-layer networking services to produce practical
benefits such as network management, data security, file transfer, remote access and
messaging.
Let's say, for example, you have created a document in a word processor, and you would now
like to save this document to a file in a directory on your workgroup's server before you attach
it to an e-mail message. When you give the command to save your file, in addition to the
actual transfer of data from your word processor to the hard disk on the server, a variety of
communications takes place between your computer and the server, including requests for
directory information, access rights and file creation. Though all of these communications are
broadcast by Ethernet over the Ethernet bus, Ethernet neither initiates these kinds of network
communications nor controls them in a substantive way.
Network services like file transfer, network management, remote terminal access and network
security are all facilitated by what are called upper-layer protocols. Technically, Ethernet is
merely a taxi service for these upper layer protocols, which employ Ethernet to help
accomplish their work. According to Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) standards, in the
hierarchy of network services, Ethernet works at the bottom as a servant to all the layers
above it.
Open Systems Interconnection Reference Model

The International Standards Organization and the IEEE published the first Open Systems
Interconnection standards in 1977. OSI standards are explained graphically using the OSI
reference model, shown in the figure below. The OSI reference model provides a
comprehensive and modular framework for interconnecting computer systems from different
manufacturers. The OSI model defines seven separate and distinct layers of communication
that together provide a comprehensive suite of network services.
The Open Systems Interconnection reference model.
The OSI model does not define a specific technology for each layer. The OSI model requires
only that every technology be able to accept data from the immediate layer below it and deliver
data to the immediate layer above it using universally accepted methods. Though most
networking solutions today do not strictly conform to the boundaries of the OSI model, the OSI
model still provides a solid framework for understanding how networking technologies
interoperate.

Layers of the OSI Model
Layer Function
Layer Application This layer provides services to user applications.

7
Layer Presentation This layer describes how data should be formatted when presented
6 to applications. It can also provide services like encryption and
compression.
Layer Session This layer establishes, manages and ends connections between
5 users and resources.
Layer Transport This layer provides a reliable end-to-end connection across a

4 network.
Layer Network This layer is responsible for routing packets between end stations in
3 a network.
Layer Data Link This layer can provide error handling, flow control and arbitrates
2 medium access.
Layer Physical This layer defines the electrical, optical and mechanical
1 characteristics of a network connection.

Ethernet and the OSI Reference Model (Continued)
Ethernet and the OSI Model

The Ethernet specification covers only the bottom layers of the model, the physical layer and
the lower half of the data link layer. Ethernet provides two general services:
1. Ethernet connects computers together physically with cabling and network interface
cards.
2. Ethernet transports data packets from the network layer service on one computer to the
network layer service of either one or a number of other computers. As an Open
Systems technology, Ethernet does not specifically exclude any particular network layer
technology. For example, when Ethernet receives a TCP/IP packet from the network
layer, it treats the TCP/IP packet exactly the same as it would a NetBEUI or IPX/SPX
packet. Like a taxicab, Ethernet simply transports the fare; it does not ask for names,
only the destination.
Ethernet and the OSI Model

The Physical Layer
Lesson Objectives
● Identify Ethernet bus and star topologies

● Identify the difference between physical network topology and the logical topology
At the physical layer, the lowest layer of the OSI reference model, Ethernet specifications
cover details about the cabling requirements for Ethernet, including the use of coaxial cable,
twisted-pair wire, optical fiber and connectors. Physical layer specifications also define data
rates, as well as the electrical, mechanical and signaling characteristics of the physical
medium. Physical layer specifications describe how Ethernet represents data as either
electrical signals sent over a wire or as light pulses sent through a fiber optic cable. Physical
layer specifications also describe how Ethernet activates and deactivates connections.
Today, a variety of specific cabling schemes can be used in the design of Ethernet networks.
The advantages, disadvantages and limitations of each are discussed in more detail in
Modules 7 through 9, which cover operations, guidelines and specifications for Ethernet
running at 10Mbps, 100Mbps and 1000Mbps.
In general, the physical configuration of an Ethernet network conforms to one of two basic
network topologies: bus or star.
Ethernet Bus Topology

Originally, the Ethernet bus was constructed using coaxial (10Base-5 and 10Base-2) cable,
and computers connected to the bus using coaxial drop cables, or by connecting directly to the
bus itself. On these networks, the Ethernet bus-cable stretches from one end of the building to
the other. Terminating resistors placed at each end of the bus ensure that each broadcast
signal travels the length of the wire only once. A series of T-connectors, inserted along the
length of the bus, provide fixed tap points for individual computers. The bus winds though the
building close enough to each computer's NIC that each computer can be connected to a T-
connector either directly or by using a short drop cable. The figure below shows the basic
schematic of Ethernet bus topologies.
Bus Topology

The Physical Layer (Continued)
Ethernet Star Topology

Today, Ethernet LANs are built almost exclusively using twisted-pair wire to connect
computers to a central hub (sometimes called a concentrator). There are several reasons for
this:
● Twisted-pair wiring is easier to install than coaxial cable.

● Twisted-pair wiring is significantly less expensive than coaxial cable.
● Twisted-pair wiring can be used for other purposes besides Ethernet, for example, to
carry voice.
● The star configuration makes data traffic easier to monitor and troubleshooting simpler
by concentrating the location of physical network connections in a small space (the
hub).
Star network topology
In the star configuration shown in the figure above, the hub forms a central wiring closet that
physically takes the place of the long, coaxial Ethernet bus. Even though the star topology
shown in the figure above looks radically different from the bus topology shown in the figure
before it, the basic operations of Ethernet are the same for both. The evolution from bus to star
topologies is perhaps best understood as simply a dramatic shortening of the Ethernet bus and
an equally dramatic elongation of the drop lines that connect individual computers to the
shared broadcast medium.
The Physical Layer (Continued)
The figure below shows the same office space shown in Lesson 2.1, this time cabled using
a star topology.
Star-shaped, twisted-pair wiring scheme for a small office.
A Physical Star, A Logical Bus

Both Ethernet star and bus topologies connect computers in such a way that packet
broadcasts from one station are received by all other stations on the network. The network
cabling still forms a shared broadcast medium. Regardless of the shape of the network
cabling scheme (star or bus), the logical topology of Ethernet networks is a bus. The logical
scheme for the bus topologies shown in the previous figures is the same as depicted for
the star topologies.
If you find the concept of a star being a bus difficult to grasp, simply imagine a very short bus
enclosed inside the hub and very long drop cables connecting the network stations to the bus.

The MAC Sublayer
Lesson Objective
● Identify the role of the MAC sublayer
The IEEE 802 series of network standards divides the second layer of the OSI reference
model, the data link layer, into two sublayers called the medium access control (MAC) layer
and the logical link control (LLC) layer. The IEEE 802.3 Ethernet specification covers the
physical layer and the MAC sublayer, but not the LLC sublayer. The LLC sublayer uses the
MAC sublayer to provide medium-independent link functions to the network layer above it.
MAC sublayer
When a computer transmits a frame, Ethernet operations at the MAC sublayer assemble the
destination and source addresses for each Ethernet frame and calculate the frame's CRC
checksum. At the receiving end, Ethernet operations at the MAC sublayer process the
destination address and verify the integrity of the frame using the CRC checksum. Ethernet's
collision detection and handling protocol, the CSMA/CD algorithm also operates at the MAC
sublayer.

Repeaters, Switches and Bridges
Lesson Objectives
● Identify the roles that repeaters, switches and bridges play in Ethernet networking
Repeaters, switches and bridges are physical networking components that will be discussed in
some detail later in the course. They are introduced here, however, to provide a complete
overview of the basic components of Ethernet networking.
Repeaters
Technically, an Ethernet hub is also a repeater because it regenerates the strength of all
incoming signals and repeats them individually to each port. Because collisions on an Ethernet
network must be detected before a station completes the transmission of its frame (IEEE 802.3
standards actually limit the minimum collision detection time to 512 bits), the maximum
allowable distance between any two stations on an Ethernet network operating at 10Mbps is
2500 m (meters). Over a distance much less than this, however, electrical signals transmitted
from an NIC lose their clarity and strength due to a natural weakening called attenuation.
10Mbps signals over twisted-pair wire, for example, become undecipherable at a distance of a
little over 100 m. For thick coaxial cable, this distance is 500 m. Network hubs and repeaters
work at the physical level to regenerate the strength of electrical signals so that distant
segments of a network can share the same broadcast medium.
Switches
Ethernet switches operate like intelligent hubs that repeat incoming frames only to the
computer (or computers) to which each frame is addressed. Thus, on a switched network with
four computers (A, B, C and D), computer A can broadcast to computer B, and computer C
can broadcast to computer D simultaneously, without a collision. In this simple example,
Ethernet switching effectively doubles total throughput of the network by allowing computers A
and C to broadcast at full network speed without having to wait for the first computer's
broadcast to finish. As a result of their ability to significantly increase overall network
throughput, switches are becoming an increasingly popular replacement for Ethernet hubs.
Bridges
Bridges operate at both the physical layer and the MAC sublayer and connect otherwise
completely separate Ethernet networks. Bridges sit between each network and repeat only
those frames that are specifically addressed to computers on the other side. By designing
separate network domains connected with bridges, network traffic can be isolated without
sacrificing system-wide connectivity. Bridges can also connect networks running at different
speeds with different topologies or communication protocols.
ETHERNET OPERATIONS
Module Description
This module describes the details of data transmission and access control on Ethernet
networks. Lesson 3.1 covers the CSMA/CD algorithm and focuses particularly on the process
of collision detection. Lesson 3.2 explains the reason for Ethernet's maximum distance
specifications and, also, explains in general how maximum distances are calculated. Lesson
3.3 defines the exponential backoff algorithm, and discusses the role it plays in collision
detection and retransmission process. Lesson 3.4 discusses the effect of collisions and
excessive collisions on performance. Lesson 3.5 concludes Module 3 by illustrating a number
of ways that Ethernet networks can be configured to reduce collisions and increase
performance.
Module Objectives

● Identify the reasons there is a limit to the distance between stations on an Ethernet
network
● Identify Ethernet's distance limitation in bit times
● Identify the operation and purpose of the backoff algorithm used to control
retransmissions on an Ethernet
● Identify how to determine whether an Ethernet network is experiencing too many
collisions
● Identify some of the ways Ethernet networks can be segmented to reduce collisions

The CSMA/CD Algorithm
Lesson Objectives

network
Module 2 briefly introduced the CSMA/CD algorithm and how it works to control access to
Ethernet's shared, physical medium. The CSMA/CD algorithm defines when stations are
allowed to transmit and for how long, as well as how to manage situations in which two or
more stations attempt to transmit at the same time. The following two flow charts illustrate the
decision making processes that an Ethernet NIC completes when sending and receiving
frames.
Flow chart for Ethernet frame transmissions.
The CSMA/CD Algorithm (Continued)
Flow chart for receiving Ethernet frame transmissions.
Because an Ethernet network uses a shared broadcast medium, network stations must take
turns transmitting data across the medium. If more than one station transmits data at the same
time, the transmissions collide and the signal becomes undecipherable as a result.
CSMA/CD stands for Carrier Sense, Multiple Access with Collision Detection. "Carrier Sense"
means that network stations with data to transmit should first listen to determine if another
station is sending data. "Multiple Access" means that Ethernet provides a number of stations
the opportunity to transmit on the single cable. "Collision Detection" refers to the process by
which stations detect simultaneous transmissions.

The CSMA/CD Algorithm (Continued)
Even though data signals travel near the speed of light, they still take time to travel over the
network medium. As illustrated by the series of figures below, collisions can occur even though
each station must check first to see if the medium is free. As a result, stations must continue to
monitor for collisions even after gaining access to the medium.
Station A transmitting
The figure above shows two stations connected to an Ethernet bus and 500 m apart (about
1,640 ft [feet]). After station A begins to transmit, the signal travels away from station A in both
directions. The speed of signal propagation through the cable varies slightly, depending on the
cable type used. (Propagation is a technical term for the process by which signals, or waves,
travel across a medium, such as wire, water or atmosphere.) Generally, signal propagation
speed through copper and fiber cable is 2/3c, where c is the speed of light in a vacuum.
Hence, it will take the transmitted signal about 2.5 µs (microseconds) to travel 500 m. On a
10Mbps Ethernet network, this means that station A will have transmitted 25 bits (2.5 µs
multiplied by (x) 10,000,000 bits/second) by the time the first of the bits reaches station B.
Now, assume that station B decides to begin a transmission immediately before the first bit
from A's transmission has traveled the 500 m distance between the two stations. Because
station B believes that the cable is free, it will begin to transmit. Consequently, the two signals
collide on the wire immediately afterwards, as shown in the figure below.
Collision
Station B discovers the collision right away and transmits a jam pattern to ensure that all
stations on the network detect the collision. A jam pattern is a sequence of bits that is put
together in such a way that the signal cannot be mistaken for a valid transmission.
Station A detects the collision
It takes another 2.5 µs before the jam signal has traveled 500 m from station B to station A. By
the time station A discovers the collision and stops the transmission, 5 µs have elapsed and,
station A has already transmitted 50 bits.

Maximum Distance between Stations
Lesson Objectives
network
● Identify Ethernet's distance limitation in bit times
If the distance between station A and station B increases, station A will transmit more and
more bits without discovering a collision. If the stations are placed too far apart, station A will
complete its transmission before the collision is discovered. If this happens, when station A
receives the jam signal, it will not assume that its transmission was involved in the collision.
Station A will, instead, assume that the collision belongs to some other set of computers. One
of the significant assumptions of Ethernet operations is that once an Ethernet station is able to
finish its transmission without being interrupted by either a jam signal or a collision, that station
assumes that its transmission has been received successfully.
Usually, the upper-layer protocol responsible for the frame's data packet expects a response
from the same upper-layer protocol on the receiving station. When the expected reply is not
received within a specified time unique to each protocol, the upper-layer protocol on the
sending station will use Ethernet to resend the original data. These kinds of retransmissions,
however, not only result in unacceptable delays and network inefficiency, but they are also
unnecessary.
The Ethernet standard contains several specifications that ensure collisions will be detected
before a station finishes its transmission. First, the standard limits that the maximum distance
between two stations in such a way that a station will not have transmitted more than 512 bits
before a collision is discovered. On a 10Mbps Ethernet network, the maximum distance
between two stations cannot exceed 2,500 m (about 8,200 ft). On a 100Mbps Ethernet
network, the maximum distance is much shorter because data is transmitted ten times faster;
thus, stations have less time to discover collisions. Second, the standard specifies that an
Ethernet frame must always be at least 512 bits (64 bytes) long. Third, Ethernet standards
require transmitting stations to monitor the cable for collisions throughout the first 512 bits of
every transmission. After that, stations are free to assume that a collision will not occur.
The round-trip propagation delay at 2,500 m is about 25 µs or only 250-bit times at 10Mbps.
(Propagation is a technical term for the process by which signals, or waves, travel across a
medium, such as wire, water or atmosphere. The phrase "round trip propagation delay" refers
specifically to the time it takes for a single Ethernet transmission to travel the length of the wire
twice. The first signal is assumed to be a data transmission and the second a jam signal.)
What about the remaining 262-bit times? Some of it is there to allow a small delay in
electronics circuits such as repeaters and network interface cards; the rest is a safety margin.
The maximum allowable distance between any two stations on an Ethernet network operating
at 10Mbps is 2500 m. Over a distances much less than this, however, electrical signals
transmitted lose their clarity and strength due to a natural weakening called attenuation. Thus,
repeaters are used to regenerate the strength of electrical signals so that distant segments of
a network can share the same broadcast medium. (Technically, an Ethernet hub is also a
repeater because it regenerates the strength of all incoming signals and repeats them
individually to each port.)

Exponential Backoff Algorithm
Lesson Objective
● Identify the operation and purpose of the backoff algorithm used to control
retransmissions on an Ethernet
After checking the broadcast medium and finding it is free, the sending station assumes that
no other station has frames to send, and so begins to transmit. After a collision has occurred,
however, there are always at least two stations on the network with frames to send. If after a
collision, the affected stations were to simply retransmit their frames immediately after the jam
signal has finished, the exact same collision will occur again.
To avoid repeated collisions, Ethernet uses an exponential backoff algorithm that requires
each station affected by a collision to wait a randomly selected amount of time before
retransmitting. The station which randomly chooses the shortest backoff time will, then, be
able to transmit its frame without interference from the station that contributed to the prior
collision. Once the transmission from the station which randomly chose the shortest backoff
time has been recognized by all other stations on the network, all stations must then wait until
the transmission is completed before once again contending for access to the network.
According to Ethernet's exponential backoff algorithm, once a collision occurs, all stations
involved in the collision will wait for an amount of time, called a slot time, before transmitting
again. The slot time depends on the transmission speed. On 10Mbps Ethernet networks, it is
51.2 µs. On Fast Ethernet networks, it is only 5.12 µs.

Exponential Backoff Algorithm (Continued)
If two stations both wait for the same number of slot times, the transmissions will collide again.
Thus, there is a range of slot times from which stations must randomly choose after each
unsuccessful transmission. Specified ranges for slot times are shown in Table 3-3 below. Each
time the station tries to retransmit and encounters a collision, the maximum waiting time is
doubled. If a first transmission attempt fails due to a collision, all stations involved in the
collision will wait between 0 and 2 slot times before attempting to transmit the frame a second
time. On 10Mbps Ethernet, this means that the waiting time will be either 0x51.2 µs, 1x51.2 µs
or 2x51.2 µs. On the third attempt to transmit the frame, the waiting time will be between 0 and
4 slot times, on the fourth attempt between 0 and 8 slot times and so on. After eleven
successive collisions, maximum number of slot times stays at 1,023.
An Ethernet station will attempt to transmit the same frame up to 16 times. After that, if the
transmission has not been successfully completed, it will give up and discard the frame.
Transmission Minimum Wait Slot Maximum Wait Slot

Attempt Times Times
1 N/A N/A
2 0 2
3 0 4
4 0 8
5 0 16
6 0 32
7 0 64
8 0 128
9 0 256
10 0 512
11 0 1023
12 0 1023
13 0 1023
14 0 1023
15 0 1023
16 0 1023
17 Give up Give up
Table 3-3. Backoff algorithm slot times

Collisions and Performance Considerations
Lesson Objective
● Identify how to determine whether an Ethernet network is experiencing too many

collisions
It is important to understand that collisions are a normal occurrence on an Ethernet; a collision

is not an error. Too many collisions will, however, decrease network
performance. To decrease the number of collisions, you must, among other things, limit the
number of stations that share an Ethernet collision domain.
To determine whether a network is experiencing too many collisions, a network administrator

must first determine the quality of service he or she expects to maintain. A good rule of thumb
is that the following inequality should hold true: (Number of deferred transmissions + number
of retransmissions) / Total number of transmissions < 5 percent.) In other words, if 95 percent
of all transmissions are not deferred (have to wait because another transmission is already
taking place) and do not have to be retransmitted because of a collision, the delay experienced
by users is probably within acceptable limits.
The definition of "acceptable limits" is, of course, subjective. In some cases, users and
management may be willing to accept a poorer quality of service from the network, and in
other situations, a 95 percent average availability may not be sufficient.
Another way to measure if an Ethernet network is experiencing too many collisions is to

calculate the number of successive collisions that a transmitting station experiences. In
general, a transmitting station should experience a collision no more than two times before it
successfully transmits data.

Common Ethernet Errors
The following is brief description of the most common errors on Ethernet networks and their
most likely causes. Error statistics can be obtained from several different sources, such as
dedicated troubleshooting equipment like network monitors and probes as well as from
network equipment such as bridges, switches and routers.
Short. A frame which is shorter than the minimum 64 bytes.
Short frames can be caused by noisy connections, cable faults and faults in network hardware.
If they occur often, remedial action should be taken. Correcting the problem usually means
replacing defective cables or equipment.
CRC Error. A frame which has been corrupted during transmission.
A CRC error is registered when the 4-byte checksum is invalid, that is the CRC information in
the FCS field does not match the CRC value computed by the receiving station.
Frames with CRC errors are discarded by the receiving hardware. CRC errors are usually
caused by cable faults and other faults in the network. Correcting the problem usually means
replacing defective cables or equipment.
Alignment Error. Frames with alignment errors are frames that are longer than 64 bytes, have
a bad CRC and are not an integral number of bytes in length; that is, the number of bits in the
frame is not divisible by 8.
Frames with alignment errors are discarded by the receiving station because they have an
invalid CRC. Alignment errors are usually caused by cable faults or problems with network
interface cards. Correcting the problem usually means replacing defective cables or network
interface cards
Long. A frame that is longer than the legal maximum length of 1518 bytes but shorter than
6000 bytes.
Longs can have a negative impact on general network performance and may result in users
being disconnected. The station transmitting the oversized frames has a hardware or software
error. It should be found and removed from the network.
Giant. A frame that is longer than 6,000 bytes. The station transmitting the oversized frames
has a hardware or software error. It should be found and removed from the network.
Jabber. A long frame with a CRC or alignment error. "Jabbers" are usually caused by a
malfunctioning network interface card or external transceiver. The faulty equipment should be
replaced.
Late Collision. Occurs after the first 512 bits have been transmitted by the sending station.
Late collisions should never occur in a healthy Ethernet network or segment.
A late collision can cause severe performance degradation because it cannot be detected by
the sending station. Late collisions are typically caused by misconfiguration, such as having
too long cable distances or by having more than 4 repeaters between one or more network
stations in a 10Mbps environment. The problem must be solved by changing the network
configuration so it complies with the guidelines.
Excessive Collisions. As previously described, an Ethernet station will try up to 16 times to

transmit a frame. If all transmission attempts fail due to collisions the frame is discarded by the
sending station. This situation is called an excessive collision. If this occurs frequently due to
heavy network traffic, the network should be redesigned to relieve the congestion.

Collisions and Performance Considerations (Continued)
The figure below shows an example of how collision statistics might look on an Ethernet
segment that is performing well. Notice that most transmissions succeed after only two
successive collisions. The number of transmissions that experience more than six successive
collisions is too small to be visible on the chart.
An Ethernet segment that is performing well. The total of all blue bars
in the graph represents the total number of collisions on the network.
By contrast, following figure shows collision statistics on a heavily loaded Ethernet segment.
Note that more of the transmissions experience multiple collisions on this segment.
A heavily loaded Ethernet segment. The total of all blue bars in the graph
represents the total number of collisions on the network. Most of the retransmissions
on this network experience two or more successive collisions. Network congestion
is so great that some transmissions reach the excessive collision limit
and are dropped by the sending station's NIC.

Network Segmentation
Lesson Objective
● Identify some of the ways Ethernet networks can be segmented to reduce collisions
Network managers can decrease the total number of collisions on a network in several ways.
Network managers can:
● Create multiple, small collision domains by segmenting network traffic.

● Increase network efficiency by using switches in the place of hubs.
● Increase network speed by implementing Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet on high-
traffic backbones, links between servers and clusters of power workstations.
Bridges Between Segments

Later courses in advanced network design and management will discuss these solutions in
detail. The lesson focuses only on the general concept of network segmentation. The figure
below shows a basic network configuration that uses a single collision domain.
Network Segmentation (Continued)
The figure below shows a segmented network configuration that includes multiple collision
domains.
In the figure above, a bridge is used to connect segments. The bridge functions as a selective
repeater that retransmits the frames it receives only when they are specifically addressed to
devices on the other side. As a general rule, network engineers try to keep at least 80% of all
traffic generated by a collision domain within that same domain.

Network Segmentation (Continued)
Separate Domains on a Single Server

Some network operating systems allow a single server to use multiple NICs to create
segmented networks. In this situation, each NIC in the server functions as a separate network
segment. Software running on the server performs the function of a bridge. The server reads
the destination address of each frame and repeats only those frames addressed to devices on
the other segment. Using segmented collision domains on a single server not only decreases
the number of total collisions on the network, but also allows the server to receive packets
from two or more segments simultaneously. The figure below illustrates a network
configuration that includes two collision domains and only one server.

ETHERNET FRAME COMPOSITION
Module Description
This module discusses the composition of the Ethernet frame. Lesson 4.1 gives a general
overview of the contents of the Ethernet frame. Lessons 4.2 through 4.7 each discuss in detail
the content and purpose of each of the Ethernet frame's six fields.
Module Objectives
● Identify the fields found in an Ethernet frame

● Identify the purpose of the preamble/SFD, type/length, data and FCS fields
● Identify the structure of MAC addresses
● Identify the difference between unicast, multicast and broadcast addresses
● Identify the purpose of having an interframe gap

Basic Ethernet Frame Composition
Lesson Objective
● Identify the fields found in an Ethernet frame
The Ethernet frame can, perhaps, best be thought of as a container for safely and efficiently
transporting data packets from one station to another. The general format of an Ethernet frame
is shown in the figure below.
Ethernet frame composition
Ethernet frames contain six fields in total. Each field, with the exception of the data field, is
precisely defined both in length and content.
Announcing the arrival of each frame, a 7-byte preamble serves to synchronize the sending
station's and the receiving stations' clocks, ensuring that each frame is received at the same
speed it was sent. Following the preamble a 1-byte start-of-frame delimiter signals to the
receiving station that the substantive portion of the frame is about to start.
The destination address, source address and typeIlength fields together form what is
commonly referred to as the Ethernet header. The Ethernet header contains control
information used by Ethernet to identify the source, destination, size and protocol of the upper-
layer data packet contained in the data field. The data field immediately follows the header
fields and varies in length between 46 and 1500 bytes. All other fields in the frame have fixed
lengths.
A frame check sequence field marks the end of the Ethernet frame and contains a checksum
value that can be used to verify the frame has not been corrupted in transit. The checksum is
the result of a calculation of bit values derived from of all other fields in the frame.
Since the original Ethernet standard was published in 1980, a number of variant Ethernet
frame types have been developed and are now in common use. All of them, however, follow
the basic structure shown in the figure above. Lessons 4.2 through 4.6 describe in detail the
six basic fields of an Ethernet frame.
Preamble/SFD
Lesson Objective
● Identify the purpose of the preamble/SFD field
Ethernet frame composition: preamble/SFD field
Timing
Ethernet is sometimes described as a bit-serial, synchronous transmission facility. Bit-serial
means that frames are transmitted and received one bit at a time across the medium. The
phrase synchronous transmission refers to the fact that the clocks in both the sender and
receiver must be synchronized in order for each bit to be correctly detected. Clock
synchronization is important because Ethernet uses precisely timed changes in signal strength
to create recognizable high-to-low and low-to-high patterns that, upon receipt, are interpreted
as digital 0's or 1's. An unsynchronized clock will time the signal incorrectly and will either not
be able to interpret the signal at all or will misinterpret the signal by reading high-to-low
sequences as low-to-high sequences, and vice versa. In such instances, the frame is said to
be misaligned.
Synchronization
The Ethernet frame enables the receiving station to synchronize its clock with the sending
station by using a 7-byte (56-bit) series of alternating 1's and 0's, called a preamble. The
steady alteration of 1's and 0's in the preamble constitutes a simple way to encode clocking
information in the signal itself. Like a drum roll used to synchronize the feet of soldiers in a
very fast march, the preamble's 56-bits of alternating 1's and 0's allow the receiving station to
adjust its clock until the steady alterations of the preamble are timed correctly.
Start of Frame Delimiter

The start of frame delimiter (SFD) is also an alternating binary 1's and 0's pattern, except for
the last two bits which are "11." The binary "11" sequence alerts the receiver to the fact the
preamble has ended and the Ethernet header will now begin.
At a first glance, the SFD appears unnecessary, because it may seem that the receiver could
simply count bits until 8 bytes (64 bits) have been received and then start copying the frame to
memory. However, the sender and receiver clocks may be so far out of synchronization that
the receiver will not be able to synchronize on the signal immediately, thus allowing an
indeterminable portion of the preamble to pass by unrecognized.

Destination Address and Source Address Fields
Lesson Objectives
● Identify the structure of MAC addresses

● Identify the difference between unicast, multicast and broadcast addresses
Ethernet frame composition: destination address and source address fields
The Structure of MAC Addresses

Every NIC attached to an Ethernet network must have a unique 6-byte hardware address,
usually called a MAC address. Illustrated in the figure below, the MAC address consists of two
parts: a 3-byte manufacturer ID and a unique 3-byte NIC ID number, assigned by the
manufacturer. (On certain first and second generation NICs, the MAC address can be
manually set using a series of jumper connections on the circuit board.)
MAC address structure
Technical manuals usually record the bytes of the MAC address using hexadecimal notation,
as opposed to writing out the binary digits. In an example MAC address such as "00-A0-C9-
CE-20-03," the first three bytes, 00-A0-C9, represent the manufacturer ID (Intel), the second
three bytes, CE-20-03, represent the NIC ID. Using this same example, the first two bytes
written using binary notation would read 00000000-10100000. (Although, to make things
somewhat interesting, Ethernet actually reverses the bit-ordering of each byte when it is
transmitted. So, the same two bytes would actually be transmitted as 00000000-00000101.)
Destination Address
The MAC address is, of course, each station's unique destination address (DA). When a
station recognizes its own MAC address in the destination address field of an Ethernet frame,
the station copies the rest of the frame to memory for further processing by the CPU. When a
station recognizes that the destination address is not its own, that station simply disregards the
rest of the frame.
Source Address
The source address (SA) field contains the MAC address of the sending station. The source
address field gives a receiving station the opportunity to respond to the originating station
either by confirming receipt of the frame, requesting the frame be resent or answering a
particular request.
Unicast, Multicast and Broadcast Frames

In addition to Ethernet's ability to send individual frames to a single workstation (sometimes
called a unicast), Ethernet also has the ability to send frames either to a group of stations on a
single segment (a multicast) or to all Ethernet stations on the network (a broadcast).
Unicast Addresses. The unicast address for a particular destination is simply another name
for an NIC's unique MAC address. An Ethernet frame sent to a unicast address is intended for
one station only. Unicast transmissions are used by clients requesting application or file
services from a particular sever, and by servers responding to client-specific requests.

Destination Address and Source Address Fields (Continued)
Multicast Addresses. A multicast address identifies an entire group of stations attached to

the same Ethernet segment. Routing information updates, for instance, are often sent to a
multicast address. Routers on the network copy these frames from the wire, while other
stations disregard them. Other examples of the use of multicast addresses are video
distribution and bridge packets used by the spanning tree algorithm.
So that NICs instantly recognize a multicast address, the first bit of a multicast address is
always a binary 1.
Broadcast Addresses. Each network has only one broadcast address. The broadcast
address, as it appears in the destination address field, is composed entirely of binary 1's. All
stations on the network are expected to copy Ethernet frames sent to the broadcast address
and pass them to the CPU for further processing.
Ethernet LAN services such as address resolution and service advertisements that rely on
recurrent transmissions to all stations frequently send packets to the broadcast address.
Specific examples include, the services provided by Address Resolution Protocol (ARP [a
component of the TCP/IP suite]) and NetWare* SAPs.
Multicast and broadcast addresses can appear only in the destination address field, never in
the source address field. A frame can be intended for a group of stations, but it will always be
sent from a specific station on the network.

The spanning tree algorithm is an IEEE 802 standardized method of communication between
bridges and switches. Most switches and bridges keep track of the layout of a network by
building a table of address information. The table tells the bridge or switch which packets to
forward and which to not forward. Sometimes bridges and switches contain conflicting address
information, and, as a result, frames can become trapped in an endless loop of bridges and
switches. In this case a group of bridges or switches mistakenly forwards the packet in a circle
among themselves without ever forwarding the packet to the actual segment to which the
packet is addressed. The spanning tree algorithm works to help bridges and switches
communicate in order to both avoid loops and operate efficiently.

Type/Length Field
Lesson Objective
● Identify the purpose of the type/length field
Ethernet frame composition: type/length field
Ethernet frames come in slightly different variants, with the main difference being the type of
information that is placed in the 2-byte field following the source address field. Generally
speaking, this portion of the frame is used to designate either the size of the data field or the
upper-layer protocol to which the contents of the data field should be delivered (i.e., IPX, IP,
DECnet, AppleTalk, etc.). The contents and purpose of the type/length field are discussed in
detail in Module 5, which discusses four of the most common Ethernet frame types.

Data Field
Lesson Objective
● Identify the purpose of the data field
Ethernet frame composition: data field
Minimum Length Requirements

The data field contains the data packet that will be delivered to an upper-layer protocol, such
as TCP/IP, IPX or DECnet. To ensure correct detection of collisions on the network, the total
length of an Ethernet frame cannot be less than 64 bytes. The destination and source address
fields, the type/length field and the frame check sequence field together account for 18 bytes.
So the data field can never be less than 46 bytes long.
Frames received that are less than 64 bytes long are usually the byproducts of collisions and
are called runts. Switches and bridges, which examine an entire frame before forwarding it,
immediately discard all runts, preventing them from propagating throughout the rest of the
network. NICs, as well, immediately discard all frames that do not meet the 64-byte minimum
length requirement.
Transmitting Small Amounts of Data

What happens, though, if a station has less than 46 total bytes to transmit? In a Telnet
session, for instance, a single keystroke may be the only data a station needs to transmit. In
this case, the upper-layer protocol that requests Ethernet to transmit the data simply pads the
remaining portion of the data field with extra bytes until the 46-byte minimum requirement is
met. At the receiving end, the same upper-layer protocol is then required to remove the extra
bytes before passing the content of the data field (in this case, a single keystroke) to the
application.
Transmitting small amounts of data.

Data Field (Continued)
Transmitting Larger Amounts of Data

The upper-limit size of the data field is 1500 bytes, meaning that the total length of an Ethernet
frame, including the DA, SA, type/length and FCS fields, cannot exceed 1518 bytes. The 1500-
byte data field limit denotes Ethernet's compromise between transmission efficiency on the
one hand and network availability on the other.
Striking a Balance
If Ethernet were to allow the transmission of very large frames, of say, 65,536 bytes or more,
Ethernet's 18-byte overhead for each frame becomes comparatively insignificant to the data-
packet portion of the frame. It would take, however, approximately 52 ms to transmit a frame of
this size at 10Mbps. By computer standards 52 ms is a long time and could lead to
unacceptably long wait times for other stations.
Though smaller upperlimits on frame size can substantially decrease wait times for access to
the network, they unfortunately increase the overall amount of overhead on the wire, and thus
decrease the total amount of data throughput that the network can provide. Using Ethernet's
minimum 64-byte frame size, with a minimum 46 bytes for data packets, overhead for small
packets is 28% of the total transmission. For maximum-sized, 1518-byte Ethernet frames,
overhead falls to 11% of the total transmission. While it is true that certain applications would
benefit from a larger maximum Ethernet frame size, many other applications would benefit
equally as well from a smaller frame size. As Ethernet speeds continue to increase, however,
from 10Mbps to 100Mbps, and now 1000Mbps, the relative efficiency or inefficiency of
Ethernet compared to other possible networking schemes continues to diminish in importance.

Frame Check Sequence
Lesson Objective
● Identify the purpose of the FCS field
Ethernet frame composition: frame check sequence
The frame check sequence (FCS) field contains a checksum called a cyclic redundancy check
(CRC) that can be used to verify that the frame has not corrupted in transit. The frame check
sequence is simply the result of a complex division problem applied to the contents of the
frame. The transmitting station calculates the CRC value as the frame is transmitted and
places the result in the FCS field. When the frame is received, the receiving station performs
the same calculation and compares the resulting CRC value with the one found in the FCS
field. If the two values match, the receiving station accepts the frame. If the two values do not
match, the receiving station assumes the frame has been corrupted, and consequently
discards it.
Note that the FCS field does not constitute a security mechanism. A sophisticated user with
malicious intentions and the appropriate tools could change the frame, recalculate the CRC
value and place it in the FCS field. The receiver would then be unable to detect that the frame
has been tampered with. The FCS is intended only to protect against errors caused by noise
on the transmission medium or by malfunctioning network equipment.
Interframe Gap
Lesson Objective
● Identify the purpose of having an interframe gap
After a frame has been successfully transmitted and received, Ethernet specifications require
that an interframe gap of at least 96 bit-times pass before any station on the network can
transmit the next frame. At 10Mbps, 96 bit-times translates to 9.6 µs. The reason for the 9.6 µs
interframe gap is to allow enough time for station that last transmitted to cycle its circuitry from
transmit mode to receive mode. Without the interframe gap, it is possible for a station that has
just completed a transmission to miss a frame destined for it because it has not yet cycled
back into receive mode. Even though modern Ethernet devices are capable of cycling from
send mode to receive mode in a shorter time than the 9.6 µs allowed, the 96 bit-time
interframe gap specification is still a part of the official standard, and is included in the
specifications for Fast Ethernet as well. At Fast Ethernet speeds, however, 96 bit-times
translates to 960 ns (nanoseconds), one-tenth of the time for 10Mbps Ethernet.
Some Ethernet manufacturers currently market NICs (and Ethernet switches, as well) that use
an interframe gap that is smaller than 96 bit-times specified by IEEE 802.3 standards. By
shortening the interframe gap, manufacturers can claim an increased overall network
throughput compared to their competitors. Network administrators must be cautious, however,
when devices that meet the 9.6 µs specification are combined with devices that use a shorter
interframe spacing. Mixing devices that use different interframe gap times increases the
potential for 'dropped' packets, which in turn results in upper-layer protocol initiated
retransmissions. Dropped packets can significantly reduce overall network performance, and,
in certain instances, cause client stations to lose their connection to the network.
Optional Exercise**
Check your understanding of an Ethernet Frame! This interactive exercise allows you to apply
your knowledge of frame fields and sizes.
**This exercise requires the Macromedia Shockwave* plugin.

Drag the components of an Ethernet frame into their correct positions. The field names go in
the empty blue squares; the field sizes go in the empty black squares.

ETHERNET FRAME TYPES
Module Description
Since the publication of the original DIX Ethernet standard in 1980, a variety of Ethernet frame
types have been developed. This module identifies these variant frame types and in what
situations they are most commonly used.
Module Objectives
● Identify the structure of variant Ethernet frame types

● Identify the reasons behind the development of each variant frame type
● Identify naming conventions for variant Ethernet frame types

Overview
Lesson Objectives
● Identify the concept of data overhead

● Identify the use of multiple frame types
From the point of view of a network-layer protocol, everything in an Ethernet frame, excluding
the data field, must be considered overhead. Generally speaking, the amount of overhead a
frame uses is directly related to the sophistication of the services it can support. Each of the
frame types covered in this module attempts to strike a useful balance between efficiency and
sophistication.
The Ethernet II frame, for example, includes only 26 bytes of overhead information (counting
the preamble) for each data packet. The Ethernet SNAP frame, on the other hand, includes 34
bytes of overhead information (counting the preamble) for each data packet. Though the
Ethernet II frame provides a more efficient use of network bandwidth, the Ethernet SNAP
frame is able to support a broader range of upper-layer protocols, including AppleTalk.
Many networks support several frame types at the same time. A network using TCP/IP, IPX
and AppleTalk, for example, may support up to three different frame types: Ethernet II for TCP/
IP, Novell 802.3 for IPX, and Ethernet SNAP for AppleTalk support. The purpose of this
module is to describe the overhead information unique to each Ethernet frame type, and
reasons why particular information is included in some frames and excluded in others.

Ethernet II Frame
Lesson Objectives
● Identify the structure of Ethernet II frame

● Identify the reasons behind the development the Ethernet II frame
The original Ethernet standard published by Digital, Intel and Xerox defines the format for the
Ethernet II frame. (What might be called the Ethernet I frame was used only in the
developmental stages of Ethernet and was not published as part of the jointly developed
standard.) As illustrated in the figure below, the Ethernet II frame includes a 2-byte type field
that immediately follows the source address.
Ethernet II Frame
The type field is used to contain a value called an EtherType that identifies the type of data in
the data field. By assigning a unique value to each upper-layer protocol, the type field indicates
to the receiving station which protocol (i.e., IPX, IP, DECnet, AppleTalk, etc.) should handle
the contents of the data field. If the data field contains IP data, for example, the EtherType
value is set to 0x0800. If the data field contains IPX data, the EtherType value is set to
0x8137, and for AppleTalk the value is 0x809B. All EtherType values are equal to decimal
numbers greater than 1500, which serves to distinguish Ethernet II frames from IEEE 802.3
frames, which replace the type field with a size field (which is always less than 1500).
Generally speaking, the Ethernet II frame is the most commonly used frame-type. TCP/IP-
based networks use the Ethernet II frame almost exclusively, as does DECnet. Many Novell
networks, as well, are configured to use Ethernet II frames.
Optional Exercise**
Check your understanding of an Ethernet II Frame! This interactive exercise allows you to
apply your knowledge of frame fields.

Drag the fields of an Ethernet II frame into their correct positions.

IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Frame with IEEE 802.2 LLC Header
Lesson Objectives
● Identify the structure of the IEEE 802.3 frame

● Identify the 802.2 LLC header
● Identify the reasons behind the development of the IEEE 802.3 frame
● Identify naming conventions for variant frame types
Most networks can be configured to use either Ethernet II or IEEE 802.3 frames, and
sometimes both. For example, Novell networks now use the IEEE 802.3 frame by default for
IPX/SPX packets and the Ethernet II frame for TCP/IP packets, though some network
administrators prefer to use the Ethernet II frame for both. A network administrator's decision
to support the Ethernet II frame but not the IEEE 802.3 frame, or vice versa, is highly
dependent upon the particular circumstances and is often a matter of mere preference.
Generally speaking, even though the IEEE 802.3 frame is the officially recognized international
standard, the Ethernet II frame is still the most widely implemented and widely supported
frame type.
The IEEE 802.3 frame replaces Ethernet II's 2-byte type field with a 2-byte length field and
adds a 3-byte LLC (logical link control) header to the data field. The figure below illustrates the
format of the IEEE 802.3 frame.
Ethernet IEEE 802.3 frame with IEEE 802.2 LLC header

You will remember that the IEEE 802 standard breaks up the OSI model's data link layer into
the MAC (medium access control) sublayer and the LLC sublayer. While the IEEE 802.3
standard specifies operations for the physical layer and the MAC sublayer, the IEEE 802.2
standard specifies operations for the LLC sublayer. The LLC header, thus, contains
information that enables the LLC layer to hand off the contents of the data field to the
appropriate network layer protocol. The LLC header is actually comprised of three 1-byte
fields: the destination service access point (DSAP), the source service access point (SSAP)
and the control field.
Length Field
The length field identifies the combined length of the LLC and data fields in number of bytes.
The value of the length field will always be equal to a number between 46 – 1500. Since
EtherType values always equal a number greater than 1500, and 802.3 length values always
equal a number 1500 or less, it is possible for most network hardware and software to
distinguish between Ethernet II and IEEE frame types, and thus support both types of frames
running on the same network.

IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Frame with IEEE 802.2 LLC Header (Continued)
DSAP and SSAP Fields

The DSAP (destination service access point) field serves the same purpose as the EtherType
used in the Ethernet II frame. The DSAP field identifies which protocol should handle the
contents of the data field. For instance, if the data field contains a NetWare* IPX/SPX packet,
the DSAP field's hexadecimal value is set to 0xEO.
The SSAP (source service access point) field identifies the upper-layer protocol that sent the
data packet. Because the source protocol and the destination protocol are typically the same
for each data field, the corresponding values for the SSAP and DSAP fields are, also, typically
the same.
Ctrl Field
The ctrl field's value distinguishes between different types of LLC headers. The operation of
the LLC layer is not, however, specified by Ethernet standards.
IEEE 802.3 Naming Conventions

Because a number of frame types are based on the IEEE 802.3 frame, commonly-used
naming conventions for both the IEEE 802.3 frame and its variants can be confusing. For
example, certain networking vendors refer to the IEEE 802.3 frame as the IEEE 802.3/802.2
frame, while other vendors, such as Novell, refer to the IEEE 802.3 frame simply as the IEEE
802.2 frame. The following table correlates commonly-used naming conventions with
technically correct terminology.
Common Name Technical Description
DIX frame Ethernet II frame
802.3/802.2 frame IEEE 802.3 frame with 802.2 header

802.2 frame
SNAP frame IEEE 802.3 frame with 802.2 header and Sub-Network Access
Protocol encapsulation
Novell 802.3 frame A frame type that uses the structure of the IEEE 802.3 frame without
802.3 raw the 802.2 header. It is used only on Novell networks.
Optional Exercise**
Check your understanding of an IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Frame with IEEE 802.2 LLC Header!
This interactive exercise allows you to apply your knowledge of frame fields.

Drag the fields of an IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Frame with IEEE 802.2 LLC Header into their
correct positions.

IEEE 802.3 Frame with SNAP Encapsulation
Lesson Objectives
● Identify the structure of the SNAP frame

● Identify the reasons behind the development of the SNAP frame
Driven largely by the TCP/IP community, the addition of sub-network access protocol (SNAP)
to the IEEE 802.3 frame was designed to expand the number of upper protocols that Ethernet
can support. Manufacturers have not, however, implemented SNAP on even a modest scale.
Today, the Ethernet SNAP frame is most commonly used to support Ethernet Macintosh*
clients running AppleTalk.
Expanding Protocol Support

Because the DSAP and SSAP fields of the IEEE 802.2 frame are only eight bits (one byte)
long, with two of the eight bits reserved for other purposes, the IEEE 802.2 frame can assign
unique values to only 64 protocols. In order to provide support more than 64 protocols, the
Ethernet SNAP frame includes an additional 5 bytes of header information, usually called the
SNAP ID. The SNAP ID is divided in two parts: a 3-byte organizationally unique identifier
(OUI), sometimes called a code field, and a 2-byte type field (equivalent to the EtherType field
in the Ethernet II frame).
Ethernet SNAP Frame
On networks that support multiple frame types, Ethernet SNAP frames are recognized by the
content of the DSAP, SSAP and ctrl fields. For Ethernet SNAP frames, the hexadecimal value
of both the DSAP and SSAP fields equals 0xAA, and the value for the ctrl field equals 0x03.
The SNAP ID Fields

The purpose of the OUI, or code, field is to give individual vendors the ability to assign their
own unique values for protocols running on their own equipment. In practical use, however,
with the exception of certain Apple protocols, the content of the code field is always set to "00-
00-00" and the value in the "type" field is the same value that is used in the Ethernet II type
field.
Optional Exercise**
Check your understanding of an IEEE 802.3 Frame with SNAP Encapsulation! This interactive
exercise allows you to apply your knowledge of frame fields.

Drag the fields of an IEEE 802.3 Frame with SNAP Encapsulation into their correct positions.

Novell 802.3 Frame
Lesson Objectives
● Identify the structure of Novell 802.3 frame

● Identify the reasons behind the development of the Novell 802.3 frame
Novell Ethernet 802.3 frame
Like the IEEE 802.3 frame, the Novell 802.3 frame differs from the Ethernet II frame by using a
length field in the place Ethernet II's type field. The Novell 802.3 frame is used exclusively on
Novell networks. The Novell 802.3 frame is often called "802.3 raw" because it does not use
the 802.2 LLC header in the data field.
Because the Novell 802.3 frame does not provide a "type" or "DSAP" field for encoding
protocol information, the Novell 802.3 frame cannot support upper-layer protocols of different
types, and is used for Novell IPX data only. As the figure above shows, the Novell 802.3 frame
contains less overhead than either the IEEE 802.3 frame or the SNAP frame and the same
amount of overhead as the Ethernet II frame. Because of its low overhead, the Novell 802.3
frame is extremely efficient. Its lack of sophistication, however, has caused even many Novell
network administrators to resist its use.
Optional Exercise**
Check your understanding of a Novell 802.3 Frame! This interactive exercise allows you to
apply your knowledge of frame fields.

Drag the fields of a Novell 802.3 Frame into their correct positions.

FULL-DUPLEX ETHERNET
Module Description
This module explains how full-duplex Ethernet works, where it is commonly implemented and
what its benefits are. Lesson 6.1 compares full-duplex and half-duplex operation by using
analogies that include telephone and two-way radio communication models. Lesson 6.2
explains how full-duplex links can be used to increase overall network throughput, and Lesson
6.3 explains how distance limitations are affected by full-duplex operation. Lesson 6.4
concludes the module by briefly identifying the role full-duplex plays in the use of Gigabit
Ethernet.
Module Objectives
● Identify how full-duplex Ethernet works

● Identify the benefits and limitations of full-duplex Ethernet
● Identify how full-duplex Ethernet affects distance limitations
● Identify connection limits of full-duplex Ethernet
● Identify use of full-duplex with Gigabit Ethernet

Full-duplex and Half-duplex Compared
Lesson Objective
● Identify how full-duplex Ethernet works
To understand the difference between full-duplex and half-duplex communication modes,

consider the difference in convenience there is using modern telephones versus using two-
way radios. Two-way radio operates in half-duplex communication mode, where all
communicants share a single broadcast channel and when one person speaks, all must listen
if anybody is to be heard at all. Ethernet, of course, works in a similar way and uses the CSMA/
CD algorithm to establish rules for sharing the same broadcast channel.
Modern telephones, on the other hand, operate in full-duplex mode using two broadcast
channels simultaneously. Full-duplex mode allows one person's transmission channel to
function exclusively as the other person's receive channel, and vice versa. Using full-duplex
communication, both parties can speak and listen at the same time without encountering
garbled transmissions that would otherwise result from simultaneous broadcasts.

The Benefits of Full-duplex Ethernet
Lesson Objectives
● Identify the benefits of full-duplex Ethernet

● Identify connection limits of full-duplex Ethernet
Using twisted-pair, twinax, or fiber optic cabling and full-duplex compatible NICs, full-duplex
Ethernet allows two stations to transmit and receive data simultaneously.
Full-duplex Ethernet operation. In this case, two computers are directly connected
using a medium type that has two separate channels. Full-duplex operation
allows Station A to transmit on Station B's receive channel
at the same time Station B is transmitting on Station A's receive channel.
Full-duplex links not only double potential throughput, but also eliminate collisions, as well as
the need for each station to wait until the other station finishes transmitting. If reads and writes
on a full-duplex link are symmetric, data throughput can be doubled. In actual usage, however,
bandwidth improvements are more modest. Full-duplex Ethernet and Fast Ethernet links are
particularly useful for server-to-server, server-to-switch and switch-to-switch connections.
On a switch equipped with a full-duplex port, a packet arriving at a half-duplex port can be
relayed on the full-duplex port, as soon as it has determined that the incoming packet on the
half-duplex port has not been damaged by a collision. Additionally, packets arriving from a full-
duplex port can be forwarded as soon as the destination is determined, since there are no
collisions on a full-duplex link.
With both Ethernet and Fast Ethernet, full-duplex segments are, however, limited to a single
connection between two devices (for example, between a server and a switch). For three or
more devices attached to the same segment, only half-duplex operation is possible.
Full-duplex and Distance Limitations
Lesson Objective
● Identify the distance limitations of full-duplex Ethernet
Because full-duplex operation eliminates the need to detect collisions, distances between
devices can be extended to the full length that the medium is able to transmit a recognizable
data signal. For example, with Fast Ethernet running on multimode fiber the maximum
distance between devices is extended from about 400 m to approximately 2000 m. Due to
UTP cable's higher rate of attenuation, the maximum distance between devices for UTP cable
is 100 m, the same as for half-duplex.

Full-duplex Mode and Gigabit Ethernet
Lesson Objective
● Identify use of full-duplex with Gigabit Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet has been developed to use full-duplex mode almost exclusively. Running at
Gigabit Ethernet speeds a switch-like device called a buffered distributor will connect multiple
full-duplex Gigabit Ethernet devices. Initially, all Gigabit Ethernet devices manufactured will
support full-duplex operation.

ETHERNET OPERATION AT 10MBPS
Module Description
The IEEE 802.3 specification designates Ethernet implementation types according to the
cabling used and the speed of data transfer. This module covers the specifications for Ethernet
operating at 10Mbps over coaxial, unshielded twisted-pair and fiber optic cabling. Lesson 7.1
covers Ethernet designations 10Base-5 and 10Base-2, which specify the use of coaxial and
thin coaxial cable. Lesson 7.2 covers the designation 10Base-T, which specifies the use of
unshielded twisted-pair cabling, the most widely used medium for new Ethernet
implementations. Lesson 7.3 covers the designation 10Base-FL, which specifies the use of
fiber optic cabling. Lastly, Lesson 7.4 reviews a number of configuration guidelines for 10Mbps
Ethernet implementations.
Module Objectives
● Identify the characteristics of 10Base-5 and 10Base-2

● Identify the topology and limitations of 10Base-5 and 10Base-2 networks
● Identify the differences and similarities between 10Base-T and 10Base-5/10Base-2
● Identify the characteristics of 10Base-T and 10Base-FL
● Identify twisted-pair (UTP) wiring categories
● Identify UTP connectors
● Identify important guidelines to follow when building 10Mbps Ethernet networks
● Identify rules specific to 10Base-FL

10Base-5 and 10Base-2
Lesson Objectives

● Identify the characteristics of 10Base-FL
The 10Base-5 designation was the first Ethernet implementation type to be defined by
Ethernet standards. 10Base-5 designates a network that is implemented at 10Mbps, uses
baseband transmission, and can carry a signal a maximum distance of 500 m without the use
of a repeater.
Unfortunately, cabling used for 10Base-5 is rigid, difficult to work with and expensive to install.
10Base-2 was, however, intended to be easier to use. Because it is thinner, 10Base-2 cable is
cheaper to buy and to install than 10Base-5. 10Base-2 cable segments can only be 185 m
(about 600 ft) long.
Both 10Base-5 and 10Base-2 networks use a physical bus topology. On 10Base-5 networks,
workstations attach to the bus cable using drop cables over distances up to 40 m (about 130
ft) long. On 10Base-2 networks, a computer’s network interface card attaches directly to the
bus, using a T-connector. Both types of coaxial bus cables require terminating resistors placed
at each end of the cable. Without terminators, signals are reflected back into the medium from
the end of the bus cable, causing each transmission to collide with itself.
The figure below shows how computers are attached to the bus cable on 10Base-5 and
10Base-2 networks.
10Base-5 and 10Base-2 bus

10Base-5 and 10Base-2 (Continued)
Because the 10Base-5 and 10Base-2 specifications require networks to use the physical bus
topology, these implementations present a number of limitations, including the following:
● A cable or connection problem anywhere on the network’s bus is likely to cause problems for
all users. For instance, if a user on a 10Base-2 cable segment breaks the bus by removing
his or her workstation’s T-connector, the users on that cable segment lose access to the
network, as shown in the animation below.
● There is no central location from where users can be added to or removed from the bus
without disrupting the entire network. Adding a new user to a 10Base-2 cable requires that the
cable be cut to insert a new T-connector. If a workstation on a 10Base-5 network must be
moved more than 40 m from the cable, the bus cable must be moved to accommodate that
workstation.
If a user on a 10Base-2 cable segment breaks the bus by removing his or her workstation’s T-connector, the users on
that cable segment lose access to the network.

10Base-T
Lesson Objectives

● Identify the characteristics of 10Base-T
● Identify twisted-pair (UTP) wiring categories
● Identify UTP connectors
The IEEE addressed the implementation and maintenance difficulties of Ethernet bus
topologies with specifications for Ethernet 10Base-T. The 10Base-T designation not only
includes the use of inexpensive, unshielded twisted-pair cabling (which is similar to telephone
wire), but it also specifies the use of a star topology which makes both the implementation and
maintenance of Ethernet 10Base-T networks significantly easier compared to 10Base-2 and
10Base-5. In addition, because 10Base-T uses two wire pairs, one for transmitting data and
one for receiving data, 10Base-T makes full-duplex operation possible. 10Base-2 and 10Base-
5, on the other hand, allow only half-duplex operation. The definitive advantages of 10Base-T
over coaxial-based networks have made it the most widely implemented Ethernet standard.
10Base-T networks use Category 3, or higher, unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cable. UTP
cabling categories are defined in the Electronic Industry Association and Telecommunications
Industry Association (EIA/TIA) 568 cabling standards, which currently include 5 categories for
UTP cable. Categories are distinguished by the quality of the cable, or the speed at which
reliable communication can take place. In appearance, all UTP cables look similar to
telephone wire. The figure below shows a Category 5 UTP cable.
Category 5 Unshielded twisted-pair

10Base-T (Continued)
The table below lists all five UTP cabling categories and their associated performance
standards:
UTP Category Rated Performance Applications
Category 1 (cat 1) No performance criteria Used in some older telephone systems.
Category 2 (cat 2) Rated to 1MHz Used for telephone wiring.
Category 3 (cat 3) Rated to 16MHz Used for 10Base-T. Widely deployed,

especially in older installations.
Category 4 (cat 4) Rated to 20MHz Used for 10Base-T and Token Ring.
Category 5 (cat 5) Rated to 100MHz Used for 10Base-T, 100Base-T (Fast

Ethernet), and other high-speed network
technologies.
On 10Base-T networks each computer is attached to a central hub using UTP cables over
distances up to 100 m (328 ft) long. When the maximum 100 m distance is used, the cable
running from the wall plate to the cable closet should be no longer than 90 m, leaving 10 m for
the connection between the computer and the wall plate and for the patch cables used in the
wiring closet. Computers are attached to the UTP cable by an RJ-45 style connector, shown in
the figure below.
RJ-45 jack and connector

10Base-T (Continued)
The hubs at the center of a 10Base-T network are actually multiport repeaters. A signal from
one station enters the hub on one port and is repeated on all the other hub ports as illustrated
in the figure below.
Repeater hub operation
Because 10Base-T networks use a star topology with hubs at the center, 10Base-T networks
provide several advantages over 10Base-5 and 10Base-2.
1. The hubs repeat only valid signals, so if there is a problem on a cable, it affects only the
workstation directly attached to the cable, as shown in the animation below.
2. With a hub, administrators can add or remove computers from the network without
disrupting other computers.
3. On 10Base-T networks, both hubs and NICs show whether a connection is active or not
by using green LEDs that give users live feedback about the status of the connection.
This makes troubleshooting a 10Base-T network much simpler than troubleshooting
10Base-5 and 10Base-2 networks.
10Base-FL
Lesson Objective
● Identify the characteristics of 10Base-FL
The 10Base-FL specification resembles 10Base-T in several respects. Each computer on a

10Base-FL network connects to a central hub. In addition, 10Base-FL can operate in full-
duplex mode.
The main difference between 10Base-T and 10Base-FL is 10Base-FL's use of optical fiber
cable instead of UTP. Fiber optic cabling is most commonly used to connect hubs to other
hubs. The fiber used is multimode 62.5/125 fiber. Each fiber connects to
networking equipment using a bayonet-type connector known as an ST connector.
Optical fiber cable (specifically, the transmitters and receivers designed to work with fiber) is
more expensive than UTP cable. However, optical fiber cable can span much greater
distances than UTP cable. Thus, on 10Base-FL networks, full-duplex links between hubs can
be up to 2,000 m (about 6,560 ft). Moreover, optical fiber cable can potentially support future
data transmission rates of several hundreds of megabits per second.

62.5/125 means that the fiber's core is 62.5 microns in diameter, with an outer cladding of 125
microns. Multimode fiber has a relatively large core diameter and uses inexpensive light
emitters and receivers. It is the type of fiber optic cabling most often used on LANs. By
contrast, monomode fiber has a narrow core diameter and uses expensive transmitters and
receivers. It can be used over longer distances than multimode fiber cable.

Implementation: 10Mbps Ethernet Configuration Guidelines
Lesson Objectives

● Identify rules specific to 10Base-FL
In addition to the Ethernet specifications described in the previous lessons, there are a number
of general guidelines that must be followed when implementing a 10Mbps Ethernet LAN.
The 5-4-3 Rule

All 10Mbps Ethernet networks must follow the 5-4-3 rule. (The 5-4-3 rule applies only to
10Mbps Ethernet. Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet's faster wire speeds reduce the
maximum allowable distance between stations, and also reduce the number of repeaters that
can be used in a single collision domain.) The 5-4-3 rule states that a single 10Mbps collision
domain can consist of five cable segments connected by four repeaters. Only three of the
cable segments, however, may be populated with network stations. The figure below shows
one possible configuration that the 5-4-3 rule allows.
This configuration consists of 5 total segments of 100 m each, 4 repeaters,

with only 3 of the segments populated with network devices. The longest distance between any two stations
is between the PCs on the left and the servers on the right. The total network diameter is 500 m.
Because only three of the five Ethernet segments are allowed to be populated with network
devices, this means that one of the four repeaters must serve only to connect one repeater to
another, as the third repeater from the left does in the figure above. At first, this repeater may
seem unnecessary. Why couldn't you simply connect the second and fourth repeaters to each
other directly? The simplest answer is that the second and fourth repeaters are too far apart
(200 m) to hear each other.

Implementation: 10Mbps Ethernet Configuration Guidelines (Continued)
As Ethernet signals travel across the wire, they diminish in strength until they are no longer
recognizable as valid data transmissions. Attenuation is the technical term
used to describe this natural degradation in signal quality as signals travel across the network
medium. Even fiber optic transmissions are affected by attenuation. Repeaters serve to restore
data signals to their original strength so that they may be heard at distances that would
otherwise not be possible. The two following figures (on this page and the next) illustrate the
diminutive effect of attenuation, as well as the restorative effect of Ethernet repeaters.
On 10Base-5 and 10Base-2 networks, repeaters are inserted between the individual cable
segments, chaining the cables together. The resulting topology is shown in the figure below.
Repeater use on 10Base-5 and 10Base-2 networks.
10Base-5 and 10Base-2 Ethernet segments that are connected using repeaters form a single
collision domain. Inside a collision domain, all stations must contend for access to the shared
medium. Collision domains are bounded by switches and routers. For networks that have a
router or a switch, each of the network segments that connect to a switch or router port belong
to their own collision domain.
Inside a single collision domain, the following simple configuration rules apply:
● There cannot be more than five cable segments and four repeaters between any two
stations in a collision domain.
● Only three of these segments can be multistation segments (e.g., 10Base-2 or 10Base-
5). The last two segments must connect only a station to a hub or a hub to a hub.

The word attenuation comes from the Latin word attenuatus, which means 'made thin.'

Implementation: 10Mbps Ethernet Configuration Guidelines (Continued)
The same rules apply to 10Base-T networks; there can be no more than four 10Base-T
repeater hubs between any two stations on the network. A typical configuration is shown in the
figure below. All the servers and workstations in this figure are in the same collision domain,
sharing the same half-duplex transmission medium.
Network with multiple repeater hubs
Even though there are six hubs in the network in the figure above, the 5-4-3 rule is not violated
because there are no paths between stations in the network that involve more than three
repeater hops.
10Base-FL-Specific Rules
In addition to following the 5-4-3 rule described above, 10Base-FL networks must be built
according to the rules listed below:
● With four repeaters and five cable segments, 10Base-FL segments must not exceed
500 m (1,640 ft).
● With three repeaters and four cable segments, 10Base-FL segments must not exceed
1,000 m (3,280 ft).
● With two repeaters and three cable segments, 10Base-FL segments can be up to 2,000
m (6,561ft).

FAST ETHERNET
Module Description
Fast Ethernet operates at a data transfer speed of 100Mbps. Lesson 8.1 explains that because
of upward trends in network growth, Fast Ethernet will soon surpass 10Mbps Ethernet in sales.
Lesson 8.2 discusses some of the basic differences between 10Mbps Ethernet and Fast
Ethernet operations. Lessons 8.2 and 8.3 cover Ethernet types 100Base-TX and 100Base-FX.
Lesson 8.4 includes a comprehensive discussion of Fast Ethernet implementation guidelines,
and Lesson 8.5 concludes this module by describing how Fast Ethernet's auto-negotiation
feature enables 10/100Mbps devices to automatically configure themselves for either 10Mbps
or 100Mbps operation.
Module Objectives
● Identify reasons for the development of Fast Ethernet

● Identify the similarities and differences between 10Mbps Ethernet and Fast Ethernet
● Identify the basic characteristics of 100Base-TX and 100Base-FX
● Identify and use simple Fast Ethernet configuration guidelines
● Identify advanced Fast Ethernet configuration calculations
● Identify how the limitations to the size of a Fast Ethernet network can be avoided
through the use of Ethernet switches
● Identify the purpose of auto-negotiation

The Growth of Fast Ethernet
Lesson Objective
● Identify reasons for the development of Fast Ethernet
In the early 1990s, it is clear that 10Mbps Ethernet implementations are not fast enough for
many larger networks. Network backbones, in particular, are becoming clogged with traffic.
While other high-speed LAN technologies, such as FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)
exist, they represent, for most companies, a significant challenge to implement and maintain,
and, for many companies, technologies such as FDDI and ATM are simply too expensive. In
1995, however, with the IEEE publication of the 100Mbps Fast Ethernet specification,
companies soon had a relatively inexpensive way to significantly increase the speed of their
high-traffic links.
With Fast Ethernet, organizations can install high-speed LAN segments at a very reasonable
cost. And because it uses the same basic technology as 10Mbps Ethernet, Fast Ethernet
equipment is easy to install and manage.
As shown in the figure below, Fast Ethernet will soon become the most widely used Ethernet
implementation, with sales of 100Mbps network interface cards expected to surpass sales of
10Mbps cards in 1998. Many network interface cards already support both 10Mbps and
100Mbps transmission rates and the prices of Fast Ethernet hub and switch ports are dropping
rapidly.
IDC World-wide adapter market forecast. Source: IDC

10Mbps Ethernet vs. Fast Ethernet
Lesson Objective
● Identify the similarities and differences between 10Mbps Ethernet and Fast Ethernet
In almost all respects, Fast Ethernet is simply Ethernet scaled by a factor of ten. Like Ethernet,
Fast Ethernet uses the CSMA/CD algorithm to control access to a shared broadcast medium.
Ethernet frame types are also the same 10Mbps and Fast Ethernet networks. With Fast
Ethernet, the interframe gap is still 96 bit times, but because transmission speeds are
multiplied by ten, the interframe gap is only 960 ns instead of 9.6 µs.
The major difference between 10Mbps Ethernet and Fast Ethernet is that the maximum
diameter of Fast Ethernet networks is smaller than the maximum diameter of 10Mbps Ethernet
networks. On Fast Ethernet networks, stations must still be able to detect collisions within the
first 512 bits transmitted, yet since the data transmission rate is ten times as fast, stations on
an Ethernet network must be ten times as close in order to detect collisions within the same
number of bit times as for 10Mbps. 10Mbps maximum distance of 2500 m between stations is
reduced to 250 m for Fast Ethernet. Another difference between the two technologies is that
on Fast Ethernet networks, there can be only one or possibly two repeaters or hubs between
transmitting stations.

100Base-TX
Lesson Objective
● Identify the basic characteristics of 100Base-TX
100Base-TX is very similar to 10Base-T. Stations on 100Base-TX networks are connected to a

central hub using UTP cable. The RJ-45-type connector is also used. The maximum distance
between the workstation and the hub is 100 m (328 ft).
Like 10Base-T, 100Base-TX provides separate transmit and receive channels, so full-duplex
operation is possible. Servers and other high-performance network stations attached using
100Base-TX can transmit at 100Mbps and receive at 100Mbps at the same time, effectively
boosting the bandwidth on the link to 200Mbps. However, 100Base-TX requires Category 5
cable, so if an organization wants to upgrade a 10Mbps Ethernet network
using Category 3 cable to Fast Ethernet, it must either recable or implement a 100Base-T4
network. A 100Base-T4 network enables an organization to run Fast Ethernet over Category 3
or 4 cables; however, all four wire pairs are required. 100Base-T4 supports only half-duplex
operation, and 100Base-T4 equipment is much less common than 100Base-TX equipment.

10Base-T uses a Manchester encoding scheme that results in a digital signal with a
fundamental frequency of 10Mhz, meaning that the signal that can be transmitted in a cable
certified for 15Mhz signals or better. Cat 3 is certified for 16Mhz, Cat 4 for 20Mhz and Cat 5 for
100Mhz, so each of these can be used. 100Base-TX uses a different encoding scheme that
results in a signal with a fundamental frequency of 31.25Mhz, which requires a cable that is
certified for at least 46.875Mhz. This makes Cat 5 as the only option for 100Base-T.

100Base-FX
Lesson Objective
● Identify the basic characteristics of 100Base-FX
The specification for Fast Ethernet over optical fiber cable is known as 100Base-FX. Like
10Base-FL, 100Base-FX uses two strands of multimode 62.5/125 fiber. The connectors can be
ST connectors, which are also used on 10Base-FL networks, but more commonly, the cheaper
SC connector is used. The SC connector is keyed to reduce the risk of accidentally swapping
the transmit and receive fibers.
100Base-FX is typically used for one of two reasons:
1. Optical fiber cable spans greater distances than UTP cable, up to 2,000 m (6,561 ft) is
possible on full-duplex links.
2. Optical fiber cable can support much higher bandwidths than UTP cable, so if an
organization anticipates upgrading to an even faster LAN technology in the future, it
might install optical fiber cable.

Implementation: Fast Ethernet Configuration Guidelines
Lesson Objectives
● Identify simple Fast Ethernet configuration guidelines

● Identify advanced Fast Ethernet configuration calculations
● Identify how the limitations to the size of a Fast Ethernet network can be avoided
through the use of Ethernet switches
At 100Mbps, collisions must be detected within 5.12 µs. If stations are too far apart or have too
many repeaters between them, the timing requirements cannot be met. Both simple and
advanced configuration rules can be used to verify that a particular Fast Ethernet network
meets configuration requirements.
Simple Configuration Rules

Hubs and repeaters add a small delay (or latency) when an Ethernet frame is received and
retransmitted. Using simple configuration rules, hubs are placed in two groups depending on
the length of this delay:
● Class I hubs add less than 0.7 µs of latency.

● Class II hubs add less than 0.46 µs of latency.
Because Class II hubs are faster, two Class II hubs are allowed between stations in a single
collision domain, but only one Class I hub is permitted.
The length of each cable segment is also restricted:
● A UTP segment can be up to 100 m long.

● A (half-duplex) fiber segment can be up to 412 m long.
Simple configuration rules are summarized in Table 8-1.
Hub Type UTP Fiber UTP and Fiber

(FX) (FX)
Single Segment 100 m 412 m N/A
One Class I Hub 200 m 272 m 260 m

(100 m UTP)
One Class II Hub 200 m 320 m 308 m
(100 m UTP)
Two Class II Hubs 205 m 228 m 216 m

(105 m UTP)
Table 8-1. Simple Fast Ethernet configuration rules.
In Table 8-1, you will notice the following:
● With a Class I hub, you can have a maximum distance between any two stations on the
repeated segment of 200 m using UTP cable and of 272 m using fiber optic cable. If
you combine UTP cable and fiber optic cable, you can have 100 m of UTP and 160 m
of fiber.
● With one Class II hub, the maximum distance using UTP is unchanged since no UTP
segment can exceed 100 m. The maximum distance increases to 320 m when fiber is
used because the Class II hub adds less latency than the Class I hub.
● With two Class II hubs, you can have 205 m of UTP cable (e.g., two 100 m segments
and a 5 m segment between the hubs). The maximum distance using fiber is 228 m.
The maximum distance using fiber and UTP is 216 m (two UTP segments of 100 m and
5 m, plus one 111 m fiber segment).

Implementation: Fast Ethernet Configuration Guidelines (Continued)
Advanced Configuration Guidelines

Rather than relying on the "canned" configuration rules given above, the exact delay between
any two stations can be calculated using the following guidelines. In some cases, these
guidelines allow a greater network diameter than the configuration rules given above.
The advanced configuration rules rely on calculating the exact delay between any two stations
in the network, based on the exact specifications for network interface cards, network cables
and hubs. The delay between two stations in a network can be calculated using the following
formula:
Total delay = Hub delay + Cable delay + Network interface delay.
To enable a station at one end of the network to detect a collision with a station at the other
end, the following inequality must hold true:
2 x Total delay < 5.12 µs.
To comply with the Fast Ethernet configuration guidelines, you must ensure that this
requirement is fulfilled between any two stations in the network. To perform this calculation, fill
in the delay values in the center column in Table 8-2 with the actual values that apply to your
network. Sample values are given in the right column.
Component Delay Typical value
Two Network Interface Cards 0.25 µs x 2
UTP cable 0.0055 µs/m. 100m maximum.
Fiber cable 0.0050 µs/m. 412m maximum.
Class I hub Less than 0.7 µs
Class II hub(s) Less than 0.46 µs
Total delay (Sum of the above)
Round-trip delay Total delay x 2 Must be less than 5.12 µs

Table 8-2. Calculating round-trip delays.
To be on the safe side, you should add a safety margin to your calculations. If you get very
close to the limit you may have problems later on, for instance if a network component is
exchanged for another with a slower response time.
While performing the exact calculation of round-trip delays using the exact specifications of
network adapters, cable and hubs used in the network may in some instances allow you to go
beyond the distances specified in the simple configuration rules, this approach cannot in
general be recommended because it adds a significant extra administrative burden to network
maintenance. Every time a network component or cable is exchanged for another, you must
repeat the calculations above to verify that the maximum delay is still within the specified limits.

Implementation: Fast Ethernet Configuration Guidelines (Continued)
Fast Ethernet Switches

By using switches on a Fast Ethernet network, you can have a network much larger than
would be allowed normally. Each port on an Ethernet switch forms its own collision domain.
The network segments attached to each switch port must still conform to the configuration
guidelines, but the total size of a switched 100Mbps network can grow much larger.

Auto-negotiation
Lesson Objective
● Identify the purpose of auto-negotiation
The Fast Ethernet specification defines a process called auto-negotiation that enables
Ethernet devices to exchange information about their capabilities, such as the speed and
duplex mode at which they operate. Auto-negotiation also provides a method that enables
network administrators to:
1. Discover the reason a connection has been refused.

2. Determine what capabilities the network devices have.
3. Change connection speeds.
Making Migrations to Fast Ethernet Easier

Many recently manufactured Ethernet devices, including NICs, hubs and switches, use dual-
speed interfaces that allow a single device to operate at either 10Mbps or 100Mbps. Auto-
negotiation enables an Ethernet device, such as an NIC, to automatically configure itself for
either 10Mbps or 100Mbps mode depending upon the capabilities of the device on the other
end of the connection.
Perhaps the most significant benefit of auto-negotiation is that it allows network administrators
the ability to incrementally upgrade their network hardware easily, without having to perform
manual configurations for each device. For example, a company that cannot afford to upgrade
their entire network all at once can pursue an incremental migration by purchasing 10/100
NICs for all new machines, and perhaps a 10/100 hub or switch as well, and then upgrading
the NICs of older machines over a period of time. Using auto-negotiation, the 10/100 hub will
automatically configure itself to achieve the highest possible performance for the devices
attached to it.

Auto-negotiation (Continued)
How Auto-negotiation Works

Auto-negotiation is an extension of the link test methods used by 10Base-T and 10Base-FL to
verify the integrity of the link between devices.
Auto-negotiation advertises a device's abilities by encoding a 16-bit data packet, called a link
code word (LCW), within a burst of 17 to 33 link pulses, called a fast link pulse (FLP) burst.
FLP bursts have an approximate duration of 2 µs and are transmitted in 16.8 µs intervals (the
same interval as for the normal link pulses used by 10Base-T and 10Base-FL). The link code
word contains two fields (called the selector field and the technology ability field), which
together serve to identify a device's capabilities.
It may seem that because the fast link pulse and the normal link pulse use the same interval at
the same frequency, older devices may not be compatible with auto-negotiation. This is,
however, not the case. For example, a 10Base-T device that does not have auto-negotiation
capabilities sees fast link pulse bursts simply as a link test signal. A 10Base-T device will
respond to the fast link pulse burst with its usual normal link pulse signal. At the other end of
the link, a 10/100-capable device will recognize normal link pulse and choose 10Mbps mode
operation.
Auto-negotiation attempts to find the greatest common denominator for the two devices on the
link in the following order of preference:
1. 100Base-TX full-duplex
2. 100Base-T4
3. 100Base-TX
4. 10Base-T full-duplex
5. 10Base-T half-duplex
Once the greatest common denominator of settings is determined, each device equipped with
auto-negotiation will configure itself automatically. In certain cases where automatic
configurations are not desired, auto-negotiation provides a way for these settings to be
overridden manually.

GIGABIT ETHERNET
Module Description
The first two lessons in this module identify the basic operations of Gigabit Ethernet and some
of the reasons that Gigabit Ethernet is needed in the marketplace. Lesson 9.3 covers Gigabit
Ethernet implementation strategies, and also introduces a device new to Ethernet technology,
the buffered distributor. Lesson 9.4 discusses Gigabit Ethernet's use of the CSMA/CD
algorithm, and Lesson 9.5 concludes the module by identifying certain issues that network
administrators must consider when implementing first-generation Gigabit Ethernet equipment.
Module Objectives
● Identify factors contributing to the need for Gigabit Ethernet

● Identify the key characteristics of Gigabit Ethernet
● Identify Gigabit Ethernet types 1000Base-SX, -LX, -CX and -T
● Identify possible migration strategies for Gigabit Ethernet
● Identify how the buffered distributor works
● Identify Gigabit Ethernet's use of full-duplex mode
● Identify modified specifications for Gigabit Ethernet running in half-duplex mode
● Identify considerations for early Gigabit Ethernet implementation

Why Gigabit Ethernet is Needed
Lesson Objective
● Identify factors contributing to the need for Gigabit Ethernet
The growing need for network bandwidth in excess of the 100Mbps delivered by Fast Ethernet
is driven by several factors.
● Intranet and Internet traffic is growing at an exponential rate.

● Mission critical mainframe applications continue to be replaced with distributed
solutions.
● High-traffic document management, workflow, imaging and other information
management and distributed database applications are becoming integral parts of core
business strategies.
● Due to the increasing complexity of desktop publishing, scientific modeling, high-
resolution imaging and three-dimensional engineering applications, average file size is
expanding.
● Increasingly popular applications like multimedia computer-based training, desktop
video conferencing and interactive whiteboarding require high-bandwidth connections
that can deliver a constant and reliable data stream.
● Finally, the extension of Fast Ethernet to the desktop reintroduces the congestion that
Fast Ethernet backbones were originally designed to eliminate.
Compared to the alternative solutions for high speed networking, such as ATM and FDDI,
Gigabit Ethernet offers the advantage of using protocols directly compatible with currently
implemented Ethernet standards, making lower-cost, incremental migrations from Ethernet
and Fast Ethernet possible.

Gigabit Ethernet Defined
Lesson Objectives
● Identify the key characteristics of Gigabit Ethernet

● Identify Gigabit Ethernet types 1000Base-SX, -LX, -CX and -T
The growing need for network bandwidth in excess of the 100Mbps delivered by Fast Ethernet
is driven by several factors.
● The transmission speed for Gigabit Ethernet is 1,000Mbps – 100 times that of Ethernet.
● The IEEE specification for Gigabit Ethernet will be IEEE 802.3z.
● Gigabit Ethernet uses the 802.3 Ethernet frame format.
● Gigabit Ethernet uses the CSMA/CD access method with support for one repeater per
collision domain.
● At the MAC layer, Gigabit Ethernet is equivalent to Fast Ethernet scaled by a factor of
ten.
● The upcoming IEEE 802.3z standard is expected to define Gigabit Ethernet running
over multimode fiber and, over short distances, on shielded copper wire.
● A separate standards effort (IEEE working group 802.3ab) will specify Gigabit Ethernet
operation for Cat 5 UTP cabling over distances up to 100 m.
Gigabit Ethernet Alliance

The Gigabit Ethernet Alliance is an open forum that promotes industry cooperation in an effort
to accelerate the development and standardization of Gigabit Ethernet. Over 120 Ethernet
vendors, including Intel, currently participate in the Gigabit Ethernet Alliance by contributing
technical expertise, testing interoperability standards and fostering open communications
between potential suppliers and consumers.
Because Fast Ethernet's success can be attributed largely to its compatibility with 10Mbps
Ethernet, leaving unchanged as much of the original Ethernet specification as possible is a
core strategy for making Gigabit Ethernet successful as well.
The IEEE Standards Board expects to achieve final ratification of the 802.3z standard in either
June or September 1998. However, since many vendors are developing products concurrently
with the standardization effort, many Gigabit Ethernet products are currently available.
International Data Corporation (IDC), a commonly referenced research firm, expects the value
of the market for Gigabit Ethernet products to exceed USD 1 billion by the year 2000.
Gigabit Ethernet Defined (Continued)
1000Base-SX and 1000Base-LX

Two physical-layer standards, 1000Base-SX and 1000Base-LX, designate Gigabit Ethernet
transmitted over fiber optic cabling. In order to minimize the time-to-market for new products,
Gigabit Ethernet incorporates optical signaling components and encoding and decoding
schemes borrowed from Fibre Channel. 1000Base-SX works best as a short-distance (up to
260 m) backbone and utilizes low-cost, multimode, 62.5 micron fiber optic cabling. Designed
for longer-distance connections, 1000Base-LX uses multimode fiber to allow connections over
distances up to 440 m and single-mode fiber for distances up to 3000 m. 1000Base-SX and
1000Base-LX use the same SC connectors (shown in the figures below) used for 100Base-FX
systems.
SC fiber optic connectors
SC connector cross section
1000Base-CX
1000Base-CX designates Gigabit Ethernet transmitted over twinax, a 150-Ohm balanced,
shielded, specialty cable. 1000Base-CX's distance limitation of up to only 25 m makes
1000Base-CX best suited for interconnecting switching closets, server farms and power
workgroups. 1000Base-CX supports two kinds of connectors: standard 9-pin D connectors
(below) and HSSC (High Speed Serial Card) connectors, also referred to as 8-pin Fibre
Channel Type 2 connectors (also below).
HSSC/8-pin Fibre Channel Type 2 Connector

Gigabit Ethernet Defined (Continued)
1000Base-T
1000Base-T designates Gigabit Ethernet transmitted over Category 5 UTP cable. Under the
IEEE 802.3ab standard, 1000Base-T connections can run up to 100 m. The standard for
1000Base-T comprises the second phase of the Gigabit Ethernet standards process and falls
under the purview of the IEEE 802.3ab task force. 1000Base-T will be designed to take
advantage of existing UTP cable already widely deployed for Ethernet and Fast Ethernet.
The IEEE Standards Board does not expect to ratify the 1000Base-T standard until early 1999.
To accommodate the use of cost-effective UTP cabling, IEEE 802.3z, which is designed
primarily for fiber cabling, will specify a way to use encoding schemes other than the Fiber
Channel encoding scheme used by 1000Base-SX, -LX, and -CX.
The table below summarizes Gigabit Ethernet media types and their distance limitations.
Specification Medium Maximum Distance
1000Base-SX Multimode Fiber 260 m
1000Base-LX Multimode Fiber 440 m
1000Base-LX Single-mode Fiber 3000 m
1000Base-CX Twin-ax copper 25 m
1000Base-T Four Pairs of Category 5 UTP 100 m
Optional Exercise**
Check your understanding of Gigabit Ethernet! This interactive exercise allows you to apply
your knowledge of Gigabit Ethernet specifications.

For each Gigabit Ethernet specification, drag the medium and maximum distance into the
correct positions.

Implementation of Gigabit Ethernet
Lesson Objectives
● Identify possible migration strategies for Gigabit Ethernet

● Identify how the buffered distributor works
● Identify Gigabit Ethernet's use of full-duplex mode
For the most part, Gigabit Ethernet implementation scenarios will mirror those for Fast
Ethernet. As the general availability of Gigabit Ethernet products increases, the most likely
targets for Gigabit Ethernet implementation will be links between routers, switches, hubs,
repeaters and servers. Early implementations of Gigabit Ethernet may, however, include
lesser-risk, non-mission-critical targets such as the server-to-router and server-to-switch
connections of power workgroups.
Migration and Rollout Strategies

The Gigabit Ethernet Alliance identifies five, most likely upgrade scenarios for Gigabit
Ethernet, including:
1. Upgrading switch-to-switch links

2. Upgrading switch-to-server links
3. Upgrading switched Fast Ethernet backbones
4. Upgrading shared FDDI backbones
5. Upgrading high-performance workgroups
Due to the inherent risk of any first generation technology, rather than jeopardizing mission-
critical applications, many network managers will initially implement Gigabit Ethernet in lower-
risk segments of the network, where, at the same time, they will be able to clearly measure a
return on investment. Once companies have been able to deploy Gigabit Ethernet successfully
on a limited scale, expanding the implementation of Gigabit Ethernet to mission-critical
backbones, server links and wiring closets will become more natural.
The Buffered Distributor

Most Gigabit Ethernet products are simply faster versions of the Ethernet components you
already know quite well. They include: switches, uplink/downlink modules, NICs and router
interfaces. Gigabit Ethernet does, however, introduce one new device, called a buffered
distributor.
The buffered distributor is a full-duplex, multiport, hub-like device that interconnects two or
more Ethernet links operating at 1000Mbps. Like a standard repeater, the buffered distributor
forwards all incoming packets to all connected links (except the original incoming link) creating
a shared broadcast domain, comparable to an Ethernet collision domain. Unlike a standard
repeater, the buffered distributor is permitted to buffer one or more incoming frames on each
link before forwarding them, thus avoiding collisions.
Full-duplex Gigabit Ethernet

Ethernet and Fast Ethernet support full-duplex operation only as a single link between two
devices. Adding a third device to full-duplex Ethernet and Fast Ethernet links is not possible.
The switching capabilities of the Gigabit Ethernet buffered distributor, however, enable full-
duplex network to be created using a hub-like star configuration for server farms and power
workgroups. All first generation Gigabit Ethernet devices currently slated for production by
major manufacturers are full-duplex devices.
Optional Exercise**
Check your understanding of Gigabit Ethernet! This interactive exercise allows you to apply
your knowledge of migration and rollout strategies.

On the following network diagram, select the links that are the most likely candidates for
upgrading to Gigabit Ethernet, according to the Gigabit Ethernet Alliance. Once you have
completed the exercise, click on the Done button to find out how you did.

Gigabit Ethernet and CSMA/CD
Lesson Objectives
● Identify modified specifications for Gigabit Ethernet running in half-duplex mode

Depending upon the market success of the buffered distributor, half-duplex Gigabit Ethernet
devices may not ever be manufactured. Even so, the Gigabit Ethernet standard has preserved
the CSMA/CD algorithm so that Gigabit Ethernet half-duplex operation is at least possible.
512-byte Minimum Carrier Event

As transfer speeds increase, the time that each frame is on the wire decreases, and as a
result, the maximum allowable distance between stations also decreases. For example: Fast
Ethernet uses the same the minimum frame size of 64 bytes (512 bits) that is used for 10Mbps
Ethernet. As a result, the maximum allowable distance between stations for Fast Ethernet is
only 250 m, compared to 2,500 m for 10Mbps Ethernet. However, because the maximum
allowable distance for UTP cabling is much shorter than 250 m (100 m for both 10Mbps
Ethernet and Fast Ethernet), Fast Ethernet's smaller maximum distance limitations directly
affect only the number of repeaters that may be used between stations, and not the maximum
distance for UTP cabling itself. Even with its restrictions on the total number of repeaters, Fast
Ethernet still allows for a reasonably-sized maximum network diameter. If, on the other hand,
Gigabit Ethernet were to use the same 64-byte minimum frame size, the maximum allowable
distance between stations for Gigabit Ethernet would be less than 25 m.
Gigabit Ethernet, in order to support a distance limitation comparable to Fast Ethernet (100 m
from a repeating hub to each device), extends the minimum CSMA/CD carrier event time from
64 bytes to 512 bytes. For packets shorter than 512 bytes, Gigabit Ethernet adds a non-data
carrier extension to the end of the packet transmission, allowing stations to occupy the wire
long enough to detect collisions without modifying the 802.3 frame structure. The minimum
Ethernet frame length of 64 bytes remains the same.
Packet Bursting
For small packets, extending minimum carrier event time decreases the ratio of data to non-
data by as much as eight. For example, a 64-byte frame would need to be extended with a
448-byte-size non-data carrier signal. To offset the inefficiency of transmitting small packets
individually, Gigabit Ethernet will allow servers, switches and other devices to use a method
called packet bursting to send multiple small packets in a single transmission event. By
replacing non-data carrier extensions with additional packets, packet bursting increases the
ratio of data to non-data for each transmission, effectively increasing the overall speed of the
network by utilizing bandwidth more efficiently.
Considerations for Early Adoption
Lesson Objective
Compatibility
Some vendors are already shipping Gigabit Ethernet devices even though the 802.3z standard
is not yet finalized. Despite the fact that exhibits at the Fall 1997 Networld+Interop in Atlanta
demonstrated interoperability between Gigabit Ethernet equipment from different vendors,
early adopters of Gigabit Ethernet technology run a slight risk that the equipment they buy may
not conform to the final standard.
Pricing
Pricing for first generation Gigabit Ethernet devices may present a barrier to entry for many
companies. Currently, it is possible to purchase Fast Ethernet NICs, for example, for under
USD 100, and Fast Ethernet switches for under USD 200 per port. Initially, Gigabit Ethernet
NICs may be priced as high as USD 1700, and Gigabit Ethernet switches will likely be priced
between USD 2000 and USD 4000 per port. Over the past two years, however, Fast Ethernet
switches have decreased in price approximately 36%. Gigabit Ethernet components are
expected to follow a similar trend.

ETHERNET AND OTHER PHYSICAL-LAYER TECHNOLOGIES
Module Description
This section describes Ethernet's relationship to major networking technologies, such as
Token Ring, FDDI and ATM, that either provide alternatives to or work in conjunction with
Ethernet.
Module Objectives
● Identify the relationship between Ethernet and other networking technologies such as
Token Ring, ATM and FDDI
● Identify the advantages Ethernet has in comparison to these technologies

Overview: Ethernet and Other Technologies
Lesson Objective
● Identify real-world situations in which understanding the relationship between Ethernet

and other networking technologies is useful
As an Open Systems technology, Ethernet helps to illustrate the basic concepts of modularity
and hierarchy from which the OSI reference model was born. The purpose of this module, and
Module 11, is to deepen your understanding of the place Ethernet occupies in the overall
landscape of computer networking. Having a clear understanding of the relationship between
Ethernet and other popular technologies will help you to more quickly understand what your
customers are saying, more intelligently address their concerns and more competently provide
solutions to their problems.
If you were told that Company X has already implemented FDDI and ATM, and has decided
against using Frame Relay, does that mean Company X has also decided against using
Ethernet? Or to use a slightly different situation, if you know that Company Y uses Token Ring
in their order processing center, and they ask you about upgrading the engineering
department's network to accommodate a new document imaging and workflow application, is it
reasonable that they should consider using Ethernet? (Specific answers for each of these
questions appear in Lesson 10.3.)

Ethernet Compared
Lesson Objectives
● Identify the relationship between Ethernet and other networking technologies such as
Token Ring, ATM and FDDI
● Identify the advantages Ethernet has in comparison to these technologies
Token Ring
IBM first adopted Token Ring technology as a core networking strategy in the early 1980s.
Today, many IBM-based, distributed networking solutions are implemented on Token Ring
networks. Compared to Ethernet's approximately 85% market share, only 10% of total network
components sold in 1997 were Token Ring. Compared to Token Ring, the reasons for
Ethernet's success include:
1. Ethernet networking is less complex than Token Ring and easier to troubleshoot.
2. Ethernet components are simpler relatively and, thus, less expensive to manufacture.
3. Even though token passing uses bandwidth more efficiently than the contention method
used by Ethernet, overall Ethernet performance has generally kept pace with Token
Ring and, with the introduction of Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet, has outpaced
Token Ring.
Token Ring controls access to the physical medium by passing a control frame from one
computer to the next. Only the computer possessing the control frame has the right to send
data. Token Ring generally works best for networks with a large number of workstations that
must constantly exchange data with a centrally located resource such as a distributed
database or mainframe application.
In contrast, Ethernet's contention method works best on networks that transmit large amounts
of data intermittently. Such situations would include engineering groups using CAD/CAM
applications and three-dimensional modeling tools, or a customer service department that
uses workflow and document imaging to process customer complaints and access customer
account information.
Companies do not, however, always have to choose to implement only Token Ring or only
Ethernet throughout the enterprise. As is often the case, Ethernet segments can be connected
to existing Token Ring networks (as shown in the figure below) using a router that serves to
bridge the two networks together.
Token Ring network connected to an Ethernet network using a router.
In the future, Token Ring's market share will likely continue to decrease. Ethernet's recent
advances in speed have made the slim performance advantages of Token Ring over 10Mbps
Ethernet virtually disappear.

Ethernet Compared (Continued)
FDDI
Companies usually implement FDDI as a high-speed, shared backbone connecting servers,
switches, bridges and routers. FDDI operates at 100Mbps and uses a token passing access
control method on fiber optic cabling configured as a dual ring (the second ring serves a
backup in case the primary ring is broken). An Ethernet hub or switch, equipped with one or
more FDDI interfaces, connects Ethernet workstations to the FDDI backbone. The figure below
illustrates a typical FDDI configuration.
Network configuration using an FDDI ring for the network backbone.
FDDI is one of the most expensive networking solutions to implement. Consequently, with the
introduction of Ethernet switches, 100Base-T and 100VG AnyLAN, most network managers
consider 100Mbps Ethernet backbones viable and economical alternatives to FDDI. In general,
the economic advantages of 100Mbps Ethernet over FDDI are two-fold:
1. 100Mbps Ethernet NICs are less expensive than FDDI NICs.

2. 100Mbps Ethernet can run on copper wire, which is substantially less expensive than
fiber.
For companies interested in migrating to fiber optic cable for either security or future bandwidth
needs, Ethernet 100Base-FX and Gigabit Ethernet also provide cost-effective solutions
compared to FDDI. The figure below shows the same basic network configuration used in the
figure above, but uses switched Ethernet instead of FDDI on the backbone.
Network configuration using switched Fast Ethernet in place of the FDDI ring shown in the previous figure.
Network engineers should keep in mind that it takes only ten 10Mbps Ethernet clients
transmitting files at the same time to reach FDDI's 100Mbps maximum throughput on a shared
ring. Switched Ethernet configurations, however, can provide multiple 100Mbps pipelines by
routing each packet only to the station addressed, thus allowing multiple stations to transmit
and receive simultaneously. Though switched FDDI solutions are available, in general FDDI
switches have proven less efficient than Ethernet switches, and on average cost up to eight
times more per port.

ATM
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is both a LAN and a WAN technology. Much of the
original lure of ATM was its potential to become a single, widely supported protocol for wide
area networking, backbone connectivity and workstation connectivity as well. Recently,
however, even ardent supporters of ATM have given up hope for success against Ethernet at
the workstation. In general, ATM has failed to achieve widespread adoption for three reasons:
1. Lack of standards
2. High price
3. Complexity
ATM uses fixed-sized packets (53 bytes) called cells and provides data transfer rates from
25Mbps to 2400Mbps (OC-3 = 155Mbps and OC-12 = 622Mbps). Using standard-sized cells
enables ATM to provide constant, high-speed data streams that audio, video and imaging
applications require. ATM can be used with a variety of transmission media including twisted-
pair and fiber optic cable. The figure below depicts a network configuration that uses ATM on
the backbone.
Network configuration using ATM for both backbone and WAN connectivity.
Most Ethernet component manufacturers will market Gigabit Ethernet as an alternative to ATM
backbones. In the past, network managers have looked to ATM as the only reliable way to
achieve Quality-of-Service (QoS) grade connectivity for applications such as real-time
databases, medical imaging and video conferencing. Gigabit Ethernet will provide QoS
connectivity by working in combination with upper-layer QoS protocols such as RSVP and
802.1Q. QoS protocols enable individual packets to be prioritized so that high-priority, time-
sensitive data streams, like those required for real-time video, are not interrupted by lower-
priority, non-time-sensitive applications, such as e-mail.
If Gigabit Ethernet becomes successful as quickly as Fast Ethernet has, the future of ATM will
likely remain at the WAN level of connectivity. Compared to ATM, Gigabit Ethernet promises to
be simpler to implement, more cost-effective and more compatible with existing LANs.

Summary
For workstation-level interconnectivity, Ethernet and Token Ring should generally be thought
of as competitors. FDDI and ATM, on the other hand, have in the past filled particular needs
that Ethernet running at 10Mbps could not. With the advent of Fast Ethernet and Gigabit
Ethernet, however, Ethernet technology can now meet the bandwidth needs of high-traffic
backbones and in many instances compete directly with FDDI and ATM solutions. Currently,
Ethernet is not often thought of as a WAN technology. Though Ethernet-based satellite
communications systems have been researched, solutions like Frame Relay and ATM running
over public, telecommunications networks will continue for some time to be the WAN
technologies of choice for linking local, Ethernet-based networks.

Specific Examples
Lesson Objective
● Identify answers for the hypothetical questions posed in Lesson 10.1
In reference to the questions posed at the end of Lesson 10.1, Company X who has chosen to
implement ATM as opposed to Frame Relay for wide area connectivity, and who has
implemented FDDI on their backbone, must still choose a physical-layer technology to link
individual workstations to the backbone. More often than not, their preferred workstation-level
connection strategy will be Ethernet. Later on, as Company X grows and its backbone
becomes saturated with traffic, extending Fast Ethernet or Gigabit Ethernet solutions to the
backbone, as opposed to implementing ATM or a new switched FDDI solution, will likely be the
most cost-effective strategy for Company X to adopt.
In the case of Company Y, implementing Ethernet, or Fast Ethernet, in the engineering

department and using a router as a bridge to the order processing center's Token Ring
network is both technically and economically a reasonable option. Because network traffic
between the engineering department and the order processing department is likely to be very
low, bridging the two networks is not likely to produce a bottleneck. In the final analysis,
Ethernet's better performance for large-file-size transactions, lower cost of implementation and
easier management makes considering Ethernet highly reasonable, even for companies that
currently support Token Ring.

ETHERNET AND THE UPPER-LAYER PROTOCOLS
Module Description
This section explains Ethernet's practical relationship to the technologies it serves. Lesson
11.1 returns to a consideration of the OSI layer and Ethernet's role in the OSI reference model.
Lesson 11.2 completes the course with a consideration of Ethernet as an Open Systems
technology.
Module Objectives
● Identify some of the upper-layer protocols that Ethernet supports directly and indirectly
● Identify the role Ethernet plays in relationship to a number of specific and popular
network protocols

The OSI Model Revisited
Lesson Objective
● Identify some of the upper-layer protocols that Ethernet supports directly and indirectly
Module 10 focused on Ethernet's relationship to technologies that operate at OSI layers 1 and
2, the same layers at which Ethernet operates. This module focuses on Ethernet's relationship
to network technologies that operate at OSI layers 3 and above. The table below reproduces
the OSI model and categorizes a number of example technologies according to the OSI layer
services they provide. Clarifying Ethernet's relationship to upper-layer protocols will help you to
quickly understand many practical, real-world situations.
LAYER EXAMPLE PROTOCOLS
7 – Application NetWare*, Vines*, NTAS, SNA
6 – Presentation NAPLPS, MAP, SMB
5 – Session NetBIOS, NCP, RIP
4 – Transport TCP, NetBEUI, SNMP
3 – Network IP, IPX, DECnet, X.25, RSVP, 802.1Q
2 – Data Link Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, FDDI, Token Ring, ATM
1 – Physical Twisted-pair, coaxial, twinax and fiber optic cabling

Table 11-1

Running Multiple Protocols
Lesson Objective
● Identify the role Ethernet plays in relationship to a number of specific popular network
protocols
Two Networks in One

At the physical and data link layers of the OSI model, it is not possible, nor is it reasonable, to
implement simultaneously two different technologies on a single network segment. For
example, though it is possible to use a bridge to link separate Ethernet and Token Ring
networks, it is not possible (nor would it ever be desirable) to connect a room of computers
together using both Ethernet and Token Ring hardware at the same time.
At the network layer, however, it is not only possible, but in many cases advantageous, to
implement multiple protocols and run them at the same time. For example, most Novell
NetWare* networks use a protocol called IPX/SPX at the network layer and above. Microsoft
networks, on the other hand use TCP/IP and/or NetBEUI. Often times, Windows 95*
workstations are configured to handle both Novell IPX/SPX packets and Microsoft TCP/IP
packets. This allows individual Windows 95* stations to establish client-server connections
with NetWare* servers (over IPX/SPX) and peer-to-peer connections to other Windows 95*
workstations (over TCP/IP) at the same time.
Ethernet as an Open Systems Solution

In the example above, how does Ethernet fit into the picture? It almost sounds as if the
example refers to two, entirely separate networks: a Novell network and a Microsoft network.
Can a single Ethernet network, using only Ethernet cabling schemes and Ethernet NICs
support both the Novell network and the Microsoft network described?
Of course, the answer is yes. In the example above, the terms Novell network and Microsoft
network refer only to layer 3 networking services and higher. Ethernet, in relationship to each
networking protocol, works only at layers 1 and 2 to provide the physical transportation of data
packets from one network client to another. At layer 3, the software programs Client for Novell
Networks and Client for Microsoft Networks run simultaneously on each computer and accept
data packets from the data link layer and processes packets according to the rules of the layer
3 protocol the client supports. When the data field of the Ethernet frame includes a TCP/IP
packet, the TCP/IP packet is handled by the Microsoft client software. When the data field of
the Ethernet frame includes an IPX/SPX packet, the IPX/SPX packet is handled by the Novell
client software.
Upper-layer protocols are covered in more detail in other courses. This lesson attempts merely
to reinforce the fact that by limiting Ethernet operations to a clearly defined network space,
Ethernet is capable of supporting a wide range of specific networking technologies. Ethernet
can not only support networks running both Novell and Microsoft networking protocols
simultaneously, but also other combinations of network layer protocols as well.

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Course Introduction

Module 1: Ethernet Overview

Module 2: Ethernet Basics

Module 3: Ethernet Operations

Module 4: Ethernet Frame Composition

Module 5: Ethernet Frame Types

Module 6: Full-duplex Ethernet

Module 8: Fast Ethernet

Module 9: Gigabit Ethernet

Module 10: Ethernet and Other Physical-layer Technologies

Module 11: Ethernet and the Upper-layer Protocols

Following a description of Gigabit Ethernet operations, the course discusses Ethernet's

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Preparing Yourself for Training

Using the Course Syllabus to Navigate within a Course

Tracking Your Progress

Encountering Technical Problems

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● Identify Ethernet's basic role in computer networking

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● Identify Ethernet's basic role in computer networking

Beyond the hardware-level, or physical layer, of networking, data transport is handled by

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● Identify the key milestones in the historical development of Ethernet

The High Cost of Mainframe Computing

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The Development of Ethernet Standards

1. Gives users mainframe-like access to shared information.

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1997 shipments of network interface cards by technology.

● Identify the basic characteristics of the Ethernet bus

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● Identify the basic characteristics of the Ethernet bus

The Ethernet Bus

Network Interface Card (NIC) Addresses and Ethernet Frames

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1. The beginning of the frame

Structure of a standard Ethernet frame.

Listening, Sending and Receiving

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Listening, Sending and Receiving (Continued)

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The Fundamental Rule

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● Identify the place Ethernet occupies in the OSI model

Open Systems Interconnection Reference Model

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Layer Application This layer provides services to user applications.

Layer Transport This layer provides a reliable end-to-end connection across a

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Ethernet and the OSI Model

Ethernet and the OSI Model

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● Identify Ethernet bus and star topologies

Ethernet Bus Topology

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Ethernet Star Topology

● Twisted-pair wiring is easier to install than coaxial cable.

Star network topology

Star-shaped, twisted-pair wiring scheme for a small office.