System Programming in Linux

SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN
LINUX
UTTAM K. ROY
Dept. of Information Technology,

Jadavpur University, Kolkata
System Programming in Linux 2
Topics to be discussed
Advanced Java Programming
 Introduction to Operating Systems and
SYSTEM
Linux Internals
General Introduction to Operating Systems
Process management
Scheduling
Memory Management
PROGRAMMING
File Management
 Linux Systems Programming

Files and Directories  Linux System Administration
Linux Shells and Commands
IN LINUX
Input/Output
System Files Systems management
Managing File Systems
Process Control
Network Management
Signals
Interprocess Communication
Network programming
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

Books
• Silberschatz Galvin, “Operating System Concepts”, Addison
SYSTEM
Wesley publication
• Andrew S. Tanenbaum, “Operating Systems”
• William Stallings, “Operating Systems”, Prentice-Hall India
PROGRAMMING
• Richard Stones & Neil Matthew, “Beginning Linux
Programming”, A Wrox publication
• Sumitabha Das, “Unix Shell Programming”, A Tata McGraw-Hill

publication
IN LINUX
• Olaf Kirch, Terry Dawson, “Linux Network Administrator's
Guide”, A O’relly publication
• Daniel P. Bovet, Marco Cesati, “Understanding the Linux

Kernel”, O’Reilly publication
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
INTRODUCTION
TO
OPERATING SYSTEM
Computer System Organization

 Computer-system operation
SYSTEM
One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through
common bus providing access to shared memory
Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for
memory cycles
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Components of a Computer System

SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
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Components (Contd.)
SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
 A computer system consists of
IN LINUX
hardware
system programs
application programs
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Components (Contd.)
SYSTEM
 Computer system components
Hardware – provides basic computing resources
• CPU, memory, I/O devices
Operating system
• Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various
PROGRAMMING
applications and users
Application programs – define the ways in which the

system resources are used to solve the computing
problems of the users
• Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database
IN LINUX
systems, video games
Users
• People, machines, other computers
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
What is an Operating System?

 SYSTEM
A program that acts as an intermediary
between a user of a computer and the
computer hardware.
PROGRAMMING
Operating system goals:
Execute user programs and make solving user problems
easier.
Make the computer system convenient to use.
 Puspose: IN LINUX
Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner.
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Operating System Functions?

 Process Management
The creation and deletion of both user and system process
The
The
The
SYSTEM
suspension and resumption of process
provision of mechanisms for process synchronization
provision of mechanism for deadlock handling
Main Memory Management
PROGRAMMING

Keep track of which parts of memory are being used and by
whom
Decide which processes are to be loaded into the memory when
memory space becomes available
Allocates and deallocates memory as and when needed
 IN LINUX
File Management
Creation and deletion of files
Creation and deletion of directories
The support of primitives for manipulating files and directories
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Operating System Functions?

 I/O System Management

A memory management component including buffering, caching
SYSTEM
and spooling
A general device driver interface
Drivers for specific hardware interface
 Secondary Storage Management
PROGRAMMING
Free space management
Storage allocation
Disk Scheduling
Networking
IN LINUX

Communication task
 Command Interpreter System

Command line interpreter
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
PROCESS
MANAGEMENT
Process Management
Process Management SYSTEM

Creating and deleting both user and system processes
Suspending and resuming processes
PROGRAMMING
Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
Providing mechanisms for process communication
Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Process—Basic Concept
SYSTEM
 A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of
work within the system. Program is a passive entity,
process is an active entity.
 Process needs resources to accomplish its task
PROGRAMMING
CPU, memory, I/O, files
Initialization data
 Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable

resources
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Process—Basic Concept
 Single-threaded process has one program counter
SYSTEM
specifying location of next instruction to execute
Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a
time, until completion
 Multi-threaded process has one program counter per
PROGRAMMING
thread
 Typically system has many processes, some user,

some operating system running concurrently on one
or more CPUs
IN LINUX
Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the
processes / threads
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Advanced Java Programming Process States
SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
 Possible process states
IN LINUX
running—Instructions are being executed
Blocked—Process is waiting for some event to occur
Ready—The process in waiting to be assigned to a processor
 Transitions between states shown
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Process Control Block(PCB)

SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
Fields of a Process Control Block entry
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Scheduling—Basic Concept
SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
Three level scheduling
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Process Scheduling
Multiprogramming needed for efficiency
SYSTEM

Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all
times
Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU
always has one to execute
PROGRAMMING
A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
One job selected and run via job scheduling
When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to
another job

IN LINUX
Context Switch
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Process Scheduling
SYSTEM
 Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in
which CPU switches jobs so frequently that users can
interact with each job while it is running, creating
interactive computing
Response time should be small enough
PROGRAMMING
Each user has at least one program executing in memory
process
If several jobs ready to run at the same time CPU
scheduling
If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them
IN LINUX
in and out to run
Virtual memory allows execution of processes not
completely in memory
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
CPU Scheduling
 Basic Concept
SYSTEM
Maximum CPU utilization obtained with
multiprogramming
CPU–I/O Burst Cycle – Process execution consists

of a cycle of CPU execution and I/O wait
PROGRAMMING
CPU burst distribution
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Advanced Java Programming Scheduling
SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING

IN LINUX
Bursts of CPU usage alternate with periods of I/O wait
a CPU-bound process
an I/O bound process
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Histogram of CPU-burst Times

SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Advanced Java Programming CPU Scheduler
SYSTEM
Selects from among the processes in memory that are ready to
execute, and allocates the CPU to one of them
 CPU scheduling decisions may take place when a process:

1. Switches from running to waiting state
PROGRAMMING
2. Switches from running to ready state
3. Switches from waiting to ready
4. Terminates
 Scheduling under 1 and 4 is nonpreemptive
IN LINUX
All other scheduling is preemptive

| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Advanced Java Programming Dispatcher
SYSTEM
 Dispatcher module gives control of the CPU to
the process selected by the short-term
scheduler; this involves:
switching context
switching to user mode
PROGRAMMING
jumping to the proper location in the user
program to restart that program
 Dispatch latency – time it takes for the
IN LINUX
dispatcher to stop one process and start
another running
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Scheduling Criteria
 CPU utilization
keep the CPU as busy as possible
 Throughput SYSTEM
# of processes that complete their execution per time unit
Turnaround time
PROGRAMMING

amount of time to execute a particular process
 Waiting time
amount of time a process has been waiting in the ready queue
 Response time IN LINUX

amount of time it takes from when a request was submitted until
the first response is produced, not output (for time-sharing
environment)
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Scheduling Algorithm Goals

SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
First-Come, First-Served (FCFS) Scheduling

SYSTEM
Process Burst Time
P1 24
P2 3
P3 3
 Suppose that the processes arrive in the order: P1 , P2 , P3
The Gantt Chart for the schedule is:
PROGRAMMING P1 P2 P3
Waiting
0 time for P1 = 0; P2 = 24;24P3 = 2727 30
IN LINUX

 Average waiting time: (0 + 24 + 27)/3 = 17
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
FCFS Scheduling (Cont.)

SYSTEM
Suppose that the processes arrive in the order
P2 , P3 , P1
 The Gantt chart for the schedule is:
PROGRAMMING
P2 P3 P1
 Waiting0time for3P1 = 6; P
6 =0 P =3
2 ; 3
30
 Average waiting time: (6 + 0 + 3)/3 = 3
Much better than previous case
IN LINUX

 Convoy effect short process behind long process
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Shortest-Job-First (SJR) Scheduling

Associate with each process the length of

SYSTEM

its next CPU burst. Use these lengths to
schedule the process with the shortest time
Two schemes:
PROGRAMMING

nonpreemptive – once CPU given to the process it cannot be
preempted until completes its CPU burst
preemptive – if a new process arrives with CPU burst length
less than remaining time of current executing process,
preempt. This scheme is know as the
IN LINUX
Shortest-Remaining-Time-First (SRTF)
 SJF is optimal – gives minimum average

waiting time for a given set of processes
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Example of Non-Preemptive SJF

Process
P1
SYSTEM
Arrival Time
0.0
Burst Time
7
P2 2.0 4
P3 4.0 1
PROGRAMMING
P4 5.0 4
 SJF (non-preemptive)
P1 P3 P2 P4
IN LINUX
0 3 7 8 12 16
 Average waiting time = (0 + 6 + 3 + 7)/4 = 4
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Example of Preemptive SJF

Process
P1
SYSTEMArrival Time
0.0
Burst Time
7
P2 2.0 4
P3 4.0 1
PROGRAMMING
P4 5.0 4
 SJF (preemptive)
P1 P2 P3 P2 P4 P1
IN LINUX
0 2 4 5 7 11 16
 Average waiting time = (9 + 1 + 0 +2)/4 = 3
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Determining Length of Next CPU
Advanced Java Programming Burst
 Can only estimate the length


SYSTEM
Can be done by using the length of previous CPU
bursts, using exponential averaging
1. t n = actual lenght of n th CPU burst
PROGRAMMING
2. τ n +1 = predicted value for the next CPU burst
3. α , 0 ≤ α ≤ 1
4. Define : τ n +1 = α t n + (1 − α )τ n .
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Prediction of System the Programming
Length of the Next CPU
in Linux 34
Advanced Java Programming Burst
SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Examples of Exponential Averaging

 α =0
τn+1 = τn
 α =1
SYSTEM
Recent history does not count
τn+1 = α tn
PROGRAMMING
Only the actual last CPU burst counts
 If we expand the formula, we get:

τn+1 = α tn+(1 - α)α tn -1 + …
+(1 - α )j α tn -j + …
IN LINUX
+(1 - α )n +1 τ0
 Since both α and (1 - α) are less than or

equal to 1, each successive term has less
weight
| U. K. Roy | than its predecessor [ ]
Priority Scheduling
 A priority number (integer) is associated with each process

SYSTEM
The CPU is allocated to the process with the highest priority
(smallest integer ≡ highest priority)
Preemptive
Nonpreemptive
PROGRAMMING
 SJF is a priority scheduling where priority is the predicted next
CPU burst time
 Problem ≡ Starvation – low priority processes may never execute
Solution ≡ Aging – as time progresses increase the priority of the
IN LINUX

process
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Round Robin (RR)

SYSTEM
 Each process gets a small unit of CPU time (time
quantum), usually 10-100 milliseconds. After this time
has elapsed, the process is preempted and added to the
end of the ready queue.
 If there are n processes in the ready queue and the
PROGRAMMING
time quantum is q, then each process gets 1/n of the
CPU time in chunks of at most q time units at once. No
process waits more than (n-1)q time units.
 Performance
IN LINUX
q large ⇒ FIFO
q small ⇒ q must be large with respect to context switch,
otherwise overhead is too high
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Example of RR with Time Quantum =

20
SYSTEM
Process Burst Time
P1 53
P2 17
P3 68
P4 24
PROGRAMMING
 The Gantt chart is:
P1 P2 P3 P4 P1 P3 P4 P1 P3 P3
0 20 37 57 77 97 117 121 134 154 162

better response
IN LINUX
Typically, higher average turnaround than SJF, but
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Time Quantum
Advanced Java Programming and Context Switch Time
SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Turnaround Time Varies With The Time Quantum

SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Multilevel Queue
 Ready queue is partitioned into separate

queues:
SYSTEM
foreground (interactive)
background
 Each queue has its own scheduling algorithm
PROGRAMMING
foreground – RR
background – FCFS
 Scheduling must be done between the queues
IN LINUX
Fixed priority scheduling
• serve all from foreground then from background—Possibility of
starvation.
Time slice
• each queue gets a certain amount of CPU time which it can schedule
amongst its processes; e.g., 80% to foreground in RR and 20% to
background in FCFS
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Multilevel Queue Scheduling

SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Multilevel Feedback Queue

SYSTEM
 A process can move between the various
queues
aging can be implemented this way
Multilevel-feedback-queue scheduler
PROGRAMMING

defined by the following parameters:
number of queues
scheduling algorithms for each queue
method used to determine when to upgrade a process
IN LINUX
method used to determine when to demote a process
method used to determine which queue a process will
enter when that process needs service
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Example of Multilevel Feedback

Queue
 Three queues:
SYSTEM
Q0 – RR with time quantum 8 milliseconds
Q1 – RR time quantum 16 milliseconds
Q2 – FCFS

PROGRAMMING
Scheduling
 A new job enters queue Q0 which is served RR. When it gains
CPU, job receives 8 milliseconds. If it does not finish in 8

IN LINUX
milliseconds, job is moved to queue Q1.
At Q1 job is again served RR and receives 16 additional

milliseconds. If it still does not complete, it is preempted and
moved to queue Q2.
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Multiple-Processor Scheduling
 CPU scheduling more complex when multiple CPUs

are available

SYSTEM
Homogeneous processors within a multiprocessor
Any available processor can be used to run any process
 Heterogeneous processors
program complied must run on that processor

PROGRAMMING
Load sharing
Use separate queue for each processor
• One could be idle while another was very busy
Use Common ready queue
IN LINUX
• Each processor picks a process—may result inconsistency
• Use one processor as scheduler—creates master-slave relationship
 Asymmetric multiprocessing
only one processor accesses the system data structures
Others executes user processes
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Real-Time Scheduling
 Hard real-time systems

required to complete a critical task within a guaranteed amount of
SYSTEM
time
 Soft real-time systems

requires that critical processes receive priority over less fortunate
ones
 PROGRAMMING
Schedulable real-time system
Given
m events (processes)
process i occurs within period Pi and requires Ci seconds
IN LINUX
 Then the load can only be handled if
m
C
∑ ≤1 i =1 Pi
i
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Algorithm Evaluation
 Criteria used in selecting an algorithm

Maximum CPU utilization under the constraint the maximum
SYSTEM
response time is 1 second
Maximum throughput such that average turnaround time
linearly proportional to execution time
PROGRAMMING
 Deterministic Modeling
Evaluates using a predetermined work load
• can not cope with the dynamic behavior of the system
IN LINUX
 Queueing Models
Uses mathematical analysis
• Complicated—hence used unrealistic assumtions
• Uses some assumptions—that may not occur
• An approximation of real system and accuracy is questionable
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
PROCESS
SYNCHRONIZATION
Process Synchronization
 Background

 Simple Solutions SYSTEM

The Critical-Section Problem
 Solutions using Synchronization Hardware

 Semaphores

PROGRAMMING
Solutions of Classic Problems of Synchronization
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Advanced Java Programming Background

 Cooperating Processes
Processes that can affect or be affected by other processes
SYSTEM
Implementation uses shared logical address space or shared
data using files
 Concurrent access to shared data may result in data

inconsistency
 PROGRAMMING
Maintaining data consistency requires mechanisms to
ensure the orderly execution of cooperating processes
IN LINUX
 Suppose that we wanted to provide a solution to the
consumer-producer problem
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Producer-Consumer Problem
 Representative of operating system process
while (true) {
…
SYSTEM while (true) {
…
/* produce an item to nextp */ while (count == 0)
while (count == BUFFER_SIZE) ; // buffer is empty, do nothing
PROGRAMMING
; // buffer is full, do nothing
buffer [in] = nextp;
in = (in + 1) % BUFFER_SIZE;
nextc = buffer[out];
out = (out + 1) % BUFFER_SIZE;
count--;
count++; /* consume the item from nextc
… …
IN LINUX
} }
Producer process Consumer process
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Advanced Java Programming Race Condition

 count++ could be implemented as
register1 = count
SYSTEM
register1 = register1 + 1
count = register1
 count-- could be implemented as

register2 = count
PROGRAMMING
register2 = register2 - 1
count = register2
 Consider this execution interleaving with “count = 5” initially:

S0: producer execute register1 = count {register1 = 5}
S1: producer execute register1 = register1 + 1 {register1 = 6}
IN LINUX
S2: consumer execute register2 = count {register2 = 5}
S3: consumer execute register2 = register2 - 1 {register2 = 4}
S4: producer execute count = register1 {count = 6 }
S5: consumer execute count = register2 {count = 4}
 Race condition
Outcome depends upon the order of execution
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Solution to Critical-Section Problem

 Critical Section
segment of code where shared variables are used
 Mutual Exclusion
SYSTEM
Solution must satisfy the following criteria
If process Pi is executing in its critical section, then no other processes can

be executing in their critical sections
PROGRAMMING
Progress
If no process is executing in its critical section and there exist some
processes that wish to enter their critical section, then the selection of the
processes that will enter the critical section next cannot be postponed
indefinitely
IN LINUX
 Bounded Waiting
A bound must exist on the number of times that other processes are
allowed to enter their critical sections after a process has made a request to
enter its critical section and before that request is granted
 Assume that each process executes at a nonzero speed

 No assumption concerning relative speed of the N processes
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Two process solution

Solution 1
 Assume that the LOAD and STORE instructions are atomic; that is,
SYSTEM
cannot be interrupted.
 The two processes share a variable:
int turn;
 The variable turn indicates whose turn it is to enter the critical
section.
while (true) {
PROGRAMMING …
while (turn != i) ;
<CS>
IN LINUX
turn = j;
REMAINDER SECTION
}
Structure of process i
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

Solution 2
 The two processes share a variable:
SYSTEM
Boolean flag[2]
 The flag array is used to indicate if a process is ready to enter the
critical section. flag[i] = true implies that process Pi is ready!
while (true) {
…
PROGRAMMING flag[i]=true;
while (flag[j]) ;
<CS>
IN LINUX
flag[i]=false;
REMAINDER SECTION
}
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

Solution 3
SYSTEM
while (true) {
…
flag[i]=true;
turn=j
while (flag[j] && turn==j) ;
PROGRAMMING <CS>
flag[i]=false;
}
IN LINUX
REMAINDER SECTION
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Synchronization Hardware
 Many systems provide hardware support for critical
SYSTEM
section code
 Uniprocessors – could disable interrupts

Currently running code would execute without preemption
Generally too inefficient on multiprocessor systems
PROGRAMMING
• Operating systems using this not broadly scalable
 Modern machines provide special atomic hardware

instructions
• Atomic = non-interruptible
IN LINUX
Either test memory word and set value
Or swap contents of two memory words
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
TestAndSet Instruction
 Definition:
SYSTEM
bool TestAndSet (bool &target) {
bool temp = target;
target = true;
return temp:
}
PROGRAMMING
Solution using TestAndSet
Shared boolean variable lock., initialized to false.
while (true) {
while ( TestAndSet (lock ))
IN LINUX
; /* do nothing
<CS>
lock = FALSE;
// remainder section
}
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Swap Instruction
 Definition:
SYSTEM
void Swap (bool &a, bool &b) {
bool temp = a;
a = b;
b = temp:
}
 Solution
PROGRAMMING
 Shared Boolean variable lock initialized to false; Each
process has a local Boolean variable key.
 Solution:
while (true) {
key = true;
IN LINUX
while ( key == true)
Swap (lock, key );
// critical section
lock = false;
// remainder section
}
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Advanced Java Programming Semaphore

 Synchronization tool that does not require busy waiting
 Semaphore S – integer variable


SYSTEM
Two standard operations modify S: wait() and signal()
Originally called P() and V()
Less complicated
 Can only be accessed via two indivisible (atomic) operations
PROGRAMMING
wait (S) {
while S <= 0
; // no-op
S--;
IN LINUX
}
signal (S) {
S++;
}
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Semaphore as General Synchronization Tool

 Counting semaphore – integer value can range over an

unrestricted domain

SYSTEM
Binary semaphore – integer value can range only between 0 and
1; can be simpler to implement
Also known as mutex, locks
 Can implement a counting semaphore S as a binary semaphore

PROGRAMMING
Provides mutual exclusion
Semaphore S; // initialized to 1
wait (S);
Critical Section
IN LINUX
signal (S);
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Solution of other Synchronization Problem

 Two processes P1 and P2 are running concurrently: P1 with a

statement S1 and P2 with a statement S2
 Requirement:
SYSTEM
S2 be executed only after S1
 Solution:
PROGRAMMING
Use a a semaphore variable sync initialized to 0
… …
S1 wait(sync)
IN LINUX
Signal(sync) S2
… …
Process P1 Process P2
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Semaphore Implementation
 Must guarantee that no two processes can execute wait ()

and signal () on the same semaphore at the same time
SYSTEM
Thus, implementation becomes the critical section problem
where the wait and signal code are placed in the crtical
section.
Could now have busy waiting in critical section implementation
• But implementation code is short
PROGRAMMING
• Little busy waiting if critical section rarely occupied
 Note that applications may spend lots of time in critical

sections and therefore this is not a good solution.
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Semaphore Implementation with no Busy waiting

 With each semaphore there is an associated waiting

queue. Each entry in a waiting queue has two data
items:
SYSTEM
value (of type integer)
a list of processes L waiting on this semaphore
PROGRAMMING
Two operations:

block – place the process invoking the operation on the

appropriate waiting queue.
wakeup – remove one of processes in the waiting queue
IN LINUX
and place it in the ready queue.
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Semaphore Implementation with no Busy waiting (Cont.)

 Implementation of wait:
wait (S){
value--; SYSTEM
if (value < 0) {
add this process to waiting queue
block();
PROGRAMMING
}
}
 Implementation of signal:
IN LINUX
Signal (S){
value++;
if (value <= 0) {
remove a process P from the waiting queue
wakeup(P);
}
| U. K. Roy}| [ ]
Deadlock and Starvation

 Deadlock – two or more processes are waiting indefinitely for an

event that can be caused by only one of the waiting processes

SYSTEM
Let S and Q be two semaphores initialized to 1
P0 P1
PROGRAMMING wait (S);

wait (Q);
.
wait (Q);
wait (S);
.
. .
. .
IN LINUX
signal (S); signal (Q);
signal (Q); signal (S);
 Starvation – indefinite blocking. A process may never be

removed from the semaphore queue in which it is suspended.
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Classical Problems of Synchronization



SYSTEM
Bounded-Buffer Problem
Readers and Writers Problem
 Dining-Philosophers Problem
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Bounded-Buffer Problem


SYSTEM
N buffers, each can hold one item
Semaphore mutex initialized to the value 1
 Semaphore full initialized to the value 0
 Semaphore empty initialized to the value N.
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Bounded Buffer Problem (Cont.)

The structure of the producer process The structure of the consumer process
while (true) {
//
SYSTEM
produce an item
while (true) {
wait (full);
wait (mutex);
PROGRAMMING
wait (empty); // remove an item from buffer
wait (mutex);
signal (mutex);
signal (empty);
// add the item to the buffer
// consume the removed item
IN LINUX
signal (mutex);
signal (full); }
}
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Readers-Writers Problem
 A data set is shared among a number of concurrent

processes
SYSTEM
Readers – only read the data set; they do not perform any updates
Writers – can both read and write.
 Problem – allow multiple readers to read at the same

time. Only one writer can access the shared data at

PROGRAMMING
the same time.
Shared Data
Data set
IN LINUX
Semaphore mutex initialized to 1.
Semaphore wrt initialized to 1.
Integer readcount initialized to 0.
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Readers-Writers Problem (Cont.)

SYSTEM
The structure of a writer process The structure of a reader process
while (true) {
while (true) {
wait (mutex) ;
wait (wrt) ; readcount ++ ;
if (readercount == 1) wait (wrt) ;
PROGRAMMING
// writing is performed signal (mutex)
// reading is performed
signal (wrt) ;
} wait (mutex) ;
readcount - - ;
IN LINUX
if (redacount == 0) signal (wrt) ;
signal (mutex) ;
}
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Dining-Philosophers Problem
SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
• Shared data
IN LINUX
Bowl of rice (data set)
Semaphore chopstick [5] initialized to 1
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Dining-Philosophers Problem (Cont.)

The structure of Philosopher i:
SYSTEM

While (true) {
wait ( chopstick[i] );
wait ( chopStick[ (i + 1) % 5] );
PROGRAMMING // eat
signal (chopstick[ (i + 1) % 5] );
signal ( chopstick[i] );
} IN LINUX
// think
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Dining-Philosophers Problem (Cont.)

 Deadlock free solution

Allow at most four philosophers to be sitting simultaneously
at the table
SYSTEM
Allow a philosopher to pick up chopsticks only both are
available
While (true) {
wait(mutex)
wait ( chopstick[i] );
PROGRAMMING wait ( chopStick[ (i + 1) % 5] );

signal(mutex)
// eat
wait (mutex)
signal (chopstick[ (i + 1) % 5] );
signal ( chopstick[i] );
IN LINUX
signal(mutex)
// think
}
Asymmetric solution
• Odd philosopher will pick first left then right while even
philosopher picks up first left and then right chopstick
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Problems with Semaphores

• Correct use of semaphore operations:
•
SYSTEM
signal (mutex) …. wait (mutex)
• Mutual exclusion requirement is violated
• wait (mutex) … wait (mutex)
PROGRAMMING
• Violation of progress condition
• Possibility of deadlock
• Omitting of wait (mutex) or signal (mutex) (or both)

• Violation of mutual exclusion or deadlock
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
DEADLOCKS
Advanced Java Programming Deadlocks

 System Model
SYSTEM
The Deadlock Problem
 Deadlock Characterization
 Methods for Handling Deadlocks
PROGRAMMING
 Deadlock Prevention
 Deadlock Avoidance
 Deadlock Detection
 Recovery from Deadlock
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
The Deadlock Problem

 In a multiprogramming Environment several

processes compete for finite number of resources

SYSTEM
A set of blocked processes each holding a resource
and waiting to acquire a resource held by another
process in the set.
PROGRAMMING
 Example 1
System has 2 disk drives.
P1 and P2 each hold one disk drive and each needs another one.
 Example 2
IN LINUX
semaphores A and B, initialized to 1
P0 P1
wait (A); wait(B)
wait (B); wait(A)
 Example 3
Each philosopher picks left chopstick in dining philosopher problem
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Bridge Crossing Example

SYSTEM
 Traffic only in one direction.

 PROGRAMMING
Each section of a bridge can be viewed as a resource.
If two cars approach each other at the crossing, neither can
start until the other has gone(Dead locks)
If a deadlock occurs, it can be resolved if one car backs up
IN LINUX

(preempt resources and rollback).

 Several cars may have to be backed up if a deadlock occurs.
 Starvation is possible.
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Advanced Java Programming System Model

 Resource types R1, R2, . . ., Rm
SYSTEM
CPU cycles, memory space, I/O devices
 Each resource type Ri has Wi instances.

Example—two CPU, Three printers, 2 disk drives
PROGRAMMING
 Process may requests as many resources as it requires to
perform its designated task
Must be less the total number of resources available
 Each process utilizes a resource as follows:

Request—If the request can not be granted immediately, the
Use
Release
IN LINUX
requesting process must wait
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Deadlock Characterization
Deadlock can arise if four conditions hold simultaneously.

SYSTEM
Mutual exclusion: at least one resource must in non-sharable
mode i.e. only one process at a time can use that resource.
 Hold and wait: a process holding at least one resource is waiting

to acquire additional resources held by other processes.

PROGRAMMING
No preemption: a resource can be released only voluntarily by the
process holding it, after that process has completed its task.
 Circular wait: there exists a set {P0, P1, …, Pn} of waiting

processes such that P0 is waiting for a resource that is held by P1, P1
IN LINUX
is waiting for a resource that is held by P2, …, Pn–1 is waiting for a
resource that is held by Pn, and Pn is waiting for a resource that is
held by P0.
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Resource-Allocation Graph
 Used to visualize resource allocation pattern

Helps to describe deadlock more precisely
SYSTEM

 A set of vertices V and a set of edges (directed) E
 V is partitioned into two types:
PROGRAMMING
P = {P1, P2, …, Pn}, the set consisting of all the processes
in the system.
R = {R1, R2, …, Rm}, the set consisting of all resource
types in the system.
 IN LINUX
E is partitioned into two types:
request edge – directed edge Pi → Rj
assignment edge – directed edge Rj → Pi
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Resource-Allocation Graph (Cont.)

SYSTEM
 Process
 Resource Type with 4 instances
PROGRAMMING
Pi requests an instance of Rj Pi
Rj
Pi
IN LINUX
 Pi is holding an instance of Rj
Rj
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Example of a Resource Allocation Graph

 The sets P, R and E
SYSTEM
P = {P1, P2, P3}
R = {R1, R2, R3, R4}
E = {P1 R1, P2 R3, R1 P2 ,
R2 P2, R2 P1, R3 P3}

PROGRAMMING
Resource Instances
One instance of resource type R1
Two instances of resource type R2
IN LINUX
One instance of resource type R3
Three instances of resource type R3
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Advanced Java Programming Basic Facts
SYSTEM
 If graph contains no cycles ⇒ no deadlock.
 If graph contains a cycle ⇒

if only one instance per resource type, then deadlock.
PROGRAMMING
if several instances per resource type, possibility of
deadlock.
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Resource Allocation Graph With A Deadlock

SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Graph With A Cycle But No Deadlock

SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Methods for Handling Deadlocks

 Three methods for dealing with the deadlock problem
SYSTEM
Ensure that the system will never enter a deadlock state.
• Deadlock prevention—ensure that one of the necessary
conditions can not hold
• Deadlock avoidance—systems additional information about
PROGRAMMING
resource usage pattern during the execution
Allow the system to enter a deadlock state and then

recover.
Ignore the problem and pretend that deadlocks never
IN LINUX
occur in the system; used by most operating systems,
including UNIX.
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Deadlock Prevention
• ensure that one of the necessary conditions can not hold
SYSTEM
• Restrain the ways request can be made.
 Mutual Exclusion – not required for sharable resources; must

hold for nonsharable resources.
 Hold and Wait – must guarantee that whenever a process
PROGRAMMING
requests a resource, it does not hold any other resources.
 Two possibilities
Require process to request and be allocated all its resources before it
begins execution
allow process to request resources only when the process has none.
IN LINUX
• Low resource utilization; possibility of starvation
• Data inconsistency
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Deadlock Prevention (Cont.)

No Preemption –
SYSTEM
 Two possibilities
If a process that is holding some resources requests another
resource that cannot be immediately allocated to it, then all
resources currently being held are released.
PROGRAMMING
If a process requests some resources that are not available as
they are allocated to other waiting processes, then preempt
desired resources from waiting processes
• Preempted resources are added to the list of resources for which the
process is waiting.
IN LINUX
• Process will be restarted only when it can regain its old resources, as
well as the new ones that it is requesting.
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Deadlock Prevention (Cont.)

 Circular Wait – impose a total ordering of all resource types, and

require that each process requests resources in an increasing order of
SYSTEM
enumeration.
F(tape drive)=1
F(disk drive)=5
F(printer)=12
PROGRAMMING
Facts:I
If a process currently holds resource type Ri , the process can request
another resource type Rj if F(Rj) > F(Ri)
OR
If a process requests a resource type Rj , if it has released any resource
IN LINUX
type Ri such the F(Ri) ≥ F(Rj)
 Proof(by contradiction):
Set of deadlocked process {P0, P1, P2, …, Pn}
F(R0) < F(R1) < F(R2) <…< F(Rn) < F(R0) which is impossible
So there can be no circular wait—no deadlock
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Deadlock Avoidance
• Requires that the system has some additional information available.
SYSTEM
• With this additional information, system can decide whether a newly arrived
request can be satisfied (served) or not
 Simplest and most useful model requires that each

process declare the maximum number of resources of
PROGRAMMING
each type that it may need.
 The deadlock-avoidance algorithm dynamically examines

the resource-allocation state to ensure that there can
never be a circular-wait condition.
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Advanced Java Programming Safe State

 state is defined by the number of available and allocated
resources, and the maximum demands of the processes.

SYSTEM
System is in safe state if there exists a sequence <P1, P2, …, Pn>
of ALL the processes in the systems such that for each Pi, the
resources that Pi can still request can be satisfied by currently
available resources + resources held by all the Pj, with j < i.

PROGRAMMING
That is:
If Pi needs some resources that are not immediately available, then
Pi can wait until all Pj have finished.
When Pj is finished, Pi can obtain needed resources, execute, return
IN LINUX
allocated resources, and terminate.
When Pi terminates, Pi +1 can obtain its needed resources, and so on.
 When a process requests an available resource, system must

decide if immediate allocation leaves the system in a safe state.
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Advanced Java Programming Basic Facts

 If a system is in safe state ⇒ no deadlocks.
If a system is in unsafe state ⇒ possibility of deadlock.
SYSTEM

 Avoidance ⇒ ensure that a system will never enter an

unsafe state.
Example:
PROGRAMMING
 12 disk drives
 Snapshot at time T0:
Maximum needs Current Needs

P0 10 5
P1 4 2
P2
IN LINUX 9
 The sequence <P1, P0, P2> is safe
 At time T1 P2 requests one more disk drive
2
 Satisfying the request leaves the system in an unsafe state
| U. K. RoyRequest can not be granted


| [ ]
Safe, Unsafe , Deadlock State

SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Avoidance algorithms
SYSTEM
 Single instance of a resource type. Use a
resource-allocation graph
 Multiple instances of a resource type. Use

the banker’s algorithm
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Resource-Allocation Graph Scheme

 Claim edge Pi → Rj indicated that process Pj may request
SYSTEM
resource Rj; represented by a dashed line.
 Claim edge converts to request edge when a process

requests a resource.
PROGRAMMING
 Request edge converted to an assignment edge when the
resource is allocated to the process.
 When a resource is released by a process, assignment edge

reconverts to a claim edge.

IN LINUX
Resources must be claimed a priori in the system.
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Resource-Allocation Graph
SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Resource-Allocation Graph Algorithm


SYSTEM
Suppose that process Pi requests a resource Rj
 The request can be granted only if converting the request edge to

an assignment edge does not result in the formation of a cycle
PROGRAMMING
(including the claim edge )in the resource allocation graph
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Unsafe State In Resource-Allocation Graph

SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Banker’s Algorithm
SYSTEM
 Multiple instances.
 Each process must a priori claim

maximum use.
PROGRAMMING
 When a process requests a resource it
may have to wait.
 When a process gets all its resources it

must return them in a finite amount of
time.
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Data Structures for the Banker’s Algorithm

Let n = number of processes, and m = number of resources types.

SYSTEM
Available: Vector of length m. If Available [j] = k, there are k
instances of resource type Rj available.
 Max: n x m matrix. If Max [i,j] = k, then process Pi may

request at most k instances of resource type Rj.
 PROGRAMMING
Allocation: n x m matrix. If Allocation[i,j] = k then Pi is
currently allocated k instances of Rj.
 Need: n x m matrix. If Need[i,j] = k, then Pi may need k more
IN LINUX
instances of Rj to complete its task.
Need [i,j] = Max[i,j] – Allocation [i,j].
 Define X≤Y if X[i] ≤ Y[i] ∀ i
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Advanced Java ProgrammingSafety Algorithm

1. Let Work and Finish be vectors of length m and n,
respectively. Initialize:
SYSTEM
Work = Available
Finish [i] = false for i = 0, 1, …, n- 1.
2. Find and i such that both:

(a) Finish [i] = false
(b) Needi ≤ Work
PROGRAMMING
If no such i exists, go to step 4.
 Work = Work + Allocationi

Finish[i] = true
go to step 2.
IN LINUX
4. If Finish [i] == true for all i, then the system is in a safe
state.
Algorithm requires an order of O(m x n2) operations to detect
whether the system is in safe state.
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Resource-Request Algorithm for Process Pi

Requesti = request vector for process Pi. If Requesti [j] = k

then process Pi wants k instances of resource type Rj.
SYSTEM
If Requesti ≤ Needi go to step 2. Otherwise, raise error condition,
since process has exceeded its maximum claim.
PROGRAMMING
If Requesti ≤ Available, go to step 3. Otherwise Pi must wait, since
resources are not available.
3. Pretend to allocate requested resources to Pi by modifying the

state as follows:
Available = Available – Request;
IN LINUX
Allocationi = Allocationi + Requesti;
Needi = Needi – Requesti;
● If safe ⇒ the resources are allocated to Pi.

● If unsafe ⇒ Pi must wait, and the old resource-allocation state is
restored
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Example of Banker’s Algorithm

5 processes P0 through P4;
SYSTEM

 3 resource types:
 Available
A (10 instances), B (5instances), and C (7 instances).
PROGRAMMING
Allocation Max Available
ABC ABC ABC
P0 0 1 0 753 332
IN LINUX
P1 2 0 0 322
P2 3 0 2 902
P3 2 1 1 222
P4 0 0 2 4 3 3
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Example (Cont.)
The content of the matrix Need is defined to be
SYSTEM

Max – Allocation.
Need
ABC
PROGRAMMING
P0 743
P1 122
P2 600
P3 011
IN LINUX
P4 431
 The system is in a safe state since the sequence <

P1, P3, P4, P2, P0> satisfies safety criteria.
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Example: P1 Request (1,0,2)

Check that Request ≤ Available (that is, (1,0,2) ≤
SYSTEM

(3,3,2) ⇒ true.
Allocation Need Available
ABC ABC ABC
P0 0 1 0 743 230
PROGRAMMING
P1 3 0 2 020
P2 3 0 1 600
P3 2 1 1 011
P4 0 0 2 431
IN LINUX
 Executing safety algorithm shows that sequence <
P1, P3, P4, P0, P2> satisfies safety requirement.
 Can request for (3,3,0) by P4 be granted?
 Can request for (0,2,0) by P0 be granted?
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Deadlock Detection
 Allow system to enter deadlock state
 SYSTEM
System must provide
Detection algorithm
• Checks the state of the system to determine whether a
PROGRAMMINGdeadlock has occured
Recovery scheme
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Single Instance of Each Resource Type

SYSTEM
 Maintain wait-for graph
Nodes are processes.
Pi → Pj if Pi is waiting for Pj.
PROGRAMMING
 Periodically invoke an algorithm that searches for a
cycle in the graph. If there is a cycle, there exists a
deadlock.
 An algorithm to detect a cycle in a graph requires an
IN LINUX
order of n2 operations, where n is the number of
vertices in the graph.
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Resource-Allocation Graph and Wait-for Graph

SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
ResourceAllocation Graph Corresponding waitfor graph
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Several Instances of a Resource Type


SYSTEM
Available: A vector of length m indicates the number of available
resources of each type.
 Allocation: An n x m matrix defines the number of resources of

each type currently allocated to each process.

PROGRAMMING
Request: An n x m matrix indicates the current request of each
process. If Request [ij] = k, then process Pi is requesting k more
instances of resource type. Rj.
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Detection Algorithm
1. Let Work and Finish be vectors of length m and n, respectively

Initialize:
SYSTEM
(a) Work = Available
For i = 1,2, …, n, if Allocationi ≠ 0, then
Finish[i] = false;otherwise, Finish[i] = true.
2. Find an index i such that both:

(a) Finish[i] == false
PROGRAMMING
(b) Requesti ≤ Work
If no such i exists, go to step 4.
3. Work = Work + Allocationi

Finish[i] = true
go to step 2.
IN LINUX
4. If Finish[i] == false, for some i, 1 ≤ i ≤ n, then the system is in
deadlock state. Moreover, if Finish[i] == false, then Pi is
deadlocked.
Algorithm requires an order of O(m x n2) operations to detect
whether the system is in deadlocked state.
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Example of Detection Algorithm

 Five processes P0 through P4;
SYSTEM
 three resource types
A (7 instances), B (2 instances), and C (6 instances).

Allocation Request Available
ABC ABC ABC
PROGRAMMING
P0 010 000 000
P1 200 202
P2 303 000
P3 211 100
P4 002 002

i.
IN LINUX
Sequence <P0, P2, P3, P1, P4> will result in Finish[i] = true for all
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Example (Cont.)
 P2 requests an additional instance of type C.
SYSTEM
Request
ABC
P0 0 0 0
P1 2 0 1
PROGRAMMING P2 0 0 1
P3 1 0 0
P4 0 0 2
IN LINUX
 State of system?
Can reclaim resources held by process P0, but insufficient
resources to fulfill other processes; requests.
Deadlock exists, consisting of processes P1, P2, P3, and P4.
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Detection-Algorithm Usage
 When, and how often, to invoke depends on:
SYSTEM
How often a deadlock is likely to occur?
How many processes will need to be rolled back?
• one for each disjoint cycle
 Run deadlock detection detection algorithm every time a

request can not be granted


PROGRAMMING
Considerably overhead
Run once per hour
Run when CPU/resource utilization drops below 40%
 If detection algorithm is invoked arbitrarily, there may be
IN LINUX
many cycles in the resource graph and so we would not be
able to tell which of the many deadlocked processes
“caused” the deadlock.
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Recovery from Deadlock: Process Termination

 Abort all deadlocked processes.

cycle is eliminated.
SYSTEM
Abort one process at a time until the deadlock
 In which order should we choose to abort?
PROGRAMMING
Priority of the process.
How long process has computed, and how much longer to
completion.
Resources the process has used.
Resources process needs to complete.
IN LINUX
How many processes will need to be terminated.
Is process interactive or batch?
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Recovery from Deadlock: Resource Preemption

SYSTEM
Selecting a victim – minimize cost.

 Rollback – return to some safe state, restart process

for that state.

PROGRAMMING
Starvation – same process may always be picked as
victim, include number of rollback in cost factor.
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Memory
Management
Memory Management
SYSTEM
 Background
 Swapping
 Contiguous Memory Allocation
 Paging
PROGRAMMING
 Structure of the Page Table
 Segmentation
 Example: The Intel Pentium
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Advanced Java Programming Objectives
SYSTEM
 To provide a detailed description of various
ways of organizing memory hardware
 To discuss various memory-management
techniques, including paging and
segmentation
PROGRAMMING
 To provide a detailed description of the
Intel Pentium, which supports both pure
segmentation and segmentation with
paging
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Background
SYSTEM
 Program must be brought (from disk) into
memory and placed within a process for it to be
run
 Main memory and registers are only storage
CPU can access directly
PROGRAMMING
Register access in one CPU clock (or less)

 Main memory can take many cycles
 Cache sits between main memory and CPU
registers
IN LINUX
 Protection of memory required to ensure correct
operation
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Base and Limit Registers

SYSTEM
 A pair of base and limit registers define the
logical address space
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Binding of Instructions and Data to Memory

SYSTEM
 Address binding of instructions and data to
memory addresses can happen at three different
stages
Compile time: If memory location known a priori,
absolute code can be generated; must recompile
code if starting location changes
PROGRAMMING Load time: Must generate relocatable code if

memory location is not known at compile time
Execution time: Binding delayed until run time if
the process can be moved during its execution from
one memory segment to another. Need hardware
IN LINUX
support for address maps (e.g., base and limit
registers)
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Multistep Processing of a User Program

SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Logical vs. Physical Address Space

SYSTEM
 The concept of a logical address space that is
bound to a separate physical address
space is central to proper memory
management
Logical address – generated by the CPU;
also referred to as virtual address
PROGRAMMING

Physical address – address seen by the
memory unit
Logical and physical addresses are the same
in compile-time and load-time address-
binding schemes; logical (virtual) and
IN LINUX
physical addresses differ in execution-time
address-binding scheme
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Memory-Management Unit (MMU)

SYSTEM
 Hardware device that maps virtual to physical
address
 In MMU scheme, the value in the relocation

register is added to every address generated by
PROGRAMMING
a user process at the time it is sent to memory
 The user program deals with logical addresses;

it never sees the real physical addresses
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Dynamic relocation using a relocation register

SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Dynamic Loading
SYSTEM
 Routine is not loaded until it is called
 Better memory-space utilization; unused
routine is never loaded
 Useful when large amounts of code are needed
to handle infrequently occurring cases
PROGRAMMING
 No special support from the operating system is
required implemented through program design
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Dynamic Linking
SYSTEM
 Linking postponed until execution time
 Small piece of code, stub, used to locate
the appropriate memory-resident library
routine
 Stub replaces itself with the address of the
PROGRAMMING

routine, and executes the routine
Operating system needed to check if
routine is in processes’ memory address
 Dynamic linking is particularly useful for
IN LINUX
libraries
 System also known as shared libraries
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Advanced Java Programming Swapping
SYSTEM
 A process can be swapped temporarily out of memory to a
backing store, and then brought back into memory for
continued execution
 Backing store – fast disk large enough to accommodate
copies of all memory images for all users; must provide
direct access to these memory images
PROGRAMMING
 Roll out, roll in – swapping variant used for priority-
based scheduling algorithms; lower-priority process is
swapped out so higher-priority process can be loaded and
executed
 Major part of swap time is transfer time; total transfer
time is directly proportional to the amount of memory
IN LINUX
swapped
 Modified versions of swapping are found on many systems
(i.e., UNIX, Linux, and Windows)
 System maintains a ready queue of ready-to-run
processes which have memory images on disk
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Schematic View of Swapping

SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Contiguous Allocation
SYSTEM
 Main memory usually into two partitions:
Resident operating system, usually held in low
memory with interrupt vector
User processes then held in high memory
 Relocation registers used to protect user
PROGRAMMING
processes from each other, and from changing
operating-system code and data
Base register contains value of smallest physical
address
Limit register contains range of logical addresses –
IN LINUX
each logical address must be less than the limit
register
MMU maps logical address dynamically
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
HW address protection with base and limit registers

SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Contiguous Allocation (Cont.)

SYSTEM
 Multiple-partition allocation
Hole – block of available memory; holes of
various size are scattered throughout memory
When a process arrives, it is allocated memory
from a hole large enough to accommodate it
PROGRAMMING
Operating system maintains information about:
a) allocated partitions b) free partitions (hole)
OS OS OS OS
process 5 process 5 process 5 process 5
IN LINUX
process 9 process 9
process 8 process 10
process 2 process 2 process 2 process 2
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Dynamic Storage-Allocation Problem

SYSTEM
How to satisfy a request of size n from a list of free holes
 First-fit: Allocate the first hole that is big enough

 Best-fit: Allocate the smallest hole that is big
enough; must search entire list, unless ordered by
size
PROGRAMMING
Produces the smallest leftover hole
Worst-fit: Allocate the largest hole; must also
search entire list
Produces the largest leftover hole
Firstfit and bestfit better than worstfit in terms of
speed and storage utilization
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Fragmentation
SYSTEM
 External Fragmentation – total memory space
exists to satisfy a request, but it is not contiguous
 Internal Fragmentation – allocated memory may
be slightly larger than requested memory; this size
difference is memory internal to a partition, but not
being used
PROGRAMMING
 Reduce external fragmentation by compaction
Shuffle memory contents to place all free memory
together in one large block
Compaction is possible only if relocation is dynamic,
and is done at execution time
IN LINUX
I/O problem
• Latch job in memory while it is involved in I/O
• Do I/O only into OS buffers
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Advanced Java Programming Paging
SYSTEM
 Logical address space of a process can be
noncontiguous; process is allocated physical
memory whenever the latter is available
 Divide physical memory into fixed-sized blocks
called frames (size is power of 2, between 512
bytes and 8,192 bytes)
PROGRAMMING
Divide logical memory into blocks of same size

called pages
 Keep track of all free frames
 To run a program of size n pages, need to find n
free frames and load program
IN LINUX
 Set up a page table to translate logical to
physical addresses
 Internal fragmentation
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Address Translation Scheme

SYSTEM
 Address generated by CPU is divided into:
Page number (p) – used as an index into a

page table which contains base address of each
page in physical memory
PROGRAMMING
Page offset (d) – combined with base address
to definepage number
the physical memory address that is
page offset
sent to the memory unit
p d
m n n
IN LINUX
For given logical address space 2m and page size
2n
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Paging Hardware
SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Paging Model of Logical and Physical Memory

SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Paging Example
SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
32byte memory and 4byte pages
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Advanced Java Programming Free Frames
SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
Before allocation After allocation
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Implementation of Page Table

SYSTEM
 Page table is kept in main memory
 Page-table base register (PTBR) points to
the page table
 Page-table length register (PRLR) indicates
size of the page table
In this scheme every data/instruction access
PROGRAMMING

requires two memory accesses. One for the
page table and one for the data/instruction.
 The two memory access problem can be solved
by the use of a special fast-lookup hardware
cache called associative memory or
translation look-aside buffers (TLBs)

IN LINUX
Some TLBs store address-space identifiers
(ASIDs) in each TLB entry – uniquely identifies
each process to provide address-space
protection for that process
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Associative Memory
SYSTEM
 Associative memory – parallel search
Page # Frame #
PROGRAMMING
Address translation (p, d)
If p is in associative register, get frame # out
Otherwise get frame # from page table in memory
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Paging Hardware With TLB

SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Effective Access Time



SYSTEM
Associative Lookup = ε time unit
Assume memory cycle time is 1 microsecond
 Hit ratio – percentage of times that a page number
is found in the associative registers; ratio related to
PROGRAMMING
number of associative registers
 Hit ratio = α
 Effective Access Time (EAT)
EAT = (1 + ε) α + (2 + ε)(1 – α)
=2+ε–α
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Memory Protection
SYSTEM
 Memory protection implemented by
associating protection bit with each frame
 Valid-invalid bit attached to each entry in

the page table:
PROGRAMMING
“valid” indicates that the associated page is in
the process’ logical address space, and is thus
a legal page
“invalid” indicates that the page is not in the
process’ logical address space
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Valid (v) or Invalid (i) Bit In A Page

Table
SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Advanced Java Programming Shared Pages
SYSTEM
 Shared code
One copy of read-only (reentrant) code
shared among processes (i.e., text editors,
compilers, window systems).
Shared code must appear in same location in
PROGRAMMING

the logical address space of all processes
Private code and data

Each process keeps a separate copy of the
IN LINUX
code and data
The pages for the private code and data can
appear anywhere in the logical address space
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Shared Pages Example

SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Structure of the Page Table

SYSTEM
 Hierarchical Paging
 Hashed Page Tables
PROGRAMMING
 Inverted Page Tables
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Hierarchical Page Tables

SYSTEM
 Break up the logical address space into multiple
page tables
 A simple technique is a two-level page table
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Two-Level Page-Table Scheme

SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Two-Level Paging Example

 SYSTEM
A logical address (on 32-bit machine with 1K page size)
is divided into:
a page number consisting of 22 bits
a page offset consisting of 10 bits
PROGRAMMING
Since the page table is paged, the page number is

further divided into:
a 12-bit page number
page number page offset
a 10-bit page offset
pi p2 d
 Thus, a logical address is as follows:
IN LINUX 12 10 10
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Address-Translation Scheme
SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Three-level Paging Scheme

SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Hashed Page Tables

SYSTEM
 Common in address spaces > 32 bits
 The virtual page number is hashed into a page

table. This page table contains a chain of
elements hashing to the same location.
PROGRAMMING
 Virtual page numbers are compared in this
chain searching for a match. If a match is
found, the corresponding physical frame is
IN LINUX
extracted.
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Hashed Page Table

SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Inverted Page Table

SYSTEM
 One entry for each real page of memory
 Entry consists of the virtual address of the
page stored in that real memory location,
with information about the process that
owns that page
PROGRAMMING
 Decreases memory needed to store each
page table, but increases time needed to
search the table when a page reference
occurs
IN LINUX
 Use hash table to limit the search to one
— or at most a few — page-table entries
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Inverted Page Table Architecture

SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Advanced Java Programming Segmentation
SYSTEM
 Memory-management scheme that supports user
view of memory
 A program is a collection of segments. A segment is
a logical unit such as:
main program,
procedure,
PROGRAMMING function,
method,
object,
local variables, global variables,
common block,
IN LINUX
stack,
symbol table, arrays
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
User’s View of a Program

SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Logical View of Segmentation

1 SYSTEM 4
PROGRAMMING 3
4
2
IN LINUX
user space physical memory space
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Segmentation Architecture
SYSTEM
 Logical address consists of a two tuple:
<segment-number, offset>,
 Segment table – maps two-dimensional
physical addresses; each table entry has:
base – contains the starting physical address
PROGRAMMING
where the segments reside in memory
limit – specifies the length of the segment
 Segment-table base register (STBR) points
to the segment table’s location in memory
 Segment-table length register (STLR)
indicates number of segments used by a
IN LINUX
program;
segment number s is legal if s <
STLR
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Segmentation Architecture (Cont.)

SYSTEM
 Protection
With each entry in segment table associate:
• validation bit = 0 ⇒ illegal segment
• read/write/execute privileges
Protection bits associated with segments;
PROGRAMMING

code sharing occurs at segment level
 Since segments vary in length, memory
allocation is a dynamic storage-allocation
problem
IN LINUX
 A segmentation example is shown in the
following diagram
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Segmentation Hardware
SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Example of Segmentation
SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Example: The Intel Pentium


paging
SYSTEM
Supports both segmentation and segmentation with
 CPU generates logical address

Given to segmentation unit
PROGRAMMING
• Which produces linear addresses
Linear address given to paging unit
• Which generates physical address in main memory
• Paging units form equivalent of MMU
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Logical to Physical Address Translation in
Advanced Java Programming Pentium
SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Intel Pentium Segmentation

SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Pentium Paging Architecture

SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Linear Address in Linux

SYSTEM
Broken into four parts:
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Three-level Paging in Linux

SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
LINUX COMMANDS

Objectives
SYSTEM
 In this session, you will learn to:
 Use the basic Unix commands like
pwd
date
PROGRAMMING
who
ls
man
 Use “man” pages
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Simple commands
 pwd SYSTEM
Displays the current working directory.
 date
PROGRAMMING
Displays the current date and time
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Simple commands
 who SYSTEM
Displays the names of all the users who have currently
logged in
PROGRAMMING
 who am i
Displays the name of the current user.
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Listing contents of directory

ls
SYSTEM
•
• Syntax :ls [options] [file….]
• options: -l list in long format
• -a list all file including those
beginning with a dot
• -i list inode no of file in first
PROGRAMMING
column
• -s reports disk blocks occupied by
file
• -R recursively list all sub
directories
IN LINUX
• -F mark type of each file
• -C display files in columns
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Meta characters
SYSTEM
Meta Purpose Example
Characters
* Match with one or more characters or none $ ls –l *.c file*
? Match with any single character $ ls –l file?
[…] Match with any single character within the $ ls –l file[abc]
brackets
; Command separator $ cat file1; cat file2
PROGRAMMING
| Pipe two commands $ cat abc | wc
() Group commands $ (echo “==== x.c ====”; cat x.c) > out
Useful when the output of thecommand group
has to be redirected
`command` Execute the command enclosed within back count=èxpr $count + 1`
quotes. Useful when the output of a command
into a variable in a shell script assuming count has value3, this
IN LINUX
increments the value of count
‘string’ Quote all characters with no substitution echo ‘expr $count + 1’
(ex. no special meaning for $) displays expr $count + 1
“string” Quote all characters with substitution. echo “expr $count + 1”
The characters $, \ (back slash) and back quote displays expr 3 + 1
have special meaning. assuming the variable count has value 3
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Listing contents of directory

 $ ls –l
SYSTEM
 total 6
 -rwxr-xr-x 1 user1 projA 12373 Dec 15 14:45 a.out
 drwxr-xr-x 2 user2 projD 4096 Dec 22 14:00 awkpro
 -rw-r--r-- 1 user1 projA 12831 Dec 12 13:59 c
 -rw------- 1 user1 projA 61440 Dec 15 11:16 core
 -rw-r--r-- 1 user3 projC 255 Dec 20 14:29 cs
PROGRAMMING
File access File size Date & time of File name
permissions User id
in bytes modification
File type Group id
Link count
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Getting help on commands

• The Unix manual, usually called man pages, is available
SYSTEM
on-line to explain the usage of the Unix system and
commands.
• Syntax:
• man [options] command_name
PROGRAMMING
Common Options
-k keyword
matches
list command synopsis line for all keyword
-M path path to man pages

-a show all matching man pages (SVR4)
•
•
IN LINUX
info command_name - help for the internal commands
help -–command_name– gives command synatx
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

Summary

•
SYSTEM
In this session, you have learned to …
use the basic Unix commands like
• pwd
• date
PROGRAMMING
• who
• ls
• man
• use “man” pages
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
FILES AND
DIRECTORIES

Objectives
SYSTEM
 In this session, you will learn to:
set file permissions using the chmod command
use directory-related commands namely mkdir, rmdir,
cd commands
PROGRAMMING
use file-related commands namely cp, mv, rm
commands
access advanced file permissions using commands
umask, suid, sgid, linking files, stickybit
create and edit files using the vi editor
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
File access permissions

 Refers to the permissions associated with a file with
SYSTEM
respect to the following
 Permission Levels
User (owner) (u)
PROGRAMMING
Group (wheel, staff, daemon, etc.) (g)
World (guest, anonymous and all other users) (o)
 Permission Settings
IN LINUX
Read (r)
Write (w)
Execute (x)
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

 No read permission does not allow the user to:

SYSTEM
List the contents of directory
Remove the directory
No Write permission does not allow the user to :
copy files to the directory
PROGRAMMING
remove files from the directory
rename files in the directory
make a subdirectory
remove a subdirectory from the directory
IN LINUX
move files to, and from the directory
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

SYSTEM
 No execute permission does not allow the user to:
display the contents of a directory file from within the

directory
PROGRAMMING
change to the directory
display a file in the directory
IN LINUX
copy a file to, or from the directory
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Changing permissions - chmod

 chmod u+x file_name
SYSTEM
 Syntax:
 chmod <category> <operation> <permission>
<filename(s)>
 or
 chmod <octal number> filename

PROGRAMMING
Octal
4
Number
- for read
2 - for write
3 - for execution
IN LINUX
$ chmod 744 xyz
this will set rwx for user, r– for group, r—for others
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Directory creation
 Command Syntax
SYSTEM
 mkdir [OPTION] DIRECTORY
 $mkdir <path>/<directory>
 $mkdir –m <directory>
 $mkdir –p
<directory1>/<directory2>/<directory3>
PROGRAMMING
Example:
 mkdir project1
IN LINUX
 This creates a directory project1 under current
directory
 Note: Write and execute permissions are needed

for the user to create a directory
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Directory removal
 rmdir command removes directory
SYSTEM
 Syntax
rmdir <directory name>
 Example
 Removes project1 directory in the current directory
rmdir project1
PROGRAMMING


Remove multiple directories
rmdir pos1 pos2
 Remove the directory recursively
 rmdir –p dir1/dir2/dir2
IN LINUX
 Rule: rmdir can be executed to remove a directory
if it is empty and not the current directory
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Command - cd

directory
SYSTEM
cd command is used to change the
PROGRAMMING
cd
cd ..
cd /
- take to the home directory
- takes to the parent directory
- takes to the root directory
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
File related commands

SYSTEM
File Command
Operation
Copying cp
a file
mv
PROGRAMMING
Moving a file
Removing rm
a file
cat
IN LINUX
Displayinga file
and concatenating files
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Command - cp

 Syntax
SYSTEM
Used to copy files across directories
 cp <source file> <new file name>
PROGRAMMING
 Example
 cp file1 file2
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Command - cp
 -p
•
owner id
group id
SYSTEM
Copies the file and preserves the following attributes
•
• permissions
• last modification time

PROGRAMMING
-r
recursive copy; copy subdirectories under the directory if
any
 -i
IN LINUX
interactive; prompts for confirmation before overwriting the
target file, if it already exists
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Command - mv

SYSTEM
Used to move a file, or rename a file
 Preserves the following details

• owner id
PROGRAMMING
• group id
• permissions
• Last modification time
 -f suppresses all prompting (forces overwriting of target)
IN LINUX
 -i prompts before overwriting destination file
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Command – rm
 Used to remove a file

•
-f
SYSTEM
Syntax : rm file(s)
suppresses all prompting
-i prompts before overwriting destination file
PROGRAMMING

 -r will recursively remove the file from a directory

(can be used to delete a directory along with the
content )

IN LINUX
Caution: Use “i” option along with “r” to get
notified on deletion
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Command – chown & chgrp

 $ ls –l
 -rwxr-xr-x 1user1 training 12373 Dec 15 14:45 a.out
SYSTEM
 -rwxr-xr-x 3 user1 faculty 4096 Dec 24 11:56 awkpro
 $chown user2 a.out
 $ls –l
-rwxr-xr-x 3 user1 faculty 4096 Dec 24 11:56 awkpro
PROGRAMMING

 $ chgrp training awkpro

 $ls –l
 -rwxr-xr-x 3 user1 training 4096 Dec 24 11:56 awkpro
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Command - umask
 umask value is used to set the default permission of
SYSTEM
a file and directory while creating
 umask command is used to see the default mask for
the file permission
 Default umask value will be set in the system
PROGRAMMING
environment file like /etc/profile
 umask 022 will set a mask of 022 for the current
session
The file permission after setting this umask
IN LINUX
value will be 644
And the directory permission will be 755
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Command - ln
 Linking files
 SYSTEM
Hard Link (in the same filesystem)
$ ln /usr/bin/clear /usr/bin/cls

PROGRAMMING
Hard link uses the same inode number
Soft Link (in different filesystems also used to link

directories)
IN LINUX
$ ln –s /usr/bin/clear /home/user1/cls
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Special permission bits

 Set user ID (SUID)
SYSTEM
This means that if the SUID bit is set for any application
then your user ID would be set as that of the owner of
application/file rather than the current user, while running
that application
PROGRAMMING
“set user ID” bit can be set in one of the two ways:
• chmod u+s <filename>
• chmod 4755 <filename>
IN LINUX
• The leftmost octal number 4 indicates “set user ID” bit to be set,
other octal digits indicate regular file permissions. This is
meaningful for executable files only.
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

 Set group id (SGID)
SYSTEM
Just like SUID, setting the SGID bit for a file sets your
group ID to the file's group while the file is executing
“set group ID” bit can be set in one of the two ways:
PROGRAMMING
• chmod g+s <filename>
• chmod 2755 <filename>
• The leftmost octal number 2 indicates “set group ID” bit to be

set, other octal digits indicate regular file permissions. This is
IN LINUX
meaningful for executable files only.
Click to edit Master text styles

 Second level
| U. K. Roy |
• Third level [ ]

 Sticky bit (SVTX)
SYSTEM
Typically set to a directory that is shareable
Any user can create a file in such sharable directory
Only owner of the file or super user (root) can remove a
file from the directory
PROGRAMMING
“sticky” bit can be set in one of the two ways:
• chmod +t <directoryname>
• chmod 1555 <directoryname>
IN LINUX
• The leftmost octal number 1 indicates “sticky” bit to be set, other
octal digits indicate regular file permissions.
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

vi editor
 vi is a visual editor used to create and edit text files.
SYSTEM
A screen-oriented text editor
Included with most UNIX system distributions
Command driven
PROGRAMMING
 Categories of commands include
Cursor movement
Editing commands
Search and replace commands

<filename> IN LINUX
The vi editor is invoked by the following command: vi
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

Navigation
the
the
2
w
q
q
Backspa
uick
uick
w
h
ce
SYSTEM
brown
brown
fox
fox
j k
the
the
q
q
Spa
uick
uick
ce
brown
$
brown
^
fox
fox
the quick brown fox
b b b
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Editing commands
 Text insertion / replacement
i
a
SYSTEM
- inserts text to the left of the cursor
- inserts text to the right of the cursor
I - inserts text at the beginning of the line
PROGRAMMING
A - appends text at end of the line
o - opens line below
O - opens line above
R - replaces text from cursor to right
s - replaces a single character with any number of
S IN LINUX
characters
- replaces entire line
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Editing commands
 Deletion
x
3x
SYSTEM
- to delete character at cursor position
- to delete 3 characters at cursor position
dw - to delete word
PROGRAMMING
2dw - to delete 2 word
dd - to delete a line
2dd - to delete 2 lines
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Editing commands
 Yanking
SYSTEM
Y- copy line into buffer
3Y - copy 3 lines into buffer
p - copy buffer below cursor
P - copy buffer above cursor

PROGRAMMING
Save and quit
:w - to save
:w! - to name a file (:w! filename -> save as)
IN LINUX
:x - save and quit
:q - cancel changes
:q! - cancel and quit
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Search & replace commands

 The following commands are applicable for vi editor in Linux

/pat
cursor SYSTEM
searches for the pattern pat and places
where pattern occurs.
PROGRAMMING
 / repeat last search
 :%s/old/new/g to change every occurrence in the whole

file.

 :#,#s/old/new/g
numbers of IN LINUX where #,# are replaced with the
the two lines.
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

Summary

to …
SYSTEM
In this session, you have learned how
use file permissions using the chmod command
PROGRAMMING
use directory-related commands namely mkdir, rmdir, cd
commands
use file-related commands namely cp, mv, rm commands
access advanced file permissions using commands umask,
suid, sgid, linking the files, stickybit
IN LINUX
create and edit files using the vi editor
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Chapter 4
UNIX Utilities

Objectives
In this session, you will learn to:
SYSTEM

use the Unix Utilities like

• cat, echo, touch, more, file, wc, cmp, comm, find
employ redirection operators
use filters like
PROGRAMMING
• sort, grep, cut, head, tail, tr, and paste
use communication commands
• telnet, ftp
use backup commands
IN LINUX
• zip/gzip and tar
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

cat
• cat command takes the input from the keyboard, and
SYSTEM
sends the output to the monitor
• We can redirect the input and output using the

redirection operators
PROGRAMMING
$ cat>file1
Type the content here
press <ctrl d>
$ cat file1
IN LINUX
Displays the content of the file
$cat>>file1 (will append to the content of the
file)
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

touch

SYSTEM
touch is used to change the time stamp of the file
 Syntax: touch [options] file

 Options:
PROGRAMMING
a to change the access time
m to change the modification time
c no create if not exists
 touch <file> will change the time of change of the file if the file
exists

IN LINUX
If the file does not exist, it will create a file of zero byte size.
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

echo & read
echo command is used to print output to the
SYSTEM
screen
echo “This is an example”
This is an example
PROGRAMMING
x=10
echo $x
10
IN LINUX
read command allows to read input from user and
assign it to the variable specified.
read x
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
General purpose utilities

 more
 file
time. SYSTEM
Allows user to view one page-full of information at a
Used to display the type of the file
PROGRAMMING
tty

Prints the terminal’s name
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

 wc
SYSTEM
A filter used to count the number of lines, words, and
characters in a disk file or from the standard input.
-l - displays the number of lines
-w - displays the number of words
PROGRAMMING
-c - displays the number of characters
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

 cmp
SYSTEM
Returns the offset and the line number of the first
position where the two files differ.
 comm
PROGRAMMING
col1 - unique lines of first file
col2 - unique lines of second file
col3 - common lines
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

 diff
SYSTEM
Indicate the differences between the files
a Lines added
d Lines deleted
c Lines changed
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

find
 Lets user to search set of files and

SYSTEM
directories based on various criteria
Syntax: find [path...] [expression]
 [path]
PROGRAMMING
where to search
 [expression]
what type of file to search (specified with –type option)
What action to be applied (–exec, –print, etc.)
Name of the files (specified as part of –name option, enclosed in

“ “)
Example IN LINUX
find . –name “*.c” -print
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

find
Finding files on the basis of file size
SYSTEM

– size [+ –]n[bc]
• n represents size in bytes (c) or blocks (b) of 512

bytes
PROGRAMMING
• find . –size 1000c
exactly 1000 bytes in size
• find . –size +1000c
lists all files that are
lists all files that are more

than 1000 bytes in size
• find . –size –1000c lists all files that are less
IN LINUX
than 1000 bytes in size
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

find
Finding files on the basis of access time (atime) or
SYSTEM

modified time (mtime)
– atime [+-]n
– mtime [+-]n
PROGRAMMING
• n represents number of days ( actually 24 * n hours)
• find . –atime 2 lists files accessed exactly 2

days ago
• find . –atime +2 lists files accessed more than
IN LINUX
2 days ago
• find / –mtime –2 lists files modified less than
2 days ago
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

find
Applying a command on files matching the criteria with –
SYSTEM

exec and –ok options
– exec command {} \;
• command is command to be applied on the matching files
PROGRAMMING
(does not prompt user)
• find . -name “*.dat” –exec ls –l {} \;
• Long listing of all files with .dat extension in the current and
its subdirectories
-ok command {} \;
IN LINUX
• Functionality is similar to –exec, but prompts user before
applying the command on the file matching the criteria.
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

pr
• pr
•
• SYSTEM
Used to display a file in a format to be printed.
Breaks up a file into pages with a header, text and
footer area
PROGRAMMING
• Options
-l to alter the length of the file
-h to set the header
-t to suppress the header and the footer
IN LINUX
-n to set the line number
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Standard files
 Standard Input file
SYSTEM
Keyboard, file descriptor is 0
 Standard Output file

Monitor, file descriptor is 1
 PROGRAMMING
Standard Error file
Monitor, file descriptor is 2
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
I/O redirection
< file redirect standard input from file
SYSTEM

 > file redirect standard output to file
 2> file redirect standard error to file
 2>&1 merge standard error with standard
output
PROGRAMMING
 $ cat > abc
 $ ls –l > outfile
 $ cat xyz abc > outfile 2> errfile
 IN LINUX
$ cat xyz abc > outfile 2>&1
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

Filters
 Filters are programs that takes its input from the
SYSTEM
standard input file, process it, and sends it to the
standard output file.
 Commonly used filter commands
PROGRAMMING
sort
grep
cut
head
IN LINUX
tail
paste
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

sort
SYSTEM
 Sorts the contents of the given file based on the first
char of each line.
 -n --numeric sort
 -r --Reverse sort
-t -Specify delimiter for fields
PROGRAMMING

 +num -specify sorting field numbers

 +num -num - to specify the range

IN LINUX
can specify the characters in the field
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

grep
SYSTEM
grep -Global Regular Expression Printer is used for

searching regular expressions
 Syntax
grep <options> <pattern> <filename(s)>
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
grep options
-c displays count of the number of

occurrences
-n
SYSTEM
displays line numbers along with the lines
PROGRAMMING
-v displays all lines except lines matching
pattern
-i Ignores case for matching
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

Patterns
 * - matches 0 or more characters

r
SYSTEM
[^pqr] - Matches a single character which is not p ,q or
 ^pqr -Matches pqr at the beginning of the line
 PROGRAMMING
pqr$ -Matches pqr at the end of the line
 “.” - Matches any one character

filename IN LINUX
\ - ignores the special meaning. grep “New\[abc\]”
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Filter command - head

SYSTEM
 Displays the top n lines of the file
 Can specify top n lines to be displayed
 $ head -3 file1
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Filter command - tail

 Displays the end of the file


SYSTEM
Can specify last n lines to be displayed
 $ tail -3 file1

PROGRAMMING
Can also specify the line number from which the data
has to be displayed
 $ tail +5 file1
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Filter command - tr
SYSTEM
 tr - translate filter used to translate a given set of
characters
 usage :
PROGRAMMING
tr [a-z] [A-Z] <filename
 option -s can be used to squeeze the repeated

characters.
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Filter command - tr
SYSTEM
 Useful options for tr
 -s char
Squeeze multiple contiguous occurrences of the character
PROGRAMMING
into single char
 -d char
Remove the character
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Command piping
SYSTEM
• Allows the output (only the standard output) of a
command to be sent as input to another command.
• Multiple pipes may appear in one command line.

PROGRAMMING
Example:
 $ cat * | wc

IN LINUX
$ cat fil1 | head | wc -l
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Filter command - tee

• tee command allows the normal output to the
•
SYSTEM
standard output, as well as to a file
Useful to capture intermediate output of a long

command pipeline for further processing, or
debugging purpose.
• PROGRAMMING
Example
• who | tee userlist
• cat - | tee file1 | wc -l
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Filter command - cut

Used to extract specified columns from the output
SYSTEM

of certain commands
 -c used to extract characters
 -d Delimiter for fields
 -f Field no.



PROGRAMMING
Examples
cut -c2-5 file1
cut -d “|” -f2,3 file1
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Filter command - paste

Paste is used to fix two cut portions of the file
SYSTEM

vertically
 -s Pastes the contents of file2 below file1
PROGRAMMING
 -d Specify delimiter
 $ paste -d”|” file1 file2
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

telnet
SYSTEM
telnet hostname
or
telnet <ip address>
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

ftp
ftp hostname
SYSTEM
put/send: Transfer to Other hosts
put [local_file [remote_file]]
PROGRAMMING
get/recv: Transfer From Other hosts
get [remote_file [local_file]]
IN LINUX
mput: Multiple Transfer to Other hosts
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Compression utilities
gzip,
SYSTEM
Usage is very similar to compress and pack utilities in Unix:
gzip [-vc] filename
PROGRAMMING
where -v displays the compression ratio.
-c sends the compressed output to standard output and leaves
the original file intact.
gunzip
IN LINUX
gunzip can uncompress files originally compressed with compress.
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Tape archive - tar

SYSTEM
• Tar is an archiving utility to store and retrieve files
from an archive, known as tarfile.
• Though archives are created on a tape, it is common

to have them as disk files as well.
PROGRAMMING
– tar c|t|x [vf destination] source...
 Examples:
IN LINUX
 Create a new tar file containing all .dat files (assuming
a.dat, b.dat and c.dat exist)
 $ tar –cf mytar *.dat
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

Summary
• In this session, you have learned to:
SYSTEM
• use the Unix Utilities like
• cat, echo, touch, more, file, wc, cmp,
comm, find
• employ redirection operators
PROGRAMMING
• use filters like
• sort, grep, cut, head, tail, tr, and paste
• communication commands
• telnet, ftp
IN LINUX
• backup commands
• zip/gzip and tar
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Chapter 5
Process

Objectives
• In this session, you will learn to:
•
• SYSTEM
Define a process
Use process-related commands like
• ps, kill, sleep
• Start a Background process
PROGRAMMING
• Use background and foreground-related commands
like
• bg, fg, jobs , nice , nohup
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

Process
•
SYSTEM
Process - a program in execution
When program is executed, a new process is

created.
•
PROGRAMMING
The process is alive till the execution of the program
is complete.
Each process is identified by a number called pid.
IN LINUX
•
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

Login shell
As soon as the user logs in, a process is created which
SYSTEM

executes the login shell.
 Login shell is set for each login in /etc/passwd file.
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

ps
The ps command is used to display the characteristics of a
SYSTEM
•
process
• It fetches the pid, tty, time, and the command which has
started the process.
PROGRAMMING
-f lists the pid of the parent process also.
-u lists the processes of a given user
-a lists the processes of all the users
-e lists all the processes including the system
processes
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Background process
 SYSTEM
Enables the user to do more than one task at a time.
If the command terminates with an ampersand (&),
UNIX executes the command in the background
 Shell returns by displaying the process ID (PID) and job
PROGRAMMING
id of the process
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Background process
 nohup
SYSTEM
Lets processes to continue to run even after logout
The output of the command is sent to nohup.out if not
redirected
PROGRAMMING
$ nohup command args
$ nohup sort emp.lst &

[1] 21356
IN LINUX
nohup: appending output to `nohup.out'
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Background process
 wait command
SYSTEM
can be used when a process has to wait for the output
of a background process
The wait command, can be used to let the shell wait
PROGRAMMING
for all background processes terminate.
$ wait
It is possible to wait for completion of one specific
process as well.
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Controlling background process

• jobs
•
SYSTEM
List the background process
• fg % <job id>
PROGRAMMING
• Runs a process in the foreground
• bg %<job id>
• Runs a process in the background
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Process priority
SYSTEM
• nice
• Used to reduce the priority of jobs
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

kill
•
SYSTEM
kill: Kills or terminates a process
• kill command send a signal to the process

The default signal is 15 ( SIGTERM)
PROGRAMMING
• kill -9 (SIGKILL)
• Terminates the process abruptly
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

Summary
• In this session, you learned to:
•
• SYSTEM
Define a process
Use process-related commands like
• ps, kill, sleep
Start a background process
PROGRAMMING
•
• Use background and foreground-related

commands like
• bg, fg, jobs
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Chapter 6
UNIX Shell Programming


Objectives
• In this session, you will learn to:
•
•
SYSTEM
Use Shell variables
Write scripts to process positional parameters
Use “test” command
• Use “if” construct
PROGRAMMING
• Use “for” loop
• Use “while” loop
• Use “case” construct
• Define and use functions
IN LINUX
• Debug shell scripts
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Flavors of UNIX shell

SYSTEM
• Bourne shell sh
• C shell csh
PROGRAMMING
• Korn shell ksh
• Bourne again shell bash

• (shell distributed with linux)
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Command processing
•
by the user. SYSTEM
Displays the shell prompt and reads the command typed
• Interprets the command and classifies it as an internal
PROGRAMMING
(built-in), or an external command.
• If it is NOT a built-in command, searches for the

command in the PATH-specified directories, and
executes that command if it is found.
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Shell features
SYSTEM
Parent shell process
(bash)
$ vi test.c
command typed by
fork user
PROGRAMMING
Child shell process
Exec of “vi test.c”
(bash) User
Mode
Kernel
IN LINUX
Mode
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Additional shell features

•
SYSTEM
Each shell, apart from the basic features, provides additional
features such as:
PROGRAMMING
Maintaining command history (C, korn and bash)
Renaming (aliasing) a command (C, korn, bash)
Command editing (C, korn and bash)
IN LINUX
Programming language (all shells)
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

History
SYSTEM
• some UNIX shells support command history
• facility to keeps track of commands that were executed
• facility to rerun previously executed commands
• bash shell supports the following
PROGRAMMING
!! recall the last command and execute it.
!num execute nth command where n is the
IN LINUX
the num specified after !
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

alias
SYSTEM
• alias can be used to give new name to an existing command
• A better name that represents a single command or a sequence of
commands to be executed, often with appropriate options
• alias is an internal command
PROGRAMMING
alias newname=command
$ alias l=‘ls –l’
IN LINUX
The unalias command cancels previously defined alias.
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
File name substitution

When the user enters a command string, the shell parses
SYSTEM
•
the string into following components:
• Command (the first part of the string, till the first
space char)
Command arguments (the subsequent parts of
PROGRAMMING
•
the string)
• For example, given the command-string “ls –l *.c”, this

string contains the “ls” command and two arguments “-l”
and “*.c”.
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
File name substitution

SYSTEM
• In arguments of a command, the shell recognizes
certain characters – such as *, ?, [ ], and - as
special characters and expands these characters
into a filename list before executing the command.
PROGRAMMING
• To see how this works, enter following commands
while in /bin directory
$ ls a*
$ ls ??
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Shell programming
• Allows
•
• SYSTEM
Defining and referencing variables
Logic control structures such as if, for,
while, case
• Input and output
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Shell variables
• A variable is a name associated with a data value, and it
SYSTEM
offers a symbolic way to represent and manipulate data
variables in the shell. They are classified as follows
• user-defined variables
• environment variables
•
PROGRAMMING
predefined variables
• value assigned to the variable can then be referred to by

preceding the variable name with a $ sign.
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Shell variables
•
variables.
SYSTEM
The shell provides the facility to define normal, and environment
• A normal variable can be only used in the shell where it is

defined.
•
PROGRAMMING
An environment variable can be used in the shell where it is
defined, plus any child shells invoked from that shell.
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Using normal variables

• To define a normal variable, use the following
SYSTEM
syntax:
variable_name=value
• Examples:
PROGRAMMING
$ x=10
$ textline_1=‘This line was entered by
$USER’
$ textline_2=“This line was entered by
$USER”
IN LINUX
$ allusers=`who`
$ usercount=`who | wc –l`
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Using normal variables

SYSTEM
• Once variables are defined, one can use the echo
command to display the value of each variable:
$ echo $x
$ echo $textline_1
PROGRAMMING
$ echo $textline_2
$ echo $allusers
$ echo $usercount
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Using environment variables

•
SYSTEM
To define an environment variable, use following syntax:
variable_name=value
• export variable_name
•
PROGRAMMING
Examples:
• $ x=10; export x
• $ allusers=`who` ; export allusers
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Built-in environment variables

• PATH
• BASH_ENV SYSTEM • MAIL
• USER
• HOME • LOGNAME
PROGRAMMING
• PWD • PS1
• SHELL • PS2
• TERM
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Sample shell script



#! /bin/bash
#
SYSTEM
 # The above line has a special meaning. It must be the
 # first line of the script. It says that the commands in
PROGRAMMING
 # this shell script should be executed by the bash
 # shell (/bin/bash).
 # ---------------------------------------------------------------
 echo “Hello $USER….”
 echo “Welcome to programming shell scripts..”
# ---------------------------------------------------------------
IN LINUX

| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Executing shell scripts

There are two ways of executing a shell script:
SYSTEM
By passing the shell script name as an argument
to the shell. For example:
PROGRAMMING
sh script1.sh
If the shell script is assigned execute permission,

it can be executed using it’s name. For example:
./script1.sh IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Passing parameters to scripts

•
SYSTEM
parameter can be passed to a shell script
• parameters are specified after the name of the shell script when
invoking the script.
•
PROGRAMMING
Within the shell script, parameters are referenced using the
predefined variables $1 through $9.
• In case of more than 9 parameters, other parameters can be

accessed by shifting.
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Built-in variables
• SYSTEM
Following are built-in variables
supported
• $0, $1…$9 - positional arguments
PROGRAMMING
• $* - all arguments
• $@ - all arguments
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

SYSTEM
• Consider following shell script:
 ----------------------script2.sh--------------------------
 echo “Total parameters entered: $#”
 echo “First parameter is : $1”
PROGRAMMING
 echo “The parameters are: $*”
 shift
 echo “First parameter is : $1”
 ------------------------------------------------------------
IN LINUX
• Execute the above script using the “script2.sh these
are the parameters” command.
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

SYSTEM
The shell parameters are passed as strings.
•
• to pass a string containing multiple words as a single

parameter, it must be enclosed within quotes.

PROGRAMMING
For example,
$ script2.sh “this string is a single

parameter”
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Doing arithmetic operations

 Arithmetic operations within a shell script can be
 Example,
SYSTEM
performed using expr command.
• x=10
y=5
PROGRAMMING
•
number_1 = èxpr $x + $y`

number_2 = èxpr $x - $y`
number_3 = èxpr $x / $y`
IN LINUX
number_4 = èxpr $x \* $y`
number_5 = èxpr $x % $y`
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Using the test command

 The general syntax of test command is:
SYSTEM
test <expression>
PROGRAMMING
• The expression can be formed using a
combination of shell variables and the operators
supported by the test command. These operators
provide facility to compare numbers, string and
logical values, file types and file access modes.
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]


available:
SYSTEM
To compare two integers using test following operators are
-eq (equal to)
PROGRAMMING
-ne (not equal to)
-lt (less than)
-le (less than or equal to)
-gt (greater than)
-ge (greater than or equal to)
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]


SYSTEM
Please note that you can only compare two integers using test.
 General syntax
PROGRAMMING
test [expression]
test integer1 operator integer2

OR
[ integer1 operator integer2 ]
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

 SYSTEM
To compare two strings using the test command, following
operators are available:
string1 = string2 (equal to, please note it is a single =)
PROGRAMMING
string1 != string2 (not equal to)
string1 (string is not NULL)
-n string1 (string is not NULL and exists)
-z string1 (string is NULL and exists)
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]


SYSTEM
The syntax for this string comparison is:
test string1 operator string2

OR
PROGRAMMING
[ string1 operator string2 ]
OR
test operator string
OR
[ operator string ]
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

SYSTEM
 To check a file type/access permissions using the
test command, following operators are available:
-s file (file is not empty and exists)
PROGRAMMING
-f file (Ordinary file and exists)
-d file (file is a directory and exists)
-r file (file is readable and exists)
-w file (file is write-able and exists)
IN LINUX
-x file (file is executable and exists)
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

 To check a file type/access permissions using the
SYSTEM
test command, following operators are available:
-b file (file is a block device and exists)

-c file (file is a character device and exists)
PROGRAMMING
-p file (file is a named pipe and exists)
-g file (file has sticky bit set)
-u file (file has setuid bit set)
IN LINUX
-t file_des (file descriptor is standard
output)
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Combining conditions
SYSTEM
It is possible to combine conditions by using
following operators:
-a (logical AND operator)
PROGRAMMING
-o (logical OR operator)
! (logical NOT operator)
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Combining conditions
 The syntax for this is:
OR SYSTEM
test expression_1 –a expression _2,
[ expression _1 –a expression _2 ]
PROGRAMMING
test expression_1 –o expression _2,
OR
[ expression_1 –o expression_2 ]
test ! expression _1
OR
IN LINUX
[ ! expression _1 ]
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Condition checking in scripts


SYSTEM
Bash shell provides the if command to test if a condition is true.
The general format of this command is:
if condition
PROGRAMMING
then
command
fi
IN LINUX
 The condition is typically formed using the test command.
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

Example

directory
SYSTEM
# to check if the current directory is the same as your home
 curdir=`pwd`
 if test “$curdir” != “$HOME”
PROGRAMMING
 then
 echo your home dir is not the same as your pesent
working directory
 else
 echo $HOME is your current directory
 fi
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Checking multiple conditions

SYSTEM
 The complex form of if statement is as follows:
if condition_1
then
PROGRAMMING
command
elif condition_2
then
command
else
fi
command
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Using for loop


for loop. SYSTEM
The Bash shell provides a
 Example:
 The syntax of this loop

is:
 for i in 1 2 3 4 5
PROGRAMMING do

for variable in list  echo -n $i \* $i =

" "
do
 echo èxpr $i \*
command
IN LINUX
$i `
…  done
command
done
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

Example
SYSTEM
 ----------------------script.sh--------------------------
#! /bin/sh
usernames=`who | cut –d “ “ –f1`
echo “Total users logged in = $#usernames”
PROGRAMMING
#
for user in ${usernames}
do
echo $user
done
IN LINUX
------------------------------------------------------------
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Using while loop


SYSTEM
The Bash shell provides a while loop. The syntax of this loop is:
while condition
do
PROGRAMMING command
…
command
done
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

Example

 eg: read nam
SYSTEM
Shell script checks for a blank/non blank string
 while [ -z “$nam” ]
 do
PROGRAMMING
 read nam
 done
 echo the string is $nam
 the above piece of code keeps accepting string variable nam

until it is non zero in length.
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

Example
 #!/bin/bash
SYSTEM
Shell script to compute factorial of a given number
 n=$1
PROGRAMMING
 if [ $n -eq 0 ]; then
 fact=0
 else
 fact=1
 while [ $n –ne 0 ]
 do
IN LINUX
 fact=èxpr $fact \* $n`
 n=èxpr $n – 1`
 done
 fi
 echo $fact
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
case statement

SYSTEM
- THE CASE STATEMENT
case value in
 pattern1)
 command
PROGRAMMING
 command;;
 pattern2)
 command
 command;;
 patternn)
IN LINUX
 command;;
 esac
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

Example
 #!/bin/bash
SYSTEM
echo enter a choice

 read choice
 case $choice in
 1) echo enter 2 nos
PROGRAMMING
 read num1
 read num2
 res=èxpr $num1 + $num2`
 echo result is $res;;
 2) who;;
IN LINUX
*) echo invalid choice;;

esac
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

Example
 #!/bin/bash
read number
SYSTEM

 case $number
 1) echo 1st
 break;;
PROGRAMMING
 2) echo 2nd
 break;;
 3) echo 3rd
 break;;
 *) echo ${number}th
break;;
IN LINUX

 esac
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

Functions
 SYSTEM
Shell functions are a way to group commands for later execution
using a single name for the group. They are executed just like a
"regular" command.
PROGRAMMING
 Shell functions are executed in the current shell context; no new
process is created to interpret them. Functions are declared
using this syntax:
 [ function ] name () { command-list; }
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

Functions


SYSTEM
Shell functions can accept arguments
Arguments are passed in the same way as given to commands
 Functions refer to arguments using $1, $2 etc., similar to the
way shell scripts refer to command line arguments
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

Functions
SYSTEM
 Function to convert standard input into upper case
 toupper()
 {
PROGRAMMING
 tr A-Z a-z
 }
 This function can be used as

IN LINUX
$ cat abc | toupper
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Debugging shell scripts

SYSTEM
 Two options help in debugging shell scripts
“-v” (verbose) option:
 causes shell to print the lines of the script as
they are read.
PROGRAMMING

 $ bash –v script-file
“-x” (verbose) option:
IN LINUX
 prints commands and their arguments as they
are executed.
 $ bash –x script-file
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Programming in C vs shell
Comparison between
SYSTEM

• A solution in C
• A shell solution written like a C program
• A proper “shell/unix” solution
PROGRAMMING
 e.g:
 The problem is to count the no of lines in a file ( the
file is called the_file)
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Programming in C vs shell
C program to count lines in a file Solution in Bash

#include <stdio.h>
count=0
void main(void)
while read line
{
do
 int lcount=0;
 count=èxpr $count +
 FILE *infile;
1`
 char line[500]; done < the_file

infile=fopen("the_file","r");
echo Number of lines is
 while(!feof(infile)) {
$count using existing
Solution
 fgets(line,500,infile); 
 lcount ++; commands
 }
 printf("no of lines is $ wc –l the_file
%d\n",lcount);
}

Summary
• In this session, you have learned to:
SYSTEM
Use Shell variables
•
• Write scripts to process positional parameters

• Use “test” command
• Use “if” construct
PROGRAMMING
•
•
Use “for” loop
Use “while” loop
• Use “case” construct
IN LINUX
Define and use functions
•
• Debug shell scripts
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
Bibliography
 UNIX for the Impatient, Paul W.

SYSTEM
Abrahams & Bruce R. Larson
(Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company, 1992, ISBN 0-201-
55703-7).

PROGRAMMING
UNIX in a Nutshell for BSD 4.3: A
Desktop Quick Reference For
Berkeley (O'Reilly & Associates,
IN LINUX
Inc., 1990, ISBN 0-937175-20-X).
(A handy reference for BSD.)
 UNIX in a Nutshell: A Desktop Quick
| U. K. Roy | [ ]
SYSTEM
Thank You
PROGRAMMING
IN LINUX
| U. K. Roy | [ ]

System Programming in Linux

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System Programming in Linux

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SYSTEM

Dept. of Information Technology,

 Introduction to Operating Systems and

 Linux Systems Programming

Advanced Java Programming

• Andrew S. Tanenbaum, “Operating Systems”

• William Stallings, “Operating Systems”, Prentice-Hall India

• Sumitabha Das, “Unix Shell Programming”, A Tata McGraw-Hill

• Daniel P. Bovet, Marco Cesati, “Understanding the Linux

Computer System Organization

Components of a Computer System

Application programs – define the ways in which the

What is an Operating System?

Operating System Functions?

Main Memory Management

Operating System Functions?

 I/O System Management

 Secondary Storage Management

 Command Interpreter System

Process Management SYSTEM

 Process needs resources to accomplish its task

 Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable

 Single-threaded process has one program counter

 Multi-threaded process has one program counter per

 Typically system has many processes, some user,

Advanced Java Programming Process States

Process Control Block(PCB)

Multiprogramming needed for efficiency

CPU–I/O Burst Cycle – Process execution consists

Advanced Java Programming Scheduling

Histogram of CPU-burst Times

Advanced Java Programming CPU Scheduler

 CPU scheduling decisions may take place when a process:

 Scheduling under 1 and 4 is nonpreemptive

Advanced Java Programming Dispatcher

 Dispatch latency – time it takes for the

 Response time IN LINUX

Scheduling Algorithm Goals

First-Come, First-Served (FCFS) Scheduling

FCFS Scheduling (Cont.)

Shortest-Job-First (SJR) Scheduling

Associate with each process the length of

 SJF is optimal – gives minimum average

Example of Non-Preemptive SJF

Example of Preemptive SJF

Advanced Java Programming Burst

 Can only estimate the length

1. t n = actual lenght of n th CPU burst

Advanced Java Programming Burst

Examples of Exponential Averaging

 If we expand the formula, we get:

 Since both α and (1 - α) are less than or

 A priority number (integer) is associated with each process

 Problem ≡ Starvation – low priority processes may never execute

Solution ≡ Aging – as time progresses increase the priority of the

Round Robin (RR)

 If there are n processes in the ready queue and the

Advanced Java Programming

0 20 37 57 77 97 117 121 134 154 162

Turnaround Time Varies With The Time Quantum

 Ready queue is partitioned into separate

 Each queue has its own scheduling algorithm

 Scheduling must be done between the queues