AIR POLLUTION ENGINEERING MANUAL

SECOND EDITION Compiled and Edited

by

John A. Donielron

AIR P O L L U T I O N CONTROL DISTRICT C O U N T Y OF LOS ANGELES

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY Office of Air ond Water Programs Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards Research Triangle P a r k N.C. M a y 1973 27711

The A P s e r i e s of reports i s published by the Technical Publications Branch of the Information Services Division of the Office of Administration for the Office of Air and Water P r o g r a m s , Environmental Protection Agency, to report the results of scientific and engineering studies, and information of general i n t e r e s t in the field of a i r pollution. Information reported in this s e r i e s includes coverage of intramural activities and of cooperative studies conducted in conjunction with state and local agencies, r e s e a r c h institutes, and industrial organizations. Copies of A P reports a r e available f r e e of charge to Federal employees, current contractors and grantees, andnonprofit organizations - a s supplies permit - f r o m the Air Pollution Technical Information Center, Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711 o r f r o m the Superintendent of Documents.

Publication No. AP-40

FOREWORD

As concern f o r the quality of the atmosphere has grown, so also has the response to that concern. Federal, State, andlocal programs a r e assuming increasingly greater responsibility in the development and practice of the many disciplines that contribute to understanding and resolution of the a i r pollution problem. Rapid program expansion imposes even greater demands for the dissemination of knowledge in the field of a i r pollution control. Much work has been accomplished by competent scientists and engineers. However, in many instances, the experience gained has not been transcribed and organized into a form readily accessible to those most in need of id'ormation.

We a r e pleased, therefore, to have the opportunity to make available this second edition of the Air Pollution Engineering Manual. Distilling a s i t does the equivalent of hundreds of man-years of painstaking engineering innovation in the a i r pollution control field under one cover, it has become a valuable-if not indispensable-tool,
The manual is an outgrowth of the practical knowledge gained by the technical personnel of the Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control District, long recognized a s outstanding in the field. District personnel have worked closely with industry to develop emission controls where none formerly existed. It will be noted that there a r e categories of industrial emissions that a r e not discussed. The reason i s that engineering controlapplications a r e described for only those industries located i n Los Angeles County. Realizing the value of this manual to the field of a i r pollution, Mr. Robert L. Chass, Air Pollution ControlOfficer of Los Angeles County, has authorized the up-dating of the manual into this second edition. The editorial and technical content were developed exclusively by the District. The staff, in turn, was supervised during the development of the manual by Mr. Robert G. Lunche, Chief Deputy Air Pollution Control Officer, and Mr. E r i c Lemke, Director of Engineering. Mr. John A. Danielson, Senior Air Pollution Engineer, has again served a s editor. The Environmental Protection Agency, recognizing the need for such a manual, is pleased to serve a s publisher.

The f i r s t edition of the Air PollutionEngineering Manualwas acknowledged by its readers to be an outstanding and practical manual on the control of a i r pollution. It has been in wide demand throughout the United States and in many other parts of the world. Recognizing the need for a n up-dated version, Editor John A. Danielson and the engineers of the Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control District have prepared this second edition. The f i r s t edition was written in the early sixties. Since that time, many changes have occurred inthe field of a i r pollution control, and this second edition reflects these changes. The control of photochemically reactive organic solvent emissions i s but one example, and a new chapter i s devoted to this subject. Reducing the formation of oxides of nitrogen in combustion processes by improved burner and furnace designs i s another new innovation. Improved versions of afterburner control devices a r e included. This second edition also contains a comprehensive index to aid the reader in locating quickly the subject of his choice. The manual deals with the control of a i r pollution a t specific sources. This approach emphasizes the practical engineering problems of design and operation associated with the many sources of a i r pollution. These sources include metallurgical, mechanical, incineration, combustion, petroleum, chemical, and organic-solvent-emitting processes. The manual consists of 12 chapters, each by different authors, and 5 appendices. The f i r s t five chapters t r e a t the history of a i r pollution in Los Angeles County, the types of contaminants, and the design of a i r pollution control devices. The remaining chapters discuss the control of a i r pollution from specific sources. A reader interested in controlling a i r pollutionfrom a specific source can gainthe information needed by referring only to the chapter of the manual dealing with that source. If he then desires more general information about an a i r pollution control device, he can r e f e r to other chapters. It i s suggested that Chapter 1 be read since it cites Los Angeles County prohibitory rules that regulated the degree of control efficiency required when the manual was written in 1971. It i s recognized that a i r pollution problems of one a r e a can be quite different f r o m those of another a r e a . The a i r pollution problems presented in this manual originate in indust r i a l and commercial sources in the Los Angeles area. Consequently, some processes, e. g., the burning of coal in combustion equipment, a r e not mentioned. Furthermore, the degree of a i r pollution control strived for in this manual corresponds to the degree of control demanded by a i r pollution statutes of the Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control District. Many other a r e a s require l e s s stringent control and permit l e s s efficient control devices. Sole responsibilityforthe information i s borneby the District, which presents this second edition of the manual f o r the advancement of national understanding of the control of a i r pollution from stationary sources.

Robert L. Chass Air Pollution Control Officer County of Los Angeles

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Under t h e p r o v i s i o n s of the C a l i f o r n i a l a w c r e a t i n g the L o s Angeles County A i r Pollution C o n t r o l D i s t r i c t , t h e Board of S u p e r v i s o r s is empowered t o a c t a s t h e A i r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l Board. R e s p o n s i b l e f o r s u p e r v i s i o n and p o l i c y d e t e r m i n a t i o n f o r t h e D i s t r i c t , t h e i r f i r m s u p p o r t of needed a i r pollution c o n t r o l m e a s u r e s h a s advanced e n g i n e e r i n g capability i n t h i s field t o a high d e g r e e . T h e i n f o r m a t i o n gained i n L o s A n g e l e s County is applicable t o t h e i m p r o v e m e n t of a i r quality w h e r e v e r a i r pollution is e x p e r i e n c e d . Without t h e s u p p o r t of t h i s B o a r d , t h e i n f o r m a t i o n p r e s e n t e d h e r e would not have b e e n possible.

THE BOARD O F SUPERVISORS O F LOS ANGELES COUNTY P E T E R F. SCHABARUM, C h a i r m a n First D i s t r i c t KENNETHHAHN Second D i s t r i c t ERNEST E. DEBS Third District JAMES A. HAYES Fourth District BAXTER WARD Fifth District

EDITORIAL REVIEW COMMITTEE R o b e r t L. C h a s s William B. K r e n z E r i c E. L e m k e R o b e r t G. Lunche R o b e r t J. M a c Knight John L. Mills TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE Ivan S. D e c k e r t William F. Hammond John L. McGinnity R o b e r t C. M u r r a y A r t h u r B. Netzley H e r b e r t Simon R o b e r t T. W a l s h Sanford M. W e i s s John E. Williamson EDITORIAL ASSISTANCE J e r o m e D. B e a l e Eugene H o c h m a n George Thomas Edwin J. Vincent Wayne E . Zwiacher GRAPHIC ART L e w i s K. Smith PHOTOGRAPHY John A. D a n i e l s o n

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CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 . I N T R O D U C T I O N
THE LOS ANGELES BASIN RULES AND REGULATIONS IN LOS ANGELES COUNTY Regulation 1 : P e r m i t s 1 Regulation IV: Prohibitions Rule 50: The Ringelmann Chart Rule 51: Nuisance Rule 52: P a r t i c u l a t e Matter Rule 53: Specific Contaminants Rules 53.1. 53.2. and 53 3: Sulfur Production and Sulfuric Acid Plants Rule 54: Dust and F u m e s Rule 56: Storage of P e t r o l e u m Products Rules 57 and 58: Open F i r e s and Incinerators Rule 59: Oil-Effluent Water Separators. Rule 61: Gasoline Loading Into Tank Trucks and T r a i l e r s Rules 62. 62.1. and 62.2. Sulfur Content of Fuels Rule 63: Gasoline Specifications Rule 64: Reduction of Animal Matter Rule 65: Gasoline Loading Jnto Tanks Rule 66: Organic Solvents Rule 66 1: Architectural Coatings Rule 66 2: Disposal and Evaporation of Solvents Rule 67: Fuel-Burning Equipment Rule 68: Fuel-Burning Equipment .Oxides of Nitrogen ROLE O F THE AIR POLLUTION ENGINEER Accomplishments of the P e r m i t System USE O F THIS MANUAL General Design P r o b l e m s Specific Air Pollution Sources

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CHAPTER 2 . AIR C O N T A M I N A N T S

INTRODUCTION FACTORS IN AIR POLLUTION PROBLEMS TYPES O F AIR CONTAMINANTS Organic Gases C u r r e n t Sources in Los Angeles County Hydrocarbons . 12 Hydrocarbon derivatives .12 Significance in A i r Pollution P r o b l e m Inorganic Gases C u r r e n t Sources in Los Angeles County Oxides of nitrogen .14 Oxides of sulfur .15 c a r b o n monoxide . 15 Significance in A i r Pollution P r o b l e m Oxides of nitrogen . 15 Oxides of sulfur . 15 Carbon monoxide .16 Miscellaneous inorganic gases . 16 Aerosols C u r r e n t Sources in Los Angeles County Carbon o r s o o t particles . 16 Metallic oxides and s a l t s . 17 Oily o r t a r r y dropMetallic l e t s . 17 Acid droplets . 17 Silicates and other inorganic d u s t s . 17 fumes . 18 Significance in A i r Pollution P r o b l e m AIR POLLUTION CONTROLS ALREADY IN E F F E C T CONTROL MEASURES STILL NEEDED Motor Vehicle Emissions 'Additional Controls Over Stationary Sources Organic Gases Oxides of Nitrogen Other Contaminants

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CHAPTER 3.

DESIGN O F L O C A L E X H A U S T S Y S T E M S

FLUID FLOW FUNDAMENTALS Bernoulli's Equation Pitot Tube for Flow M e a s u r e m e n t Correction F a c t o r s HOOD DESIGN Continuity Equation Air Flow Into a Duct Nullpoint Design of Hoods f o r Cold P r o c e s s e s Spray Booths Abrasive Blasting Open-Surface Tanks Design of Hoods for Hot P r o c e s s e s Canopy Hoods Circular high-canopy hoods - 34 Rectangular high-canopy hoods - 38 C i r c u l a r low-canopy hoods . 39 . . Rectangular low-canopy hoods .40 Enclosures - 41 Specific P r o b l e m s Steaming tanks - 42 Preventing leakage .42 Hood Construction High-Temperature Materials Corrosion-Resistant M a t e r i a l s Design Proportions Transition to Exhaust Duct DUCT DESIGN General Layout Considerations Types of L o s s e s Inertia Losses Orifice L o s s e s Straight-Duct Friction L o s s e s Elbow and Branch Entry L o s s e s Exhaust s y s t e m calculator .45 Contraction and Expansion L o s s e s Collection Equipment Design P r o c e d u r e s Methods of Calculation Methods of Design Calculation P r o c e d u r e s F a n Static P r e s s u r e Balanced-Duct Calculations B l a s t Gate Method Checking an Exhaust S y s t e m Illustrative P r o b l e m F a n Curve Calculator Corrections f o r T e m p e r a t u r e and Elevation Duct Construction FANDESIGN Centrifugal F a n s Axial . Flow F a n s Fan Characteristics Influence of Blade Shape Geometrically Similar F a n s Multirating Tables FanLaws SeIecting a F a n F r o m Multirating Tables Construction P r o p e r t i e s Heat Resistance Explosive-Proof F a n s and Motors FanDrives

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CONTENTS VAPOR COMPRESSORS Types of C o m p r e s s o r s Positive-Displacement C o m p r e s s o r s Dynamic C o m p r e s s o r s Reciprocating C o m p r e s s o r s Use m Air Pollution Control CHECKING O F EXHAUST SYSTEM Theory of F i e l d Testing Quantity M e t e r s Velocity M e t e r s PitotTubes Pitot Tube T r a v e r s i n g P r o c e d u r e Altitude and T e m p e r a t u r e Corrections f o r Pitot Tubes Swinging-Vane Velocity M e t e r Calibrating the Velocity M e t e r Uses of the Velocity M e t e r COOLING O F GASEOUS EFFLUENTS Methods of Cooling G a s e s Dilution With Ambient Air Quenching With Water Natural Convection and Radiation F o r c e d - D r a f t Cooling F a c t o r s Determining Selection of Cooling Device

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CHAPTER 4 A I R P O L L U T I O N C O N T R O L E Q U I P M E N T FOR P A R T I C U L A T E M A T T E R INERTLAL SEPARATORS Single-Cyclone S e p a r a t o r s Theory of Operation Separation Efficiency P r e s s u r e Drop Other Types of Cyclone S e p a r a t o r s High-Efficiency Cyclone S e p a r a t o r s Multiple-Cyclone S e p a r a t o r s Mechanical. Centrifugal S e p a r a t o r s Predicting Efficiency of Cyclones Method of Solving a P r o b l e m WET COLLECTION DEVICES Theory of Collection Mechanisms f o r Wetting the P a r t i c l e Types of Wet Collection Devices Spray Chambers Cyclone-Type S c r u b b e r s Orifice-Type S c r u b b e r s Mechanical S c r u b b e r s Mechanical. Centrifugal Collector With W a t e r S p r a y s H i g h - p r e s s u r e Sprays Venturi S c r u b b e r s Packed Towers WetFilters The Role of Wet Collection Devices BAGHOUSES Filtration Process Mechanisms D i r e c t i n t e r c e p t i o n . 108 Impingement . 109 Diffusion - 110 . E l e c t r o s t a t i c s - 110 Baghouse Resistance Clean cloth r e s i s t a n c e - 110 Resistance of dust m a t . 111 Effect of r e s i s t a n c e on design - 115 F i l t e r i n g Velocity F i l t e r i n g Media Fibers Cotton - 118 Wool . 118 Nylon - 118 Dyne1 - 118 Orlon and Dacron 118 Teflon - 119 G l a s s - 119

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Yarn F i l a m e n t y a r n s .119 Staple y a r n s . 119 Weave P l a i n weave .120 Twill weave .120 Satin weave .120 Finish Size and Shape of F i l t e r s Length of tubular bags .121 D i a m e t e r s of tubular f i l t e r i n g e l e m e n t s . 121 L e n g t h - t o - d i a m e t e r r a t i o . 121 Multiple-tube bags .122 Envelope type .122 Installation of F i l t e r s Arrangement Bag Spacing Bag Attachment Bottom attachments .123 Top s u p p o r t . 123 Cleaning of F i l t e r s Methods Manual cleaning . 124 Mechanical s h a k e r s .125 P n e u m a t i c s h a k e r s . 125 Bag collapse . 127 Sonic cleaning .127 R e v e r s e a i r f l o w .128 R e v e r s e - a i r jets . 128 Cleaning Cycles Semiautomatic c y c l e s . 131 Manually initiated c y c l e s . 130 F u l l y automatic c y c l e s . 131 Continuous cleaning .131 D i s p o s a l of Collected Dust Baghouse Construction Pushthrough v e r s u s Pullthrough StructuralDesign Hoppers Gage of m e t a l . 133 Slope of hopper s i d e s . 133 Size . 132 Use of v i b r a t o r s and r a p p e r s . 133 D i s c h a r g e . 134 Maintenance Service Bag Replacement Precoating SINGLE-STAGE ELECTRICAL PRECIPITATORS H i s t o r y of E l e c t r o s t a t i c P r e c i p i t a t i o n Origins of E l e c t r o s t a t i c P r i n c i p l e s E a r l y E x p e r i m e n t s With E l e c t r o s t a t i c s on A i r Contaminants Development of the F i r s t S u c c e s s f u l P r e c i p i t a t o r I m p r o v e m e n t s i n Design. and Acceptance by Industry Advantages and Disadvantages of E l e c t r i c a l P r e c i p i t a t i o n Mechanisms Involved in E l e c t r i c a l P r e c i p i t a t i o n D i v e r s e Applications of E l e c t r i c a l P r e c i p i t a t i o n Construction Details of E l e c t r i c a l P r e c i p i t a t o r s D i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e s . 141 Collecting e l e c t r o d e s . 141 Tubular collecting e l e c t r o d e s . 141 Removal of d u s t f r o m collecting e l e c t r o d e s .143 P r e c i p i t a t o r s h e l l s and h o p p e r s .144 High Voltage f o r Successful Operation Tube-type r e c t i f i e r s . 145 S o l i d - s t a t e r e c t i f i e r s .145 Effects of Wave F o r m Controlled Sparking Rate Operating Voltage Uniform Gas Distribution C a s t of E l e c t r i c a l P r e c i p i t a t o r Installations T h e o r e t i c a l Analysis of P r e c i p i t a t o r P e r f o r m a n c e P a r t i c l e charging .147 P a r t i c l e m i g r a t i o n . 148 T h e o r e t i c a l Efficiency Deficiencies in T h e o r e t i c a l Approach to P r e c i p i t a t o r Efficiency ~ f f of ~ ~ t ~ Resistivity Methods of Reducing R e e n t r a i n m e n t P r a c t i c a l Equations f o r P r e c i p i t a t o r Design and Efficiency Effects of Nonuniform Gas Velocity Important F a c t o r s in the Design of a P r e c i p i t a t o r S u m m a r y and Conclusions

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TWO-STAGE ELECTRICAL PRECIPITATORS Theoretical Aspects Theory of Dust Separation P a r t i c l e Charging D r i f t Velocity Efficiency Design F a c t o r s E l e c t r i c a l Requirements A i r Capacity A i r Distribution Auxiliary Controls Construction and Operation Assembly Maintenance Safety Application Two-Stage P r e c i p i t a t o r s of Special Design Equipment Selection OTHER PARTICULATE-COLLECTING DEVICES Settling Chambers Impingement S e p a r a t o r s Panel Filters Precleaners

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CHAPTER 5 . CONTROL E Q U I P M E N T FOR GASES A N D VAPORS

AFTERBURNERS D i r e c t - F l a m e Afterburners Design P r i n c i p l e s Afterburner Chamber .. . Gas B u r n e r s f o r A f t e r b u r n e r s Mixing-Plate B u r n e r s Multi-Port B u r n e r s Nozzle Mixing and.. P r e m i x i n g B u r n e r s Sources of Combus6on Air f o r Gas B u r n e r s Oil F i r i n g of Afterburners Afterburner Controls D i r e c t - F l a m e Afterburner Efficiency D i r e c t - F l a m e Afterburner Design P r o b l e m Catalytic A f t e r b u r n e r s Operation Efficiency Recovery of Heat F r o m Afterburner Exhaust Gases Preheating of Afterburner Inlet G a s e s BOILERS USED AS AFTERBURNERS Conditions for Use Manner of Venting Contaminated Gases Adaptable Types of Equipment Boilers and F i r e d H e a t e r s Burners Safety Design P r o c e d u r e TestData ADSORPTION EQUIPMENT Types of Adsorbents Use of Activated Carbon in A i r Pollution Control Saturation Retentivity Breakpoint Adsorption of Mixed Vapors Heat of Adsorption Carbon Regeneration Equipment Design
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xiv Fixed-BedAdsorber Conical fixed-bed a d s o r b e r . 196 Continuous A d s o r b e r P r e s s u r e Drop Operational P r o b l e m s Particulate Matter Corrosion P o l a r and Nonpolar Compounds VAPOR CONDENSERS Types of C o n d e n s e r s S u r f a c e and Contact C o n d e n s e r s Typical Installations Condensers in Control Systems Subcooling Condensate Contact C o n d e n s e r s Sizing Contact C o n d e n s e r s Surface Condensers C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Condensation Design of S u r f a c e C o n d e n s e r s Applications GAS ABSORPTION EQUIPMENT G e n e r a l Types of A b s o r b e r s Packed Tower Design Packing M a t e r i a l s Liquid Distribution T o w e r Capacity Tower Diameter N u m b e r of T r a n s f e r Units (NTU) Height of a T r a n s f e r Unit P r e s s u r e D r o p Through P a c k i n g Illustrative Problem Plate o r T r a y Towers T y p e s of P l a t e s Bubble Cap P l a t e T o w e r Design Liquid Flow P l a t e Design and Efficiency Flooding Liquid G r a d i e n t on P l a t e P l a t e Spacing Tower Diameter N u m b e r of T h e o r e t i c a l P l a t e s Illustrative P r o b l e m C o m p a r i s o n of P a c k e d and P l a t e T o w e r s V e s s e l s f o r D i s p e r s i o n of G a s in Liquid S p r a y T o w e r s and S p r a y C h a m b e r s Venturi Absorbers NOTATIONS

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FURNACE T Y P E S Reverberatory Furnace Cupola F u r n a c e Combustion A i r Methods of Charging P r e h e a t i n g Combustion A i r Electric Furnace Direct-Arc Furnace Indirect-Arc Furnace Induction F u r n a c e Resistance Furnace Crucible Furnace Tilting F u r n a c e

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CHAPTER 6.

METALLURGICAL EQUIPMENT

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P i t Crucible 238 238 Stationary Crucible 238 Pot Furnace 239 STEEL-MANUFACTURING PROCESSES Open-Hearth F u r n a c e s 240 The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m 241 242 Hooding and Ventilation R e q u i r e m e n t s 244 A i r Pollution Control Equipment Electric-Arc Furnaces 245 246 T h e Air Pollution P r o b l e m 246 Hooding and Ventilation R e q u i r e m e n t s 252 A i r Pollution Control Equipment Baghouse dust c o l l e c t o r s . 252 . . E l e c t r i c a l p r e c i p i t a t o r s .252 . W a t e r s c r u b b e r s . 253 Electric-Induction F u r n a c e 254 254 T h e A i r Pollution P r o b l e m 255 Hooding and Ventilation R e q u i r e m e n t s 255 A i r Pollution Control Equipment 256 IRON CASTING CupolaFurnaces 256 256 The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m 258 Hooding and Ventilation R e q u i r e m e n t s 258 A i r Pollution Control Equipment A f t e r b u r n e r s - 259 Baghouse dust c o l l e c t o r s . 260 E l e c t r i c a l p r e c i p i t a t o r s . 260 262 Illustrative Problem Electric-Arc Furnaces 266 267 The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m Hooding and Ventilation R e q u i r e m e n t s 267 267 A i r Pollution Control Equipment Baghouse d u s t c o l l e c t o r s . 267 E l e c t r i c a l p r e c i p i t a t o r s . 267 Jnduction F u r n a c e s 267 267 Reverberatory Furnaces SECONDARY BRASS- AND BRONZE-MELTING PROCESSES 269 269 F u r n a c e Types The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m 269 F a c t o r s causing l a r g e concentrations of zinc f u m e s - 270 C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of e m i s s i o n s - 269 . E l e c t r i c furnace-lo w.frequency induction type . 272 Crucible furnace.- pit and t i l t type . 272 Cupola f u r n a c e - 273 Hooding and Ventilation R e q u i r e m e n t s 273 R e v e r b e r a t o r y furnace.-ope n - h e a r t h type . 273 R e v e r b e r a t o r y f u r n a c e - - c y l i n d r i c a l type . 275 R e v e r b e r a t o r y furnace.. tilting type .275 . R e v e r b e r a t o r y f u r n a c e - . r o t a r y tiltingtype .275 . Low-frequency induction f u r n a c e - 278 C u p o l a f u r n a c e - 279 C r u c i b l e - t y p e f u r n a c e s - 278 279 A i r Pollution Control Equipment S c r u b b e r s - 282 Baghouses - 279 E l e c t r i c a l p r e c i p i t a t o r s - 280 SECONDARY ALUMINUM-MELTING PROCESSES 283 283 Types of P r o c e s s 283 Crucible F u r n a c e s Reverberatory Furnaces 284 Fuel-Fired Furnaces 284 E l e c t r i c a l l y Heated F u r n a c e s 284 284 Charging P r a c t i c e s 285 Pouring Practices Fluxing 285 Cover fluxes - 286 Solvent fluxes . 286 Degassing fluxes - 286 Magnesium-reducing fluxes . 286 Magnesium reduction with c h l o r i n e . 287 287 T h e A i r Pollution P r o b l e m 288 P a r t i c l e Size of F u m e s F r o m Fluxing Hooding and Ventilation R e q u i r e m e n t s 288 A i r Pollution Control Equipment 289 SECONDARY ZINC-MELTING PROCESSES 293 Zinc Melting 293 293 T h e A i r Pollution P r o b l e m z i n c vaporization 293

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Reduction R e t o r t F u r n a c e s Reduction i n Belgian R e t o r t s The Air Pollution P r o b l e m Hooding and Ventilation Requirements Distillation Retort F u r n a c e s The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m Hooding and Ventilation Requirements Muffle F u r n a c e s The Air Pollution P r o b l e m Hooding and Ventilation Requirements Air Pollution Control Equipment LEAD REFINING Reverberatory Furnaces The Air Pollution P r o b l e m Hooding and Ventilation Requirements Air Pollution Control Equipment Lead B l a s t F u r n a c e s The Alr Pollution P r o b l e m Hoodlng and Ventilation Requirements Air Pollution Control Equipment Pot-Type F u r n a c e s The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m Hooding and Ventilation Requirements A i r Pollution Control Equipment Barton P r o c e s s METAL SEPARATION PROCESSES Aluminum Sweating Zinc. Lead. Tin Solder. and Alloy Sweating The Air Pollution P r o b l e m Contaminants f r o m aluminum-separating p r o c e s s e s . 306 Contaminants f r o m l o w - t e m p e r a t u r e sweating . 306 Hooding and Ventilation Requirements Air Pollution Control Equipment Low-temperature sweating Aluminum-separating p r o c e s s e s .308 CORE OVENS TypesofOvens Heating C o r e Ovens C o r e Binders The Air Pollution P r o b l e m Hooding and Ventilation Requirements A i r Pollution Control Equipment FOUNDRY SAND-HANDLING EQUIPMENT Types of Equipment The Air Pollution P r o b l e m Hooding and Ventilation Requirements Other sand-handling equipment .317 Shakeout g r a t e s . 317 A i r Pollution Control Equipment HEAT TREATING SYSTEMS Heat Treating Equipment The Air Pollution P r o b l e m Hooding and Ventilation Requirements Air Pollution Control Equipment

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CHAPTER 7 . M E C H A N I C A L E Q U I P M E N T

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HOT-MIX ASPHALT PAVING BATCH PLANTS Introduction Raw Materials Used Basic Equipment P l a n t Operation The Air Pollution P r o b l e m Hooding and Ventilation Requirements Air Pollution Control Equipment

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xvii

Variables Affecting Scrubber Emissions Collection Efficiencies Attained F u t u r e Trends in A i r Pollution Control Equipment CONCRETE-BATCHING PLANTS Wet-Concrete-Batching Plants The Air Pollution P r o b l e m A i r Pollution Control Equipment Cement-receiving and s t o r a g e s y s t e m .335 Cement weigh hopper .336 Gathering hoppers .336 Dry-Concrete-Batching Plants The A i r Pollution P r o b i e m Hooding and Ventilation Requirements A i r Pollution Control Equipment Dust c r e a t e d by t r u c k movement .337 Central Mix Plants The Air Pollution P r o b l e m Hooding and Ventilation Requirements A i r Pollution Control Equipment CEMENT-HANDLING EQUIPMENT The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m Hooding and Ventilation Requirements Receiving Hoppers Storage and Receiving Bins Elevators and S c r e w Conveyors Hopper Truck and Car Loading Air Pollution Control Equipment ROCK AND GRAVEL AGGREGATE PLANTS The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m Hooding and Ventilation Requirements A i r Pollution Control Equipment MINERAL WOOL FURNACES Introduction Types and Uses of Mineral Wool Products Mineral Wool Production The Air Pollution P r o b l e m Hooding and Ventilation Requirements Air Pollution Control Equipment Baghouse Collection and Cupola Air Contaminants Afterburner Control of Curing Oven A i r Contaminants Reducing Blowchamber Emissions Controlling Asphalt F u m e s PERLITE-EXPANDING FURNACES Introduction Uses Mining Sites P e r l i t e Expansion Plants Expansion F u r n a c e s GasandProductCooling Product Collectors and C l a s s i f i e r s The Air Pollution P r o b l e m Hooding and Ventilation Requirements -Air Pollution Control Equipment FEED AND GRAIN MILLS Introduction Receiving. Handling. a n d s t o r i n g Operations Feed-Manufacturing P r o c e s s e s The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m Receiving. Handling. and Storing Operations Feed-Manufacturing P r o c e s s e s Hooding and Ventilation Requirements Receiving. Handling. and Storing Operations Feed-Manufacturing P r o c e s s e s

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CONTENTS

A i r Pollution Control Equipment Receiving. Handling. and Storing Operations Feed-Manufacturing P r o c e s s e s F i l t e r Vents Cyclones Baghouses PNEUMATIC CONVEYING EQUIPMENT Introduction Types of Pneumatic Conveying S y s t e m s Types of Air-Moving Used in Conveying P r e l i m i n a r y Design Calculations The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m A i r Pollution Control Equipment DRIERS Introduction Rotary D r i e r s Flash Driers Spray D r i e r s Other Types of D r i e r s The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m Hooding and Ventilation R e q u i r e m e n t s A i r Pollution Control Equipment Dustcontrol Drying With Solvent R e c o v e r y Smoke and Odor E m i s s i o n s WOODWORKING EQUIPMENT Exhaust S y s t e m s Construction of Exhaust S y s t e m s The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m Hooding and Ventilation R e q u i r e m e n t s A i r Pollution Control Equipment D i s p o s a l of Collected Wastes RUBBER-COMPOUNDING EQUIPMENT Introduction Additives Employed in Rubber Compounding The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m Hooding and Ventilation R e q u i r e m e n t s A i r Pollution Control Equipment ASPHALT ROOFING F E L T SATURATORS Description and Operation Asphalt Coating of F e l t Roof Capping M a t e r i a l s The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m Hooding and Ventilation R e q u i r e m e n t s A i r Pollution Control Equipment Afterburners Scrubbers Electrical Precipitators Baghouses G l a s s F i b e r Mats P I P E COATING EQUIPMENT Introduction Methods of Application Pipe Dipping P i p e Spinning P i p e Wrapping P r e p a r a t i o n of E n a m e l The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m Hooding and Ventilation R e q u i r e m e n t s A i r Pollution Control Equipment ABRASIVE BLAST CLEANING Introduction

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Abrasive Materials Method of Propelling the Abrasive Equipment Used to Confine the B l a s t The Air Pollution P r o b l e m Hooding and Ventilation Requirements A i r Pollution Control Equipment ZINC-GALVANIZING EQUIPMENT Introduction Cleaning Cover Fluxes Foaming Agents Dusting Fluxes The Air Pollution P r o b l e m P h y s i c a l and Chemical Composition of t h e Contaminants Hooding and Ventilation Requirements Air Pollution Control Equipment Baghouses Electrical Precipitators TIRE BUFFING EQUIPMENT Introduction The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m Hooding and Ventilation Requirements Air Pollution Control Equipment Cyclones Cyclones With A f t e r b u r n e r s Cyclones With D r y F i l t e r s Cyclones With Baghouses and D r y F i l t e r s Other T r e a d Removal Methods Cutting Type D e t r e a d e r Water Spray at R a s p Cost of Pollution Control WOOD TREATLNG EQUIPMENT Introduction Methods of Treating Wood The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m Hooding and Ventilation Requirements A i r Pollution Control Equipment CERAMIC SPRAYING AND METAL DEPOSITION EQUIPMENT Introduction C e r a m i c Spraying The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m A i r Pollution Control Equipment Metal Deposition The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m Air Pollution Control Equipment

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CHAPTER 8 . INCINERATION

397 397 398 401 401 401 402 402 402 402 403 403 403 404 404 406 406 409 410 410 411 411 412 412 413 413 413 413 413 414 414 414 414 415 418 419 419 421 421 422 422 423 429 431 432

DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR MULTIPLE-CHAMBER INCINERATORS R e t o r t Type In-Line Type Description of the P r o c e s s Design Types and Limitations Comparison of Types P r i n c i p l e s of Combustion Design F a c t o r s Design P r e c e p t s GENERAL-REFUSE INCINERATORS The Air Pollution P r o b l e m A i r Pollution Control Equipment Design P r o c e d u r e G e n e r a l Construction Refractories

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437 437 437 439 440 440 440 441 441 443 444 444 445 446 A47

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Grates and Hearths Airhlets Stack Induced-Draft System Operation Illustrative Problem MOBILE MULTIPLE-CHAMBER INCINERATORS Design Procedure Stack Requirements Induced-Draft Fan System Standards of Construction Refractories Grates AirInlets Structure Auxiliary Burners Stack Ernissions Illustrative Problem MULTIPLE-CHAMBER INCINERATORS FOR BURNING WOOD WASTE Introduction Description of the Refuse The Air Pollution Problem Air Pollution Control Equipmenr Design Procedure Incinerator Arrangements Design Procedure for Mechanical Feed Systems SurgeBin Screw o r Drag Conveying Pneumatic Conveying Standards for Construction Refractories Grates Exterior Walls Airports Operation of Incinerators Illustrative Problem FLUE-FED APARTMENT INCINERATORS Introduction Description of Refuse The Air Pollution Problem Stack Emissions Air Pollution Control Equipment Installation of Afterburner on a Roof Design Procedure Design p a r a m e t e r s .474 Draft control .473 Chute door locks .474 Limitations .474 Typical installations .475 Standards for Construction Mounting and supports .476 Metals .476 Castable refractories .476 Firebrick .476 Insulating firebrick .476 Burners .476 Draft control damper .477 Chute door locks .477 Stack Emissions Operation Basement Afterburner Design Procedure Typical installation .478 Design p a r a m e t e r s .478 Standards for Construction Hot-zone refractory . 479 Draft control damper .479 Stack Emissions Operation Multiple-Chamber Incinerator. Basement Installation Design Procedure Draft control .480 Typical installation .480

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Standards for Construction Stack Emissions Operation Illustrative Problem PATHOLOGICAL-WASTE INCINERATORS The Air Pollution Problem Air Pollution Control Equipment Design Procedure Ignition chamber .487 Secondary combustion zone .488 Stack design . Crematory design .489 Piping requirements .489 Incinerator design configuration .489 Standards for Construction Stack Emissions Operation Illustrative Problem DEBONDING O F BRAKE SHOES AND RECLAMATION O F ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT WINDINGS Debonding of Brake Shoes Reclamation of Electrical Equipment Winding The Air Pollution Froblem Air Pollutiog Control Equipment P r i m a r y Ignition Chamber Secondary Combustion Chamber Stack Emissions Typical Reclamation Equipment Standards for Construction Illustrative Problem DRUM RECLAMATION FURNACES Introduction Description of the Furnace Charge Description of the P r o c e s s The Air Pollution Problem Air Pollution Control Equipment P r i m a r y Ignition Chamber. Batch Type P r i m a r y Ignition Chamber. Continuous Type Afterburner (Secondary Combustion Chamber) Draft Standards for Construction Operation Illustrative Problem WIRE RECLAMATION Descriptionof the P r o c e s s ~ e s c r i p t i o n the Charge of The Air Pollution Problem Air Pollution Control Equipment P r i m a r y Ignition Chamber Secondary Combustion Emissions Draft Equipment Arrangement General Construction Refractories Charge Door Combustion Air P o r t s Gas Burners Operation .,. Illustrative Problem i

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GASEOUS AND LIQUID FUELS Introduction

.E_ i . .

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C H A P T E R 9 . COMBUSTION EQUIPMENT

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xxii

CONTENTS

Gaseous Fuels OilFuels The Air Pollution P r o b l e m Blacksmoke Whitesmoke Particulate Emissions Sulfur in Fuels Sulfur Oxides Oxides of Nitrogen Air Pollution Control Methods Prohibitions Against Sulfur Emissions Removal of Sulfur and Ash F r o m Fuels Illustrative P r o b l e m GAS AND OIL BURNERS Introduction Draft Requirements Gas B u r n e r s Partially Aerated B u r n e r s Multiple-Port Gas B u r n e r s Forced-Draft Gas B u r n e r s Gas Flow Rates Oil B u r n e r s Viscosity and Oil P r e h e a t e r s The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m Smoke and Unburned Contaminants Ash and Sulfur Oxides Oxides of Nitrogen Air Pollution Control Equipment BOILERS. HEATERS. AND STEAM GENERATORS Introduction Industrial Boilers and Water Heaters Power Plant Steam Generators Refinery Heaters Hot Oil Heaters and Boilers Fireboxes SootBlowing The Air Pollution P r o b l e m Solid Particulate Emission During Normal Oil F i r i n g Soot-Blowing Particulates Sulfur Dioxide Sulfur Trioxide i Excessive Visible Emissions : .. Oxides of Nitrogen p Estimating NOx Emissions .S Air Pollution Control Methods ...... . w Combustible Particulates .. : .. Soot Collectors. Collection of Sulfur Oxides Wet absorption .569 D r y absorption .569 Wet adsorption .570 ; Catalytic oxidation .570 Other p r o c e s s e s for r e m o v i n g SO2 f r o m s t a c k g a s e s .570 Controlling Oxides of Nitrogen Reduction of NOxby modification of boiler operation .571 Removal of NOx by: 576 treatment of flue gas

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CHAPTER 1 0 . PETROLEUM EQUIPMENT

GENERAL INTRODUCTION Crude Oil Production Refining F l a r e s and Blowdown Systems P r e s s u r e Relief Valves Storage Vessels Bulk-Loading Facilities Catalyst R e g e s e r a t o r s

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Effluent-Waste Disposal Pumps and Compressors Air-Blowing Operations Pipeline Valves and Flanges. Blind Changing. P r o c e s s Drains Cooling Towers Vacuum Jets and Barometric Condensers Effective Air Pollution Control Measures Marketing WASTE-GAS DISPOSAL SYSTEMS Introduction Design of P r e s s u r e Relief System Safety Valves Rupture Discs Sizing liquid safety valves .593 Sizing rupture discs .592 Sizing vapor and gas relief and safety valves .594 Installing relief and safety valves and rupture discs .595 Knockout vessels .596 Sizing a blowdown line .598 The Air Pollution Problem Smoke F r o m F l a r e s Noise F r o m F l a r e s Other Air Contaminants F r o m F l a r e s Air Pollution Control Equipment Types of F l a r e s Elevated flares .605 Effect of s t e a m injection .613 Ground level f l a r e s .610 Pilot ignition system .616 Design of a smokeless f l a r e .614 618 Instrumentation and control of s t e a m and gas .617 Supply and control of s t e a m . Design of water-injection-type ground f l a r e s .623 Design of venturi-type ground f l a r e s .624 Maintenance of f l a r e s .626 STORAGE YESSELS Types of Storage Vessels P r e s s u r e Tanks and Fixed-Roof Tanks Floating-Roof Tanks Conservation Tanks , Open-Top Tanks. Reservoirs Pits. and Ponds The Air Pollution Problem Factors Affecting Hydrocarbon Vapor Emissions Hydrocarbon Emissions F r o m Floating-Roof Tanks Application of results .634 Withdrawal emissions .634 Hydrocarbon Emissions F r o m Low-Pressure Tanks Hydrocarbon Emissions F r o m Fixed-Roof Tanks Aerosol Emissions Odors Air Pollution Control Equipment Seals for Floating-Roof Tanks Floating Plastic Blankets Plastic Microspheres Vapor Balance Systems Vapor Recovery Systems Miscellaneous Control Measures Masking Agents Costs of Storage Vessels LOADING FACILITIES Introduction Loading Racks Marine Terminals Loading A r m Assemblies The Air Pollution Problem Air Pollution Control Equipment Types of Vapor Collection Devices f o r Overhead Loading Collection of Vapors F r o m Bottom Loading F a c t o r s Affecting Design of Vapor Collection Apparatus Methods of Vapor Disposal

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584 584 584 584 584 584 585 585 585 585 588 589 590

604 604 604 605 605 605

626 626 627 627 628 631 631 631 632 634 638 642 642 643 644 644 645 647 647 648 649 649 649 649 652 652 652 653 655 655 658 659 660

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CONTENTS

CATALYST REGENERATION Types of Catalysts L o s s of Catalyst Activity Regeneration P r o c e s s e s FCC Catalyst Regenerators TCC Catalyst R e g e n e r a t o r s Catalyst Regeneration in Catalytic R e f o r m e r Units The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m Air Pollution Control Equipment Wet- and Dry.Type. Centrifugal Dust Collectors Electrical Precipitators Carbon Monoxide Waste-Heat B o i l e r s Economic Considerations OIL-WATER EFFLUENT SYSTEMS Functions of Systems Handling of Crude-Oil Production Effluents Handling of Refinery Effluents T r e a t m e n t of Effluents by Oil-Water S e p a r a t o r s Clarification of Final-Effluent Water S t r e a m s Effluent Wastes F r o m Marketing Operations The Air Pollution P r o b l e m Hydrocarbons F r o m Oil-Water S e p a r a t o r s T r e a t m e n t of Refinery Liquid Wastes a t Their Source Oil-in-water emulsions .677 Sulfur-bearing w a t e r s .677 Spent caustic wastes .679 PUMPS Types of P u m p s Positive-Displacement P u m p s Centrifugal Pumps The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m Air Pollution Control Equipment R e s u l t s of Study to M e a s u r e L o s s e s F r o m Pumps AIRBLOWN ASPHALT Recovery of Asphalt F r o m Crude Oil Airblowing of Asphalt The Air Pollution P r o b l e m Air Pollution Control Equipment VALVES Types of Valves Manual and Automatic Flow Control Valves. P r e s s u r e Relief and Safety Valves The Air Pollution P r o b l e m Total E m i s s i o n s F r o m Valves Air Pollution Control Equipment COOLING TOWERS C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Cooling Tower Operation The Air Pollution P r o b l e m A i r Pollution Control Equipment MISCELLANEOUS SOURCES Airblowing Blind Changing Equipment Turnarounds Tank Cleaning Use of Vacuum J e t s Use of C o m p r e s s o r Engine Exhausts

..................................... .......................................... ...................................... ....................................... .................................... .................................... ........................ .................................... ................................ ......................... ...................................... ............................... ..................................... ................................. ........................................ ............................ ................................. ......................... .......................... ........................... ..................................... ............................ ...................... ... . . . Acid sludge 678 . . . ................................................. ........................................... ................................... ........................................ ...................................... ................................. ........................ ......................................... ................................ ....................................... ..................................... .................................. ................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............................
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RESIN KETTLES Types of Resins Phenolic Resins Amino Resins P o l y e s t e r and Alkyd Resins

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CHAPTER 11. CHEMICAL PROCESSING E Q U I P M E N T

CONTENTS
. " .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . ......... ...-. ......... . . . . ... . ..: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .; ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . ..- .....;...... . . ... ............................................. .................................. .................................. ..................................... .................................. .......................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . ................................. ............................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ............................... .................................. .............................................. .............................................. ............................................. . . . ....................... .................... ...................... ................................... ............. ..................... ........................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ... . ... ... .................................... ............................................. ......................................... .................... ,....... ............................ ,....... .......................... ,....... ..................................... ................................. ,....... ...................................... ................................... ........................................ ............................... .............................. ,....... ..................................... ....................... ,....... .......................... , ....... ............. ............................................. ........................................... .................................... ........................................ ...................................... ............................................ ...................................... .................................. ............ ............................................. ........................................... ............................................. .......................................... ...................................... .................................. ................................... ............................................... .....................................
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Polyurethane Thermoplastic Resins Polyvinyl R e s i n s Polystyrene P e t r o l e u m and Coal T a r R e s i n s Resin- Manufacturing Equipment T h e A i r Pollution P r o b l e m A i r Pollution Control Equipment VARNISH COOKERS Introduction Definitions . P r o d u c t s and P r o c e s s e s Major Types of V a r n i s h Cooking Equipment T h e A i r Pollution P r o b l e m .-... Hooding and Ventilation R e q u i r e m e n t s . . A i r Pollution Control Equipment Scrubbers Condensers Afterburners SULFURIC ACID MANUFACTURING , Contact P r o c e s s , The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m A i r Pollution Control Equipment Sulfur Dioxide R e m o v a l Acid M i s t Removal Packed-bed s e p a r a t o r s -. 7 2 0 E l e c t r i c a l p r e c i p i t a t o r s - 720 W i r e m e s h m i s t e l i m i n a t o r s - 721 C e r a m i c f i l t e r s - 72.2 Miscellaneous devices - 722 Sonic agglomeration - 722 SULFUR SCAVENGER PLANTS Introduction Sulfur in Crude Oil Removal of H2S F r o m R e f i n e r y W a s t e G a s e s The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m A i r Pollution Control Equipment Incineration R e q u i r e m e n t s Stack Dilution A i r I n c i n e r a t o r Stack Height P l a n t Operational P r o c e d u r e s T a i l Gas T r e a t m e n t PHOSPHORIC ACLD MANUFACTURING P h o s p h o r i c Acid P r o c e s s The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m Hooding and Ventilation R e q u i r e m e n t s A i r Pollution Control Equipment SOAP, FATTY ACID, AND GLYCERINE MANUFACTURING EQUIPMENT Introduction Raw M a t e r i a l s F a t t y Acid Production Glycerine Production Soap Manufacturing Soap Finishing The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m A i r Pollution Control Equipment SYNTHETIC DETERGENT SURFACTANT MANUFACTURING EQUIPMENT Introduction Raw M a t e r i a l s Processes Oleum Sulfonation The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m A i r Pollution Control Equipment OleSulfonation and Sulfation Process The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m
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xxvi

CONTENTS

Sulfur Trioxide Vapor Sulfonation The Air Pollution P r o b l e m Air Pollution Control Equipment Sulfur Trioxide Liquid Sulfonation The Air Pollution P r o b l e m Air Pollution Control Equipment Chlorosulfuric Acid Sulfation The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m A i r Pollution Control Equipment Sulfoalkylation The Air Pollution P r o b l e m Air Pollution Control Equipment SYNTHETIC DETERGENT PRODUCT MANUFACTURING EQUIPMENT Introduction Raw M a t e r i a l s Processes Slurry Preparation The Air Pollution P r o b l e m Air Pollution Control Equipment Spray Drying The Air Pollution P r o b l e m Air Pollution Control Equipment Granule Handling The Air Pollution P r o b l e m A i r Pollution Control Equipment GLASS MANUFACTURE Types of Glass Glass-Manufacturing P r o c e s s Handling Mixing. and Storage S y s t e m s f o r Raw M a t e r i a l s The Air Pollution P r o b l e m Hooding and Ventilation Requirements Air Pollution Control Equipment Continuous Soda-Lime Glass-Melting F u r n a c e s The Air Pollution P r o b l e m Source t e s t data - 770 Opacity of stack emissions .771 Hooding and Ventilation Requirements Air Pollution Control Methods Batch preparation - 775 Checkers .777 Control of r a w m a t e r i a l s - 775 P r e h e a t e r s - 777 R e f r a c t o r i e s and insulation - 778 Combustion of fuel .778 E l e c t r i c melting - 779 Baghouses and centrifugal s c r u b b e r s .779 G l a s s - F o r m i n g Machines The Air Pollution P r o b l e m Air Pollution Control Methods FRIT SMELTERS Introduction Raw M a t e r i a l s Types of S m e l t e r s F r i t Manufacturing Application. Firing. and Uses of Enamels The Air Pollution P r o b l e m Hooding and Ventilation Requirements Air Pollution Control Equipment FOOD PROCESSING EQUIPMENT Coffee P r o c e s s i n g Batch Roasting An Integrated Coffee P l a n t The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m Hooding and Ventilation Requirements A i r Pollution Control Equipment Smokehouses The Smoking P r o c e s s Atmospheric Smokehouses

.................................. ................................... .................................. .................................. ..................................... .................................... .................................... ..................................... ................................. ............................................ ..................................... .................................. .............. ............................................. ........................................... ............................................. .......................................... ..................................... .................................. ............................................. ..................................... .................................. ........................................... ..................................... .................................. ......................................... ............................................ .................................... .................... ..................................... ............................... .................................. .......................... ..................................... . ............................... ................................... . . ... . . ... ... ... ...................................... ..................................... ................................... ........................................... ............................................. ........................................... ......................................... ......................................... ............................ ................................... ................................ .................................. .................................. .......................................... ........................................... . ..................................... ..................................... ............................... .................................. ............................................. .......................................
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Recirculating Smokehouses Smoking by I m m e r s i o n Smoking by E l e c t r i c a l P r e c i p i t a t i o n The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m Hooding and Ventilation R e q u i r e m e n t s A i r Pollution Control Equipment A f t e r b u r n e r s .796 E l e c t r i c a l p r e c i p i t a t o r s .797 E l e c t r i c a l precipitation v e r s u s incineration .797 Bypassing control d e v i c e s during nonsmoking p e r i o d s .798 Deep F a t F r y i n g The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m Hooding and Ventilation R e q u i r e m e n t s A i r Pollution Control Equipment Livestock Slaughtering T h e A i r Pollution P r o b l e m A i r Pollution Control Equipment E d i b l e - L a r d and Tallow Rendering D r y Rendering Batchwise r e n d e r i n g .803 Continuous l o w - t e m p e r a t u r e r e n d e r i n g . 8 0 3 Wet Rendering The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m Hooding and Ventilation R e q u i r e m e n t s A i r Pollution Control Equipment FISH CANNERIES AND FISH REDUCTION PLANTS W e t - F i s h Canning Tuna Canning C a n n e r y Byproducts F i s h M e a l Production F i s h Solubles and F i s h Oil Production Digestion P r o c e s s e s The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m O d o r s F r o m Meal D r i e r s Smoke F r o m D r i e r s Dust F r o m D r i e r s and Conveyors Odors F r o m Reduction Cookers Odors F r o m D i g e s t e r s Odors F r o m E v a p o r a t o r s O d o r s F r o m Edibles C o o k e r s Hooding and Ventilation R e q u i r e m e n t s A i r Pollution Control Equipment Controlling F i s h M e a l D r i e r s Incinerating D r i e r G a s e s Chlorinating and Scrubbing D r i e r G a s e s Controlling Reduction Cookers and Auxiliary Equipment Controlling D i g e s t e r s Controlling E v a p o r a t o r s Collecting Dust Controlling E d i b l e - F i s h C o o k e r s REDUCTION O F INEDIBLE ANIMAL MATTER Batchwise D r y Rendering Continuous D r y Rendering Wet Rendering Refining Rendered P r o d u c t s Drying Blood ProcessingFeathers Rotary Air D r i e r s The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m Cookers a s P r o m i n e n t Odor S o u r c e s Odors F r o m Air D r i e r s O d o r s and Dust F r o m R e n d e r e d - P r o d u c t S y s t e m s G r e a s e - P r o c e s s i n g Odors Raw-Materials Odors

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Hooding and Ventilation Requirements Emission Rates F r o m Cookers Emission Rates F r o m D r i e r s Air Pollution Control Equipment Controlling High-Moisture S t r e a m s Subcooling Condensate Condenser Tube Materials Interceptors in Cooker Vent Lines Vapor Incinerator Condensation-Incineration Systems Carbon Adsorption of Odors Odor Scrubbers Odor Masking and Counteraction ELECTROPLATING The Air Pollution P r o b l e m Hooding and Ventilating Requirements Air Pollution Control Equipment Scrubbers Mist Inhibitors INSECTICIDE MANUFACTURE Methods of Production Solid-Insecticide Production Methods Liquid-Insecticide Production Methods The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m Hooding and Ventilation Requirements Air Pollution Control Equipment HAZARDOUS RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL Hazards in the Handling of Radioisotopes The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Solid. Radioactive Waste C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Liquid. Radioactive Waste P r o b l e m s in Control of Airborne. Radioactive Waste Hooding and Ventilation Requirements Hooding Ventilation Air Pollution Control Equipment Reduction of Radioactive. Particulate Matter a t Source Design of Suitable Air-Cleaning Equipment Wet collectors - 841 R e v e r s e - j e t baghouse - 841 E l e c t r i c a l precipitators - 842 Glass fiber f i l t e r s Disposal and Control of Solid Radioactive Waste Disposal and Control of Liquid. Radioactive Waste OIL AND SOLVENT RE-REFINING Re-refining P r o c e s s f o r Oils Re-refining P r o c e s s for Organic Solvents The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m Air Pollution F r o m Oil Re-refining Air Pollution F r o m Solvent Re-refining A i r Pollution Control Equipment Oil Re-refining Solvent Re -refining CHEMICAL MILLING Description of the P r o c e s s Etchant Solutions The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m Mists Vapors Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e e Solvents Hooding and VentilationsRequirements A i r Pollution Control Equipment Corrosion P r o b l e m s

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CONTENTS

SOLVENTS AND THEIR USES Lntroduction Rule66 Limitations on t h e Use of Photochemically Reactive Solvents Baking and Curing Operations A i r Pollution Control M e a s u r e s SURFACE COATING OPERATIONS Introduction Types of Equipment S p r a y Booths Flowcoating Machines Dip Tanks . ..... . R o l l e r Coating Machines " .z..vw . ! T h e A i r Pollution P r o b l e m . . . . . . A .&A .. A i r Contaminants F r o m P a i n t S p r a y Booths A i r Contaminants F r o m Other Devices Hooding and Ventilation R e q u i r e m e n t s R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r P a i n t S p r a y Booths R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r Other Devices A i r Pollution Control Equipment Control of P a i n t S p r a y Booth P a r t i c u l a t e s . Control of Organic Vapors F r o m S u r f a c e Coating Operations PA1NT:BAKING OVENS AND OTHER SOLVENT-EWTTING OVENS Introduction Bake Oven Equipment Batch Type Ovens Continuous Ovens Heating of Ovens Oven Circulating and E x h a u s t S y s t e m s Airseals The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m Hooding and Ventilation R e q u i r e m e n t s A i r Pollution Control Equipment Other Ovens Emitting Air Contaminants Can Lithograph Oven P r i n t i n g S y s t e m Ovens SOLVENT DEGREASERS Introduction Design and Operation Types of Solvent The A i r Pollution P r o b l e m Hooding and Ventilation R e q u i r e m e n t s A i r Pollution Control Methods Methods of Minimizing Solvent E m i s s i o n s Tank C o v e r s Controlling Vaporized Solvent DRY CLEANING EQUIPMENT Introduction W a s h Machines Combination Machines Extractors Tumblers Filters Stills Muck R e c l a i m e r s T h e A i r Pollution P r o b l e m Solvents Lint Hooding and Ventilation R e q u i r e m e n t s A i r Pollution Control Methods

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CHAPTER 12 . ORGANIC SOLVENT E M I T T I N G E Q U I P M E N T

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Adsarbers LintTraps

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883 884

REFERENCES

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APPENDIXES

REFERENCES

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APPENDIX A: RULES AND REGULATIONS O F T H E AIR POLLUTION CONTROL DISTRICT. COUNTY O F LOS ANGELES APPENDIX B: ODOR-TESTING TECHNIQUES T h e Odor P a n e l T h e O d o r Evaluation R o o m Sampling Techniques Evaluation of Odor S a m p l e s D e t e r m i n a t i o n of Odor Concentration APPENDIX C: HYPOTHETICAL AVAILABLE HEATS F R O M NATURAL GAS APPENDIX D: MISCELLANEOUS DATA APPENDIX E: EMISSION SURVEYS. INVENTORIES. AND FACTORS Introduction Values of S u r v e y s Need f o r Continuing S u r v e y s Conduct~ng the S u r v e y S o u r c e s of S u r v e y I n f o r m a t i o n Detailed V e r s u s "Short-Cut" S u r v e y s E l e m e n t s of a S u r v e y Developing a L i s t of S u r v e y e e s Developing E m i s s i o n F a c t o r s D e t e r m i n i n g a n d P h r a s l n g A p p r o p r i a t e Questions Designing Effective Questionnaires T r e a t i n g a n d Evaluating t h e Data. Reporting R e s u l t s . and R e c o m m e n d i n g Action

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S U B J E C T INDEX

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

JOHN A. DANIELSON, S e n i o r A i r P o l l u t i o n E n g i n e e r o R O B E R T L. CHASS, A L P~ l l u t l o n C o n t r o l O f f l c e r R O B E R T G. LUNCHE, Chlef Deputy A l r P o l l u t l o n C o n t r o l Offlcer

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
The p a s t two decades have witnessed r e m a r k a b l e p r o g r e s s in the development of reasonable engineering solutions for controlling i n d u s t r i a l and c o m m e r c i a l s o u r c e s of a i r pollution. This m a n u a l p r e s e n t s t h e p r a c t i c a l technical knowledge a c quired through m o r e than 25 y e a r s of experience by the Engineering Division of t h e L o s Angeles County Air Pollution Control D i s t r i c t . With the r i c h backgroundof experience attained by government and industry, this engineering knowledge c a n now be applied to solving specific community a i r pollution p r o b l e m s throughout the world. operations of industry, because these operations have b e e n m o s t frequently a s s o c i a t e d with c o m munity a i r pollution p r o b l e m s . Accordingly, the L o s Angeles County control p r o g r a m was f i r s t d i r e c t e d to i n d u s t r i a l operations. Although the e x a c t y e a r when s m o g w a s f i r s t r e c ognized in Los Angeles i s not known, the f i r s t public demands for relief f r o m a i r pollution appear to have been m a d e immediately a f t e r World War I1 (Weisburd, 1962). Newspapers, in p a r t i c u l a r , beganto expose the p r o b l e m i n thepublic i n t e r e s t . As a consequence, a i r pollution control groups w e r e f o r m e d under health d e p a r t m e n t jurisdiction - f i r s t by the city of L o s Aneeles, and then by the county of L o s Angeles in the unincorporated a r e a s . These control efforts failed, however, because of the multiplicity and inadequacy of the c o n t r o l jurisdictions. It w a s soon apparent that adequate control could he e x e r c i s e d only by a single authority with jurisdiction over the e n t i r e pollution zone - the incorporated and unincorpor a t e d a r e a s of L o s Angeles County. As a r e s u l t , Assembly Bill No. 1 w a s p r e s e n t e d to the 1947 s e s s i o n of the California L e g i s l a t u r e . This Bill proposedconsolidation of c o n t r o l m e a s u r e s . The L e g i s l a t u r e voted t o a d d Chapter 2, "Air Pollution Control D i s t r i c t , ' I to Division 20 of the Health and Safety Code r e l a t i n g to the control and s u p p r e s s i o n of a i r pollution. Thus, the f i r s t s t a t e wide a i r pollution control statute w a s enacted. This statute, The California Act, i s a n enabling type of legislation that l e g a l i z e s t h e establishment o f a i r pollution c o n t r o l d i s t r i c t s on a l o c a l option b a s i s by the counties of California.

THE LOS ANGELES BASlN

L o s Angeles and i t s environs have special p r o b l e m s peculiar to the a r e a . L o s Angeles County i s the l a r g e s t heavily industrialized, s e m i t r o p i c a l a r e a i n the world. It c o m p r i s e s 4, 083 s q u a r e m i l e s and contains m o r e than 75 incorporated c i t i e s and l a r g e s c a t t e r e d unincorporated a r e a s . I t s population h a s m o r e than doubled since 1939, and industry h a s expanded f r o m approximately 6, 000 establishments in 1939 to about 25, 000 i n 1970. Topographical and meteorological conditions a g g r a v a t e the e f f e c t s of the pollution produced by this populationand this industry i n the L o s Angeles Basin. The a v e r a g e wind velocity t h e r e i s l e s s than 6 m i l e s p e r hour. The light winds that do develop a r e relatively ineffective i n c a r r y i n g off the polluted a i r because of the t e m p e r a t u r e i n v e r s i o n s that p r e v a i l approximately 260 days of t h e y e a r . T h e height of the inversion b a s e v a r i e s f r o m ground l e v e l to 3, 000 feet. These i n v e r s i o n s have been m o s t noticeable during the s u m m e r months, but i n the l a s t few y e a r s ext r e m e i n v e r s i o n s have o c c u r r e d i n the November D e c e m b e r p e r i o d a s well. T h e i r effect i s to l i m i t v e r t i c a l distributionof a t m o s p h e r i c pollutionwhile l o c a l w i n d s f r o m the w e s t a r e moving the a i r over the a r e a during the day. In L o s Angeles County, the complex m i x t u r e of smoke, d u s t s , fumes, g a s e s , and other solid a n d l i q u i d p a r t i c l e s is called "smog. " T h i s smog m a y produce a single effect o r a combination of effects, such a s i r r i t a t i o n of eyes, i r r i t a t i o n of t h r o a t s , reduction of visibility, damage to vegetation, c r a c k i n g of r u b b e r , l o c a l nuisances, a n d a host of other e f f e c t s , r e a l and fancied.

RULES AND REGULATIONS IN LOS ANGELES COUNTY

Under authority of the Health and Safety Code, the B o a r d of S u p e r v i s o r s of L o s Angeles County e n acted, on D e c e m b e r 30, 1947, the f i r s t r u l e s and regulations guiding the conduct of the L o s Angeles County Air Pollution Control D i s t r i c t . Additional r u l e s and regulations w e r e enacted a s the need a r o s e . T h e r u l e s a r e contained i n eight r e g u l a tions, a s follows: (I) "General P r o v i s i o n s , I ' (11) " P e r m i t s , " (111) " F e e s , ' I (IV) "Prohibitions, " (V) " P r o c e d u r e Before t h e H e a r i n g Board, I ' (VI) "Or c h a r d o r Citrus Grove H e a t e r s , " (VII) "Emergenc i e s , " (VILI) " O r d e r s f o r Abatement. " It i s important that the reader realize that most of the revisions of the second edition of this manual were

A n y community suffering f r o m a n a i r pollution p r o b l e m m u s t inevitably t u r n i t s attention to the

INTRODUCTION s y s t e m i s a positive means of controlling a i r pollution. In using this regulation, the m e m b e r s of the Engineering Division of the A i r Pollution Control District have reviewed the design and approved or denied the construction o r operation of thousands of industrial and commercial e n t e r p r i s e s in Los Angeles County. These 25 years of experience provide the background f o r much of the data in this manual.

written in 1971. The degree of air pollution control achieved, therefore, relates to 1971 rules and regulations. Since that time, there have been many changes, particularly to the prohibition rules. For example, Rule 50, which limited emissions to Number 2 on the Ringelmann Chart in 1971, now limits emissions to Number 1 . The rules summarized in this chapter are those which were effective a s of January 1, 1971. The current rules, i . e . , those which were effective January 1, 1973, are shown in Appendix 4. In using this manual, the r e a d e r should be aware of certain provisions of the 1971 rules. Of most importance a r e Regulations I1 and IV, "Permits" and "Prohibitions, ' I respectively.

REGULATION IV: PROHIBITIONS

The rules in Regulation IV prohibit the emission of certain a i r contaminants and regulate certain types of equipment, Because these r u l e s apply to encineering problems and touch upon many s c i . ences, they require extraordinary c a r e f o r their framing. The prohibitions that were in effect a t the time this manual was written (1971) and that a r e pertinent to r e a d e r s of this manual will now be discussed.

REGULATION II: PERMITS

The permit system of the Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control District i s one of the m o s t important features of the air pollutioncontrol proe r a . A diaeram of the o e r m i t svstem and how i t operates i s given in Figure 1. In general, the system requires owners, operators, or l e s s e e s to apply f o r permits to construct and operate any -- . equipment capable of emitting a i r contaminants. If the applicant's plans, specifications, and field t e s t s show that the equipment can operate within the limits allowed by law, then a permit i s granted. If the equipment i s capable of emitting contaminants that c r e a t e a public nuisance or violate any section of the State Health or Safety Code or the r u l e s and regulations of the Air Pollution Cont r o l District, then a p e r m i t i s denied.

Rule 50: T h e R i n g e l m a n n Chart

Rule 50 s e t s standards f o r reading densities and opacities of visible emissions in determining violation of, or compliance with, the law. It limits to 3 minutes in any hour the discharge, f r o m any single source, of any a i r contaminant that i s (1) a s d a r k a s or d a r k e r than that designated as Numb e r 2 on the Ringelmann Chart, or ( 2 ) of such opacity as to obscure an o b s e r v e r ' s view to a degree equal to or g r e a t e r than that to which smoke described in (1) does.

This p e r m i t system i s effective because it eliminates use of equipment that emits excessive a i r contaminants or reduces emissions to within allowable limits by requiring that the design of the equipment or of the p r o c e s s be modified or that adequate control equipment be used. The construction or operation of control equipment m u s t also be authorized by permit. Thus, the p e r m i t

R u l e 51: N u i s a n c e
According to Rule 51, whatever tends to endanger life or property or whatever affects the health of the community i s a public nuisance. Thenuisance must, however, affect the community a t large and not m e r e l y one or a few persons. A nuisance
Engineering Enforcement

m.mmrnrn.~n8#

,
-

SUBMISSION OF CONSTRUCTION PLANS

AUTHORITY TO C0N:TRUCT

ISSUED

AUTHORITY 1 0 CONSTRUCT DENIED

PERMIT 2 0 OPERATE GRANTED

PERMIT TO OPERATE DENIED

I N S P E C T ~ O NOF EQUIPMENT
A Continuing Process

REVOCATION OF PERMIT or a c t i o n i n c r i m i n a l o r c i v i l court. i f inspection dircloser d e f e c t r o r improper o p e r a t i o n .

APPEAL OF DENIAL To h e a r i n q board.

+ I
I

APPEAL OF DENIAL To h e a r i n q b o a r d , or new p l a n s r u b m i t t e d .

PETITION FOR VARIANCE Submitted t o hearinq board t o p e r m i t operation f o r limited time while control equipment i r d e v e l o p e d o r i n s t a l l e d .

F i g u r e 1 . T h e p e r m i t s y s t e m and how i t o p e r a t e s when i n d u s t r y s e e k s t o i n s t a l l e q u i p m e n t t h a t may pollute the a i r .

. .

Rules and R e d a t i o n s

becomes a c r i m e i it contributes s e r i o u s l y t o the f discomfort of an a r e a .

Rule 52: Particulate Matter

Rule 52 establishes the maximum allowable l i m i t s for the discharge of particulate m a t t e r . It l i m i t s the discharge of this contaminant f r o m any source to a maximum concentrationof 0. 3 g r a i n p e r cubic foot of gas a t standard conditions of 60 F and 14. 7 psia. This rule does not, however, apply when the particulate m a t t e r i s a combustion contaminant.
~ ~~~~

p e r hour. The maximum allowable weight in pounds p e r hour i s graduated according to the weights of m a t e r i a l s p r o c e s s e d p e r hour. The maximum emission allowed i s 40 pounds p e r hour where 60,000 o r m o r e pounds a r e p r o c e s s e d i n t h e equipment in any given hour.

Rule 5 6 :

Storage of Petroleum Products

Rule 5 3 :

Specific Contaminants

Rule 53 establishes the maximum allowable l i m i t s for the discharge of sulfur compounds and c o m bustion contaminants a s follows: Rule 53a: Sulfur compounds calculatedas sulfur dioxide (SOL): 0.2 percent, by volume. Rule 53b: Cornbustioncontaminants: 0. 3 grain p e r cubic foot of gas calculated to 12 percent of carbondioxide (COZ)a t standard conditions. Inmeasuring thecombustioncontaminants f r o m incinerators used to dispose of combustible refuse by burning, the C02 produced by combustionof any liquid o r gaseous fuels shall be excluded f r o m the calculation to 12 percent of COZ.
Rules 53.1, 5 3 . 2 , a n d 5 3 . 3 : S u l f u r Production and Sulfuric Acid P l a n t s

Rule 56 s e t s forth the type of equipment that c a n be used for the control of hydrocarbons a r i s i n g f r o m the storage of gasoline and c e r t a i n petroleum distillates. Rule 56 provides that any tank of m o r e than 40,000-gallon capacity used for storing gasoline o r any petroleum distillate having a vapor p r e s s u r e of 1-112psia o r greater m u s t b e equipped witha vapor l o s s control device s u c h a s apontoontype or double-deck-type floating roof or a vapor recovery s y s t e m capable of collecting a l l e m i s sions.

Rules 5 7 and 5 8 : Open Fires and Incinerators

Rules 57 and 58 ban the burning of combustible r e f u s e in o p e n f i r e s and single-chamber incinerat o r s in the Los Angeles Basin.

Rule 59: Oil-Effluent Water Separators

These r u l e s s e t maximum allowable concentrations of sulfur dioxide in the effluent gases f r o m the sulfur production and sulfuric acid plants a t 5 0 0 p a r t s p e r million. The standards further limit the total weight of sulfur dioxide emissions f r o m theseplants to no m o r e than 200 pounds p e r hour. In the c a s e of s u l f u r i c p r o d u c t i o n p l a n t s , a further limitation in the maximum allowable concentrations of hydrogen sulfide of 10 p a r t s per million was set. Sulfur production plants must meet the new emissionstandards by June 30, 1973. Sulfuric acid plants m u s t meet the new standards by December 31, 1973.
Rule 5 4 : Dust and Fumes

Rule 59 regulates the type of equipment that c a n be used for the control of hydrocarbons f r o m oilwater s e p a r a t o r s . Itprovidesthat this equipment must either be covered, o r provided with a floating roof, or equipped with a vapor recovery s y s tem, o r fitted with other equipment of equal efficiency if the effluent handled by the separator contains a minimum of 200 o r m o r e gallons of p e t r o leum products p e r day.

Rule 61: G a s o l i n e L o a d i n g i n t o T a n k Trucks and Trailers

Rule 54 establishes the maximum allowable l i m i t s f o r the discharge of dusts and fumes according to the p r o c e s s weightst of m a t e r i a l s processed
P d r t l c - l a t e m d l t e r 1 5 any a a - . e r i a l , escep: .racJlro>nea ,are,. cn~t exlrrs i n a fmnely a l r l a e c r o r n a s a l ~ o ~ l a s o l l a a t or I L ~ ~ O > ~ o i l ~ l t i ~ n iL X T Y I L I ~ I O ~c m : d ~ i n a n r i s p r r t l c . l ~ t e ~ O s. m a i r e r alrcndrgea i n t o tne arnorpoere t r m rne o - r o i n g of any < i n 0 O l m d f r r l d l ;onrrhnlng c 4 r o u n in a f r e e or comotnea r t J i e .

t ~ r o c e s rweight i s the r o t a 1 weight o f a l l m a t e r i a l s i n r r o duced i n r o any s p e c i f i c process t h a t i s capable o f causing any discharge i n t o the atrmrphere. S o l i d f u e l s charged are considered p a r t of the process weight, b u t l i q u i d and gasThe "process weight i s derived by d i v i d i n g the t o t a l process weighr by the number of hours i n one complete operarion from the beginning of any given process co rhe completion thereof, exc l u d i n g any rime during which the equipment i s i d l e .

eous f u e l s and cwnburrion a i r are n o t .

per hour"

Rule 61 s e t s f o r t h the type of control equipment that c a n be used for the control of hydrocarbons resulting f r o m the loading of gasoline into tank trucks. It provides for the installation of vapor collection and disposal s y s t e m s on bulk gasolineloading facilities where m o r e than 20, 000 gallons of gasoline a r e loaded p e r day and r e q u i r e s that the loading facilities be equippedwith a vapor collection and disposal system. The disposal s y s t e m employed m u s t have a minimum recovery e f f i ciency of 90 percent o r a variable vapor space tankcompressor and fuel gas s y s t e m o f suchcapac ity a s to handle a l l vapors and g a s e s displaced f r o m the trucks being loaded.

INTRODUCTION

Rules 6 2 , 62.1, a n d 6 2 . 2 : Sulfur Content of Fuels

Rule 66.2:

Disposal and Evaporation o f Solvents

Rules 62, 62. 1, and 62. 2 prohibit the burning in the Los Angeles Basin of any gaseous fuel containing sulfur compounds in excess of 50 grains p e r 100 cubic feetof gaseous fuel (calculated a s hydrogen sulfide a t standard conditions) or any liquid or solid fuel having a sulfur content in e x c e s s of 0. 5 percent by weight.

Rule 66.2 prohibits the disposal of m o r e than 1-112 gallons p e r day of any photochemically r e active solvent by any means that will p e r m i t the evaporation of such solvent into the atmosphere.

Rule 6 7 : Fuel-Burning Equipment

Rule 63: Gasoline Specifications

Rule 63 prohibits the sale a n d u s e of fuel f o r motor vehicles having a degree of unsaturation exceeding a bromine number of 30.

Rule 67 r e q u i r e s that a person shall not build, e r e c t , install, o r expand any fuel-burning equipment unless the discharge of contaminants will not exceed 200 pounds p e r hour of sulfur dioxide, or 140 pounds p e r hour of nitrogen oxides, or 10 pounds p e r hour of combustion contaminants.

Rule 64: Reduction of Animol M a t t e r

Rule 6 8 : Fuel-Burning Equipment Nitrogen

Oxides of

Rule 64 r e q u i r e s that malodors f r o m a l l equipment used for reduction of animal matter either be incinerated a t t e m p e r a t u r e s of not l e s s than 1, 200 F for a period of not l e s s than 0.3 second or processed in an o d o r - f r e e manner under conditions stated i n the rule.

Rule 68 requires that a person shall not discharge into the atmosphere f r o m any fuel-bearing equipment having a heat input of m o r e than 1775 x 106 Btu p e r hour, flue gas having a concentration of nitrogen oxides at 3 percent oxygen in excess of the following: Effective date December 31, 1971 December 3 1, 1974

R u l e 65:

Gasoline L o a d i n g i n t o Tanks

Fuel

Rule 65 prohibits the loading of gasoline into any stationary tank with a capacity of 250 gallons or m o r e f r o m any tank truck o r t r a i l e r , except through a permanent submerged fill pipe, unless such tank i s equipped with a vapor l o s s control device a s described in Rule 56, or i s a p r e s s u r e tank a s described i n Rule 56.

Liquid o r solid, ppm

325

225

ROLE O F THE AIR POLLUTION ENGINEER

Clearly, a s indicated by this impressive l i s t of prohibitions, the r u l e s and regulations affect the operation of nearly every industry in Los Angeles County. Through their enforcement, controls have been applied to such diverse sources and operations a s incinerators, open f i r e s , rendering cooke r s , c o f f e e r o a s t e r s , p e t r o l e u m r e f i n e r i e s , chemical plants, rock c r u s h e r s , and asphalt plants. F r o m the smelting of metals to the painting of manufactured goods, industrial and commercial operations have been brought within the scope of the controlprogram. This control has beenaccomplished through the use of the p e r m i t system.

R u l e 66: O r g a n i c S o l v e n t s

Rule 66 r e q u l r e s that photochemically reactive organic solvent emissions in excess of 40 pounds p e r day ( o r 15 pounds p e r day f r o m p r o c e s s e s involving contact with a f l a m e or baking, heatcuring o r heat polymerizing, in the p r e s e n c e of oxygen) shall not be emitted unless controlled by incineration, adsorption, o r in an equally efficient manner.

R u l e 66.1:

Architectural Coatings ACCOMPLISHMENTS OF THE PERMIT SYSTEM

Rule 66.1 prohibits the sale of architectural coatings containing photochemically reactive solvents i n containers l a r g e r than 1-quart capacity. It a l s o prohibits diluting any architectural coating with a photochemically reactive solvent.

Under the p e r m i t s y s t e m every source capable of emitting a i r contaminants and constructed since February 1948 has needed an authorization to be constructed and a p e r m i t to be operated f r o m the

Use of This Manual Engineering Division of the Air Pollution Control District. F r o m April 1948 through April 1969, 109,332permits w e r e issued b y D i s t r i c t engineers. The estimated value of the basic equipment was $1,363,400,000 and that of the control equipment was an additiona1$152,200,000. During this s a m e period, 6, 045 applications f o r basic and control equipment were denied.

in the development of a i r pollution control s y s t e m s . Specifically, chapter 2 d e s c r i b e s the types of a i r contaminants encounteredandchapter 3 p r e sents design problems of hoods and exhaust s y s tems. Types of control devices, and their genera1 design f e a t u r e s a r e discussed in chapters 4 and 5.

This wealth of engineeringexperience i s reflected . SPECIFIC A l R P O L L U T l O N SOURCES in the contents of this manual. Nearly a l l the data presented were acquired through the experience and work of the D i s t r i c t ' s Air Pollution engineers Chapters 6 through 12 discuss the control of a i r and of engineers industry. in ~ h pioneering ~ ~ i pollutionfrom specific s o u r c e s . Each solution of e f f o r t s to stay a t least one pace ahead of the proban a i r pollution problem r e p r e s e n t s a s e p a r a t e l e m have produced many engineering f i r s t s in the sectionof the text. Manyprocesses a r e discussed: control of a i r pollution. metallurgical a n d m e c h a n i c a l p r o c e s s e s , p r o c e s s es of incineration and combustion, and p r o c e s s e s associated with petroleum, chemical equipment, USE OF THIS MANUAL and organic solvents, each in a separate chapter and in that order. Usually the process i s desUsers of this manual should r e m e m b e r that the cribed and then the a i r pollution problem a s s o degree o a i r pollution control discussed herein i s f ciated with it i s discussed, together with the based upon the prohibitions a s s e t forth by the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the a i r contaminants and the rules and regulations of the Los Angeles County unique design f e a t u r e s of the a i r pollution control Air Pollution Control District in effect a s of Janequipment. uary 1, 1971. In many a r e a s , a i r pollution r e g ulations a r e l e s s stringent, and control devices of lower efficiency may be permitted. By this arrangement, t h e r e a d e r can, if hewishes, r e f e r only to that section discussing the specific p r o c e s s in which he is interested. If he wants to know m o r e about the general designfeatures of the a i r pollution control device serving that p r o c e s s , he can r e f e r to chapters 4 and 5 on controlequipment.

GENERAL DESIGN PROBLEMS

This manual consists of 12 chapters and 5 appendixes. Chapters 2 through 5 p r e s e n t general design problems confronting a i r pollution engineers

CHAPTER 2

AIR CONTAMINANTS

J A N E T DICKINSON, A s s i s t a n t Chief A i r Pollution Analyst R O B E R T L. CHASS, A i r Pollution C o n t r o l Officer

W. J. HAMMING, Chief A i r Pollution A n a l y s t

JOHN A . DANIELSON, S e n i o r A i r Pollution E n g i n e e r

CHAPTER 2

AIR CONTAMINANTS INTRODUCTION

Thepurpose of this chapter is to describe briefly the p a r a m e t e r s of an a i r pollution problem, p a r ticularly the problem of Los Angeles County; the measures taken to eliminate the problem; and those still needed. Other chapters will delineate, in detail, the methods and equipment successfully used i n the control of emissions of a i r contaminants from a variety of stationary sources. Thecontrolprogramin the County of Los Angeles duringthe past 25 years has been the m o s t effective ever attempted anywhere. During the s a m e ~ e r i o dhowever, the countyhas had a phenomenal , population explosion that has caused the emissions f r o m motor vehicles to overtake and surpass the gains made by control over stationary sources. The net effect has been the m o r e frequent occurrence of smog symptoms over anincreasinglylarge r area. Since control over motor vehicle emissions i s the responsibility of the state and f e d e r a l governments r a t h e r than of the local agency, substantial improvement in the situation in Los Angeles will probablyhave to await the successful implementation of their programs. In the interim, however, the Air Pollution Control District of Los Angeles Countv will continue its efforts to reduce e m i s sions of a i r contaminants f r o m stationary sources wherever possible within its jurisdiction. Air pollution problems may exist over a small a r e a a s a r e s u l t of just one emission source o r group of sources o r they may be widespread and cover a whole community o r urban complex involving avarietyof sources. The effects that cause the situation to be regarded a s a problem may be limitedin scope and associated with a single kind of contaminantor theymay be the variable results of complexatrnospheric interactionof a number of contaminants. The factors that contribute to the creation of an a i r pollution problem a r e both natural and man made. The natural factors a r e primarily meteorological, sometimes geographical, a n d a r e generally beyond man's sphere of control, whereas the manmade factors involve tErk emission of a i r contaminants in quantities sufficient to produce deleterious effects and a r e within man's sphere of codtrol. The natural factors that r e s t r i c t the normaldilutionof codtaminant emissions include: temperature inversions, which prevent diffusion upwards; v e r y low wind speeds, which do little to move emitted substances away f r o m their points of origin; and geographical t e r r a i n , which causes the flow to follow certain patterns and c a r r y f r o m one a r e a to another whatever the a i r contains. The manmade factors involve the contaminant emissions resulting f r o m some human activity. The predominant kind of a i r pollution problem involves simply the overloading of the atmosphere with harmful o r unpleasant materials. his is the problem usually associated with an industrial a r e a , and the type that has been responsible for a l l the killer a i r pollution incidents of the past. I t i s also the type of problem m o s t readily solved, if the need and d e s i r e to do s o a r e great enough. Contaminants frequently associated with this kind of problem include: Sulfur compounds (sulfur oxides, sulfates, sulfides, mercaptans); fluorides; metallic oxides; odors; smoke; and all types of dusts andfumes. The harmful effects may be such a s to cause illness and death to persons and anim a l s , darnagetovegetation, o r just annoyance and displeasure to persons i n affected a r e a s . During the past 25 y e a r s , however, another kind of a i r pollution problem has evolved--that produced by the photochemical reaction of organic chemicals and oxides of nitrogen in the presence of sunlight. The effects of this type of a i r pollution w e r e f i r s t noted in the Los Angeles a r e a in themid-1940's. hutthe cause was not then known.

FACTORS I N AIR POLLUTION PROBLEMS

Literally, any substance not normally present i n the atmosphere, o r measured there i n g r e a t e r than normal concentrations, should he considered a n a i r contaminant. More practically, however,a substance i s not s o labeled until i t s presence and concentration produce o r contribute t o the produc tion of some deleterious effect.

Many foreign substances find theirway into the a t mosphere a s the r e s u l t of some human activity. Under normal circumstances, they diffuse throughout a rather l a r g e volume of a i r and do not accumulate to potentially harmful concentrations. Under l e s s favorable conditions, however, the a i r volume available f o r this diffusion becomes inadequate. The concentrations of some foreign substances then may reach a level a t which a n a i r pollution problem i s created.

12

AIR CONTAMINANTS in connection withthese processes and in connection with their manufacture and use. They can even be formed in the atmosphere as the result of certain photochemical reactions.
C u r r e n t S o u r c e s i n Lor A n g e l e s C o u n t y

nor was there any apparent relationship between the initial effects and a i r pollution. The effect f i r s t noted was damage to vegetation. This was followed bv irritation of the eves, marked reductioninvisibilitynot related to unusual quantities of atmospheric moisture o r dust, and l a t e r , rubber unexplained acceleration Of the aging products a s evidenced by cracking. E a r l y r e s e a r c h demonstrated and additional r e s e a r c h confirmed that a l l these effects were produced by the reaction in the atmosphere of organic compounds, principally hydrocarbons, and nitrogen dioxide, and that the cracking of rubber products was caused specificallyby one of the products of these reactions, ozone. Initially, only a relatively small portion of the Los Angeles Basin was affected, but a tremendous influx of new residents and new industrial growth during the past 20 years have caused acontinuous enlargement of the affected area. Within this a r e a , certain local problems related to single sources and groups of sources also exist, but they a r e of l e s s significance than the overall problem of photochemical smog.

M~~~ specifically, the principal current sources of organic gases inLos Angeles County a r e listed in Table 1.

Hydrocarbons The most important source, by f a r , of emission of hydrocarbons i s the use of gasoline for the operation of 4-114million motor vehicles. This source alone accounts for approximately 1,610 tons per day, or 65 percent of the total emissions. Of this quantity, about 73 percent i s attributed to exhaust emissions; 5 percent, t o crankcase emissions ; and 22 percent, to evaporation of fuel f r o m c a r buretors and gasoline tanks. Except f o r about 2 percent of the total, the balance of the hydrocarbon emissions a r e divided between the petroleum industry and industrial and commercial uses of organic solvents. Kinds of hydrocarbons contributed by these sources vary considerably. Auto exhaust, for example, i s the principal source of olefins and other photochemically reactive hydrocarbons, though other sources connected with the operation of motor vehicles and with the processing and handling of gasoline contribute indirectproportionto the olefin content of the gasoline marketed here. All these sources contribute paraffins andaromatics, and emissions of hydrocarbons f r o m solvent usage a r e composedalmostentirely of these twoclasses. Hydrocarbon derivatives Of the 300 tons of hvdrocarbonderivatives (or substituted hydrocarbons) emitted to the atmosphere of Los Angeles County eachday, aboutthree-fourths results fromsolvent uses such a s surface coating, degreasing, a n d d r y cleaning, and other industrial and commercial processes. The balance i s included in the products of combustion of various petroleum fuels &dof incineration of refuse. The substitutedhydrocarbons emitted to the atmosphere by industrial and commercial use of organic solvents include oxygenates, such a s aldehydes, ketones, andalcohols; organic acids; and chlorinated hydrocarbons. Most hydrocarbon derivatives a s sociatedwith surface coating a r e oxygenates whose presence canbe relatedeither to the solvent itself o r to the products of the partial oxidation involved in the drying of the coated objects. The hydrocarbonderivatives associatedwith degreasing and d r y cleaning a r e mostly chlorinated hydrocarbons. The derivatives associatedwith combustion, either

TYPES OF AIR CONTAMINANTS

Substances considered a i r contaminants in Los Angeles Countyfall into three classes onthe basis of their chemical composition and physical state. These a r e (1) organic gases, (2) inorganic gases, and (3) aerosols. Each class may include many different compounds, emanate f r o m several different sources, and contribute to the production of a number of characteristic smog effects. A brief summary of some of the contaminants, their principal sources, and their significance i s p r e sented in Table 1.

ORGANIC GASES
The f i r s t group, organic gases, consists entirely of compounds of carbon and hydrogen and their derivatives. These include all classes of hydrocarbons (olefins, paraffins, and aromatics) and the compounds formed when some of the hydrogen in the original compounds i s replaced by oxygen, halogens, nitro o r other substituent groups. The latter a r e the hydrocarbon derivatives. The principal origin of hydrocarbons i s petroleum, and the principal sources of emissions of hydrocarbons and their derivatives a r e those related to the processing _and use of petroleum and i t s products. Hydrocarbons a r e released t o the atmosphere during the refining of petroleum, during the txansfer and storage of petroleum products, and during the use of products such a s fuels, lubricants, and solvents. Derivatives of hydrocarbons can also be released into the atmosphere

T y p e s of Contaminants

13

T a b l e 1.

AIR CONTAMINANTS IN LOS ANGELES COUNTY, T E PRINCIPAL H R SOURCES AND SIGNIFICANCE (JANUARY 1971)
Significant effects
0

Emitted contaminant

Principal sources

'Iant

damage

Oxidant Visibility Eye irritation formation reduction

Danger to health

Other

Organic gases Hydrocarbons Paraffins Processing and transfer of petroleum products; use of solvents: motor vehicles Processing and transfer of gasoline; motor vehicles Aromatics Same a s for paraffins

1
X (Atypical)
Odors

Others Oxygenated hydrocarbons Use of solvents; motor (Aldehydes, ketones, vehicles alcohols, acids) Use of solvents Halogenated hydrocarbons (Carbon tetrachloride, trichloroethylene, etc) Inorganic gases Oxides of nitrogen (Nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide) Oddee of sulfur (Sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide) Carbon monoxide Combustion of fuels; motor vehicles

Odors

X Combustion of fuels: chem(Specific type) ical industry

Motor vehicles; petroleum refining; metals industry; pismn-driven aircraft

Aerosols Solid particles Carbon or soot particles Combustion of fuels; motor vehicles

X
(Under special circumstances)

Metal oxides and salts

Catalyst dusts from refineries; motor vehicle exhaust: combustion of fuel oil; metals industry Minerals industry; construction Metals industry

Silicates and mineral dusts Metallic fumes Liquid particles Acid droplets Oily o r t a r r y droplets

Combustion of fue1s:plating battery manufacture Motor vehicles; asphalt paving and roofing; asphalt saturators; petroleum r e fining Various industries
k

Paints and surface coatins3

roperty
e

14

A P CONTAMINANTS L. of the aldehydes and nitro derivatives a r e , themselves, lachrymators and some of the chlorinated hydrocarbons a r e rather toxic. Except for the peroxyacyl nitrates, these compounds a r e not, however, generally associated with production of plant damage. The hydrocarbons a r e further indicted because photochemical reactions in which they participate sometimes produce hydrocarbon derivatives such a s aldehydes, ketones, and nitro-substituted organics, which can in turn r e a c t to increase the production of smog effects.
I N O R G A N I C GASES

of fuels o r of refuse, a r e products of incomplete combustion and a r e almost entirely oxygenates. Thus, the composition of atmospheric emissions of hydrocarbon derivatives i s currently about onefourth to one-third chlorinated hydrocarbons and two-thirds to three-fourths oxygenates. In addition t o the hydrocarbon derivatives contributed by direct emissions, the atmosphere of photochemical smog contains similar compounds formed there as a result of the reactions that produced the smog. These substituted hydrocarbons include oxygenates, such a s aldehydes, ketones, alcohols. and oreanic acids, and nitroeen-containing compounds, such a s the peroxyacyl nitrates and, perhaps, nitro olefins. These compounds a r e the products of partial oxidation of hydrocarbons and some derivatives in the atmosphere and of atmospheric reactions between oxides of nitrogen and organic gases in sunlight, but not in the dark.

Inorganic gases constitute the second major group of a i r contaminants in Los Angeles County. They include oxides of nitrogen, oxides of sulfur, c a r bon monoxide, and much smaller quantities of ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and chlorine. The principal source of a l l the oxides listed above i s the combustion of fuelfor industrial, commercial, and domestic uses; f o r transportation; f o r space heating; and for generation of power. Additionally, small quantities of sulfur oxides and carbon monoxide, and the total of the minor constituents, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and chlorine, a r e emitted in connection with certain indust r i a l processes.
Current Sources i n Lor Angeles County

Significance in Air Pollution Problem

Hydrocarbons and their derivatives a r e important factors inthe a i r pollution problem inLos Angeles County because of their ability to participate in the atmospheric reactions thatproduce effects associated with photochemical smog. Not all hydrocarbons and their derivatives have the same potential for smog formation. The most reactive group, the olefins (unsaturated hydrocarbons), can react with atomic oxygen, formed f r o m the dissociation of nitrogen dioxide in sunlight, or with ozone t o produce plant damage, eye irritation, visibilityreducing aerosols, oxidants, andadditional ozone. Branched paraffinic hydrocarbons can also react when nitrogen dioxide i s present in sunlight t o produce some oxidants or ozone, but the reaction depends specifically upon the concentration ratio of nitrogen oxides and paraffins. In Los Angeles this ratio in the atmosphere i s not conducive to this formation for normal straight-chainparaffins. Eye irritation andplantdamage a r e not caused by paraffinic hydrocarbons in general. The secondmostimportant group of hydrocarbons i s the aromatic hydrocarbons, particularly those having various substituent groups. These compounds can also react with atomic oxygen formed from the sunlight dissociation of nitrogen dioxide to produce a l l the same types and kinds of smog effects. Sometimes, however, depending uppn a high ratio of nitrogen oxides to hydrocarbon, a different kind of plant damage results f r o m these reactions. The hydrocarbon derivatives, particularly some of the aldehydes and ketones, and even some of the chlorinated hydrocarbons, can a l s o react with nitrogendioxide inthe atmosphere to produce eye irritation, aerosols, and ozone. Further, some

The principal sources currently responsible for atmospheric emissions of each of the important inorganic gaseous a i r contaminants will now be discussed. Oxides of nitrogen A number of compounds must be classified a s oxides of nitrogen, but only two, nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NOZ), a r e important a s a i r contaminants. The f i r s t , nitric oxide, i s formed through the direct combination of nitrogenand oxygen f r o m the a i r in the intense heat of any combustion process. Nitric oxide in the atmosphere i s then able, in the presence of sunlight, to combine with additional oxygen to form nitrogen dioxide. Usually the concentrations of nitric oxide in the combustioneffluents constitute 90percent or m o r e of the total nitrogen oxides. Nonetheless, since every mole of nitric oxide emitted t o the atmosphere has the potential to produce a mole of nitrogen dioxide, one may not be considered without the other. In fact, measurement of their concentrations often provides only a sum of the two reported a s the dioxide.

Types of Conf O the total quantities of these contaminants c u r f rently being emitted each day in Los Angeles County, approximately 70 percent, o r 740 tons, m u s t be attributed to the exhaust effluents f r o m gasoline-powered motor vehicles. Almost the entire balance i s produced a s the result of combustion o fuel f o r space heating and power genf eration. Oxides of sulfur Air contaminants classified a s oxides of sulfur consist essentially of only two compounds, sulfur dioxide (S02) and sulfur trioxide (SO3). The p r i m a r y source of both i s the combination of atmospheric oxygen with the sulfur in certain fuels during their combustion. The total emitted quantities of these substances a r e , therefore, directly related to the sulfur content and total quantities of the principal fuels used in a community. Normally, the dioxide i s emitted in much greater quantities than the trioxide, the latter being formed only under rather unusual conditions. In fact, the t r i oxide i s normally a finely divided aerosol rather than a gas. In Los Angeles County, the emissions of sulfur oxides have shown a marked decrease during the winter months with thepromulgation of Rule 62.2. This rule places a limitation of 0. 5 percent, by weight, on the sulfur content of the liquid fuels. P r i o r to the adoption of this rule, high-sulfur oils, often a s high a s 1.6 percent sulfur, were allowed to be burned when natural gas was not available. ~ u r i n ~ t period November 15 to April 15, emishe sions of sulfur oxides a r e 290 tons per day, of which 85 tons per day i s f r o m the combustion of fuels. Ninety tons p e r day a r e f r o m sulfur recove r y plants and 25 tons per day occur f r o m sulfuric acid plants. The remainder i s f r o m petroleum refining and metallurgical plants. During the period April 15 to November 15, the total emissions of sulfur oxides i s 220 tons per day. The 70-ton reduction i s mainly a result of burning natural gas instead of low-sulfur oil in steam power plants. Carbon monoxide Carbon monoxide (CO) i s a single contaminant formed during incomplete oxidation of any carbonaceous fueland currently has only one significant source in Los Angeles County-the incomplete combustion of gasoline in motor vehicles. Of a total of 9,100 tons of this contaminantemitted per day, 98 percent i s attributable t o this source. About 1.5 percent i s attributable to the emissions f r o m a i r c r a f t , andthe balancefromdieselengines, metallurgical processes, and petroleum refining operations.
Significance i n Air Pollution Problem

The importance of the inorganic gases in an a i r pollution problem varies with the gas in question. Each will, therefore, he discussed separately. Oxides of nitrogen The oxides of nitrogen have f a r g r e a t e r significance in photochemical smog than any of the other inorganic gaseous contaminants. Research has demonstrated that upon absorbing sunlight energy nitroaen dioxide undergoes several reactions, depending uponthe wavelength or frequency of the light. The near-ultraviolet wavelengths a r e the most effective in producing atomic oxygen f r o m the nitrogen dioxide, and this oxygen reacts with a number of organic compounds to produce all the effects associated with photochemical smog. In fact, this type of a i r pollution was named photochemical smog because of the manner in which i t i s generated. The presence of the dioxide has been shown to be a necessary condition f o r these reactions. This does not, however, diminish the need for adequate consideration of nitric oxide a s a i r contaminant, since this i s the f o r m in which the oxides of nitrogen normally enter the atmosphere. In communities not affected by photochemical smog, the oxides of nitrogen s t i l l m u s t be considered i f only f o r their inherent ability to produce deleterious effects bythemselves. The only effect that must seriously be considered in this regard i s their toxicity, though the reddish-brown color of the dioxide and its s h a r p odor could cause probl e m s i n a r e a s near a nylon plant, nitric acid plant, or nitrate fertilizer plant. Nitric oxide i s considerably l e s s toxic than the dioxide. It acts a s an asphyxiant when in concentrations great enough to reduce the normal oxygen supply f r o m the a i r . Nitrogen dioxide, on the other hand, i n concentrations of approximately 10 ppm for 8 hours, can ~ r o d u c elung injury and edema, and in greater concentrations, i. e . , 20 to 30 ppm f o r 8 hours can produce fatal lung damage. The dioxide, then, i s heavily indicted a s an undesirable constituent of the atmosphere, regardl e s s of the type of a i r pollutionproblem under consideration. Nitric oxide i s indicted, too, because of i t s ability to produce the dioxide by atmospheric oxidation. Oxides of sulfur During the past few y e a r s , information in the lite r a t u r e has indicated that the presence of sulfur dioxide in the photochemical-smog reaction enhances the formation of visibility-reducing aerosols. The mechanism responsible for this effect

16

AIR CONTAMINANTS odors. Hydrogen sulfide can cause discoloration of certain kinds of paint; ammonia and chlorine candiscolor certain fabric dyes; fluorine and fluorides, especially hydrogen fluoride, a r e highly toxic, corrosive, and capable of causing damage to vegetation, and illness and injury to humans and animals. Many other inorganic gases maybe individually o r locally objectionable o r toxic. These a r e of r e l a tively minor importance and will not be discussed here.
AEROSOLS

has notbeendescribed, a n d i t i s not known whether sulfur dioxide enters into the organic photochemical reactions o r whether the additional aerosols observed represent simply a combination of sulfur dioxide and moisture. P r i m a r i l y , gaseous oxides of sulfur in the atmosphere a r e significant because of their toxicity. Both the dioxide and trioxide a r e capable of producing illness and lung injury even a t small concentrations, f r o m 5 to 10 ppm. F u r t h e r , each can combine with water in the a i r to f o r m toxic acid aerosols thatcancorrode metal s u r f a c e s , fabrics, and the leaves of plants. Sulfur dioxide by itself also produces a characteristic type of damage to vegetation whereby portions of the plants' leaves a r e bleached in a specific pattern. In concentrations a s small a s 5 ppm, sulfur dioxide is i r r i tating to the eyes and r e s p i r a t o r y system. Both the dioxide and trioxide can combine with particles of soot and other aerosols to produce contaminants m o r e toxic than either alone. The combination of the dioxide and trioxide with their acid aerosols has a l s o been found to exert a synergistic effect on their individual toxicities. These mixtures w e r e apparently responsible for the illness anddeathassociatedwithtbe famous air pollutionincidents thatoccurred i n the Meuse Valley, Belgium; in Donora, Pennsylvania; and, m o r e r e cently, in London, England. Carbon monoxide Carbonmonoxide plays no p a r t in the formation of photochemical smog though i t i s almost invariably emitted to the atmosphere along with the most potent of smog formers--hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen. At concentrations of 200 ppm and g r e a t e r , itproducesillness anddeathby depriving the blood of its oxygen-carrying capacity. It has been detected in the atmosphere of various urban centers of the world a t concentrations from 10 to 100ppm. Greater concentrations have occasionally been measured in confined spaces such a s tunnels andlarge, poorly ventilated garages. Atmospheric concentrations havenot yet been linked to fatalities but have sometimes been implicated in short-term illnesses of traffic officers. Miscellaneous inorganic gases A few additional gases w e r e listed among those emitted to the atmosphere fromvarious operations in Los Angeles County. They include ammonia, hvdroeen sulfide, chlorine. and fluorine o r fluo, rides. Althoughnone has been detected in greater than trace quantities Los Angeles atmosphere and none i s known to have any significance in the formationof pbotocbemical smog, these contaminants can be important in other types of a i r pollutionproblems. A l l a r e toxic i n small to moderate concentrations, and the f i r s t t h r e e have unpleasant

Aerosols (also called particulate m a t t e r ) present inthe atmosphere may be organic o r inorganic in composition, and in liquidor solid physical state. By definition, they m u s t b e particles of v e r y small size o r theywillnot remaindispersed i n the atmosphere. Among the m o s t common a r e carbon o r soot particles; metallic oxides and s a l t s ; oily o r t a r r y droplets; acid droplets; 'silicates and other inorganic dusts; and metallic fumes. The quantities of aerosols emitted in Los Angeles County, a t present, a r e relatively small but inc l u d e a t l e a s t s o m e amounts of a l l the types listed above. P a r t i c l e s of l a r g e r than aerosol size a r e a l s o emitted but, because of their weight, do not long remain airborne. Additionally, however, v a s t auantities of aerosols a r e formed in the atmosphere a s the r e s u l t of photochemical reactions among emitted contaminants. Total quantities of these aerosols may easily exceed those of emitted aerosols, a t l e a s t in t e r m s of particle numbers.
i i

1 I ! i
4

! !

Current Sources i n Lor Angeles County

The most important c u r r e n t sources of aerosol emissions i n L o s Angeles County, by type of a e r o sol, will now be discussed. Carbon o r soot particles Probablythemost commonly emitted kind of p a r ticle anywhere i s carbon. Carbon particles a r e nearly always present among the products of combustionfrom a l l types of fuels, even f r o m operations inwhich the combustionis apparently complete.
In Los Angeles County, the principal sources of emissions containing carbon o r soot particles a r e the exhaust effluents , f r o m motor vehicles, and the combustion. of fuels for power generation and space heating, though not a l l the particulates emitted from these sources a r e carbon. E m i s sions f r o m the latter group of sources v a r y with theRule 62 period* since these particles occur in
'April

I
1

. . ~ .

15 to November 15.

Types of Contaminants greater quantities in the effluent fromthe burning of fuel oil than in that f r o m the burning of natural gas. During Rule 62 periods, then, the combustion of fuel f o r space heating and generation of power accountsfor about one-fourth of the carbon particles emitted to the atmosphere, and during non-Rule 62 periods, about one-half. The portion contributed by auto exhaust varies, t h e r e f o r e , duringcomparableperiods f r o m one-half to threefourths of the total. The actual total of emitted carbon particles cannot be estimated withmuch accuracy, but they probably represent about one-third to one-half of the total aerosol emissions. The only other sources from which significant quantities of carbon particles might be emitted a r e incineration of refuse, operation of piston-driven aircraft, and operation of ships and railroads. Eventhe total of particulate emissions f r o m these sources does not, however, comprise 5 percent of the total carbon emissions. Metallic oxides and salts Metallic oxides and salts can be found in small quantities in the emissions from many sources. These sources include catalystdustsfrom refinery operations, emissions f r o m the metals industry, effluents f r o m combustion of fuel oil, and even exhaust f r o m motor vehicles. The total quantity of these emissions i s , however, small and probably does not constitute m o r e than 5 to 10 percent of the total particulate emitted to the atmosphere. Thematerials emitted a s catalyst dusts a r e mostly oxides. Small quantities of metallic oxides may also result f r o m the combustion of fuel oil and perhaps f r o m metal-working operations. These oxides might include those of vanadium, aluminum, titanium, molybdenum, calcium, iron, b a r i u m , lead, mangenese, zinc, copper, nickle, magnesium, chromium, and silver. Metallic salts a r e emitted from essentially the same sources again, in small concentrations. Most emissions of particulate lead in auto exhaust, for example, a r e present a s oxides and complex salts, usually chlorides, bromides, and sulfates. Metallic oxides a r e emitted from certain metals operations, and small quantities of sulfates a r e emitted f r o m some industrial operations. Acid droplets

17

probably the emissions associated with the operation of motor vehicles, particularly crankcase emissions; exhaust emissions from gasoline- and diesel-powered vehicles; effluents from asphalt manufacturing, saturating, paving, and roofing operations; and effluents from inefficient combustionof fuels in stationary sources. Smallamounts might alsobe foundin the effluents from aircraft, ships, and locomotives and f r o m incineration of refuse. Oily or t a r r y particles also appear to be among the products of the photochemical reactions that produce smog. Emitted quantities of these materials probably comprise 10 to 20 percent of the total particulate emissions.

Althoughthe composition of these materials i s not well established, they appear to he predominantly organic. They undoubtedly have relatively high molecular weights and probably contain at least some aromatics. The polycyclic hydrocarbons, which currently cause somuch concern, probably occur in a liquid phase in the atmosphere.

Smalldroplets of acid, bothorganic and inorganic, a r e emitted f r o m a number of sources in Los Angeles County under certain conditions. These sources include stack effluentsf r o m power plants, especially during combustion of fuel oil; effluents f r o m industrial operations such as certain metalworking and plating operations, and storage battery reclamation; effluents from waste rendering and incineration; and even effluents f r o m motor vehicle exhaust. Under some circumstances, these acid droplets a r e also formed in the atmosphere. Like the other kinds of particulate matter, the total emitted quantities of these droplets a r e small, probably 5 to 10 percent of the total particulate emissions. Even the quantities of thesematerials formed in the atmosphere a r e small relative to the total.

The inorganic acids emitted to the atmosphere include, primarily, sulfuric and nitric acids; the organic acids include probably acetic, propionic, and butyric acids. The acids formed inthe atmos phere through combination of gases with water include sulfurous, sulfuric, nitrous, and nitric acids. Acid droplets formed through oxidation of organic emissions may not include any but acetic acid, if that. Silicates and other inorganic dusts

Oily o r t a r r y droplets Small droplets of oily a r t a r r y materials a r e f r e quently found in combustion effluents from many types of sources. The most common sources a r e

Emissions of inorganic dusts inLos Angeles County consist primarily of silicates, carbonates, and

18

ALR CONTAM

oxides and a r e probably associated m o s t commonly withquarryingoperations, sand and gravel plants, and other phases of the minerals industry. They can also r e s u l t from highway construction and landfilloperations. Their quantity may represent about 5 to 10 percent of the totalparticulate emissions. Metallic fumes The metals industry i s responsible for 8 percent of the total aerosol emissions, and metal fumes probably constitute l e s s than half of this portion. Metal fumes a r e generally considered to be minute particles created by the condensation of metals that have vaporized o r sublimed f r o m the molten state.

AIR POLLUTION CONTROLS ALREADY I N EFFECT

When the a i r pollution problem i n L o s Angeles County was recognized, an agency was immediately provided to study the problem and t r y to solve it. The f i r s t Air Pollution Control District in Californiawas formedand charged with responsibility for the elimination o r , a t least,significant reduction of a i r pollution i n Los Angeles County. Duringits f i r s t 10 y e a r s , theDistrict concentrated its efforts on control of emissions f r o m stationary sources. Experience of other agencies in this field had shown that certain kinds of industrial emissions w e r e m o s t commonly responsible for a i r pollution problems. Mobile equipment was exempted f r o m control and not a t that time considered a serious source of contaminants. Continuous study and diligence have since led to the promulgation of the m o s t stringent and complete rules and regulations in force anywhere in theworld and to the m o s t effective control program currently feasible. Both a r e frequently copied and studied. Table 2 concisely summarizes what h a s been accomplished. Other sections of this manual explain in detail the methods and equipment used. Perhaps themost graphic evidence of the success of this control effort i s the almost complete ahsence of emissions f r o m stacks and chimneys anywhere i n the Los Angeles Basin. Any source of visible emissions immediately calls attention to itself.

Significance in Air Pollufion Problem

The significance of aerosols, and of all airborne particulatematter, varies with the type of a i r pollutionproblem inwhich they a r e involved. In most situations, particulate emissions r e p r e s e n t a major portionof the total quantity of a i r contaminants andwould be important for their soiling and and nuisance properties alone, if for no other. Even in a i r pollution problems of the type produced by coal burning, which involves only carbon particles, ash, andoxides of sulfur, there a r e indications thatthe toxic effect of the sulfur dioxide and trioxide i s enhanced by the concomitant p a r ticulatematter. This kindof effect has been noted in other cases involving aerosols and toxic gases o r liquids and has given r i s e to the theory that other contaminants can adsorb on the surface of the particles and thus come into contact with inner surfaces of the lungs and mucous membranes in much greater concentrations than would otherwise be possible. Particulate emissions a r e also associatedwith r e duction of visibility. In some instances, this i s the simple physical phenomenon of obscuration of visibility by the quantity of interfering material. In those instances associated with photochemical smog, however, the visibility reduction is due to refractionandscattering of light, and the number and s i z e of the particles involved a r e much m o r e important than their identities. The smaller the particles (maximumreductionofvisibilityat 0.7 m i cron) and the l a r g e r their number, the greater their collective effect on visibility. It has also been suggested that the presence of minute particles promotes the photochemical r e actions that produce smog. F u r t h e r m o r e , small aerosolparticles a r e among the products of these reactions and add to the visibility reduction produced by the emitted contaminants.

CONTROL MEASURES STILL NEEDED

Despite a n almost incredibly successful program of control over stationary-source emissions , the persistence of unpleasant effects of a i r pollution and the concentrations of atmospheric contaminants still being measured did not properly reflect these dramatic reductions. A r e s e a r c h program undertakenconcurrentlywith the programs of cont r o l and enforcementhad revealed that the a i r pollution problem i n the Los Angeles a r e a was diff e r e n t f r o m t h a t u s u a l l yencountered. It had shown also that the hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen primarily responsible for the effects associated with smog i n L o s Angeles w e r e likely to be emitted only in connectionwith the processing and handling and the combustion of fuels. of ~ e t r o l e u m AS soonas hydrocarbons w e r e recognized to be of great significance in this kind of a i r pollution problem, measures w e r e undertaken to control the emissions f r o m their principal stationary sources, the refineries. Although these m e a s u r e s failed to eliminate smog effects throughout the basin, they

Control Measures Needed

19

20

AIR CONTAMINANTS enable the d i s t r i c t to encourage the development ofnecessarycontroldevices and require their use when they became available. Additional study, plus the increasing occurrence of the effects of photochemical smog in other a r e a s of California, suggested that control of mobile sources a t the local, o r district, levelprobablywouldnot be adequate. In 1959, therefore, the state government formallyoccupied this particul.ar field of a i r pollution control in California. Although the Los Angeles County Air PollutionControl District continued i t s participation in r e s e a r c h on vehicular emissions, i t s p r i m a r y responsibility reverted to control of emissions from stationary sources.

diminished these effects and reduced the atmospheric hydrocarbon concentrations i n the refinery a r e a of the county. At the s a m e time, however, damage to plants, irritation of eyes, and reduction in visibility w e r e m o r e widespread and increasing in severity in suburban a r e a s that had previously been almost smog f r e e . Obviously, some important source of the contaminants that produce photochemical smog had not been adequately taken into account. This source proved to be the m o s t prevalent consumer of petroleum products, the gasoline-powered motor vehicle. Although no feasible means for control of motor vehicle emissions were yet known, a s s e s s m e n t of the relative importance of this source of emissions was clearly mandatory. Investigation of exhaust emissions revealed that. althoueh each individual vehicle was negligible a s a source, the vast number of vehicles could have great significance. F u r t h e r study demonstrated how the phenomenal postwar growth of the Los Angeles a r e a had so increased the sources of a i r contaminants that the gains made by the control of stationary sources had been almost nullified. F r o m 1945 to 1955, f o r example the pollution of Los Angeles County increased by almost 50 percent; motor vehicle registration and gasoline consumption increased about loopercent; and the number of industrial establishments increased by nearly 80 percent. The district had had to "run a t great speed to stay in one place, " and the picture of what the situation might have been without a controlprogramwas almost unimaginable.

A D D I T I O N A L CONTROLS OVER S T A T I O N A R Y SOURCES

The principal a r e a s in which additional controls will be needed involve reduction of emissions of organic gases and oxides of nitrogen. P r e s e n t control m e a s u r e s have so f a r brought about only 67 and 53 percent control, respectively, of these emissions from stationary sources. Obviously, control of these emissions f r o m motor vehicles also i s necessary, but this i s no longer the Dist r i c t ' s responsibility. The State of California has adopted s t r i c t ambient a i r quality standards f o r specific contaminants; these standards a r e exceededon many days of the year inLos Angeles County. Because these standa r d s a r e being exceeded, new rules must be adopted to reduce these contaminants. Of particular concern, in addition to organic gases and oxides of nitrogen as mentioned above, a r e sulfur dioxide and particulate matter.

Estimating the total quantities of a i r pollution i n Los Angeles County, the d i s t r i c t was able to determine that hydrocarbon emissions from motor vehicles a s a fraction of the total for the county had probably increased f r o m about one-eighth i n 1940 to one-third in 1950 and to one-half to twothirds in 1955. Oxides of nitrogen emissions from motor vehicles probably constituted about 50 percent of the total in 1940 and 1950, and 50 to 60 percent in 1955. During the entire period, motor vehicle emissions probably accounted for 85 to 95 percent of the total of carbon monoldde emitted to the atmosphere. These estimates represent the net effect of both growth and control measures and illustrate the change i n emphasis that has gradually taken place. Probably this would, however, be l e s s true of a r e a s that had little o r no control over emissions from stationary sources.

Organic Gases

MOTOR VEHICLE EMISSIONS F o r L o s Angeles County, this gradual change and i t s effecton the solution of the a i r pollution probl e m had to be carefully evaluated, and the probable necessity f o r control of motor vehicle emissions, prudentlyconsidered. In 1957, though no controls w e r e available, appropriate steps w e r e taken to

On a tonnage basis, only 67 percent control of organic gases f r o m stationary sources has been achieved. The full benefits f r o m Rule 6 6 pertaining to organic solvents have not yet been realized. Many of these organic solvent processes a r e now undergoing modifications; afterburners a r e being installed on existing basic equipment, and proce s s e s a r e being revamped to substitute solvents that do not r e a c t photochemically, A new rule, to he effective September 1, 1974, also will p r e vent l a r g e u s e r s of non-photochemically-reactive solvents f r o m discharging these contaminants into the atmosphere. In petroleum processes, asphalt air-blowing and r e l e a s e of oreanic eases and vapors f r o m vacuum-producing devices o r systems (including hot wells and accumulators) also will be controlled under new rules. Other new r u l e s will require that pumps and compressors be e quippedwithmechanical seals and that safety p r e s -

Control Measures Needed s u r e rellef valves be vented to a vapor recovery o r dlsposal system.
Oxides of Nitrogen

21

Other Coniaminanfs

Oxides of nitrogen f r o m stationary sources will be reduced significantly during the next 3 y e a r s by the provisions of Rule 68. Future single large sources of oxides of nitrogen will no longer be allowed in Los Angeles County because of the limitations imposed by Rule 67. Most of the future reduction inoxides ofnitrogen will be achieved by the electric power generating plants. In anticipation of Rule 68, which was adopted early in 1971, much work already has been accomplished and measurable reductions were achieved in 1969 and 1970. In fact, the design changes and operational changes brought about during those 2 y e a r s r e duced oxides of nitrogen about one-half from the power utilities.

If the s t r i c t ambient a i r quality standards of the State of California a r e to be met, additional rules must be adopted to further control sulfur dioxide and particulate matter. Recently adopted Rules 53.1, 53.2, and 53. 3 will reduce substantially the emissions of sulfur dioxide f r o m sulfur scavenger plants and sulfuric acid plants. Several new rules a r e in effect to further reduce particulate e m i s sions. Continued surveillance of all contaminant emis sions will be maintained. If any emissions a r e found to have increased to the extent that m o r e stringent control i s necessary, or if means a r e discovered to make certain additional controls feasible, then new rules will be adopted immediately.

CHAPTER 3

D E S I G N OF LOCAL EXHAUST S Y S T E M S

FLUID FLOW F U N D A M E N T A L S
H E R B E R T SIMON, S e n i o r A i r Pollution E n g i n e e r JOHN L. McGINNITY, I n t e r m e d i a t e A i r Pollution Engineer* JOHN L. SPINKS, A i r Pollution E n g i n e e r

HOOD DESIGN
H E R B E R T SIMON, S e n i o r A i r P o l l u t i o n E n g i n e e r JOHN L. McGINNITY, I n t e r m e d i a t e A i r P o l l u t i o n E n g i n e e r " JOHN L. SPINKS, S e n i o r A i r Pollution E n g i n e e r

DUCT DESIGN
EDWIN J. VINCENT, I n t e r m e d i a t e A i r Pollution E n g i n e e r "

FAN DESIGN
EDWIN J. VINCENT, I n t e r m e d i a t e A i r Pollution Engineer': LEWIS K. SMITH, A i r Pollution ~ n g i n e e r t

VAPOR COMPRESSORS
GEORGE THOMAS, Senior A i r P o l l u t i o n E n g i n e e r

CHECKING A N EXHAUST SYSTEM

J O S E P H D'IMPERIO, A i r Pollution ~ n ~ i n e e r t

COOLING OF GASEOUS EFFLUENTS

GEORGE THOMAS, S e n i o r A i r P o l l u t i o n E n g i n e e r

*Now with E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n Agency, Research T r ~ a n g l eP a r k , N. C. t ~ o we c e a s e d d

CHAPTER 3

D E S I G N O F LOCAL EXHAUST SYSTEMS FLUID FLOW FUNDAMENTALS

L o c a l e x h a u s t s y s t e m s a r e d e v i c e s u s e d t o capt u r e d u s t s and f u m e s o r o t h e r c o n t a m i n a n t s a t t h e i r s o u r c e and p r e v e n t t h e d i s c h a r g e of t h e s e contaminants into the a t m o s p h e r e . Close-fitting hoods a r e u s e d t o c a p t u r e t h e c o n t a m i n a n t s f r o m one o r m o r e locations s o t h a t t h e l a d e n g a s e s c a n . byconveyed through a s y s t e m of d u c t s b y onc o r m o r e e x h a u s t fans. An a i r pollution c o n t r o l d e vice c a n then b e u s e d t o c o l l e c t t h e a i r c o n t a m i nants and d i s c h a r g e t h e c l e a n s e d a i r into the a t mosphere. L n d e s i g n i n g a l o c a l exhaust s y s t e m , s u f f i c i e n t a i r m u s t b e provided f o r e s s e n t i a l l y c o m p l e t e pickup of t h e contaminants. Conversely, too much a i r c a n r e s u l t i n e x c e s s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n and o p e r a tioncosts. I t i s , therefore, n e c e s s a r y f o r the deal s i g n e r t o u n d e r s t a n d c e r t a i n ~ h ~ s i cp r i n c i p l e s t h a t a r e u s e f u l in analyzing t h e ventilation n e e d s and i n s e l e c t i n g t h e hooding d e v i c e s . T h e n a t u r e of flow of a r e a l fluid i s v e r y complex. The b a s i c laws d e s c r i b i n g the c o m p l e t e motion o l a fluid a r e , i n g e n e r a l , unknown. Some s i m p l e c a s e s of l a m i n a r flow, h o w e v e r , m a y be computed analytically. F o r t u r b u l e n t flow, o n t h e o t h e r hand, only a p a r t i a l a n a l y s i s can b e m a d e by using the p r i n c i p l e s o l m e c h a n i c s . The flow i n e x h a u s t s y s t e m s i s a l w a y s t u r b u l e n t ; t h e r c i o r e , the f i n a l s o l u t l o n t o t h e s e p r o b l e m s depends upon experimental data. E a c h t e r m i n B e r n o u l l i ' s e q u a t i o n h a s t h e units footpounds p e r pound of fluid o r f e e t of fluid. T h e s e t e r m s a r e f r e q u e n t l y r e f e r r e d t o a s elevation head, p r e s s u r e h e a d , andvelocityhead. They a l s o repr e s e n t t h e potential e n e r g y , p r e s s u r e e n e r g y , and velocity e n e r g y , r e s p e c t i v e l y . When B e r n o u l l i ' s equation i s applied t o i n d u s t r i a l e x h a u s t s y s t e m s , t h e elevation t e r m i s u s u a l l y o m i t t e d , s i n c e only r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l changes i n e l evation a r e involved. Since a l l s t r e a m l i n e s o r i g i n a t e f r o m a r e s e r v o i r of c o n s t a n t e n e r g y (the a t mosphere), the constant i s the s a m e f o r a l l s t r e a m l i n e s , a n d t h e r e s t r i c t i o n of t h e equation t o a single streamline c a n b e removed. F u r t h e r m o r e , since the p r e s s u r e changes in nearly a l l exhaust s y s t e m s a r e a t m a s t only a f e w p e r c e n t of t h e a b solute p r e s s u r e , the a s s u m p t i o n of i n c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y m a y b e m a d e w i t h n e g l i g i b l e e r r o r . Although steady-[low conditions do not a l w a y s e x i s t i n exhaust systems, i t i s safe t o make the assumption of s t e a d y flow if t h e w o r s t p o s s i b l e c a s e i s cons i d e r e d . A n y e r r o r w i l l then h e on t h e s a f e s i d e .

BERNOULLI'S EQUATION
The b a s i c e n e r g y equation of a f r i c t i o n l e s s , I n c o m p r e s s i b l e fluid f o r t h e c a s e of s t e a d y flow along a s i n g l e s t r e a m l i n e i s given b y B e r n o u l l i a s

All r e a l fluids have a p r o p e r t y called v i s c o s i t y . Viscosity a c c o u n t s f o r e n e r g y l o s s e s , which a r e the r e s u l t of s h e a r s t r e s s e s d u r i n g f l o w . The m a g nitude of the l o s s e s m u s t b e d e t e r m i n e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y , but once e s t a b l i s h e d , t h e v a l u e s c a n b e applied t o d y n a m i c a l l y s i m i l a r configurations. B e r n o u l l i ' s e q u a t i o n m a y h e applied t o a r e a l fluid by adding a n e n e r g y l o s s t e r m . Letting l b e a n u p s t r e a m point and 2 a d o w n s t r e a m point, the i s equal to the energy e n e r g y p e r unit weight a t p e r unitweight a t 2 p l u s a l l e n e r g y l o s s e s between point and point 2.

P I T O T TUBE FOR FLOW MEASUREMENT

The velocity of a fluid (liquid) (lowing i n a n open channel m a y b e m e a s u r e d b y m e a n s of a s i m p l e p i t o t t u b e , a s shown i n F i g u r e 2 ( S t r e e t e r , 1951). Although t h i s i n s t r u m e n t i s s i m p l e , u s u a l l y cons i s t i n g of a g l a s s tube with a r i g h t - a n g l e bend, i t i s one of t h e m o s t a c c u r a t e m e a n s of m e a s u r i n g velocity. When t h e tube opening i s d i r e c t e d ups t r e a m , t h e f l u i d f l o w s into t h e t u b e until t h e p r e s s u r e i n t e n s i t y b u i l d s up within t h e tube s u f f i c i e n t l y t o withstand t h e i m p a c t of velocity a g a i n s t i t . The fluid a t a point d i r e c t l y i n f r o n t of t h e tube ( s t a g nationpoint) i s then a t r e s t . The p r e s s u r e a t t h e stagnation point i s known f r o m t h e height of t h e liquid column i n the tube. T h e velocity of t h e fluid

where h = elevation above any a r b i t r a r y d a t u m , f t p = pressure, lblft

2

y = s p e c i f i c weight, l b / f t

v = velocity, f t l s e c g = a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o g r a v i t y , 32.17 f t / s e c 2

C = a constant, d i f f e r e n t f o r e a c h s t r e a m l i n e .
25

,j

26

DESIGN O F LOCAL EXHAUST SYSTEMS

w i l l a g a i n indicate the total p r e s s u r e , but now the p o r t i o n of t h e t o t a l h e a d c a u s e d by velocity cannot be distinguished. The s t a t i c p r e s s u r e i n t h i s c a s e c a n h e m e a s u r e d by a p i e z o m e t e r o r s t a t i c tube, a s shown i n F i g u r e 3. T h e total p r e s s u r e H c o n s i s t s of rhe s u m of the s t a t i c p r e s s u r e hS and the velocity p r e s s u r e hv, o r

Figure 2. Simp!e pito: ( S t r ~ e t e r , 1951).

tube

The velocity c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d , t h e r e f o r e , f r o m the d i f f e r e n c e between the total and s t a t i c h e a d s . In p r a c t i c e , m e a s u r e m e n t of t o t a l p r e s s u r e and s t a t i c p r e s s u r e i s combined into a s i n g l e i n s t r u m e n t ( p i t o t - s t a t i c tube, F i g u r e 4), which p e r m i t s d i r e c t m e a s u r e m e n t of velocity head s i n c e t h e s t a t i c head is a u t o m a t i c a l l y s u b t r a c t e d f r o m the t o t a l head. An inclined m a n o m e t e r ( E l l i s o n g u a g e ) i s p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l when t h e h e a d s a r e s m a l l U s e of t h i s d e v i c e to a s i n exhaust systems. m e a s u r e the flow of a g a s i n t r o d u c e s , h o w e v e r , a n additional f a c t o r , which i s the c o n v e r s i o n of r e a d i n g s i n i n c h e s o f m a n o m e t e r fluid into m e a n ingful velocity t e r m s . T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p , when w a t e r i s u s e d a s t h e m a n o m e t e r fluid t o m e a s u r e the velocity of a i r , i s

i n the s t r e a m m a y be evaluated by w r i t i n g B e r n o u l l i ' s equation between point u p s t r e a m of t h e s t a g n a t i o n point and point 2 the s t a g n a t i o n point. Note t h a t h i = h2 and v2 = 0. T h e r e f o r e

solving for the velocity,

A s i m p l e pitot tube m e a s u r e s the total h e a d o r t o t a l p r e s s u r e , which i s c o m p o s e d of two p a r t s , a s shown i n F i g u r e 2 . T h e s e a r e t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e R, a n d the dynamic o r velocity p r e s s u r e h,. In open-channel flow, hv i s m e a s u r e d f r o m the f r e e s u r f a c e . When the liquid i s i n a pipe o r conduit i n which i t flows f u l l , a s i m p l e pitot tube

where h v

v e l o c i t y p r e s s u r e o r h e a d , i n c h e s of water 1096.2 Volume i n f t 3 of 1 l b of a i r a t 7 0 F and 14.7 p s i a

4005 v a

= =

'

v e l o c i t y of a i r , f p m .

F ~ g u r e3.

S t a t ~ ct u b e ( S t r e e t e r ,

1951)

F ~ g u r e4.

P ~ t o t - s t a t i ct u b e ( S t r e e t e r ,

1951).

Hood Design

27

Correction F a c t o r s
The relationship expressed in equation 5 i s exact onlyfor a i r a t standard t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e , 7 0 F and 14.7 psia, respectively. A correction m u s t be applied for other than standard conditions. I f t h e a i r in the duct departs f r o m 7 0 F by m o r e than about 5 0 F , a correction i s required:

in the path of t h e high-velocity dust particles. Inertial f o r c e s c a r r y the a i r contaminants into the hood.

where ta

the t e m p e r a t u r e of the a i r , "F.

F o r s m a l l e r t e m p e r a t u r e deviations, the e r r o r i s not significant and m a y b e neglected. E the gas i s other than a i r , a c o r r e c t i o n for the d i f f e r e n c e in density may be applied:

E x t e r i o r hoods m u s t capture a i r contaminants that a r e being generated f r o m a point outside the hood i t s e l f , sometimes some distance away. E x t e r i o r hoods a r e the m o s t difficult to design, require the m o s t a i r t o control a given p r o c e s s , and a r e m o s t sensitive to external conditions. F o r example, a hood that works well in a s t i l l atmosphere may be rendered completely ineffectual by even a slight d r a f t through the a r e a . The b,,t rule to follow in hood design is to plac. the hood where the a i r contaminants a r e generated. Since this i s not always physically possible, it is important t o consider the design c r i t e r i a f o r external hoods.

CONTINUITY E Q U A T I O N

v =

(AT

density of as (density of a i r STP

where the density of the gas under conditions a c tually existing a t the time of the measurement includes the effects of t e m p e r a t u r e , p r e s s u r e , and molecular weight.

The volume of a i r flow i s d e p e n d e n t u ~ o n the c r o s s sectional a r e a and the a v e r a g e ve' :city. of the air. The relationshipmaybe r e p r e s e n t e d b y the f a m i l i a r equation Vt where
=

Av

(8

H O O D DESIGN
Hoods a r e devices used toventilate p r o c e s s equipment by capturing emissions of heat or a i r contaminants, whlch a r e then conveyed through exhaust s y s t e m ductwork to a m o r e convenient discharge point o r to a i r pollution control equipf ment. The quantity o a i r required to capture and convey the a i r contaminants depends upon the size and shape o the hood, its position relative t o the f points o emission, and the nature and quantity o f f the a i r contaminants.

V = t
A =

total a i r volume, cfm cross-sectional a r e a , ft velocity, fpm. 2

Hoods can generallybe classified into t h r e e broad groups: enclosures, receivinghoods, andexterior hoods. Enclosures usually surround the point of emission, thoughsometimes one face may he p a r tially or even completely open. Examples of this type a r e paint spray booths, a b r a s i v e blasting cabinets, totally enclosed bucket elevators, and enclosures f o r conveyor belt t r a n s f e r points, mull e r s , vibrating s c r e e n s , c r u s h e r s , and so forth. Receiving hoods a r e those wherein the a i r contaminants a r e injected into the hoods. F o r example, the hood f o r a grinder i s designed to be

The cont~nuityequation (equation 8 ) shows that, f o r agiven quantity of fluid, the velocity m u s t inc r e a s e i f the a r e a d e c r e a s e s . Imagine that a i r i s being withdrawn f r o m a point a t the center of a l a r g e room. Since an imaginary point has no dimensions, t h e r e will b e no i n t e r f e r e n c e with the flowof a i r toward the point. The a i r will, t h e r e fore,approach this point radially and a t a uniform r a t e f r o m a l l directions. The velocity of the a i r m u s t i n c r e a s e as it p a s s e s through a succession of diminishing a r e a s represented by spherical s u r f a c e s in i t s approach to the imaginary point, according to the relationship

where r
=

the distance f r o m the imaginary point, it.

28

DESIGN OF LOCAL EXHAUST SYSTEMS Analysis of equatton 11 shows that at the hood face x = 0 and the equation becomes identical to equation 8. F o r l a r g e values of x, the Af t e r m becomes l e s s significant, a s the evidence shows i t should. To use equation 11, select a value of vx that i s sufficient t o a s s u r e complete capture of the a i r contaminants a t point x. F r o m the physical dimensions and location of the hood, Af and x a r e determined. The volume required may then be calculated. Whileequation 11 applies to a freestanding o r unobstructed hood, i t can also be applied to a r e c tangularhoodbounded on one side by a plane s u r face, a s showninFigure 7. Thehoodis considered to he twice i t s actual size, the additional portion beingthe m i r r o r image of the actual hood and the bounding plane being the bisector. Equation 11 then becomes

AIR FLOW INTO A DUCT

If a circular duct opening, representing a simple hood, i s substituted for the imaginary point, the pattern of flow into the end of the duct, o r hood, will be modified a s shown in F i g u r e 5 because of the interference f r o m the duct. The velocity of the a i r approaching aplain, circular opening along the axis of the duct i s given by Dalla Valle (1952) a s approximately

where Y = x k
=

the percent of the velocity at the opening found a t a point x on the axis the distance outward along the axis f r o m the opening, f t the a r e a of the opening, ft2.

The velocity a t the opening i s computed f r o m the continuity equation. The actual flow pattern i s found to he a s shown inFigure 5 f r o m studies by Dalla Valle and others. The lines of constant velocity a r e called contour iines, while those perpendicular to them a r e s t r eamlines, which r epr esent the dir ection of flow. The addition of a flange improves the efficiency of the duct a s a hood for a distance of about one diameter f r o m the duct face. Beyond this point, flanging the duct improves the efficiency only slightly. Figure 6 illustrates flow patterns f o r several sizes of square hoods. Because t h e r e i s little difference in the center line velocity of hoods of equal a i r volume at a distance of one or two hooddiameters f r o m t h e hoodface, Hemeon (1955) recommends using one equation f o r all shapes-square, circular, and rectangular up to about 3:l length-to-width ratio. He a l s o does not distinguish between flanged and unflanged hoods, which appears justified when these hoods a r e used only at distances of one diameter o r more from the hood face. At close distances, flanged hoods a r e f a r superior at the same volume. By rearranging t e r m s in equation 10 and combining with equation 8 , the iollowing is obtained:

where the t e r m s have the s a m e meaning a s before.

NULL POINT
Air contaminants a r e often released into the atmosphere withconsiderablevelocity a t their point of generation. Because the m a s s i s essentially small, however, the momentum i s scan spent and the particles a r e then easily captured. Hemeon (1955) r e f e r s to a null point, shown in Figure 8, a s the distance within which the initial energy of an emitted a i r contaminant has been dissipated or nullifiedinovercomingair resistance. If an adequate velocity toward the hood i s provided at the farthestnull point f r o m the hood, all the a i r contaminants released f r o m the process will be captured. What constitutes an adequate velocity towards the hood depends upon d r a f t s in the a r e a and cannot, therefore, be determined precisely. Establishing the null point in advance f o r a new process i s not always easy o r even possible. F o r existing equipment, however, direct observation will usually establish a locus ol null points. Obviously, in the ahsence of external disturbances, any positive velocity toward the hood at the f a r t h e s t null poxnt will give assurance of complete capture. When this i s put into practice, however, the r e sults a r e disappointing. Even closed rooms have drafts and thermal currents that destroy the hood's effectivenessunless a substantial velocity toward thehoodis created at the f a r t h e s t null point. Experience has shown that a velocity of l e s s than 100 fpm at a null point can seldom, ii ever, be toleratedwithoutaloss in the hood's effectiveness. Draft velocities in industrial situations may almost always be expected to bc 200 to 300 f p m

where Vt v x
X

= = =

the volume of a i r entering the hood, cfm

the velocity at point x, fpm

Af

the distance to any point x on the axis or center line of the hood measured f r o m the hood lace. it 2 the a r e a of the hood face, f t

Hood Design

29

DISTANCE FROM O P E N I N G ,

nches

D I S T A N C E FROM O P E N I N G ,

inches

F i g u r e 5. A c t u a l f l o w c o n t o u r s and s t r e a m l i n e s f o r f l o w i n t o c i r c u l a r o p e n i n g s . C o n t o u r s a r e e x p r e s s e d a s p e r c e n t a g e o f o p e n i n g v e l o c i t y ( D a l l a V a l l e , 1952).

30

DESIGN O F LOCAL EXHATST SYSTEMS

O l S i l N C E OUTWARD FROM O P E N I N G . InchLr

F i g u r e 6. A c t u a l v e l o c i t i e s f o r s q u a r e o p e n i n g s o f d i f f e r e n t s i z e s . A i r f l o w t h r o u g h each o p e n i n g i s 500 c f m ( D a l l a V a l l e , 1 9 5 2 ) . Figure 8. Location of n u l l p o i n t and x-distance (Hemeon, 1955).

F i g u r e 7. R e c t a n g u l a r hood Sounded by a p l a n e s u r f a c e (Hemeon. 1 9 5 5 ) .

or m o r e periodically, and draft velocities of 500 t o 6 0 0 f p m a r e not unusual in many cases. Drafts such a s these mayprevent capture of a i r contaminants by exterior hoods, a s illustrated in Figure 9 f o r the c a s e of ahigh-canopyhood, unless adequate baffling i s provided o r hood volume i s increased tounreasonable values. Baffling provides, in effect, an enclosure that i s almost always the most efficient hooding.

F i g u r e 3. D r a f t s d i v e r t t h s r i s i n g column o f a i r a n d p r e v e n t i t s c a p t u r e b y t h e hood (Hemeon, 1955).

DESIGN OF HOODS FOR COLD PROCESSES

A l a r g e body of recommendedventilation r a t e s has beenbuilt up over the y e a r s by various groups and organizations who a r e concerned with the control of a i r contaminants. This type of d a t a i s illustrated in Table 3. T h e u s e of these recommended values

greatlysimplifies hoodingdesignforthe control of many common a i r pollution problems. Note that almost all published recommendations have specified complete o r nearly complete enclosure. These published data provide a reliable guide f o r the design engineer. The recommended values must, however, be adjusted to specific applications that depart f r o m the assumed normal conditions.

Hood Design

Table 3. Operation Abrasive b l a s t rooms Abrasive b l a s t cabinets

EXHAUST REQUIREMENTS FOR VARIOUS OPERATIONS Exhaust a r r a n g e m e n t Tight enclosures with a i r inlets (generally in roof) Tight enclosure Remarks F o r 60 t o 100 f p m downdraft or 100 fpm c r o s s d r a f t in r o o m F o r 500 fpm through a l l openings, and a minimum of 20 a i r changes p e r minute F o r 100 f p m through a l l openings f o r paper bags; 200 fpm f o r cloth bags F o r belt speeds l e s s than 200 fpm, V = 350 c f m l f t belt width with a t l e a s t 150 fpm through openings. F o r belt speeds g r e a t e r than 200 f p m , V = 500 cfm/ft belt width with a t l e a s t 200 fpm through remaining openings 2 F o r 100 c f m l f t of elevator casing c r o s s - s e c t i o n (exhaust n e a r elevator top and a l s o vent a t bottom i f over 35 f t high) Cylindrical--400 fpm through openings, and not l e s s than 100 cfm/ft2 of c r o s s section; flat deck--200 fpm through 2 openings, and not l e s s than 25 c f ~ l f t of s c r e e n a r e a F o r 200 f p m through a l l openings, and not l e s s than 200 cfm/ft2 of g r a t e a r e a with hot castings and 150 cfm/ft2 with cool castings

Baggingmachines Booth o r enclosure Belt conveyors Hoods a t t r a n s f e r points enclosed a s much a s possible

Bucket elevator

Tight casing

Foundry s c r e e n s Enclosure

Foundry shakeout Enclosure

F o r 400 t o 500 c f m / f t 2 g r a t e a r e a with Foundry shakeoutside hood (with side shields when possible) hot castings and 350 t o 400 c f m / f t 2 w i t h cool castings Grinders, d i s c and portable Grinders and crushers Mixer
,

Downdraft g r i l l e s in bench o r floor Enclosure Enclosure Booth Downdraft Enclosure Booth Enclosure Booth

F o r 200 to 400 fprn through open face, but a t l e a s t 150 cfm/ft2 of plan working area F o r 200 fpm through openings F o r 100 to 200 f p m through openings F o r 50 t o 100 fpm F o r 75 t o 150 f p m F o r 100 t o 400 f p m F o r 100 t o 200 f p m indraft, depending upon s i z e of work, depth of booth, etc. F o r 75 t o 100 fpm through openings F o r 100 fpm through openings

Packaging machines Paint spray Rubber r o l l s (calendars) Welding ( a r c )

32

DESIGN OF LOCAL EXHAUST SYSTEMS

Spray Booths

Abrasive Blasting

Spray booths of the open-face type a r e generally designed to have a face Indraft velocity of 100 to 200fpxn. This i s usually adequate to a s s u r e complete capture of all overspray, provided the spraying i s done within the confines of the booth, and the spray gun i s always directed towards the interior. It i s a common practice, especially with largeworkpieces, toplace the work a short distance in front of the booth face. The overspray deflectedfrom the workmay easily escape capture, particularlywith a careless o r inexperienced opi erator. If this s i t u a t ~ o ns anticipated, the equipment deslgner can provlde a yelocity of 100 fpm a t the farthest point to be controlled, a s in the following illustrative problem.

Abrasvve blasting booths a r e similar to spray booths exceptthat a complete enclosure i s always required. In addition, particularlyfor small booths (benchtype), the ventilation rate must sometimes be increased to accommodate the a i r used f o r blasting. The volume of blasting a i r can be determined f r o m the manufacturer's specifications. F o r a small blasting booth, this will usually be about 50 t o 150 cfm. The following illustrative problem shows how the ventilation rate i s calculated.

Example 2 Given: A small abrasive blasting enclosure 4 f e e t wide by 3 feet high by 3 f e e t deep. Total open a r e a equals 1.3 it2.
Pr oblem:

Example 1 Given: A paint spray booth 10 feet wide by 7 feet high. Work may be 5 feet in front of the booth face a t times. Nearly draftless a r e a requires 100 fpm a t point of spraying. Problem: Determine the exhaust rate required. Solution:

Determine the exhaust rate required. Solution: F r o m Table 3, ventilation required = 500 fprn through all openings but not l e s s than 20 a i r changes per minute. Volume a t 500 fpm through all openings: Vt

500 x 1.3

= 650 cfm

F r o m equation 12, volume required i s 2 Volume required f o r 20 a i r changes per minute: Vt Vt

= =

Vt
X

20 x volume of booth 2 0 ~ 4 x 3 ~ 3
= 720 cfm

Open-Surface Tanks

F r o m equation 8, face velocity i s

When the spraying a r e a i s completely enclosed to f o r m a p a i n t spray room, the ventilation requirements a r e not greatly reduced over those for spraying inside an open-face booth. This i s n e c e s s a r y because a velocity of approximately 100 fprn must b e provided through the room for the comfort and health of the operator.

Open-surface tanks may be controlled by canopy hoods o r by slothoods, a s illustratedin Figure 10. The latter a r e m o r e commonly employed. The ventilation rates required for open-surface tanks may be taken from Table 4, which i s a modification of the American Standards Association code Z 9.1. Thesevalues shouldbe considered a s minimumunder conditions where no significant drafts will interfere with the operation of the hood. When slot hoods a r e employed the usual practice i s to provide a slot along eachlong side of the tank. The slots a r e designed for a velocity of 2, 000 fprn through the slot face a t the required ventilation rate. F o r a t a n k with two parallel slot hoods, the ventilation rate required and the slot width b, may be taken directly from Figure 11, which graphs the American Standards Association code Z 9.1.

Hood Design

33

be used by assuming the tank to be half of a tank twice a s wide having slothoods on both sides. This procedure i s illustrated below. Example 4 Given: The s a m e tank a s in Example 3, but a slot hood i s to be installed along one side only. The other side i s flush with a vertical wall. Problem: Determine the total exhaust r a t e and slot width required. Solution: The ventilation r a t e i n cfrn p e r foot of tank length Neither the code nor Figure 11 makes allowance f o r d r a f t s . The u s e of baffles i s strongly recommended wherever possible to minimize the effect of drafts. If baffles cannot b e used or a r e n o t sufficiently effective, theventilation r a t e must be increased. The slot width i s a l s o increased to hold the slot face velocity in the range of 1,800 to 2,400 fpm. The u s e of Figure 11 i s illustrated in the following problem: Example 3 Given:
A chrome plating tank, 2 f e e t wide by 3 f e e t long, t o be controlled by parallel slot hoods along each of the 3-foot-long sides.

Figure 10. Slot b o d for eOntr0l of emissions from open-surface tanks (Adapted from l n d ~ ~ s t r i a l latipn, Venti 1960).

is taken a s half the r a t e for a tank twice a s wide

f;om Figure 11.

Use width of 4 feet.

--- Vt 880
L
2

= 440 c f m p e r foot

Total exhaust volume required Vt

=

440 x 3

= 1,320 cfm

Slot width i s read directly f r o m Figure 11 f o r twice the width bs = 2 - 5 1 8 inches.

Problem: Determine the total exhaust r a t e required and the slot width. Solution: F r o m Figure 11, the ventilation r a t e required i s 390 cfm per foot of tank length. Vt

390 x 3

1, 170 c f m

1 . F r o m Figure 11, the slot width i s 1 mches. 8

Ifa slot hood i s used on only one side of a tank to

capture emissions, and the opposite side of the tank is bounded by a v e r t i c a l wall, Figure 11 can

Figure 11. Minimum v e n t i l a t i o n r a t e s r e q u i r e d f o r tanks.

34

DESIGN O F LOCAL EXHAUST SYSTEMS Table 4. VENTILATION RATES FOR OPEN-SURFACE TANKS (American A i r F i l t e r Company, I n c . , 1964) Minimurn ventilation rate, c f m p e r ft2 of hood opening Enclosing Canopy hood hood Minimum ventilation r a t e , a c f m p e r f t 2 of tank a r e a . L a t e r a l exhaust tank width W/L = ratio tank length

Process

One Two T h r e e F o u r W/L W/L W/L open open open open 00 t o 0.24 0 . 2 5 to 0 . 4 9 0.50 t o 1 . 0 side sides sides sides A B A B A B

Plating C h r o m i u m ( c h r o m i c acid m i s t ) Arsenic (arsine) Hydrogen cyanide Cadmium Anodizing Metal cleaning (pickling) Cold acid Hot acid Nitric and s u l f u r i c acids N i t r i c and hydrofluoric acids Metal cleaning (degreasing) Trichloroethylene Ethylene dichloride Carbon t e t r a c h l o r i d e Metal cleaning (caustic o r e l e c t r o l y t i c ) Not boiling Boiling Bright d i p ( n i t r i c a c i d ) Stripping Concentrated n i t r i c a c i d Concentratednitricandsulfuricacids Salt baths (molten s a l t ) Salt solution ( P a r k e r i s e , B o n d e r i s e , etc.) Not boiling Boiling Hot w a t e r (if vent. d e s i r e d ) Not boiling Boiling

75 65 75 75 75

100 90 100 100 100 90 100 100 100 100 100 100 90 100 100 100 100 75 90 100 75 100

125 100 125 125 125 100 125 125 125 125 125 125 100 125 125 125 125 75 100 125 75 125

175 150 175 175 175 150 175 175 175 175 175 175 150 175 175 175 175 125 150 175 125 175

125175 90 130 125175 125175 125 175 90 130 125175 125175 125175 125 175 125 175 125 175 90 130 125175 125 175 125 175 125 175 60 90 90 130 125175 60 90 125175

150 110 150 150 150 110 150 150 150 150 150 150 110 150 150 150 150 75 110 150 75 150

200 150 200 200 200 150 200 200 200 200 200 200 150 200 200 200 200 100 150 200 100 200

175 130 175 175 175 130 175 175 175 175 175 175 130 175 175 175 175 90 130 175 90 175

225 170 225 225 225 170 225 225 225 225 225 225 170 225 225 225 225 110 170 225 110 225

I 65
75 75 75 75 75 75 65 75 75 75 75 50 90 75 50 75

aColumn A r e f e r s to tank with hood along one s i d e o r two p a r a l l e l s i d e s when one hood i s a g a i n s t a wall o r a baffle running length of tank and a s high a s tank i s wide; a l s o t o tanks with exhaust m a n i fold along c e n t e r line with W/2 becoming t a n k width i n W / L ratio. 'Column B r e f e r s to f r e e s t a n d i n g t a n k with hood along one s i d e o r two p a r a l l e l sides.

D E S I G N O F H O O D S FOR H O T PROCESSES Canopy Hoods

C i r c u l a r high-canopy hoods Hooding f o r hot p r o c e s s e s r e q u i r e s t h e application of different p r i n c i p l e s than t h a t f o r cold p r o c e s s e s b e c a u s e of t h e t h e r m a l effect. W h e n s i g n i f i c a n t quantities of h e a t a r e t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e s u r r o u n d ing a i r by conduction and convectiolqa t h e r m a l d r a f t i s c r e a t e d t h a t m a y c a u s e a r i s i n g a i r c u r r e n t with velocities s o m e t i m e s o v e r 400 fpm. T h e design

of t h e h o o d a n d the ventilation r a t e provided m u s t t a k e t h i s t h e r m a l d r a f t into consideration. As the h e a t e d a i r s t r e a m r i s i n g f r o m a hot s u r f a c e m o v e s upward, i t m i x e s turbulently with t h e surrounding a i r . T h e higher t h e a i r column r i s e s t h e l a r g e r i t b e c o m e s and t h e m o r e diluted with a m b i e n t a i r . Sutton (1950) investigated t h e t u r b u l e n t mixing of a r i s i n g column of h o t a i r above a h e a t s o u r c e . Using d a t a f r o m e x p e r i m e n t s b y Schmidt published in G e r m a n y , and h i s own exp e r i m e n t s w i t h m i l i t a r y s m o k e g e n e r a t o r s , Sutton developed equations t h a t d e s c r i b e t h e velocity and

Hood Design diameter of a hot rising jet a t any height above a hypotheticalpoint source located a distance z helow the actual hot surface. Hemeon adapted Sutton's equations to the design of high-canopy hoods for the control of a i r contaminants f r o m hot sources. The rising a i r column illustrated in Figure 12 expands approximately according to the empirical formula

35

100

50
40

".s:= w
u

30
20

0 w C 0

=C 25
=
L 0 a

,o

u "" =<
2

C C <

5
4

where = the diameter of the hot column of a i r a t D the levei of the hood face, ft x

- r

u,

0 0 C

: =
2
2

= the distance f r o m the hypothetical point

source to the hood face, ft.
2

10

70 feet

3C

F r o m Figure 12 it i s apparent that xf i s the s u m of y, the d i s t a n c e f r o m h o t source to the hood face, and z the distance below the hot source t o the hypothetical point source. Values of z m a y be taken f r o m Figure 13. According to Hemeon, the velocity of the rising column of a i r into the hood m a y be calculated f r o m

DIAMETER OF HOT SOURCE ( O s l .

F i g u r e 13. V a l u e o f z f o r use w i t h h i g h - c a n o p y hood e q u a t i o n s ;

where v
=

the velocity of the hot a i r jet a t the level of the hood face, fpm the height of the hood face above the theoretical point source = y t z, i t the r a t e a t which heat i s t r a n s f e r r e d to the rising column of a i r , Btulmin.

Df

x f

= =

q,

The r a t e a t which heat i s absorbed by the rising column m a y be calculated f r o m the appropriate natural convection heat l o s s coefficient qL listed in Table 5 and f r o m the relationship

where

HYPOTHETICAL POINT SOURCE

\ ;

.. : :. . .

.. . :: . .

qc qL
A

the total heat absorbed by the rising a i r column, Btulmin cient listed in Table 5, ~ t u l h r - i t 2" F

= the natural convection heat l o s s coeffi= the a r e a of the hot source, i t 2 = the temperature difference between the hot
source and the ambient a i r , "F.

F ~ g u r e1 2 . D l m e n s l o n s u s e d t o d e s ~ g nh l g h - c a n o p y hoods f o r h o t s o u r c e s (Hemeon. 1955).

At

36

DESIGN OF LOCAL EXHAUST SYSTEMS

Table 5. COEFFICIENTS FOR CALCULATING SENSIBLE HEAT LOSS BY NATURAL CONVECTION (Hemeon, 1955) Shape o r disposition of heat s u r f a c e Vertical plates, over 2 f t high Vertical plates, l e s s than 2 ft high (X = height in ft) Horizontal plates, facing upward Horizontal plates, facing downward Single horizontal cylinders (where d is diameter in inches) Vertical cylinders, over 2 ft high (same a s horizontal) Vertical cylinders l e s s than 2 ft high. Multiply q~ f r o m formula above by appropriate factor below: Height, ft 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 1.0 Factor 3.5 2.5 2.0 1. 7 1. 5 1.1 Natural convection heat l o s s (ar ) coefficienta

114 0.3 ( a t ) 0.28 114 (9

II

114 0.38 (At) 114 0.2 (At) A 114 t 0. 42 (T) A I14 t

0.4

() T

aHeat l o s s coefficient, q i s related to q a s follows: L

Schmidt's experimentswere conducted in a closed laboratory environment designed tominimize d r a f t s and other disturbances. Nevertheless, Sutton r e ports that t h e r e was a considerable amount of waver and fluctuation in the rising a i r column. In developinghis equations, Sutton defined the horizontallimits of the rising a i r column a s the locus of points having a temperature difference relative to the ambient atmosphere equal to 10 percent of that a t the center of the column.

s u r f a c e s , a simplification can be derived by combining equations 14 and 15 with the heat t r a n s f e r coefficient f o r horizontal-plane surfaces and allowing a 15 percent safety factor.

In view of the f a c t s that this a r b i t r a r y definition

d o e s n o t t r u l y define the outer limits of the rising a i r column and that g r e a t e r effects of waver and drafts may be expected in an industrial environment, a safety factor should be applied in calculating the size of the hood required and the minim u m ventilation r a t e to a s s u r e complete capture of the emissions. Since high-canopyhoods usually control emissions arising f r o m horizontal-plane

Although the mean diameter of the rising a i r column in the plane of the hood f a c e i s determined f r o m equation 13, the hood must be made somewhat l a r g e r in order to a s s u r e complete capture of the rising column of contaminated a i r a s it wavers back and forth and i s deflected by d r a f t s . The exact amount of allowance cannot be calculated precisely, but factors that must b e considered include thehorizontalvelocity of the a i r c u r r e n t s in the a r e a , the size and velocity of the rising a i r jet, and tne distance y of the hood above the hot

source. Other factors being equal, i t appears most likely that the additional allowance for the hood s i z e must he a function of the distance y. Increasing the diameter of the hood by a factor of 0.8 y h a s been recommended (Industrial Ventilation, 1960). The totalvolume i o r the hood c a n he calculated f r o m Vt

Diameter of rising a i r s t r e a m a t the hood face f r o m Equation 13:

D D
= =

0 . 5 0.88 ~ f 0. 5 (21)0. 85
= 7. 3 f e e t

= vA

f c

t v(A - A )
r f

(17)

Area of rising a i r s t r e a m a t the hood face:

where

.Vt
vf A v A*
C

= the total volume entering the hood,cfm

=

the velocity of the rising a i r column a t the hood face, fpm taminated a i r a t the hood face, f t 2

= (0. 7554)(7.3)

42 s q u a r e f e e t

= the a r e a of the rising column of conthe required velocity through the r e maining a r e a of the hood, A - A,, fpm f = the total a r e a of the hood face, ft2.
=

Hood size required--including i n c r e a s e to allowfor waver of jet and effect of drafts: Df Df

=

D
C

0.Sy (0. 8)(10) = 15.3

7. 3 t

The value of v, selected will depend upon the draftiness, height of the hood above the source, and the seriousness of permitting some of the contaminated a i r to escape capture. The value of this velocity i s usually taken in the range of 100 to 200 fpm. It i s recommended that a value l e s s than 100 f p m not he used except under exceptional circumstances. The following problem illustrates the use of this methodtodesign a highcanopy hood to control the emissions f r o m a metal-melting furnace.

Use 15-foot-4-inch-diameter hood Area of hood face:

Af

2 (0. 7854)(15. 33)

= 185 squarefeet
Velocity of rising a i r jet a t hood face:

Example 5 Given:
A z'inc-melting pot 1 f e e t in diameter with metal temperature 550F. A high-canopy hood i s to he used to capture emissions. Because of i n t e r ference, the hood must be located 10 feet above the pot. Ambient a i r temperature i s 8 0 F .

Problem: Determine the s i z e of hood and exhaust r a t e required. Solution: 11 f e e t f r o m Figure 13 f o r 4-foot-diameter Source
z

= 143 fpm
Total volume required f o r hood: Tt Vt

= vA
=

f c

100(Af-A)
C

(143)(42) t
=

(100)(155-42)

20, 300 c f m

x f
x f

y 10
= 21 feet

11 t

If the hood could be lowered, the volume required to capture the emissions would be reduced suhstantially a s illustrated below:

38

DESIGN O F LOCAL EXHAUST SYSTEMS

Example 6
v

Given: The s a m e furnace a s in example problem No. 5, but the hood i s lowered t o 6 f e e t above the pot. Problem: Determine the s i z e of hood and exhaust rate required. Solution: z = 11 f e e t f r o m F i g u r e 13 f o r 4-foot-diameter Source

( 8 ) ( 1 2 . 5 7 ) ~ /(800)5/12 ~
=

( 1 7 ) ~ ~ ~

149 f p m

Total volume r e q u i r e d f o r hood:

vt Vt

= vA
= =

f c

100 (Af

A=)

(149)(29. 2) 10,800 c f m

(100)(93.7-29.2)

Rectangular high-canopy hoods The control of emissions f r o m s o u r c e s with other than c i r c u l a r shape m a y b e s t be handled by hoods of appropriate shape. Thus, a rectangular source would r e q u i r e a rectangular hood in o r d e r t o m i n i m i z e the ventilation requirements. A c i r c u l a r hoodused to c o n t r o l a rectangular s o u r c e of e m i s sion would r e q u i r e a n excessive volume. The method u s e d t o design a hood f o r a rectangular source is illustrated in example 7.

= 1 1 + 6

17 feet

Diameter of rising a i r s t r e a m a t the hood face f r o m equation 13.

Example 7
D
=

0. 5

(17)O' 88

6.1 f e e t

Given: A rectangular lead-melting furnace 2 f e e t 6 inches wide by 4 f e e t long. Metal t e m p e r a t u r e 700'F. A high-canopy hood i s t o be u s e d located 8 f e e t .hove furnace. Assume 8 0 F ambient a i r . Problem:

A r e a of the rising a i r s t r e a m a t the hood f a c e :

=
C

(0.7854)(6. I )

29. 2 square f e e t Determine the dimensions of the hood and the exhaust r a t e required.

Hood s i z e required:
D f
=

0.8y

Solution:
z

Df

(6.1)

(0.8)(6) = 10.9 f e e t

= 6.2 f r o m F i g u r e 13 f o r 2. 5-foot s o u r c e

Use 10-foot-11 -inch-diameter hood A r e a of the hood face: The width of the r i s i n g a i r jet a t the hood m a y be calculated f r o m

Af

( 0 . 7 8 5 4 ) ( 1 0 . 9 ~ ) ~ = 93.7 s q u a r e f e e t

0. 5 (14. 2) 0.88

= 5.2 f e e t

Velocity of rising a i r jet a t hood face:

The length of the rising a i r jet m a y be assumed t o be increased over that of the s o u r c e the s a m e amount a s the width D
=

(4) t (5.2

2. 5)

= 6.7 feet

Hood Design

39

The a r e a of the rising a i r jet i s

A
C

= (5.2)(6. 7)

= 35 square f e e t

The hood must be l a r g e r than the rising a i r s t r e a m t o allow f o r waver and drafts. By allowing 0. 8 y for both width and length, the hood s i z e i s Width = (5. 2) Length = (6. 7)

+ +

(0.8)(8) (0. 8)(8)

= 11. 6 f e e t = 13. 1 feet

U s e hood 11 f e e t 7 inches wide by 13 f e e t 1 inch long

A r e a of hood: Af
=

(11.58)(13. 083)

= 152 s q u a r e f e e t

important distinction i s t h a t the hood i s close enough t o the s o u r c e that v e r y l i t t l e mixing b e tween the rising a i r column and the surrounding atmosphere occurs. The diameter of the a i r column may, t h e r e f o r e , be considered essentially equal t o the d i a m e t e r of the hot source. The hood n e e d b e l a r g e r by only a s m a l l amount than the hot s o u r c e t o p r o v i d e f o r the e f f e c t s of waver and def l e c t l o n d u e t o d r a f t s . Whendrafts a r e not a s e r i ous problem, extending the hood 6 inches on a l l sides s k u l d h e sufficient. This means that the hoodface d i a m e t e r m u s t b e taken a s 1 foot g r e a t e r than the d i a m e t e r of the source. F o r rectangular s o u r c e s , a rectangular hood would be provided withdimensions 1 foot wider and 1 foot longer than the source. Under m o r e s e v e r e conditions of draft or toxic emissions, o r both, a g r e a t e r s a f e t y f a c t o r i s required, which can be provided by increasing the s i z e of the hood an additional foot o r m o r e or byproviding a complete enclosure. A solution t o the problem of designing low-canopy hoods f o r hot s o u r c e s h a s been proposed by Hemeon (1955). Although the hoodis usually l a r g e r than the source, l i t t l e e r r o r occurs i f they a r e considered equal. The total volume f o r the hood m a y then be d e t e r mined f r o r n t h e following equation obtained by rearranging t e r m s in Hemeon's equation and applying a 15 percent safety factor.

Velocity of rising a i r jet:

( 8 ) ( l 0 ) ~(620)5/12 /~ 114 (14.2)

130 fpm

Total volume r e q u i r e & f o r hood:

where Vt Df
=

total volume f o r the hood, c f m

= the d i a m e t e r of the hood, f t

=

Vt

(130)(35)

at
(200)(152-35) = 28, 000 cfm

the difference between the t e m p e r a t u r e of the hot s o u r c e and the ambient a t mosphere, O . F

Note that in this p r o b l e m a velocity of 200 f p m was usedthrough the a r e a of the hood in excess of the a r e a of the rising a i r column. A l a r g e r value was selected for this c a s e because lead fumes m u s t be captured completelyto p r o t e c t the health of the w o r k e r s in the a r e a .

A graphical solution t o equation 18 is shown in F i g u r e 14. To u s e t h i s graph, s e l e c t a hood s i z e 1 or 2 f e e t l a r g e r than t h e s o u r c e . The t o t a l volume required f o r a hood Df f e e t in d i a m e t e r m a y then be r e a d d i r e c t l y f r o m the graph f o r the actual t e m p e r a t u r e difference At between the hot s o u r c e and the surrounding atmosphere.

Circular low-canopy hoods The design of low-canopy hoods is somewhat diff e r e n t f r o m that f o r high-canopy hoods. A hood m a y be considered a low-canopy hood when the distancehetweenthe hood and the hot s o u r c e does not exceed approximately the diameter of the source, o r 3 feet, whichever i s s m a l l e r . A rigid distinction between low-canopy hoods and highcanopy hoods i s not intended oy neces8a~jf;:' The
. .

Example 8 Given:
A low-canopy hood i s to be used t o capture the emissions during fluxing and slagging of b r a s s in a 20-inch-diameter ladle. The m e t a l t e m p e r a t u r e during this operation will not exceed 2 , 3 5 0 - F . The hood will be located 24 inches above the m e t a l surface. Arnbient t e m p e r a t u r e m a y be a s s u m e d t o ~ b e 0 F . 8

40

DESIGN OF LOCAL EXHAUST SYSTEMS

10

TOTAL VENTILATION RATE ( V t ) , c f m

F ~ g u r e14.

Mlnlmum v e n t 1 l a t ~ o n a t e s r e q u i r e d f o r r

CI

r c u l a r low-canopy hooas.

..
!

Problem: Determine the s i z e of hood and exhaust r a t e required. Solution: Temperature difference between hot s o u r c e and amblent a l r : L

*. .,

(19)

L
where Vt
=

the total volume for a low-canopy r e c tangular hood, c f m a l l y 1 t o 2 feet l a r g e r than the s o u r c e ) , ft

= the length of the rectangular hood (usu-

= width of the rectangular hood (usually 1

t o 2 f e e t l a r g e r than the s o u r c e ) , f t
=

Use a hood diameter 1 foot l a r g e r than the hot source: Df

=

At

the t e m p e r a t u r e difference between the hot s o u r c e and the surrounding atmosphere, O F .

1.67

1.0

=2.67feet

Total exhaust r a t e required f r o m Flgure 14:

= 1, 150 cfrn

F i g u r e 15 i s a graphical solution of equation 19. The u s e of this graph t o design a low-canopy r e c tangular hood f o r a rectangular s o u r c e i s i l l u s t r a t e d m example 9. Example 9 Given: A zinc die-casting machine with a 2-foot-wide by 3-foot-long holding pot for the molten zinc. A low-canopy hood i s t o be provided 30 inches above the pot. The meta*&@erature i s 820F. Ambient a i r t e m p e r a t u r e i s 9O'F.

Vt Rectangular low-canopy hoods

. .

In a s i m i l a r m a n n e r , Hemeon's equations f o r low-canopy hoods m a y be modified and simplified f o r application t o rectangular hoods. With a 15 percent safety f a c t o r , the equation then becomes

Hood Design

41

40

60

80

100

150

200

300

400
Of

500 600
hood length

800 1.000

1,500

MINIMUM VENTILATION RATE (Vt/L), cfm/ft

FI gure 15.

Minimum v e n t 1 l a t r on r a t e s f o r r e c t a n g u l a r l o w - c a n o p y hoods.

1
I
I

Problem: Determine hood size and exhaust rate required.

Total exhaust rate required f o r hood: Vt

=

430 x

= 1,720 cfm

1
Solution: Enclosures Use a hood 1 foot wider and 1 foot longer than the source. Hood size = 3 feet wide by 4 feet long.
A low-canopy hood with baffles i s essentially the

!1
1
1
j

Temperature difference between the hot source and ambient a i r :

Exhaust rate required per foot of hood length f r o m Figure 15:

same a s a complete enclosure. The exhaust rate f o r anenclosure arounda hot source must, theref o r e , be based on the same principles a s that for alow-canopyhood. Enclosures for hot processes cannot, however, be designed in the same manner a s for cold processes. Here again, the thermal draft must be accommodated by the hood. F a i l u r e t o do s o will certainly result in emissions escaping f r o m the hood openings. After determining the exhaust rate required to accommodate the thermal draft, calculate the hood face velocity o r indraft through a l l openings. The indraft through all openings inthehood should not be l e s s than 100 fpmunder any circumstances. When a i r contaminants a r e releasedwithconsiderableforce, a minimurn indraft velocity of 200 fpm should be provided. When t h e . a i r contaminants a r e released with extremely great force a s , f o r example, in a

42

DESIGN O F LOCAL EXHAUST SYSTEMS

=

direct-arc electric steel-melting furnace, an indraftof 500 to 800 fpm through all openings in the hood i s required.
Specific Problems

qc

A .
t m

= =

the r a t e at which heat i s transferred to the a i r in the hood f r o m the hot source, Btulmin 2 the a r e a of the orifice, f t the average temperature of the a i r inside the hbod. "F.

Steaming tanks When the hot source i s a steaming tank of water, Hemeon (1955)develops a special equation by a s suming a latent heat of 1, 000 Btu p e r pound of water evaporated. He derives the following equation f o r the totalvolume required f o r a low-canopy hood venting a tank of steaming hot water.

where Vt
=

the total hood exhaust rate, cfm the r a t e a t which s t e a m i s released, lb/min the a r e a of the hood face, assumed approximately equal t o the tank a r e a , ft2 the diameter for circular tanks o r the width for rectangular tanks, ft.

Ws = Af
r

Dt

Figure 16. I l l u s t r a t i o n o f leakage from t o p o f hood (Hemeon, 1955).

Preventing leakage Hoods for hot processes m u s t be airtight. When leaks or openings in the hood above the level of the hood face occur, a s illustrated in Figure 16, they will be a source of leakage owing to a -effect, unless the volumevented f r o m the hood is substantially increased. Since openings may sometimes be unavoidable in the upper portions of an enclosure or canopy hood, a means of determining the amount of the leakage and the inc r e a s e in the volume required to eliminate the leakage i s necessary. Hemeon (1955) has developedanequation to determine the volume of leaka g e f r o m a sharp-edge orifice in a hood a t a point above the hood face. A small amount of leakage can often be tolerated; however, if the emissions a r e toxic or malodorous, the leakage m u s t be prevented completely. If all the cracks o r openings in the upper portion of the hood cannot be eliminated, the volume vented f r o m the hood must be increased s o that the minimum indraft velocity through all openings including the hoodiace is in excess of the escape velocity through the orifice calculated bymeans of equation 21. The value of q, may be determined by using the appropriate heat transfer coefficient f r o m Table 5 together with equation 15 or by any other appropriate means. This method i s illustrated in example 10. Example 10 Given: Several oil-fired crucible furnaces a r e hooded and vented a s illustrated in Figure 16. The enclosure i s 20 feet long. It i s not possible to p r e vent leakage a t the top of the enclosure. Total a r e a of the leakage openings i s 1 square foot. The fuel rate i s 30 gallons p e r hour and the heating value i s 140, 000 Btu per gallon. Assume 8 0 F ambient a i r and 150F average temperature of gases in the hood.

where v e

= the velocity of escape through orifices

in the upper portions of a hood, fpm

10

= the vertical distance above the hood

face to the location of the orifice, f t

\Hood Design

43

Problem: Oetermine the minimum f a c e velocity and total exhaust r a t e required to prevent leakage' of contaminated a i r through the upper openings by a s suming a l l openings a r e sharp-edge orifices. Solution: The r a t e of heat generation:

HOOD CONSTRUCTION

I a i r temperature and corrosion problems a r e not f severe, hoods a r e usually constructed of galvanized sheetmetal. As with elbows and transitions, thernetal should be a t l e a s t 2 gauges heavier than the connecting duct. Reinforcement with angle ironandother devices is required except f o r v e r y s m a l l hoods.
High-Temperature Materials

9,

= 30

x 140,000

Btu 1 - 60 gal

Total open a r e a : A .

(20 x 7) t

= 141 f t

The escape velocity through the leakage orifice:

F o r elevated temperatures up t o approximately 900F, blackironmay be employed, the thickness of the metal being increased in proportion to the temperature. F o r temperatures i n the range of 400 to 5006F, 10-gauge metal i s most commonly used. When the temperature of the hood i s a s high a s 900 "F, the thickness of the metal may be increased up to 114 inch. Over 900qF, up to about 1, 600 to 1, 8 0 0 D F , stainless steel must be employed. If the hood temperature periodically exceeds 1 , 8 0 0 - F o r i s in excess of 1, 600'F for a substantial amount of the time, r e f r a c t o r y m a t e r i a l s a r e required.
Corrosion-Resistant M a t e r i a l s

11)(70, 000 (141 ((460 150;

= 420 fpm
A varietvof materials a r e available for corrosive conditions. Plywood i s sometimes employed for relatively light duty or f o r temporary installations. A rubber or plastic coating may sometimes be applied on steel. Some of these coatings canbe appliedlike ordinary paint. If severe corrosion problems exist, hoods must be constructpd of sheets of P V C (polyvinyl chloride), glass fiber, or transite.

The required exhaust rate: Vt

=
Ve

A .

= 59,000 cfm

Check mean hood a i r temperature: qc where

p =

= Vt P CnAt
-

Design Proportions

average density of mixture, 0. 075 l b / f t 3 Btullb p e r " F

= average specific heat of mixture, 0.24 = average hood temperature minus ambient
a i r temperature.

At

Although the items of p r i m a r y importance in designinghoods a r e the size, shape, and location of the hood face, and the exhaust r a t e , the depth of the hood and the transition to the connecting duct must also be considered. A hood that i s too shallow i s nothing m o r e than a flanged-duct opening. On the other hand, excessive deoth increases the cost without serving a useful purpose.
T r a n s i t i o n t o Exhaust Duct

Solving for At in the equation: 70,000 (59, O O O ) ( O . 075)(0. 24) 80 C 66

At

= =

= 66F

= 146F

This adequately approximates the original assumption.

It i s desirable to have a transition piece between the hoodand the exhaust system ductwork that i s cone shapedwith an included angle of 60" or l e s s . This can often be made a part of the hood itself. The exact shape of the transition is the most i m portant factor in determining the hood orifice losses. Examples of good practice inthis regard a r e illustrated i n Figure 17.

4 ~ _

IDESIGN
POURING STATION FOR SL1ALL MOLDS
T O P 8AFFLE

OF LOCAL

TRANSITION

Whenlongrows of equipment must be served, the main header duct should be located as near a s possible to the center of the group of equipment in order td equalize runs of branch duct. Where necessary, the equipment should be divided into subgroups and subheaders located to provide good distribution of airflow in the duct system, and proper velocities a t the hood and enclosure inlets. Air flowing in ducts encounters resistance due to frictionand dynamic losses. Friction losses occur from the rubbing of the a i r along the surface of the duct, whereas dynamic losses occur f r o m a i r turbulence due t o rapid changes in velocity or direction. F r o m Bernoulli's theorem, the sum of the static and velocity p r e s s u r e upstream i s equal to the sum of the static and velocity p r e s s u r e plus the friction and dynamic losses downstream. A fan i s normally required t o provide sufficient static p r e s s u r e to overcome the r e s i s tance of the system.

SPACE

V = 2 0 0 ( 1 0 ~t~ A )
where V = minimum v e n t i l a t i o n r a t e , c f m X = d i s t a n c e between hood and l a d l e , f t A = face area o f hood, f t z
ENCLOSURE FOR FOUNCRY SHAKEOUT

TRANSITION

TYPES OF LOSSES
The losses i n a n exhaust system may be expressed a s inertia losses, orifice losses, straight-duct friction losses, elbow and branch entry losses, and contraction and expansion losses. In addition to losses f r o m t h e ductwork, there a r e also p r e s s u r e losses through the a i r pollution collection equipment.

P r o v i d e a minimum i n d r a f t o f 200 cfm p e r square f o o t o f o p e n i n g b u t n o t l e s s t h a n 200 c f m per squate f o o t of grate area f o r hot castings.

F i g u r e 17. E x a m p l e s o f g o o d h o o d d e s i g n . Note u s e o f e n c l o s u r e , f l a n g e s , and t r a n s i t ~ o n s ( I n d u s t r i a l V e n t i l a t i o n , 1960)

I n e r t i a Losses
Lnertia losses may be defined a s the energy r e quired to accelerate the a i r from r e s t to the velocityinthe duct. In effect, they a r e the velocity p r e s s u r e . Many other losses a r e expressed in t e r m s of velocity p r e s s u r e , but velocity p r e s s u r e itself represents the energy of acceleration. It i s calculated by equation 5, set forth earlier. By this equation, values of velocity p r e s s u r e versus velocityhave beencalculated, a s shown in Table 6 .

i i

DUCT DESIGN
The design of hoods and thr determination of exhaust volumes have been considered. Now the design of the ductwork required to conduct the contaminants to a collection device will be discussed. Calculations of p r e s s u r e drop, system resistance, system balance, and duct construction will be covered.

O r i f i c e Losses
Thepressure o r energy losses a t the hood or duct entrances vary widely depending on the shape of the entrance. The losses a r e due mainly to the vena contracta a t the hood throat. They a r e usually expressedas apercentage of thevelocitypress u r e corresponding t o the velocity a t the hood throat. T h e l o s s e s v a r y from 1 . 8 hy for a sharpedge orifice tonearly zero for a well-rounded bellmouth entry. Losses f o r common shapes of ent r i e s a r e given in Figure 18. Most complicated entries canbebroken dointo two or m o r e s i m ple entries, and the total entry loss computed by adding the individual losses.

GENERAL L A Y O U T C O N S I D E R A T I O N S
Beforedesigningand installing an exhaust system, t r y to group together the equipment to be served i order to make the system a s small and comn pact a s possible and thereby reduce the resistance load and power required. Extending an exhaust system t o reach a n isolated hood o r enclosure i s usually costly in regard to power consumption, and if the isolated hood cannot be located close to the mainexhaust system, the installation of a separate systemto c a r e f o r t h e isolated equipment i s probably preferable, in t e r m s of operating economy.

Table 6.

TABLE FOR CONVERSION OF VELOCITY (v,) TO VELOCITY PRESSURE (hv)

v ,m , va, f p

a r e added to the actual lengths of straight duct, and the r e s i s t a n c e f o r e a c h r u n c o m p u t e d f r o ~ n F i g u r e19. Equivalentlengths oielbows and e n t r i e s a r e given in Table 7. Exhaust s y s t e m calculator Most of the c h a r t s , tables, and equations have been incorporated into a single sliderule device, a s illustrated in F i g u r e 20. The upper s c a l e s on the front side will give friction l o s s e s just a s in Figure 19. Velocity p r e s s u r e can be r e a d f r o m the s a m e s c a l e s by setting 4, 000 on the velocity s c a l e opposite 1. 00 on the friction scale. Then, opposite any other velocity, the friction scale will give the c o r r e c t v e l o c i t y p r e s s u r e . The lower s c a l e s p e r f o r m volume and velocity calculations f o r a given duct diameter. Temperature c o r r e c tion s c a l e s and a duct condition correction scale a r e provided. On the r e v e r s e side (not shown in Figure ZO), equivalent lengths for elbows, branch e n t r i e s , and weather caps a r e given. On the lowe r portion of each side, hood e n t r y l o s s e s a r e given f o r a l l the u s u a l e n t r y shapes.

I h,,

in. WC

5,500 5,600

1.886 1.955

PLAIN DUCT END

FLANGED DUCT

TRAP OR S E T L I N G W E R

HE

= 0.9H"
HE = 1 . 5 H

STANDARD GRINDER H W D FLANGED PLUS ORIFICE W C T YIARP-EDGE ORIFICE

7
+

S t r a i g h t - D u c t F r i c t i o n Losses
0.5Hy
DUCT

Many c h a r t s have been developed that give the friction l o s s e s in straight ducts. Most of these charts a r e based on new, clean duct. A r e s i s tance c h a r t in which allowance h a s been made f o r moderate roughness of the duct i s shown i n F i g u r e 19. Most exhaust s y s t e m s collecting appreciable a mounts of a i r contaminants a r e believed t o r e a c h a t l e a s t this degree of roughness in a relatively s h o r t time after being placed in operation. F r i c t i o n l o s s i n inches of water p e r 100 f e e t of duct i s plotted in t e r m s of duct d i a m e t e r , velocity, and volurne. If any two of these quantities a r e given, the other two can be r e a d f r o m the c h a r t .

HE

= 0.65Hy

FLARED

ENTRY

D l RECT BRANCH BOOTH

BELL-MXml

ENlRY

T d HE

= 0.15H"

3
H E = 0.5Hy

i B H~

= 0.025Hy

TAPERED H W S

0 . 0 8

8"

o.,a

""

Elbow

and

B r o n r h Entry Losses

The simplest wayto e x p r e s s r e s i s t a n c e of elbows a n d b r a n c h e n t r i e s i s in equivalent f e e t of s t r a i g h t ductof the s a m e d i a m e t e r that will have the s a m e p r e s s u r e l o s s a s the fitting. The equivalent lengths

F i g u r e 1 8 . Hood e n t r y l o s s e s (Adapted f r o m I n d u s t r i a l V e n t i l a t i o n , 1956).

46

DESIGN O F LOCAL EXHAUST SYSTEMS

FRICTION, inches of water/lOO feet

Figure 19. Friction loss chart

Duct Desjgn-

47

Table 7.

AIR FLOW RESISTANCE CAUSED BY ELBOWS AND BRANCH ENTRLES EXPRESSED AS EQUIVALENT FEET OF STRAIGHT DUCT (Adapted f r o m Industrial Ventilation, 1956)
I

Diameter of duct,
in.

w / (NI

k. D1

9 0 " Elbow Branch entrv Throat radius Throat radius ( ~ ) / ~ n g lentry ( 8 ) of e Throat radius (R) l.OD/ l . 5 D 12.ODll.OD11.5DI2.ODIl.ODIl.5Dl2.OD145"/30"115"

C o n f r o c f i o n a n d E x p a n s i o n Losses

Whenthe cross-sectional a r e a of a channel through whicha gas i s flowing contracts, a p r e s s u r e loss is encountered. The magnitude of the loss depends upon the abruptness of the contraction. Whenthe cross-sectional a r e a expands, a portion of the decrease in velocity p r e s s u r e may be convertedinto static pressure. The increase o r dec r e a s e i n p r e s s u r e fromexpansionand contraction can be calculatedfrom the diagrams and formulas given i n Tables 8 and 9. Losses f r o m small changes in velocity can be neglected.
Collection Equipment

data, resistances a r e usually estimated by comparing them with known values f o r similar equipment. In collectors such a s cyclones and scrubb e r s where the velocities a r e high, p r e s s u r e varies approximately with the square of the velocity. If the l o s s i s known at one velocity, the loss at any other velocity i s computed by multiplying by the square of the ratio of the velocities. In cloth filt e r dust collectors, however, the flow i s laminar, and p r e s s u r e drop varies approximately a s the f i r s t power of the velocity ratios.
DESIGN PROCEDURES

Methods of Colrulofion

P r e s s u r e through collection equipment varies widely. Mostmanufacturers supply data on p r e s s u r e drop f o r their equipment. In the absence of

The f i r s t step in iesigning an exhaust system i s to determine the volwne of a i r required at each hood or enclosure to ensure complete collection

F i g u r e 20.

Exhaust system calculator

M e t h o d s of Design

of the a i r contaminants, by using the principles givenpreviously. The required conveying velocity i s then determined f r o m the nature of the contaminant. Table 10 can be used in determining CDnveying velocities. The branch duct and header diameters a r e then calculated to give the minimum conveying velocity. When the calculated diameter l i e s between two available diameters, the s m a l l e r diamete; should be chosen to ensure an adequate conveying velocity. The duct layout i s then completed, and the lengths of ducts and number and kinds of fittings d e t e r mined. The s y s t e m resistance can then be computed. The calculations can be m o s t easily accomplished byusing a tabular f o r m such a s those shown later.

In designing a s y s t e m of ductwork with multiple branches, the r e s i s t a n c e of each branch m u s t be adjusted so that the static p r e s s u r e balance, which exists a t the junction of two branches, will give the desired volume in each branch. In general, twomethods of accomplishing this r e s u l t a r e used:

1. The balanced-duct o r static p r e s s u r e balance method, inwhich duct s i z e s a r e chosen s o that the s t a t i c - p r e s s u r e balance a t each junctionwill achieve the desired a i r volume in each branch duct.
2 . The blast gate adjustment method, in which cal-

culations b e g i n a t t h e branch of g r e a t e s t r e s i s tance. The other branches a r e m e r e l y sized

Duct Design

49

t o glve the minimum required velocity a t the d e s i r e d volume. Blast gates a r e provided in eachbranch, and a f t e r construction, the gates a r e a d ~ u s t e do give t h e d e s i r e d volume i n each t branch duct. The balanced-duct s y s t e m i s l e s s flexible and m o r e tedious to calculate, but i t has no blast g a t e s thatmight collect deposits o r be tampered withbyunauthorized p e r s o n s . Layout m u s t be in complete detail and construction m u s t follow layout exactly. The blast gate s y s t e m h a s m o r e flexibility for future changes and i s e a s i e r t o calculate; volumes can be adjusted within certain ranges, and duct location i s not s o c r i t i c a l .

Table 8 . DUCTWORK DESIGN DATA SHOWING STATIC PRESSURE LOSSES AND REGAINSa THROUGH ENLARGING DUCT TRANSITIONS (Industrial Ventilation, 1962)

Taper deerces 3-11.? 5 10 15 20 25 30 over 30

D2

- DI

Regain factor (R) /Logs factor (L)

. . . . . . . . . ..~
~

Calculation Procedures

=The ==gain and l o s s factors are expressed as a fraction of

T I ~ c b ~ l a n c r ~ k l mzthoi: Tile c a l c u l a t ~ o n sf o r a uct balance.1-duct sysrein s t a r t at t h c hranci' o i g r e n t e s r r e s i s t a n c e . Using the duct s i z e that will give the r e q u i r e d volume a t the minimum conveying velocity, calculate the s t a t i c p r e s s u r e u p t o the junction with the next branch. The s t a t i c p r e s s u r e i s then calculated along this next branch to the s a m e junction. If the two calculations a g r e e within 5 p e r cent, the branches m a y be considered in balance.

the velocity pressure difference between points (1) and (2). In calculating the static pressure changes through an enlarging duct transition, select R from the table and aubstitute in the equation

sP2 where

= SP1 t

R(hv 1

- h2)

hv i s (t) S P i s (t) discharge duct from f a n in S P i s ( - ) in inlet duct to fan

Table 9. DUCTWORK DESIGN DATA SHOWING CONTRACTION PRESSURE LOSSES THROUGH DECREASING DUCT TRANSITIONS (Industrial Ventilation, 1956)

e
L

Taperangle

(e),

Loss f r a c t i o n (L) F o r abrupt contraction (9 > 60") of hv difference Ratio D2/D1 Factor K

5 10 15 20 25 30 45 60
SP change:

50

DESIGN OF LOCAL EXHAUST SYSTEMS

Table 10. RECOMMENDED MINIMUM DUCT VELOCITIES (Brandt, 1947) Nature of contaminant Gases, vapors, smokes, furnes, and very light dusts Examples All vapors, gases, and smokes; zinc and aluminum oxide fumes; wood, flour, and cotton lint Buffing lint; sawdust; grain, rubber, and plastic dust Sandblast and grinding dust, wood shavings, cement dust Lead, and foundry shakeout dusts; metal turnings Duct velocity, fpm 2,000

Medium-density d r y dust

3,000

Average industrial dust

4,000

Heavy dusts

5,000

If the difference in static p r e s s u r e i s more than 20 percent, a smaller diameter duct normally should he used for economy reasons in the branch with the lower p r e s s u r e drop to increase its resistance. Branch sizes smaller than 3 inches indiameter should be avoided. When the difference in p r e s s u r e loss in the two branches i s between 5 and 20 percent, balance can be obtained hy increasing the flow in the branch with the lower loss. Since p r e s s u r e l o s s e s increase with the square ' of the volume, the increased volume can be readily calculated as:

Fan Slofic Pressure

The preceding calculations a r e based on static p r e s s u r e ; that i s , the balancing or governing p r e s s u r e s at the duct junctions a r e static p r e s s u r e s . Most fan-rating tables a r e given in t e r m s of fan static p r e s s u r e . The National Association of Fan Manufacturers defines the fan static p r e s s u r e as the total p r e s s u r e diminished by the velocity p r e s s u r e a t the fan outlet, o r fan h
=
S

fan H

h fan outlet v

(23;

Corrected cfm =

lower (Original cfm) (22)

On the absolute p r e s s u r e scale,

T h e p r e s s u r e l o s s in the header i s then calculated to the next branch. This branch i s then sized to achieve a static p r e s s u r e balance a t this junction with the required volume (or slightly g r e a t e r ) in the branchduct. This procedure i s continued u n til the discharge point of the system i s reached. The blast gate adjustment method: The calculations f o r a s y s t e m t o be balanced by blast gate adjustment also s t a r t at the branch of greatest r e s i s tanceandproceedtothe header. P r e s s u r e l o s s e s a r e t h e n calculated only along the header. P r e s s u r e d r o p s inthe remaining branches i r e not calculated except when calculationis deemedadvisable i n o r d e r t o c h e c k a branch to be s u r e its p r e s s u r e drop does not exceed the static p r e s s u r e a t i t s junction with the header.

fan H

H outlet

H inlet

(24)

Combining the two equations fan h

= H outlet
S

H inlet

= h
S

outlet
V

+ hv outlet
- hS
inlet

outlet

- (h inlet
S

+ hv inlet)
(25)

- h

outlet

= hs outlet

inlet

S t a t i c p r e s s u r e s a r e n e a r l y always measured r e l ative to atmospheric p r e s s u r e , and static p r e s s u r e a t the fan inlet i s negative. In ordinary usage, only thenumerical values a r e considered, in which case, equation 25 becomes

In evaluating the performance of a fan, examine the tables to determine whether they a r e based on fan static p r e s s u r e o r on total p r e s s u r e .

Balanced-Duct C a l c u l a f i o n s
Aproblemillustrating calculationby the balancedduct method i s worked out a s follows. The given operation involves the blending of d r y powdered materials. A sketch of the equipment is given in Figure 21. The equipment andventilation requirements a r e presented i n Tables 11 and 12. A minimum conveying velocity of 3, 500 fpm i s to be maintained in a l l ducts. Elbows have a throat radius of 2 D. The balanced-duct method i s to be used i n the duct design. The detailed calculations a r e shown in Table 13. Calculations s t a r t at branch A. A 6-inch-diameter duct gives the nearest velocity to 3, 500 fpm a t the required volume of 750 cfm. The actual velocity of 3, 800 fpm i s entered in column 5, and the corresponding velocitypressure, in column6. F r o m Figure 18, the entry loss i s 50 percent hv, which i s entered in column 7 left. The length of straight duct i s entered in column 8. The equivalent length for the elbows i s found in Table 7, and the sum i s entered in column 9 right. The total equivalent length i s then found by adding column 8 and umn 9 right and entering the sum in c o l u m n l l . The resistance per 100 feet of duct i s then read f r o m F i g u r e 20 at 6-inchdiameter and 3, 800 fpm, and is entered in column 12. The resistance p r e s s u r e (hr) i s calculated by multiplying column 11 by column 12 anddividing by 100. This value i s entered in column 13. The static p r e s s u r e i s then the sum of the velocity p r e s s u r e and the hood l o s s plus the resistance p r e s s u r e , & umn 6 t column 7 right t column 13.

Jnbranch B, a volume of 200 cfm i s required. A 3-112-inchduct would give a velocity of 3,000 fpm, which is below the minimum. Hence the branch was calculated with a 3-inch duct a t 4, 000 fpm. The resulting hs (column 14 left) was m o r e than 2Opercent greater thanthat for branch A. A 3-112inchduct must, therefore, be used and the volume increased to 240 cfm to maintain the minimum velocity. At these conditions, the hs values for the twobranches a r e within 5 percent and m a y be considered in balance.

In section C, a 7-inch duct will c a r r y the combined volumefrom branches A and B_ at the n e a r e s t velocity above the minimum. The onlypressure drop

F i g u r e 21. Sketch o f exhaust system used i n T a b l e 1 1 showing d u c t d e s i g n c a l c u l a t i o n s by t h e b a l a n c e d - d u c t method.

Table 11. EQUIPMENT AND VENTILATION REQUIREMENTS FOR SAMPLE PROBLEM Equipment Dump hopper ( I ) , 2 - by 3-it opening Bucket elevator (2), 1- by 2-ft casing Ribbon blender (3), 1- by 2-ft opening Drum-filling booth (4), 1- by 3-ft opening Cloth f i l t e r dust collector (5) maximum resistance, 4 in. wg Ventilation requirement Volume, cfm 125-fpm indraft through opening 100 cfm per f t 2 of casing a r e a 150-fpm indraft through opening 200-fpm indraft through opening

1 1 1

750 200 300 600

52

DESIGN OF LOCAL EXHAUST SYSTEMS Table 12. DUCT LENGTHS AND FITTINGS REQUIRED IN SAMPLE PROBLEM with the main. No adjustments a r e made i n the volumes. Blast gates will be installed in each of these branches t o provide the required increase in resistance.

Branch

Length, f t

Elbows, No. and degree 2, 90

Entries, No. and degree

14

CHECKING A N EXHAUST SYSTEM

1, 30 The preceding example problem illustrates the calculations f o r designing an exhaust system. In checking plans f o r a n exhaust system, use similar calculations but take a different approach. A systemaf ductworkwith a specific exhauster is given and the problem is to determine the flow conditions that will exist. The objectives of checking an exhaust system are: 1. To determine the exhaust volume and indraft velocity a t each pickup point and evaluate the adequacy of contaminant pickup;

1, 30

1, 30

is due to the friction in the 7 feet of straight duct. This hr i s added to the hs a t the f i r s t junction. In branch D, 300 cfrn i s required, and this volume will give approximately 3,450 fpm in a 4-inch duct. The resulting hs is, however, about 20 percent lower than the hs a t the main. The cfrn must, therefore, beincreased by the ratio of the square roots of the s t a t i c p r e s s u r e s , o r f r o m 300 t o 350 cfm.

2. to determine the total exhaust volume and eval.uate the size and performance of the collector o r control device; 3. todetermine the s y s t e m ' s static p r e s s u r e and evaluate the fan capacity, speed, and horsepower required; 4. to determine the temperature a t all points in the system i n order to evaluate the materials of construction of the ductworkand the collector.

Inmainduct E, an 8-inch diameter duct will handle a volume of 1, 340 cfrn a t a velocity of 3, 800 fpm. An hr of 0.10 inch WC is recorded in column 13, giving an hs of 2.87 inches WC t o the iunction EF. Calculation procedures for branch F a r e s i m i l a r to those for branch E, and the required 600 cfrn f o r the drum-filling booth m u s t be increased to 640 cfrn to obtain a static p r e s s u r e balance a t junction EF. The total volume of 1, 980 cfrn gives a velocity of 3, 600 fpm in a 10-inch-diameter main duct G to the baghouse. This runof duct and two 90" elbows have a resistance p r e s s u r e of 0.88 inch WC, givingatotalinlet static p r e s s u r e of 7. 75 inches WC, a f t e r t h e g i v e n r e s i s t a n c e of the baghouse i s added. The outlet static p r e s s u r e i s calculated similarly by calculating the resistance of the straight run of duct. This static p r e s s u r e of 0.21 inch WC i s addedtothe inlet static pressure. The velocity p r e s s u r e of 0. 81 inch WC (one h, a t a velocity of 3, 600 fpm at the f a n inlet) i s subtracted f r o m the above total static p r e s s u r e to yield a f a n static f p r e s s u r e o 7. 15 inches WC.

Illustrative Problem
To illustrate amethod of checking an exhaust system, another problem i s worked. A line drawing of the ductworkis given in Figure 22. None of the calculations used in designing the system a r e given. Since no blast gates a r e shown, assume that the systemwas designed by the balanced-duct method. Resistance calculations a r e presented in Table 15. This f o r m was designed for maximum facility in checking an exhaust system. Calculations s t a r t a= tA with an assumed velocity (or volume) of 3,500fpm. The static p r e s s u r e drop i s then computedtojunctionc. Branch B-C is then computed withanassumed velocity of 3,500 fpm. Since the h, f r o m this branch does not match that f r o m branch A-C, the second velocity i s corrected by multiplying by the square root of h, U / h s B A . The correctedvelocityis entered in column 14 and i s used to compute the cfm, which i s entered in col15. The other branches a r e calculated in the same manner, that i s , assume a velocity at the hood and c o r r e c t i t by the square root of the h, ratio. Thus, all the calculations a r e related to the original assumption of velocity i n the f i r s t branch.

Blast Gate Method

The same system can be designed by the blast gate adjustment method. The calculations a r e shown i n Table 14. Branch A i s calculated a s before. Branches B, _D, and _F a r e calculated a t or near the minimum conveying velocity s o that the hs dropin each does not exceed the hs a t the junction

T a b l e 13.
1 2 3 4 5 6

EXHAUST SYSTEM CALCULATIONS BY BALANCED-DUCT METHOD

7
loss

8 hngth
No.

10

11

12

13

14 Static p r e s s u r e a Branch
~ ~

15

16

~ of ~ . Gas Yolume, c f m . Velocity, ranch at diam, t e m p . Branch Main or in. 'F 70.F

straight and in, WC duct, f t angle

Branch entry ~ o t a ~ esietance ~ No. hr in.WC ~ ~ ~ i ~~ ~ ~ l ~ ~ ~ per i t ~ and at 7 0 m F 100 f t length, ff length, ft l e n g t h f i t angle

~ br.

Cor. Tempin main, ~

a t 70'FI

at T D F Main

' F

difference g r e a t e r than 20%: i n c r e a s e B t o 3 I d i a m e t e r 2

7 4 300 350

990

3.700 3.450 0.74 50 0.37

7 6

3.6

0.25 0.90 2.01 2.77

2.77 2.77 2.77 2. 87 2.53 2.87 2.87 2.87

1'90' 1,60e
300

1.30'

3
= 350

16

5.6

h a difference about 20%; increase cfm to: 1,340 3.800 3,600 0.81 50 0.40 3 11 15

@
1.30'

E F

8 1 52 600 640

3 4 30

3.4 4.4

0. 10 1.32

hs difference i s between 5

and 20%; increase cfm to: 6 O O E = 640

Cloth f i l t e r d u s t collector resist*nce = 4 in.

10

1,980

3,600

8 F a n s t a t i c pressure = h inlet t h outlet

2.6

0.21

inlet

= 7.75 t 0.21 - 0.81 = 7.15 in. WC

T a b l e 14. EXHAUST SYSTEM CALCULATIONS BY THE BLAST-GATE METHOD

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 h, in WC at 70.F 1.17 14 15 Cor. br. Main "el.

Hood l o s s . Elbows Branch entry No. of Volume, c f m Length Duct Total Reeistance No' branch Velocity, One% straight Equivalent diam, temp, at and Angle quivalent equivalent per 100 m, WC or Branch Main fpm 7 0 - F %hV duct. ft length, ft length, f t length, ft ft angle main
A

Static pressurea

Branch at 7 0 F a t T'F 2.52

750

3,800

0.90

50

0.45

14

2.90'

12

26

4.5

Cloth f i l t e r dust collector resistance = 4 in. H 10 1,885 3,500 8 8 2.2 0.18

7.62

Fan static preasure = ha inlet t h outlet ,

= 7.62 t 0.18
%se highest h, a t junction of branches.

- 0.76

- hy inlet
= 7.04 in. WC

6 Hood l o s s

8 Elbows

10

11

12 h r in.WC at 70'F

13 Static p r e s s u r e a Branch at70eFlat T e F Main

14

15

16

NO. of Duct branch diam. or in. main A-C 4 5 6 3 4 5 8 4 9

Gas One h, velocity, at temp, fpm % h, 'F 70'F

70' 3.500 3,500 4.100 3.500 3.500 3,400 3,600 3,500 3.600 3.200 0.76 0.81 0.64 0.76 0.76 0.76 0.76

Length nf=ight in. W C duct, 0. 50 0.50 22 20 12

Branch

No,
and E ~ u ~ angle length, f t 2,90 2.90' 8 10 30'

Total Resietance equivalent per ~ Equivalent ~ ~ c ~ length, ft 100 f t length, 30 4 34 12 5.5 4.4 5.0 7.3 5.5 4.1 2.9 5.5 2. 6

C o r r e c t e d Volume, cfm Ternp in branch main, velocity. OF Branch Main fpm

65 65

1.65 1.50 .60 1.31 1.65 0.90 0.35 1.87 0.83

2.91 2.76

B-C
C-G

D-F
E-T F-G G-I H-I I-J

65 65

0. 50 0.50

12 16 14 12

2.90' 2 90'

6 8 30' 30' 3 4

18 30 22 12

2. 57 2.91 3.47

l.600
1,60e

65

0.50 22

2,90 1.60' 9

8 3 10

30.

34 32

3.13

Cyclone12-in. x 6 - m . entry

150

0.96

5.65

1.600

Fan h

= 5.65

0 . 8 1 = 4 . 8 4 in. WC

ah a duct on the l n l e t side of

- h"

a fan, h8 = 0. . + 1 h L , .

t hr.

On the outlet sxde, hs = h. ,

For fans r a t e d under the NAFM-ASHYE and ASME codes, fan h, '= h, inlet

+ he

outlet

,"let.

56

DESIGN OF LOCAL EXHAITST SYSTEMS

0
E

r
sin.
ALL MilOnI 111 111.a11a 611101"a O l l i l C E LOII = 0.65 1," E L B mm.7 mstw ~ 2 a ~

*in.

MrnDI.

"0 a m ~ c ~ s SUST WTES usOR

5

allrLr rrrllr~ =

l a

in.

4i".

in.

B in.

I B

in.

in.

F a n hs i s used in computing this curve because the fan, a Chicago No. 25 Steel P l a t e Exhauster, i s rated by the methods of the National Association of F a n Manufacturers (NAFM). The fan characteristic curves a r e families of curves a t differentfan speeds defining static p r e s s u r e s developedfor various volumes of a i r handled through the fan. These data a r e available f r o m f a n manuf a c t u r e r s . Data f o r the single fan curve a t 2, 600 r p m a s specified bythis example a r e obtained f r o m Chicago Blower Corporation Bulletin SPE-102. F a n capacities a t various static p r e s s u r e s and at the given s p e e d n e a r e s t to 2, 600 r p m a r e tabulated o n t h e l e f t in Table 17; on the right the figures a r e c o r r e c t e d t o 2, 600 r p m by u s e of the fan laws, a s follows:

F i g u r e 22. L a y o u t o f d u c t w o r k used i n example s h o w ~ n gp r o c e d u r e i n c h e c k i n g an e x h a u s t system.

Since assumed values of volume a r e used in the calculations, thefinal r e s u l t i s the s y s t e m ' s r e s i s tance a t a given totalvolume. The s y s t e m ' s r e s i s tance willincrease with i n c r e a s e in volume by the square of the ratio of the i n c r e a s e in volume. On the other hand, the capacity of an exhauster dec r e a s e s with i n c r e a s e in resistance. The one point that satisfies both system and fan can b e s t be found by plotting the characteristic curves of the system and the fan. The operating point i s the point of intersection of the two curves. The s y s t e m ' s characteristic curve is that curve established by the static p r e s s u r e l o s s e s through the exhaust system f o r various a i r volumes. It i s computed by starting with the resistance and volume f r o m Table 15 and calculating the r e s i s tance a t other volumes by using the square of the ratio of the volume change. The curve f o r the sample problem i s computed f r o m Table 16.

A horsepower v e r s u s a i r volume curve can also be plotted f r o m Table 17. Table 17. FAN CAPACITY AT VARIOUS STATIC PRESSURES Corrected to 2 600 r p m hp 4.3 3.8 3.4 3.0 2.5

F r o m Chicago Bulletin c f m hs hp rpm I I I

!
I

Table 16. CALCULATIONS FOR CHARACTERISTIC CURVE Volume, cfm 1,600 1,800 2,000 1,400 1,200 1,000 500 ( 1 , 8 0 0 1 1 , 6 0 0 )x 4.84 ~ (2, 00011, 6 0 0 ) x 4. 84 ~ (1, 4 0 0 1 1 , 6 0 0 ) ~ 4. 84 x
x (1,20011, 6 0 0 ) ~ 4.84

Multiplying factor

New hs 4. 84 6. 12 7. 56 3. 71 2. 72 1.89 0. 47

The s y s t e m curve, fan curve, and horsepower curve a r e plotted in Figure 23. The fan and s y s t e m c u r v e s intersect a t 1, 860 cfm and 6. 5 inches hs. The horsepower required i s 3.2. Since the volume obtained f r o m the curves of Figu r e 23 i s appreciably higher than the total volume f r o m Table 15, the volume a t each hood m u s t be corrected. The correction f a c t o r i s obtained by dividing the volume f r o m the curve by the total volume f r o m Table 15. Corrections a r e made in Table 18.

!~

(1, 0 0 0 1 1 , 6 0 0 ) ~ 4.84 x (50011, 6 0 0 ) ~ x 4. 84

Fan C u r v e C o l c u l a f o r
The calculations required to produce a fan curve f r o m catalog data have been incorporated in a slide rule-type calculator (Figu r e 24). A calculator of this type will reduce the time r e quired to plot characteristic curves such a s shown in Figure 23.

C O R R E C T I O N S FOR T E M P E R A T U R E AND ELEVATION Fan tables, resistance charts, and exhaust volume requirements a r e based on standard atmospheric conditions of 70F and average barometric p r e s s u r e at sea level. Under these conditions the density of a i r i s 0.075 pound per cubic foot. Where conditions vary appreciably f r o m standard conditions, the change in a i r density must be considered.

VOLUME. cfm

F ~ g u r e23. C h a r a c t e r i s t ~ cc u r v e s o f a n e x h a u s t system.

F i g u r e 24.

Fan c u r v e c a l c u l a t o r .

58 Table 18. Hood

I I

DESIGN OF LOCAL EXHAUST SYSTEMS CORRECTIONS FOR HOOD VOLUME . , A c e n t r i f u g a l f a n connected t o a given s y s t e m will e x h a u s t t h e s a m e volume r e g a r d l e s s of g a s density. The weight of a i r exhausted will, however, b e dir e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o the density, 'and s o will the s t a t i c p r e s s u r e developed and t h e horsepower consumed. In selecting a n exhauster f r o m multirating tables t o move a given volume of a i r a t a given s t a t i c p r e s s u r e and a t a given t e m p e r a t u r e and altituze, proceed a s follows:

,
;

. . .

A B D E

,.

.: i9p., -.. -.\j.40

;

320 48 0 176:

1,860/1,600 1,86011,600 1,86011,600 1,860/1,600 1,860/1,600

370 560 200 340 390

The density of a i r v a r i e s i n v e r s e l y with absolute t e m p e r a t u r e a n d d i r e c t l y with b a r o m e t r i c p r e s s u r e . Both effects a r e combined in the density c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r s given in Table 19. Velocity p r e s s u r e , s t a t i c p r e s s u r e , and r e s i s tance p r e s s u r e v a r y d i r e c t l y with gas density. In calculat'inga s y s t e m , i f t h e t e m p e r a t u r e s i n all ,the ducts a r e ~ a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e a m e (within 25'F), s h e e n t i r e s y s t e m ' s r e s i s t a n c e a s a t stannditions and c o r r e c t the final s y s t e m ' s ie$&-e by multiplying by t h e density c o r ctor. If the t e m p e r a t u r e s i n the different b r a n c h e s v a r y , the s t a t i c p r e s s u r e i n e a c h b r a n c h m u s t b e corrected. Table 19.

1. Read the Table 19.

density

correction

factor

from

2. 3.

Multiplythe given hs bythe c o r r e c t i o n factor. Select t h e f a n s i z e a n d r p m based on the given volume and the c o r r e c t e d static p r e s s u r e .

4.

Multiply the horsepower (given by the above selection) by the density c o r r e c t i o n factor to obtain the r e q u i r e d horsepower.

DENSITY CORRECTION FACTORS= Altitude, f t above s e a l e v e l

"F

.*

1,000 1.10 1. 02 0.96 0. 91 0.88 0. 85 0. 82 0.79 0.77 0.72 0.67 0.62 0.60 0.56 0.53 0.51 0.48 0.46 0.44 0.42 0.40 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.35

2,000 1.06 0. 98 0.93 0. 88 0.85 0.82 0.79 0.77 0.74 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.57 0.54 0.51 0.49 0.46 0.44 0.43 0.41 0.39 0.37 0.36 0. 35 0. 33

3,000 4,000 1.04 0.94 0.89 0. 84 0.81 0.79 0.76 0.74 0.71 0.67 0.62 0.58 0.55 0.52 0.49 0.47 0.45 0.43 0.41 0.39 0.37 0.36 0.35 0.34 0.32 0. 99 0. 91 0.86 0. 81 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.71 0.68 0.64 0.60 0.56 0.53 0.50 0.47 0.45 0.43 0.41 0.39 0.38 0.36 0.34 0.33 0.32 0.31

5,000

6,000

7,000 0.88 0.81 0.78 0. 72 0.70 0. 68 0.65 0.63 0.61 0.58 0.54 0.50 0.47 0.44 0.42 0.40 0.38 0.36 0.35 0.33 0.32 0.31 0.30 0.29 0.28

. i
s. .

:-

02: 1. 15 4 e 1. 06 7 0 1.00 L q 0. 96 @ 0.92 0.88 0.85 S60 7180 0.83 ::-.200 0.80 250 0.75 300 0.70 350 0.65 0.62 400 450 0.58 0.55 500 550 0.53 0.50 600 0.48 650 0.46 700 750 0.44 800 0.42 0.40 850 0.39 900 0.38 950 1, 000 0.36

.GO

0.92 0.95 0.84 0.88 0.80 0.83 0. 78- ----0.75 0.72 0.75 0. 70 0.73 0.70 0.68 0.68 0.66 0.64 0.66 0.60 0.62 0.56 0.58 0.52 0.54 0.51 0.49 0.48 0.46 0.44 0.45 0.44 0.42 0.41 0.40 0.38 0.40 0.38 0.37 0.35 0.36 0.33 0.35 0.32 0.33 0.31 0.32 0.31 0. 30 0.30 0.29

aDensity in l b / f t 3 = 0.075 x density f a c t o r .

Duct Desien The procedure for plotting the fan's character is ti^ curve a t other than standard conditions is a s follows: 1. Correct the values of cfm, hs, and hp f r o m the tables tot the given rpm. 2. Multiply the values of hs and hp by the density correction factor.. . . . . ., ... . ... .. :.. 3. Plot values of hs and Ep f r o m Step 2 against values of cfm f r o m Step I .

co

moderately abrasive m a t e r i a l in heavy concentration. Brown and Sharpe gage numbers a r e used t o i n d i c a t e thickness. of aluminum sheet a s compared with U. S. Standard gages for steel sheet. When aluminum duct i s indicated, the following, ,... .. . . , ,. B and S ~, , ~ equivalent gages should be used:. . . Steel - U. S. Standard gage: 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 Aluminum B and S gage 24 22 -20 18 16 14 12 4. Elbows and angles should be a minimum of two gauges heavier than straight sections of the s a m e diameter. Longitudinal joints of the ducts should be lapped and riveted o r spot-welded on 3-inch centers or l e s s . Girth joints of ducts should be made with the lap in the direction of airflow. A l-inch l a p should be used f o r ducts to 19-inch diameters and 1-114-inch laps f o r diameters over 19 inches. All bends should have an inside o r throat r a dius of two pipe diameters whenever possible, but never l e s s than one diameter. Large r a dii bends a r e recommended for heavy concentrations of highly abrasive dust. Ninety degree elbows not over 6 inches in diameter should be constructed of a t l e a s t five sections, and over 6-inch diameter of a t least seven sections. The duct should be connected to the f a n inlet by means of a split-sleeve drawband a t l e a s t one pipe diameter long, but not l e s s than 5 inches. Transition in main and submains should be tapered, with a taper of about 5 inches f o r each 1-inch change in diameter.

..

DUCT CONSTRUCTION
Correct designand competent installation of sheet steel ducts andhoods a r e n e c e s s a r y f o r the proper functioning of an exhaust system. The following construction and installation practices a r e recommended (Industrial Ventilation, 1956):
1. All exhaust systems should be constructed of

5.

new materials and installed in a permanent and workmanlike manner. Interior of all ducts should be smooth and f r e e f r o m obstructions, with joints either welded o r soldered airtight. 2. Ducts should be constructed of galvaniied sheet s t e e l riveted and soldered o r black iron welded, except where corrosive gases o r m i s t s o r other f a c t o r s ,make. such m a t e r i a l s impractical. Galvanized construction i s not recommended f o r temperatures above 400F. Welding of black iron of 18 gauge and lighter i s not recommended for field fabrication. 3. F o r average exhaust on noncorrosive application, the following gauges should be used for straight duct:

6.

7.

8. Duct diameter To 8 in. 1 8- to 18 in. 2 19 to 30 in. Over 30 in. Class I.

U. S. Standard gage 1 Class I Class 1 Class III

24 22 20 18 22 20 18 16 20 18 16 14 9.

Includes nonabrasive applications, such a s paint spraying, woodworking, food products, and discharge ducts f r o m dust collectors.

Class 11. Includes nonabrasive m a t e r i a l in large concentration, moderately abrasive m a t e r i a l in small to moderate concentrations, and highly abrasive m a t e r i a l in small concentration. Class 111. Includes a l l highly abrasive material in inoderate t o heavy concentrations and

10. All branches should enter main a t the l a r g e end of transition at an angle not to exceed 45', preferably 30" or l e s s . Branches should be connected only to the top o r sides of main, never to the bottom. Two branches should never enter a main at diametrically opposite points. 11. Dead-end caps should be provided on mains and submains about 6 inches f r o m the l a s t branch. 12. Cleanout openings should be provided every 10 or 12 feet and n e a r each bend o r duct junction.

60

DESIGN OF LOCAL EXHAUST SYSTEMS 2. Backward-curved-blade type. I n the backward-curved-blade f a n , the blades a r e i n clined in a direction opposite to the direction of rotation, and the blades a r e l a r g e r than those of the forward-curved-blade fan. The usual number of blades i s 14 to 24, and they a r e supported by a solid steel backplate and shroud ring. Straight-blade type. The blades of the straight-blade fan may be attached to the rotor by a solid steel hackplate or a spider built up f r o m the hub. The rotors a r e of comparatively l a r g e diameter. The usual number of blades i s 5 to 12. This classification includes a number of modified designs whose characteristics a r e , in part, similar to those of the forward- and backward-curved blade types.

13. The ducts should be supported sufficiently s o that no load i s ever placed on connecting e quipment. Ducts 8 inches o r smaller should be supported a t l e a s t every 12 feet, and l a r g e r ducts, a t l e a s t every 20 feet. 14. A minimum clearance of 6 inches should be provided between the ducts and ceilings, walls, o r floors. 15. Blast gates used f o r adjusting a systemshould be placed near the connection of branch to main, and means provided f o r locking them in place after the system has been balanced. 16. Round ducts should be used wherever possible. Where clearances prevent the use of round ducts, rectangular ducts a s nearly square a s possible may be used.

3.

AXIAL-FLOW FANS

F A N DESIGN
F a n s a r e u s e d t o m o v e a i r f r o m one point to anothe r . In the control of a i r pollution, the fan, blower, o r exhauster imparts movement to an a i r m a s s and conveys the a i r contaminants f r o m the source of generation to a control device in which the a i r contaminants a r e separated and collected, allowing cleaned a i r to be exhausted to the atmosphere. Fans a r e divided into two main classifications: (1) radial-flow o r centrifugal type, in which the airflowis at right angles to the axis of rotation of the rotor, and (2) axial-flow o r propeller type, in which the airflow i s parallel to the axis of rotation of the rotor.

Axial-flow fans include all those wherein the a i r flows through the impellers substantially parallel with the shaft upon which the impeller i s mounted. Axial-flow fans depend upon the action of the r e volvingairfoil-typeblades to pull the a i r i n by the leading edge and discharge i t f r o m the trailing edge in ahelicalpattern of flow. Stationary vanes m a y be installed on the suction side o r the discharge side of the rotor, o r both. These vanes convert the centrifugal f o r c e and the helical-flow pattern to static pressure. Axial fans may be divided into three main classifications: 1. Propeller type. Propeller fans have large, disc-like blades o r narrow, airfoil-type blades. The number of blades i s 2 to 16. The propeller fan blades m a y be mounted on a large o r small hub, depending upon the use of the fan. The propeller fan i s distinguished f r o m the tube-axial and vane-axial fans inthat i t is equipped with a mounting ring only. Tube-axial type. The tube-axial fan i s simil a r to the propeller fan except i t i s mounted in a tube o r cylinder. It i s m o r e efficientthan the propeller fan and, depending upon the design of the rotor and hub, may develop medium p r e s s u r e s . A two-stage, tube-axial fan, with one rotor revolving clockwise and the second, counter-clockwise, will recover a l a r g e portion of the centrifugal force a s static p r e s s u r e , which would otherwise be lost i n turbulence. Two-stage, tube-axial fans approach vane-axial fans in efficiency. Vane-axial type. The vane-axial fan i s simil a r in design to a tube-axial fan except that air-straightening vanes a r e installed on the

CENTRIFUGAL FANS
A centrifugal fan consists of a wheel o r rotor mounted on a shaft that rotates in a scroll-shaped housing. Air enters at the eye of the rotor, makes a right-angle turn, a n d i s forced through the blades of the rotor by centrifugal force into the scrollshaped housing. The centrifugal force imparts static p r e s s u r e to the a i r . The diverging shape of the scroll also converts a portion of the velocity p r e s s u r e into static p r e s s u r e . Centrifugal fans m a y be divided into three main classifications a s follows: 1. Forward-curved-blade type. The rotor ofthe forward-curved-blade fan i s known a s the squirrel-cage rotor. A solid steel backplate holds one end of the blade, and a shroud ring supports the other end. The blades a r e shallow with the leading edge curved towards the direction of rotation. The usual number of blades i s 20 t o 64.

2.

3.

F a n Design suction side o r discharge side of the rotor. Vane-axial fans a r e readily adaptable to multistaging, and fans have been designed that will operate at a p r e s s u r e of 16 inches water column a t high volume and efficiency.

61

FAN CHARACTERISTICS
The performance of a fan is characterized by the volume of gas flow, the p r e s s u r e a t which this flow isproduced, the speed of rotation, the power r e quired, and the efficiency. The relationships of thesequantities a r e m e a s u r e d b y the fan manufact u r e r with testing methods sponsored by the National Association of F a n Manufacturers o r thk American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Briefly, the method consists of mounting a duct on the fan outlet, operating the fan with various sized orifices in the duct, and measuring the volume, p r e s s u r e , velocity, and power input. About 10 t e s t s a r e run, with the duct opening varied f r o m wide open to completely closed. The t e s t results arethenplotted against volume on the abscissa to provide the characteristic curves of the fan, such a s those shown in Figure 25.

VOLUME

BACKWARD-CURVED-BLADE

.VULUMt .- . ....-

FAN

STRA IGHT-BLADE FAN

VOLUME

. ....

F i g u r e 26. C e n t r i f u g a l f a n t y p i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c u r v e s ( H i c k s . 1951).
0 0

2 C

30

10 s/ll/r*,

5C

SO

70

80

90

10C

OF l l D t O P L I lOLUUi

F i g u r e 25. T y p i c a l f a n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c u r v e s ( A i r M o v i n g and C o n d i t i o n i n g A s s n . , l n c . , 1 5 6 3 ) .
. . . .

These curves a r e shown for comparison purposes only; they a r e not applicable f o r fan selection but, do indicate variations in the operating characteristics of a specific type of fan. 1. Forward-Curved-Blade Fans. This type of fan i s normally r e f e r r e d to a s a volume fan. In this fan, the static p r e s s u r e r i s e s sharply f r o m f r e e delivery to a point at approximate maximum efficiency, then drops to point 5 shown in Figure 26, before rising to static p r e s s u r e a t no delivery. Horsepower input rxses rapidlyfromno delivery to f r e e delivery. Soundlevelis l e a s t a t rnaxirnum efficiency and greatest a t f r e e delivery. Forward-curvedDlade fans a r e designed t o handle large volumes of a i r a t low p r e s s u r e s . They rotate at relatively low speeds, which results in quiet operation. Initial cost of such a fan i s low.

F r o m t h e volume a n d p r e s s u r e , the airhorsepower i s computed, either the r e a l power based on total p r e s s u r e or the fictitious static power based on fan s t a t i c p r e s s u r e . The efficiency based on total p r e s s u r e i s called mechanical efficiency.

I N F L U E N C E OF BLADE SHAPE
The size, shape, and number of blades in a centrifugal fan have a considerable influence on the of operating c h a r a c t e r i s t ~ c s the fan. The general effects a r e indicated by the curves in Figure 26.

62

DESIGN OF LOCAL EXHAUST SYSTEMS Resistance of a system to be served by this type of f a n m u s t be constant and must be determined accurately in advance because of sharpl y rising power demand. This type of f a n should n o t b e u s e d f o r gases containingdusts or fumes because deposits will accumulate on the short curved blades resulting in an unbalanced wheel and excessive maintenance. The p r e s s u r e produced by a forward-curved-blade fan is not normally sufficient to meet the p r e s s u r e requirements for the majority of a i r pollution control devices. They a r e , however, used extensively in heating, ventilating, and a i r conditioning work. Also, they a r e commonly used f o r exhausting a i r f r o m one enclosed space to another without the use of ductwork. This type fan i s utilized f o r exhaust systems handling gas s t r e a m s that a r e contaminated with dusts and fumes. Various blades and s c r o l l designs have been developedfor specific dust-handling and pneumatic -conveying problems. This fan i s too large f o r some duties, but for m o s t industrial work this m a y be unimportant. Initial cost of this type fan i s l e s s than that of the backward-curved-blade type, but efficiency i s also l e s s . Fan blades may be made of an abrasive resistant alloy o r covered with rubber to prevent high maintenance in systems handling abrasive o r corrosive materials. Anumber of modifieddesigns of straight-blade fans have been sveciticallv develowed f o r handling contaminated a i r o r gas s t r e a m s .
4.

2.

Backward-Curved-Blade Fans. The static p r e s s u r e of this type fan r i s e s sharply f r o m f r e e delivery almost to the point of no delivery. Maximum efficiencies occur at maximum horsepower input. The horsepower requirement i s self-limiting; i t r i s e s to a maximum a s the capacity i n c r e a s e s and then decreases withadditional capacity. Thus, when the r e sistance of a complex exhaust system i s f r e quently changed because of production demands, the self-limiting power requirements prevent overloading the motor. This type of fandevelops higher p r e s s u r e than the forward-curved-blade type. Sound level i s least a t maximum efficiency and increases slightly at f r e e delivery. The physical sizes of backward-curved-blade fans f o r givenduties a r e large, but f o r m o s t industrial work this may be unimportant. The operating efficiency i s high, but initial cost i s a l s o high. Blade shape i s conducive to buildup of m a t e r i a l and should not be used on gases containing dusts o r fumes. The backward-curved-multiblade fan i s used extensively in heatihg, ventilating, and a i r conditioning work and f o r continuous service where a large volume of a i r i s to be handled. I t i s commonlyfound on forced-draft combustion processes. It may be used on some a i r pollution control devices, out must oe installed on the clean a i r discharge a s an induced system.

Axial Fans. F o r this type fan, the horsepower curve may be essentiallyflat and self-limiting, dependingupon the design of the blades, o r it may fall f r o m a maximum a t no delivery a s capacity increases. The type oi vanes in the vane-axialkansmeasurablyaffects the h o r s e power curve and efficiency. Maximum efficiencies occur a t a higher percent delivery than with the centrifugal-type fan. Space requirements f o r a specific f a n duty a r e exceptionally low. Available fans can be installed directly in circular ducts (vane-axial o r tube-axial type). Initial cost of the f a n i s low. The axial-type fan i s best adapted f o r handling large volumes of a i r against low r e s i s tance. Thepropellertype, which i s equipped only with a mounting ring, i s commonly used for ventilation and i s mounted directly in a wall. Although the vane-axial and tube-axial fans can deliver large volumes of a i r a t relativelyhigh resistances, they a r e best suited f o r handling clean a i r only. Any solid material in the a i r being handled causes rapid erosion of impellers, guidevanes, hubs, andthe inner wall of the cylindrical fan housing. This results f r o m the high tip speed of the fan and the high a i r velocity through the fan homing.

3.

Straight-Blade Fans. The static p r e s s u r e of this type fan r i s e s sharply f r o m f r e e delivery to a maximum point n e a r no delivery, where it falls off. Maximum static efficiency occurs near maximum pressure. Mechanical efficiency r i s e s rapidly f r o m no delivery to a maximum near maximum p r e s s u r e , then drops slowly a s the fan capacity approaches f r e e delivery.

Geometrically Similar Fans

Fan manufacturers customarily produce a s e r i e s of fans characterized by constant ratios of linear dimensions and constant angles between various fanparts. These fans a r e s a i d t o be geometrically similar -o r of a homologous s e r i e s . The drawings of all the fans in the s e r i e s a r e identical in all views except f o r scale.

F a n Design It i s usual f o r a manufacturer to produce homologous s e r i e s of fans with diameters increasing by a f a c t o r of about 1. 10. Each i s designated by the impeller diameter or by a n a r b i t r a r y symbol, often a number proportional t o the diameter.
Multirafing Tables

63

equating exponents for like t e r m s , m : O = c

L: 3 t:-1

= =

a - 3c -b

and solving the equations simultaneously a = 3 ; b = l ; c = 0 hence: 3 Vt

The performance of each fan in a homologous s e r i e s i s usually given in a s e r i e s of tables called multirating tables. Values of static p r e s s u r e a r e usually arranged a s headings of columns, which contain the fan speed and horsepower required to produce various volume flows. The point of maximum efficiency at each static p r e s s u r e i s usually indicated.

= k D N

(28)

FAN L A W S
Certain relationships have been established among the variables affecting the performance of fans of a homologous s e r i e s or a single fan operating at varying speedin a constant system. The quantity, Vt,and the power, p, a r e controlled by four independent variables: (1) Fan size, wheel diameter, D, (2) fan speed, N, (3) gas density, p, and (4) system resistance, hr. Since all dimensions of homologous fans a r e proportional, any dimension could De used to designate the size. The wheel diameter i s , however, nearly always used. In order to develop these relationships, the effects of system resistancemust be fixed by limiting the comparisons t o the s a m e points of rating. F o r twofans of different size, the s a m e point of rating i s obtained when the respective volumes a r e the s a m e percentage of wide open volume, and the s t a t i c p r e s s u r e i s the s a m e percentage of shut-off s t a t i c p r e s s u r e . F o r t h e same fan, the same point of rating i s obtained when the system i s held constant and the fan speed i s varied. F o r homologous fans (or the s a m e fan) operating a t the same point of rating, the quantity (Vt) and the power (P) will depend upon the fan size (D), fan speed (N), and gas density ( p ) . The flow through a fan i s always i n the turbulent region, and the effect of viscosity i s ignored. The f o r m of dependence can oe derived f r o m dimensional analysis by the equation

Repeating f o r the system resistance developed and noting that hr i s fundamentally f o r c e p e r unit a r e a = m a s s x acceleration p e r a r e a , a b c kDNp

hr

And repeating again for the power required: a b c k D N p

5 3 D ~

(30)

By substituting fundamental dimensional units, Equations 28, 29, and 30 f o r Vt, h,, and P define the relationships among all the variables, within the limitations originally stated. The equations can be simplified, combined, or modifiedto yield

64

DESIGN OF LOCAL EXHAUST SYSTEMS

a l a r g e number of relationships. The following relationships derived f r o m them a r e usually r e f e r r e d to as the Fan Laws. 1. Change in Fan Speed. Fan siz?, gas density, and system constant. a. Vt varies as fan speed.
b. h

6. Change in Gas Density.

Constant weight of gas, constant system, fixed fan size, and variable fan speed. a.

V varies inversely a s gas density.

t
r

b. h

varies inversely a s gas density.

varies a s fan speed squared.

c . Fan speed varies inversely a s gas density.

c. P varies a s fan speed cubed. 2. Change in Fan Size. Fan speed and gas density constant. a.

d.

P varies inversely a s square gas density.

V varies a s cube of wheel diameter.

t

The fan laws enable a manufacturer to calculate the operating characteristics f o r a l l the fans in a homologous s e r i e s f r o m t e s t data obtained f r o m a single fan in the s e r i e s . The laws a l s o enable u s e r s of fans to make many needed computations. A few of the m o r e important cases a r e illustrated a s follows. Example 11

b. h r varies a s square of wheel diameter.

c. P varies a s fifth power of wheel diameter.

d. Tipspeed varies a s wheel diameter. 3. Change i n Fan Size. Tip speed and gas density constant. a.

A fan operating a t 830 r p m delivers 8, 000 cfm at 6 inches static p r e s s u r e and requires 11. 5 h o r s e power. It i s desired to increase the output to 10,000 c f m in the s a m e system. What should be the increased speed and what will be the horsepower required and the new static p r e s s u r e ?

V varies a s square of wheel diameter.

t remains constant.

Solution: Use fan law 1 a , b

b. h

c :

c. P varies a s square of wheel diameter. d. rpm varies inversely a s wheel diameter. h.

4. Change i n Gas Density.

System, fan speed, and fan size constant. a. V i s constant. t

P1 = 11.5

[*] [

2
=

9.35 in.

wc

i
=
22.4hp
!

i.
j

b. h

varies a s density.

Example 12

c. P varies a s density.

5. Change in Gas Density.

Constant p r e s s u r e and system, fixed fan size, and variable fan speed. a. V varies inversely a s square root of density. t
b. Fan speed varies inversely a s square root of density.

A f a n i s exhausting 12,000 cfm of a i r at bOO-F. (density = 0.0375 pound per cubic foot a t 4 inches static p r e s s u r e f r o m a d r i e r ) . Speed i s 630 rpm, and 13 horsepower i s required. What will be the required horsepower if a i r at 7 0 F (density 0.075 pound p e r cubic foot) is pulled through the system7
Solution: Use fan law 4 c :

c. P varies inversely a s square root of density.

Fan Desien

ic

If a 15-horsepower motor were used in this installation, i t would be necessary to use a damper when starting up cold to prevent overloading the fan motor.

Example 13 A 30-inch-diameter fan operating at 1, 050 r p m delivers 4, 600 cfm a t 5 inches static pressure. What size f a n of the s a m e s e r i e s would deliver 11, 000 cfm a t the same static p r e s s u r e ? Solution: Use fan law 2 a

tective coatings on standard fan housing and impellers such a s bisonite, cadmium plating, hot galvanizing, and rubber covering have proved satisfactory. Cadmiumplating and hot galvanizing are oftenusedin conjunction with a zinc chromate p r i m e r , with which they f o r m a chemical bond. The zinc chromate p r i m e r may then be covered with various types of paints. This combination has proved iavorable in atmospheres near the ocean. The increasing use oi rubber f o r coating fan i m pellers and housings deserves special mention. Rubber i s one of the least porous materials and, whenvulcanized to the metal, surrounds and protects the metal f r o m corrosive gases o r fumes. Depending upon the particular application, soft, medium, or i i r m ruboer i s oonded to the metal. A good bond will yield an adhesive strength of 7OOpounds per square inch. When pure, live rubber i s so bonded, i t i s capable of withstanding the high s t r e s s e s set up in the f a n and i s sufficiently flexible to r e s i s t cracking. Rubber-covered fans have proved exceptionally durable and a r e found throughout the chemical industry.

.
40. 0 in.

(11,000~'~ (30) = 4,600

Selecting o Fon From M u l t i r a t i n g Tobles

A typical multirating table i s given in Table 20. The datainthis table a r e f o r a paddle wheel-type industrial exhauster. Inusingmultirating tables, use linear interpolation to find values between those given in the table. F o r instance, f r o m Table 20 i t is desired to find the fan speed that will deliver 6, 300 cfrn a t 6-112 inches static p r e s s u r e . The nearest capacities a r e 6,040 and 6,550. At 6 in. h s the speed i s

H e a t Resistance

Oa8

' 6' 3 0 0 - 6 3 040 (1, 095 - 1. 088) = 1, 092 rpm. 6,550-6,040

S

Standard construction fans with ball bearings can Waterwithstand temperatures up to 250'F. cooled bearings, shaft coolers, and heat gaps p e r m i t operation up to 800F. A shaft cooler is a separate, small, centrifugal fan that is mounted betweenthefanhousing and the inner bearing and that circulates cool a i r over the bearing and shaft. A heat gap, which i s m e r e l y a space of 1-112 to 2 inches between the bearing pedestal andfanhousing, reduces h e a t t r a n s f e r to the bearings by conduction. Certaintypes of stainless steel will withstand the high temperatures encountered in the inducedd r a f t fan f r o m furnaces o r comoustion processes Stainless steelfans have been known to withstand temperatures a s high a s 1, 100F without excess warping.
Explosive-Proof Fans a n d M o t o r s

At 7 in. h

the speed is

160

'

6,300-63040 (1, 171 6,550-6,040

- 1, 160) = 1,167 rpm.

The required speed a t 6-112 inches static p r e s s u r e and 6,300 cfm i s halfway between 1,092 and 1 , lb7 or 1,129 rpm.

CONSTRUCTION PROPERTIES

Specialmaterials of construction m u s t be used for tans handling corrosive gases. Certain alloys that have been used have proved v e r y satisfactory. Bronze alloys a r e used f o r handling sulfuric acid fumes and other sulfates, halogen acids, various organic gases, and m e r c u r y compounds. These alloys a r e particularly applicable to low-temperature installations. Stainless steel i s the most commonlyusedmetal for corrosion-resistant impellers and fan housings. It has proved satisfact o r y f o r exhausting the fumes of many acids. P r o -

When an exhaust system i s handling an explosive mixture of a i r and gas o r powder, a m a t e r i a l t o oe used in the construction of the fan must generally be specified to be one that will not produce a spark if accidentally struck by another metal. Normally, thefan impeller and housing a r e constructed of bronze o r aluminum alloys, whichprecludes sparkformation. Aluminum i s frequently used on some of the narrower or smaller fans, especially those overhung on the motor shaft. Aluminumreduces the weight and vibration of the motor shaft andprotects the motor hearing f r o m excessive wear.

Table 20.

TYPICAL FAN MULTIRATING TABLE ( N e w York Blower Company, 1948)

2 i

Volume velocity, p r e s s u r e , cfm 1,000 1,200 1,400 0.063 0.090 0.122

SP

.S P (
I

3 in. S P
I

/
I

4 in. S P
I

1
I

5 in. S P
I

1
I

6 in. S P
I

1
I

7 in. S P
I

1
I

8 in. S P
I

bhp r p n bhp
0.63 595 1.27 0.85610 1.55 1.05 626 1.87 1.33 642 1.61 666 2.00688 2.36712 2.79746 3.27 762 3.81 795 4.42 833 8 66 900

rprn
728 735 746

bhp
2.00 2.30 2. 72

rprn
837 842 847

bhp
2.66 3. 10 3.57

rprn

bhp

rprn

bhp

rpm

bhp

rprn

bhp

9 in. S P I I rprn

943 4.60

Vapor Compressors

67

Explosive-prooi motors and fan wheels a r e r e quired by law for installation in places where an explosive mixture may be encountered. Exhaust systems such a s those used in paint s p r a y booths usually consist of an aiuminurn or bronze tube-axial fan and an explosive-proof motor that drives the fan wheel by indirect drive.
Fan Drives

3. to evacuate enclosed volumes;

4. to transport gases o r vapors; 5. to store compressible fluids a s gases o r liquids under p r e s s u r e and a s s i s t in recovering them f r o m storage or tank c a r s ;
6. to convert mechanical energy to fluid energy f o r

All types of fans may be obtained with either direct drive o r belt drive. Directly driven exhausters offer the advantage of a m o r e compact assembly and ensure constant fan speed. T h e y a r e n o t t r o u bled by the belt slippage that occurs when beltdriven fan drives a r e not properly maintained. Fan speeds a r e , however, limited to the available motor speeds, which results in inflexibility exceptin direct-current application. A quick change in fan speed, which i s possible with belt-driven fans, i s a definite advantage in many applications.

operating instruments, a i r agitation, fluidization, solid transport, blowcases, a i r tools, and motors. Compressors normally take suction n e a r atmospheric p r e s s u r e and deliver fluids at p r e s s u r e s ranging upward to 40, 000 psig in commercial applications and even higher in experimental uses. The capacity of commerically available compress o r s ranges i r o m l o w volumes up to 3 million cim.

T Y P E S OF C O M P R E S S O R S
Vapors o r gases canbecompressed by either positive displacement or dynamic action. The positivedisplacement compressors produce p r e s s u r e by physically reducing the gas volume. The dynamic compressors increase p r e s s u r e by accelerating the gas and converting the velocity into p r e s s u r e in a receiving chamber. Positive-displacement compressors a r e of reciprocating- o r rotary-displacement types. The dynamic compressors a r e centrifugal- or axial-flow machines. Figure 27 shows general compressor applications, and Table 21 gives general limits of compressors.

VAPOR COMPRESSORS
Compressors a r e widely used in industry to inc r e a s e the p r e s s u r e of gases or vapors f o r a variety of reasons. They a r e used: 1. To provide the desired p r e s s u r e for chemical and physical reactions; 2. t o control Doiling points oi fluids, a s in gas separation, refrigeration, and evaporation;

COMPRESSOR INLET CAPACITY. cfm

F i g u r e 27.

General a r e a s o f cbmpressor a p p l i c a t i o n s (Des J a r d i n s . 1 9 5 6 )

68

DESIGN OF LOCAL EXHAUST SYSTEMS As the unit rotates, each compression cell reaches maximum s i z e w h e n i t p a s s e s the inlet ports. F u r ther rotation of this cell reduces i t s size, and compression i s completedupon reaching the discharge ports (Bruce and Schubert, 1956). In general, single-stage, rotary, sliding-vane compressors a r e suitable for p r e s s u r e s up to 50 psig. Multistagedmachines a r e designed f o r p r e s s u r e s up to 250psig, and booster units a r e available f o r p r e s s u r e up to 400 psig. These machines can deliver up t o 6,000 cfm. Rotary-lobe compressors have two mating, lobed impellers that revolve within a cylinder. Timing gears, mounted outside the cylinder, prevent the impellers fromcontacting each other. The lobes a r e mounted on shafts supported by antifriction bearings. Figure 29 shows a cross-sectional view of a rotary-lobe compressor. Flow through the rotary-lobe compressor i s accomplished by the lobes' pushing the a i r o r gas f r o m the suction to thedischarge. Essentially, no compression takes place within the unit; rather, compression takes place against system back p r e s s u r e (Bruce and Schubert, 1956). Rotary-lobe compressors a r e available in sizes up to 50, 000 cfm and p r e s s u r e s upto30psig. Single-stage machines a r e usually good for p r e s s u r e s up to 15 psig, and vacuums t o 22 inches of mercury.

Table 21. GENERAL LDAITS OF COMPRESSORS (Des Jardins, 1956) Approximate maximum limits of commercially available compressors

I
Reciprocating Centrifugal Rotary displacement Axial flow

1 :ig 1
35,000 4,

~sia

stage 10

:
1.2

9O

cfm 13,000 18,000 7.000 3,000,000

P o r i t i v e - D i s p l a c e m e n t Compressors

A reciprocating compressor r a i s e s the p r e s s u r e of the a i r o r gas by the forced reduction of i t s volume through the movement of a piston within the confines of a cylinder. These compressors a r e commercially designed for volumes up to 15,000 c f m a n d p r e s s u r e s u p t o 40,000psig. They a r e by f a r the most common type in use both f o r process systems and a i r pollution control s y s tems (Cumiskey, 1956). Rotary sliding-vane compressors have longitudinal vanes that slide radially in a rotor mounted eccentrically in a cylinder. The rotor i s supported at each end by antifriction bearings mounted in the heads, which, in turn, a r e bolted and doweled to the cylinder. Figure 28 shows a cross-sectional view of a sliding-vane compressor.

In a sliding-vane unit, p r e s s u r e i s increased by reducingthe size of the compression cell while it rotates f r o m the suction to the discharge ports.

F i g u r e 29. R o t a r y - l o b e c o m p r e s s o r ( B r u c e and S c h u b e r t , 1956).

Rotary liquid-piston compressors use water or other liquids, usually in a sinzle rotating element to displace the a i r o r gas being handled. A r o tating element i s mounted on a shaft and supported a t each end by antifriction bearings. Figure 30 shows a cross-sectional view of a rotary liquidpiston compressor. In the rotary liquid-piston compressor, flow of compressed a i r or gas i s discharged in a uniform, nonpulsating s t r e a m . Compression i s obtained in this machine by rotating a round, multiblade rotor freely i n an ellip-

F i g u r e 28. S l i d i n g - v a n e c o m p r e s s o r ( B r u c e and S c h u b e r t , 1956).

Vapor C o x The centrifugal compressor generally handles a l a r g e volume of gas a t relatively low p r e s s u r e s , hut some commercially used centrifugal compressors have discharge p r e s s u r e s of up to 4,200 psig. These compressors a r e , of course, multistaged. Generally, the singlestage centrifugal compressor produces p r e s s u r e s up to 35 psig. The axial-flow compressor, shown in Figure 32 i s another type of dynamic compressor. It i s distinguished bythe multiplicity of its rotor and stator blades. These a r e either forged, machined, o r precision cast into airfoil shapes. The compress o r casingis made of c a s t iron, o r fabricated out of steel, depending upon inlet volume, p r e s s u r e ratio, and temperature conditions. Stator blades a r e attached to the casing to direct the flow of gas through the case. The rotor i s a drum with blades mounted around i t s periphery. The drum i s mounted on the shaft supported by bearings in each end of the case. As the rotor turns, the bladed force a i r through the compressor i n a u action s i m i l a r to that of the propeller fan. The stator blades control the direction of the a i r a s i t leaves the rotor blades. P r e s s u r e i s increased owing to the kinetic energy given to the gas, and the action of the gas on the stator blades. Axial-flowcompressors a r e high-speed high-volwne machines. The p r e s s u r e s attained a r e relatively low, withamaximum commercially used discharge p r e s s u r e of 90 psig. These comp r e s s o r s a r e r a r e l y used for inlet capacities below 5,000 cfm (Claude, 1956).
Reciprocating Compressors Dynamic Compressors

Dl SCHARGE PO

.... . . . . . . . . ... ... . .. ... . ..

F i g u r e 30. Rotary l i q u i d - p i s t o n compresso~ (Bruce and Schubert. 1956).

tical casing partially filled with liquid. The rotating force of the multiblade rotor causes the liquidtofollow the inside contour of the elliptical casing. As theliquid recedes f r o m t h e rotor blades a t the inlet port, the space between buckets fills with the a i r or gas. As the liquid reaches the narrow point of the elliptical casing, the a i r o r gas i s compressedand forced out through the discharge ports (Bruce and Schubert, 1956). Rotary liquid-piston compressors a r e available in sizes uptoapproximately 5, 000 cfm. Standard singlestageunitsareusedforpressures to 35 psig, and special single-stageunits, for p r e s s u r e s up to 75 psig. Units a r e staged above 75 psig.

Centrifugal compressors a r e s i m i l a r to centrifugal pumps and fans. An impeller rotates in a case, imparting a high velocity and a centrifugal motion to the gas being compressed. The impeller i s mounted on a shaft supported by bearings in each end of the case. Ln multiple-stage compressors, several impellers a r e mounted on a single shaft. Passages conduct the gas f r o m one stage to the next. Guide vanes i n the passages direct the gas flow f r o m one impeller to the next at the proper angle for efficient operation. Figure 31 shows a cross-sectional view of a typical four-stage compressor. Since the flow of gas tothe centrifugal compressor i s continuous, the fundamental concepts of fluid flow apply. The gas enters at the eye of the i m peller, passes through the impeller, changing in velocity and direction, and exits into the diffuser o r volute, where the kinetic energy i s converted t o p r e s s u r e (Leonard, 1956).

Reciprocating compressors a r e positive-displacementmachinesused t o increase the p r e s s u r e of a definite volume of gas by volume reduction (Case, 1956). Most reciprocating compressors used in heavy industrial production and continuous chemical processing a r e stationary, water-cooled, double-acting units (see Figure 33). The basic running-gear mechanism i s of the crank-and-flywheel type enclosed in a caet-iron f r a m e . The crosshead construction permits complete separation of the compression cylinder f r o m the crankcase, an ideal feature for handling combustible, toxic, o r corrosivegases. Generally, the cylinder i s double acting, that i s , compression occurs a l ternatelyinthe head and crank end of the cylinder. The cylinder and i t s heads a r e usuallywater cooled to reduce thermal s t r e s s e s and dissipate p a r t of the heat developed during compression. Compression rings on the pistons seal one end of the cylinder f r o m the other. The piston rod i s sealed i n the cylinder by highly effective packing, and any slight leakage may be collected in a vent gland for return to suction o r for venting to the atmosphere.

70

DESIGN O F LOCAL EXHAUST SYSTEMS

F i g u l e 31. C r a s s - s e c t i o n o f a t y p i c a l f o u r - s t a g e c e n t r i f u g a l c o m p r e s s o r ( C l a r k B r o s . Co., O l e a n , N.Y.. f r o m Leonard, 1956).

Gas being c o m p r e s s e d e n t e r s and l e a v e s the cylinder through t h e voluntary valves, which a r e actuated e n t i r e l y bythe difference in p r e s s u r e b e tween the i n t e r i o r of the cylinder and the outside s y s t e m . Uponenteringthe cylinder, the gas m a y be c o m p r e s s e d f r o m the initial to the d e s i r e d f i n a l p r e s s u r e in one continuous step, that i s , singlestage compression. Alternatively, multistage comp r e s s i o n d i v i d e s the c o m p r e s s i o n into a s e r i e s of s t e p s o r s t a g e s , each o c c u r r i n g in an individual cylinder. H e r e the gas i s usually cooled between the v a r i o u s s t a g e s of c o m p r e s s i o n . The c o m p r e s s i o n p r o c e s s i s fundamentally i s e n t r o p i c ( p e r f e c t l y r e v e r s i b l e adiabatic), with c e r t a i n a c t u a l modifications o r l o s s e s t h a t m a y be

considered a s e f f i c i e n c i e s r e l a t e d t o the isentropic base. T h e r m a l d y n a m i c l o s s e s within the cylindex, including fluid f r i c t i o n l o s s e s through the valves, heating of the gas on admission t o the cylinder, a n d i r r e v e r s i b i l i t y ofthe p r o c e s s , m a y be grouped under the single t e r m c o m p r e s s i o n efficiency. Mechanical f r i c t i o n l o s s e s encountered i n the piston r i n g s , rod packings, and f r a m e bearings a r e grouped under the t e r m m e c h a n i c a l efficiency. Thus, the o v e r a l l efficiency of the c o m p r e s s o r is the product of c o m p r e s s i o n and mechanical efficiency. F o r given s e r v i c e , the actual b r a k e horsepower r e q u i r e m e n t o f t h e c o m p r e s s o r i s n o r m a l l y about 18 to 33 p e r c e n t g r e a t e r than the calculated ideal

1
!

Vapor Cornpressors

71

! 1

F i g u r e 32. A x i a i - f l o w c o m p r e s s o r ( A l l i s - C h a l m e r s M a n u f a c t u r i n g Company. M i l w a u k e e , W i s c o n s i n , f r o m C l a u d e , 1956).

F i g u r e 33. F o u r - c y l i n d e r , h o r i z o n t a l , b a l a n c e d , o p p o s e d , s y n c h r o n o u s ~ m o t o r c o m p r e s s o r ( W o r t h i n g t o n C o r p o r a t i o n , H a r r i s o n , N . J . , f r o m Case, 1 9 5 6 ) .

72

DESIGN O F LOCAL EXHAUST SYSTEMS

Velocity Meters

i s e a t r o p i c h o r s e p o w e r . O r , s t a t e d a n o t h e r way, t h e o v e r a l l efficiency of m o s t c o m p r e s s o r s i s i n the r a n g e of 7 5 t o 85 p e r c e n t .

USE I N AIR POLLUTION CONTROI

C o n l p r e s s o r s areusedtotransportvapors o r g a s e s f r o m t h e i r s o u r c e and d e l i v e r t h e m t o a c o n t r o l device o r s y s t e m u n d e r p r e s s u r e . In s o m e c a s e s , the v a p o r s o r g a s e s can b e p r e s s u r i z e d d i r e c t l y t o a holding v e s s e l and then a c o m p r e s s o r is u s e d t o s e n d the v a p o r s t o c o n t r o l e q u i p m e n t . The v a p o r s c r e a t e d f r o m t h e r e f i n i n g , s t o r i n g , and bulkloading of v o l a t i l e p e t r o l e u m p r o d u c t s a r e being c o n t r o l l e d by t h e u s e of c o m p r e s s o r s . The c o m p r e s s o r s deliver the vapors under p r e s s u r e s ranging f r o m 5 t o 2 0 0 p s i g t o p l a n t f u e l s y s t e m s , p r o c e s s s t r e a m s , or absorption systems. Centrilugal, reciprocating, and rotary-lobe comp r e s s o r s a r e being u s e d f o r controlling a i r contaminants. Single-stage reciprocating machines a r e the m o s t common. T w o - s t a g e c o m p r e s s o r s developing p r e s s u r e s up to 2 0 0 p s i g a r e i n u s e .

Velocity m e t e r s a r e m o r e c o m m o n l y u s e d i n the f i e l d f o r d e t e r m i n i n g a i r v e l o c i t i e s . The m o s t a c c u r a t e and widely a c c e p t e d i n e n g i n e e r i n g p r a c t i c e s a r e the pitot tube a n d t h e swinging-vane velocity m e t e r .

PITOT TUBES
F o r d e t e r m i n i n g a i r velocity, t h e s t a n d a r d pitot tube, n a m e d f o r t h e m a n who d i s c o v e r e d the p r i n c i p l e , i s c o n s i d e r e d r e l i a b l e and i s g e n e r a l l y a c cepted i n e n g i n e e r i n g p r a c t i c e . It i s t h e m o s t widely u s e d f i e l d m e t h o d f o r d e t e r m i n i n g a i r velocity.
A s t a n d a r d pitot tube ( F i g u r e 34) c o n s i s t s ol two c o n c e n t r i c t u b e s : t h e i n n e r tube m e a s u r e s the i m p a c t p r e s s u r e , which i s the sum of t h e s t a t i c and k i n e t i c p r e s s u r e s , while t h e o u t e r tube m e a s u r e s o n l y t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e . When t h e two tubes a r e connected a c r o s s a U-tube manometer o r o t h e r suitable pressure-measuring device, the static p r e s s u r e i s nullified a u t o m a t i c a l l y and only the velocity p r e s s u r e (kinetic p r e s s u r e ) i s r e g i s t e r e d . The velocity i s c o r r e l a t e d t o the v e l o c i t y p r e s s u r e b y the equation

C H E C K I N G OF E X H A U S T S Y S T E M
A i r flow m e a s u r e m e n t s and t e s t d a t a a r e n e c e s s a r y to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r a n e x h a u s t s y s t e m i s functioning p r o p e r l y and i n c o m p l i a n c e with d e ainn~ snecilications. C o r r e c t testing procedures .- . -. m u s t b e e s t a b l i s h e d t o obtain m e a s u r e m e n t s f o r d e t e r m i n i n g w h e t h e r an c x h a u s t s y s t e m h a s s u f i i c i e n t capacity f o r additional hoods, and a l s o t o obtain o p e r a t i o n a l d a t a f r o m existing i n s t a l l a t i o n s l o r designing i u t u r c e x h a u s t s y s t e m s .

where

velocity, fprn velocity p r e s s u r e ( m a n o m e t e r r e a d i n g ) , in. WC d e n s i t y of a i r , l b l i t

3

hv =

THEORY OF FIELD TESTING

F o r m o s t p u r p o s e s the m o s t i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i s t h e a c c u r a t e m e a s u r e m e n t of a i r quantity. M o s t f i e l d m e t e r s m e a s u r e velocity r a t h e r than quantity. T h i s n e c e s s i t a t e s e q u a t i n g v e l o c i t y t o quantity. By u s i n g equation 8 and a velocity m e t e r , t h e quantity o l a i r flowing t h r o u g h a n e x h a u s t s y s t e m can b e accurately measured.

C l e a r l y , below 1, 266 fprn, the velocity p r e s s u r e b e c o m e s e x t r e m e l y l o w and i s , t h e r e f o r e , d i f f i c u l t t o r e a d a c c u r a t e l y on a m a n o m e t e r . With a

I M P A C T PRESSURE C O N N E C T I O N

<--~ -S l A l N L E s s STEEL
--

T U B I N G ADAPTER

S T A T I C PRESSURE HOLES OUTER P I P E O N L Y

S T d T i C PRESSURE CONNECTION S T A I N L E S S STEEL PIPE N I P P L E S

Quantity Meters

S o m e e x a m p l e s of quantity m e t e r s a r e t h i n - p l a t e o r i f i c e s , sharp-edged orifices, and v e n t u r i m e t e r s . These m e t e r s a r e used extensively in laboratory studies, but i n f r e q u e n t l y i n i n d u s t r i a l e x h a u s t systems.

! I '

I M P A C T PRESSURE O P E H I N G

F i g u r e 34. S t a n d a r d p i t o t t u b e ( W e s t e r n P r e c i p i t a t i o n , D i v i s i o n o f Joy Manufacturing Co., L o s A n g e l e s , C a l i f . , f r o m ASHRAE G u i d e and D a t a Book, 1963).

Checking of E x h a u s t S y s t e m U - t u b e m a n o m e t e r , t h e a c c u r a c y i s low f o r v e l o c i t i e s below 2 , 500 f p m . With a c a r e f u l l y m a d e , a c c u r a t e l y l e v e l e d , inclined m a n o m e t e r , v e l o c i t i e s a s low as 600 f o m can b e d e t e r m i n e d s a t i s f a c t o r i l y , but field conditions o r d i n a r i l y m a k e t h i s p r o c e d u r e difficult (ASHRAE Guide and D a t a Book, - 1963).

73 r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y of a i r , a t the m e a . s u r e d condition, l b / f t 3 .

p' =

Pitot Tube Traversing Procedure

Since the velocity i n a duct i s s e l d o m u n i f o r m a c r o s s a n y c r o s s s e c t i o n a n d s i n c e e a c h pitot tube r e a d i n g d e t e r m i n e s t h e velocity a t only one l o c a l i z e d point, a t r a v e r s e of t h e d u c t i s n e c e s s a r y i n o r d e r to compute the a v e r a g e v e l o c i t y and t h u s d e t e r m i n e a i r flow a c c u r a t e l y . Suggested pitot t u b e l o c a t i o n s f o r t r a v e r s i n g round and r e c t a n g u l a r d u c t s a r e shown i n F i g u r e 35. The velocity i n a dud: v a r i e s g r e a t l y . It i s g e n e r a l l y l o w e s t n e a r t h e e d g e s o r c o r n e r s and g r e a t e s t i n the c e n t r a l portion. B e c a u s e o f t h i s fluctuation, a l a r g e n u m b e r of r e a d i n g s m u s t b e t a k e n t o d e t e r m i n e t h e t r u e a v e r a g e velocity. I n round d u c t s , not l e s s than eight r e a d i n g s should b e taken along two d i a m e t e r s a t c e n t e r s of e q u a l a n n u l a r a r e a s . Additional r e a d i n g s a r e n e c e s s a r y w l ~ e n d u c t s a r el a r g e r than 1 f o o t i n d i a m e t e r . In r e c t a n g u l a r d u c t s , the r e a d i n g s should b e t a k e n i n t h e c e n t e r ol e q u a l a r e a s o v e r t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n of the duct. The n u m b e r of s p a c e s should be t a k e n a s depicted i n F i g u r e 35. I n d e t e r m i n i n g the a v e r a g e velocity i n the duct, t h e velocity p r e s s u r e r e a d i n g s a r e c o n v e r t e d t o v e l o c i t i e s ; the v e l o c i t i e s , not the velocity p r e s s u r e s , a r e a v e r a g e d t o compute t h e a v e r a g e d u c t v e l o c i t i e s . D i s t u r b e d f l o w will give e r r o n e o u s r e s u l t s ; t h e r e f o r e , whenever p o s s i b l e , t h e pitot tube t r a v e r s e s h o u l d b e m a d e a t l e a s t 7. 5 d u c t d i a m e t e r s downs t r e a m f r o m any m a j o r a i r s t r e a m d i s t u r b a n c e s s u c h a s a b r a n c h e n t r y , f i t t i n g , o r supply opening (ASHRAE Guide and D a t a Book, 1963).

/In\/

Cross s e c t i o n o f a c i r c u l a r s t a c k d i v i d e d
i n t a t h r e e c o n c e n t r i c , e q u a l a r e a s , shoiri ng l o c a t i o n o f t r a v e r s e p o i n t s . .The l o c a t i o n and number o f t h e s e p o i n t s f o r a stack o f g i v e n d i a m e t e r can be d e t e r m i n e d from T a b l e s 2 2 and 23.

A l t i t u d e a n d T e m p e r a t u r e Corrections f o r P i t o t Tubes
If t h e t e m p e r a t u r e of the a i r s t r e a m i s m o r e than
30" above o r below the s t a n d a r d t e m p e r a t u r e of 7 0 " F , o r if the a l t i t u d e i s m o r e than 1 , 000 f e e t , o r if both conditions hold t r u e , m a k e a c o r r e c t i o n f o r d e n s i t y change a s follows: C o r r e c t e d velocity p r e s s u r e = m e a s u r e d h v x -, P 1
Cross s e c t i o n of a r e c t a n g u l a r s t a c k d i v i d e d i n t o 12 e q u a l a r e a s , w i t h t r a v e r s e p a i n t s l o c a t e d a t t h e cent e r of each a r i a . The minimum number of t e s t p o i n t r i s shown i n T a b l e 29.

F i g u r e 35. P i t o t t u b e t r a v e r s e f o r round and rectangular ducts.

(32)

SWINGING-VANE VELOCITY METER

The f a c t o r s t h a t m a k e t h e swinging-vane velocity m e t e r an extensivelyused field instrument a r e its p o r t a b i l i t y , i n s t a n t a n e o u s r e a d i n g f e a t u r e s , and

where h v
=

velocity p r e s s u r e , a s d e t e r m i n e d by pitot tube, in. WC

74

DESIGN O F LOCAL EXHAUST SYSTEMS

T a b l e 22. SUGGESTED NUMBER O F EQUAL AREAS F O R VELOCITY MEASUREMENT IN CIRCULAR STACKS Stack d i a m e t e r , ft 1 or less 1 to 2 2 to 4 4 to 6 over 6 N u m b e r of equal a r e a s
2 3 4

r e s i s t e d b y a h a i r s p r i n g and damping m a g n e t . T h e i n s t r u m e n t gives i n s t a n t a n e o u s r e a d i n g s of d i r e c t i o n a l v e l o c i t i e s on t h e indicating s c a l e .

Colibroting t h e V e l o c i t y M e t e r
B e f o r e u s i n g a m e t e r , c h e c k t h e z e r o setting. If the p o i n t e r d o e s n o t c o m e t o r e s t a t the z e r o position, t u r n t h e z e r o a d j u s t e r t o m a k e the n e c e s s a r y c o r rections. The m e t e r withits fittings i s calibrated a s a u n i t ; t h e r e f o r e , fittings c a n n o t h e i n t e r c h a n g e d f r o m o n e m k t e r t o a n o t h e r . T h e s e r i a l n u m b e r on t h e fittings and on the m e t e r m u s t a g r e e . If a m e t e r w a s o r i g i n a l l y c a l i b r a t e d f o r a f i l t e r , it m u s t always b e u s e d . Only connecting tubing of the s a m e length and i n s i d e d i a m e t e r a s t h a t o r i g i n a l l y supplied with t h e m e t e r should b e u s e d , s i n c e changes i n tubing a f f e c t t h e c a l i b r a t i o n of the m e t e r ( I n d u s t r i a l Ventilation, 1956). When the t e m p e r a t u r e of a n a i r s t r e a m v a r i e s m o r e than 30' f r o m the s t a n d a r d t e m p e r a t u r e of 7 0 " F , o r t h e altitude i s m o r e than 1, 000 f e e t , o r when both conditions a r e f u l f i l l e d , it i s a d v i s a b l e t o m a k e a c o r r e c t i o n f o r t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e . O t h e r c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r s , a s shown i n T a b l e 2 5 should a l s o b e u s e d ( I n d u s t r i a l Ventilation, - 1956). Table 2 5 . SOME CORRECTION FACTORS F O R T H E SWINGING-VANE VELOCITY M E T E R (Industri&Y_ntilation, 1960) -Correction factor Opening P r e s s u r e openinga Hold m e t e r jet a g a i n s t g r i l l e ( u s e g r o s s a r c a ) m o r e than 4 i n , wide and u p t o 600 in. 2 a r c a , f r e e opening 70% o r m o r e of g r o s s a r e a . Hold m e t e r jet a g a i n s t g r i l l e ( u s e free-open a r e a ) Hold m e t e r jet 1 inch in f r o n t of g r i l l e ( u s e g r o s s a r e a ) Suction opening b S q u a r e punched g r i l l e (use free-open a r e a ) B a r grille (use g r o s s a r e a ) Strip grille (use gross a r e a ) F r e e open, no g r i l l e a

6 or more

T a b l e 23. P E R C E N T O F CLRCULAR STACK DIAMETER F R O M INSIDE WALL T O TRAVERSE POINT number 1 2 3 4

T a b l e 24. MINIMUM NUMBER O F TEST POINTS FORRECTANGULARDUCTS

0.93 1.00

0. 88 0. 78 0.73 1.00

F o r p r e s s u r e openings, i t is a d v i s a b l e t o u s e the g r i l l e m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s c o e f f i c i e n t of d i s c h a r g e .

w i d e - r a n g e s c a l e . T h e i n s t r u m e n t is f a i r l y r u g ged, and its a c c u r a c y is s u i t a b l e f o r m o s t field velocity d e t e r m i n a t i o n s . The m e t e r c o n s i s t s of a pivoted vane e n c l o s e d i n a c a s e , a g a i n s t which a i r e x e r t s a p r e s s u r e a s i t p a s s e s through t h e i n s t r m e n t f r o m a n u p s t r e a m t o a d o w n s t r e a m opening; m o v e m e n t of t h e v a n e is

b ~ o auction openings, hold m e t e r jet p e r p e n d i c u r l a r t o the opening, with the t i p i n t h e s a m e plane a s the opening. T h i s i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e v e l o c i t i e s a r e changing v e r y r a p i d l y i n f r o n t of a s u c t i o n opening. Note: volume, cfm = a r e a , f t 2 x a i r velocity, fpm x correction factor.

Checking of Exhaust System

75

U s e s o f t h e V e l o c ~ t yM e t e r

the m e t e r o r fitting should be held between 1 and 2 inches i n f r o n t of the g r i l l e .

S o m e u s e s of the m e t e r and fittings a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 36. On l a r g e ( a t l e a s t 3 i t 2 ) supply openings, where the i n s t r u m e n t i t s e l f willnot s e r i ously block the opening and w h e r e the velocities a r e low, hold the i n s t r u m e n t itself in the a i r s t r e a m , the a i r impinging d i r e c t l y in the left-hand port. When the opening i s s m a l l e r than 3 s q u a r e f e e t , o r the velocities a r e above the no-jet s c a l e , o r when both conditions hold t r u e , a p p r o p r i a t e fittings m u s t b e u s e d . On modernair-conditioning g r i l l e s ,

If the exhaust opening i s l a r g e (at l e a s t 3 i t Z ) and the a i r velocities a r e low, as in s p r a y booths, chemicalhoods, and s o f o r t h , the m e t e r itself can he held in the a i r s t r e a m . The i n s t r u m e n t should be held s o that the left-hand p o r t of the m e t e r i s f l u s h w i t h the exhaust opening. When the opening i s s m a l l e r than 3 s q u a r e f e e t , o r the velocities a r e above the no-jet s c a l e , o r whenboth conditions hold t r u e , a p p r o p r i a t e fittings m u s t be used d u s t r i a l Ventilation, 1956).

(In-

P L A T I N G TANK

EXHAUST SYSTEM

GRINDER

SPRAY BOOTH (NO-JET

RANGE)

F i g u r e 36. 1960).

Some s w i n g i n g - v a n e v e l o c i t y m e t e r a p p l i c a t i o n s ( I n d u s t r i a l V e n t i l a t i o n ,

76

DESIGN O F LOCAL EXHAUST SYSTEMS Althoughlittle instrumentation i s r e q u i r e d , a gas t e m n e r a t u r e indicator with a warning device. a t the v e r y l e a s t , should b e used ahead of the a i r pollution control device to e n s u r e t h a t no damage o c c u r s owing t o sudden, unexpected s u r g e s ol t e m p e r a t u r e . The instrmnentation m a y h e expanded t o control e i t h e r the f u e l input t o the p r o c e s s o r the volume of ambient a i r t o t h e exhaust system.

COOLING OF GASEOUS EFFLUENTS

When designing an a i r pollution c o n t r o l s y s t e m , the designer m u s t know the t e m p e r a t u r e s of the g a s e s t o b e nandled b e f o r e he can specify the m a t e r i a l s of construction f o r the s y s t e m , the s i z e of ductwork, the s i z e of the blower, and the type of a i r pollution control device. Olten, hot g a s e s m u s t be cooled before being admitted t o the cont r o l device. The cooling equipment will add t o the r e s i s t a n c e of the flow of g a s e s through t h e exhaust s y s t e m and m a y a f f e c t the volume and composition of the g a s e s . Since the g a s e s m u s t p a s s through the cooling device, i t m u s t be designed a s an i n t e g r a l p a r t of the exhaust s y s t e m .

M E T H O D S OF COOLING GASES
Although t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l m e t h o d s of cooling hot E a s e s , those m o s t commonly used in a i r pollution control s y s t e m s a r e : (1) Dilutionwithambient a i r , ( 2 ) quenching with w a t e r , and (3) n a t u r a l convectionand radiation f r o m ductwork. In a few c a s e s , f o r c e d - d r a l t h c a t exchangers, a i r cooled and water cooled, have been used. Withthe dilution method, the hot gaseous eflluent f r o m the p r o c e s s equipment i s cooled by adding sufficient ambient a i r to r e s u l t in a m i x t u r e ol g a s e s a t the d e s i r e d t e m p e r a t u r e . Natural convection and radiation occur whenever t h e r e i s a t e m p e r a t u r e diflerence between the g a s e s inside a dud: and the a t m o s p h e r e surrounding it. Cooling hot g a s e s by this method r e q u i r e s only the p r o vision of enough h e a t t r a n s f e r a r e a t o obtain the d e s i r e d amount of cooling. The w a t e r quench method u s e s the heat of vaporization of water to cool the g a s e s . Water i s s p r a y e d into the hot g a s e s under conditions conducive t o evaporation, t h e h e a t i n t h e g a s e s e v a p o r a t e s the w a t e r , and this cools the g a s e s . In f o r c e d - d r a f t heat exchangers, the hot g a s e s a r c cooled by forcing cooling fluid p a s t the b a r r i e r separating the fluid f r o m the hot gases.

This method of cooling hot g a s e s i s u s e d extensively where the 'riot g a s e s a r e d i s c h a r g e d f r o m p r o c e s s equipment i n such a way t h a t a n e x t e r n a l hood m u s t b e u s e d to c a p t u r e the a i r contaminants. The amount of a i r needed t o e n s u r e complete capt u r e of t h e a i r contaminants i s g e n e r a l l y sufficient t o cool the e a s e s to appro xi mat el^ 5 0 0 F , which p e r m i t s the u s e of h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e a i r pollution control devices. When the volume of hot g a s e s i s s m a l l , this method m a y be used econo'mically even when much m o r e a i r i s needed t o achieve the d e s i r e d cooling than that needed f o r zdequate c a p t u r e of a i r contaminants.

When l a r g e volumes of hot g a s e s r e q u i r e cooling, the s i z e of the exhaust s y s t e m and control device becomes e x c e s s i v e l y l a r g e f o r dilution cooling. I n a n y c a s e , c o m p a r e the c o s t s of installation and operation ol the various cooling methods before deciding which method to u s e .

The following e x a m p l e s i l l u s t r a t e (1) a method of determining the r e s u l t a n t t e m p e r a t u r e of the m i x t u r e of the hot f u r n a c e g a s e s and the ambient a i r induced a t the t u r n a c e hood, and (2) a method of determining the volume of a i r needed to c o r l the hot furnace g a s e s t o a s e l e c t e d t e m p e r a t u r e .

Example 14 Given:

Dilution With Ambient Air

The cooling of g a s e s by dilution with ambient a i r i s the m o s t simple method t h a t can he employed. E s s e n t i a l l y i t involves the mixing of ambient a i r with a g a s 01 known volume and t e m p e r a t u r e to produce a l o w - t e m p e r a t u r e m i x t u r e that can b e admitted to an a i r pollution control device. In designing such a s y s t e m , f i r s t d e t e r m i n e the volume and t e m p e r a t u r e of a i r n e c e s s a r y to c a p t u r e and convey the a i r contaminants f r o m a given s o u r c e . Then calculate the amount of ambient a i r r e q u i r e d to provide a m i x t u r e of the d e s i r e d t e m p e r a t u r e . The a i r pollution control device i s then sized t o handle the combined mixture.

Yellow-brass-melting c r u c i b l e f u r n a c e . F u e l burned: 1 , 7 5 0 cfh n a t u r a l gas with 20 p e r c e n t excess a i r . Maximum gas t e m p e r a t u r e a t f u r n a c e outlet: 2,500-F. Volume of dilution a i r drawn in a t the f u r n a c e hood: 4, 000 cfm. Maximum t e m p e r a t u r e of dilution a i r : 100F.

F o r t h i s p r o b l e m , neglect the h e a t l o s s e s due t o radiation and n a t u r a l convection f r o m the hood and ductwork. A s s u m e complete combustion of the f u e l .

C o o l p g of G a s e o u s E f f l u e n t s

77

TEMP. =

10 CONTROL DEVICE

Qi

h e a t above 6 0 F i n e a c h g a s , B t u l m i n 1 750 60
=

Convert fuel r a t e t o c f m

29. 17 c f m

R e f e r r i n g t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n d a t a of T a b l e 26, Wi = 29. 14 l b l m i n a n d Qi = 2 1 , 4 7 0 Btulmin 2. H e a t above 6 0 F i n 4, 000 c f r n of dilution a i r e n t e r i n g hood a t 1 0 0 F : D e n s i t y of a i r a t 1 0 0 F = 0. 0708 1bIft T a b l e D l , Appendix D ) 3 (from

E n t h a l p y o i a i r a t 1 0 0 F = 9. 6 B t u l l b ( f r o m T a b l e D3, Appendix D ) Weight of dilution a i r = (4, 000)(0. 0705) = 283. 2 l b l m i n H e a t a b o v e 6 0 F i n dilution a i r = (9. 6 ) ( 2 8 3 . 2) = 2 , 720 B t u l m i n 3 . E n t h a l p y of m i x t u r e of P C a n d dilution a i r : T o t a l weight o i m i x t u r e = 29. 14 f 253. 2
= 312. 3 lblmin

F l g u r e 37. P r o b l e m : Determine t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e gases e n t e r l n g t h e c o n t r o l devlce.

Solution: 1. D e t e r m i n e t h e weight (W) a n d h e a t ( 0 ) a b o v e 6 0 F i n t h e p r o d u c t s of c o m b u s t i o n ( P C ) :

H e a t above 6 0 F in m i x t u r e 21, 470 t 2 , 720 = 24, 190 24 190 = 77. 4 B t u / l b E n t h a l p y of m i x t u r e = 312. 3

a.
where W.
hi

wl

hi 4. T e m p e r a t u r e o l m i x t u r e : T o d e t e r m i n e the t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e m i x t u r e , d e t e r m i n e t h e e n t h a l p y of the m i x t u r e a t two t e m p e r a t u r e s , p r e f e r a b l y above a n d b e l o w t h e c a l c u l a t e d e n t h a l p y of 77. 4 B t u l l b .

= =

weight of individual g a s flowing, l b l m i n e n t h a l p y above 6 0 F of e a c h g a s , B t u / l h

T a b l e 26. CONVERSION VALUES FOR I T E M 1, E X A M P L E 14 P C p e r c u b i c foot P C f r o m of f u e l furnace

I

Enthalpy of component

H e a t above 6 0 F in component Qi, Btulmin

Component

Weight, h i a t 2, 5 0 0 F , Wi, lb/ft3 lblmin Btullb

Totals

129.14

21,470

a F r o m T a b l e D7, Appendix D.

b w i = (0. 132 lb/ft3)(29. 17 f t 3 / m i n ) = 3. 8 5 l b l m i n ' F r o m T a b l e D3, Appendix D. d ~ = . (3. 85 l b / r n i n ) ( 6 9 0 . 2 B t u / l b ) = 2 , 660 B t u l m i n

78

DESIGN O F LOCAL EXHAUST SYSTEMS

T h e n , by i n t e r p o l a t i o n , t h e t e m p e r a t u r e c o r r e s p o n d i n g to 77. 4 B t u l l b c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d . Since the mixture contains mostly nitrogen, t h e e n t h a l p i e s should be c l o s e t o t h o s e of n i t r o g e n . F r o m T a b l e D 3 it a p p e a r s t h a t t h e m i x t u r e t e m p e r a t u r e w i l l be b e t w e e n 3 5 0 F a n d 4 0 0 F . T h e enthalpy of t h e m i x t u r e , H m' is: h where m
=

Example 15 Problem: Using t h e s a m e g i v e n d a t a i n P r o b l e m No. 1 , d e t e r m i n e t h e a m o u n t 01 dilution a i r r e q u i r e d t o r e duce the t e m p e r a t u r e of P C t o 3 0 0 F . Solution: 1. H e a t a b o v e 6 0 F in P C a t 2, 5 0 0 F = 21, 470 B t u l m i n ( F r o m T a b l e 26)

Qm Wm

at desired temperatures

T h e O2 a n d N2 f r o m t h e dilution a i r m u s t b e a d d e d t o t h e O2 and N2 f r o m the P C , Weight of dilution a i r = 253. 2 I b l m i n 0 2 c o n t e n t = (283. 2)(0.23) = 65. 0 l b / m i n N2 c o n t e n t = (283. 2 ) ( 0 . 7 7 ) = 218 l b / m i n

2. H e a t l o s t b y P C i n cooling f r o m 2, 5 0 0 F t o 3 0 0 F : F r o m T a b l e 26 obtain t h e weight (Wi) of e a c h c o m p o n e n t of P C d i s c h a r g e d f r o m t h e furnace. F r o m Table D3, obtain t h e enthalpy ( h i ) of e a c h c o m p o n e n t a t 3 0 0 F . R e f e r r i n g t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n d a t a of T a b l e 28: H e a t t o be lost = 21,470 - 1,847 = 19,623 B t u l m i n

3 . Volume of a i r n e e d e d t o cool P C t o 3 0 0 F : R e f e r r i n g t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n d a t a of T a h l e 27: A i r i n l e t t e m p e r a t u r e = 1 0 0 ' F (given) Final a i r temperature = 300F a t 400F = 26,150 = 83. 6 B t u l l b . 312.3 h a t 1 0 0 ' F = 9 . 6 B t u / l b ( f r o m T a b l e D3) h , a t 3 0 0 F = 57. 8 B t u l l b ( f r o m T a b l e D3) Ah = 45. 2 B t u l l b Weight of a i r n e e d e d = - - - 408 l b / m i n 19' 623 - 45.2

hm

By i n t e r p o l a t i o n t h e m i x t u r e t e m p e r a t u r e = 3 7 3 F T h e r e f o r e , the exhaust s y s t e m and control device m u s t be d e s i g n e d t o h a n d l e g a s e s a t 3 7 3 F .

T a h l e 27. CONVERSION VALUES FOR I T E M 4 , E X A M P L E 14

Component

wi lblmin

d Q. -. h . ~ .Q. = h . ~ . d 1 1 1 1 1 1 h i / h i a t 3 5 0 " E a t 400F, a t 350F, a t 400F, Btullh Btullb Btulmin Btulmin

Totals a

312. 3b

22, 530

26, 150

Wi of N2 i s s u m of N2 f r o m P C a n d dilution a i r . b ~ o t a l s r e r o u n d e d off t o f o u r s i g n i f i c a n t f i g u r e s . a 'Wi of O2 is s u m of O2 f r o m P C a n d dilution a i r . d ~ r o m a b l e D3, Appendix D. T eQ. = (3. 8 5 l b / m i n ) ( 6 3 . 1 B t u l l b ) = 242. 9 B t u l m i n .

1

C o o l ~ n gof G a s e o1s E f f l u e n t s ~

79

Table 28.

CONVERSION VALUES-

197.7 312.5

Gaseous h i a t 300" F, Q i = hiWi, a t Wi, 300' F B t u l m i n Btu/lb components l b l m i n C02 H20 N2 02 Totals 3. 85 2. 89 21. 32 1. 08 29. 14 51. 3 108.2 59. 8 53.4

r e f r a c t o r y lined o r m a d e f r o m s t a i n l e s s s t e e l . In s o m e c a s e s , s t a i l l l e s s s t e e l ilucts with w a t e r s p r a y s have b e e n u s e d hctween the f u r n a c e anrl the quench chamber. F o r controlling the g a s t e m p e r a t u r e lcaving the quench c h a m b e r , a t e m p e r a t u r e coiltroller i s g e n e r a l l y u s e d t o r e g u l a t e the amount or w a t e r s p r a y e d into thc clucnch c h a r n b c r . F o r e r n e r g e n cy conditions, a s e c o n r l t e m p e r a t u r e c o n t r o l l e r can b e u s e d l o d i v e r t e x c e s s i v e l y hot g a s e s away f r o m the a i r pollution c o n t r o l d e v i c e . Cooling hot g a s c s with a w a t e r quench i s r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e and r e q u i r e s v e r y l i t t l e s p a c c . F i g u r e 3 5 shows a quench c h a m b e r u s e d to cool t h e g a s -

4,

1,279. 0

57.5
1, 846. 7

T o t a l h e a t above 6 0 F i n P C a t 300" F = 1 , 8 4 7 B t u /

Volume of dilution a i r a t 100 " F

p a t 1 0 0 F = 0. 0708 l b / f t

( F r o m Table D l )

408 Volume = - - - 0.0708

= 5,760 cfm

The e x h a u s t s y s t e m m u s t b e designed t o handle a s u f f i c i e n t v o l u m e of g a s e s a t 3 0 0 F t o p r o vide a n i n d r a f t of dilution a i r of 5 , 7 6 0 c f m i n a d dition t o the p r o d u c t s of combustion.

Quenching With Wafer

When a l a r g e volume of h o t g a s i s t o b e cooled and only a s m a l l quantity of dilution a i r i s needed t o c a p t u r e the a i r c o n t a m i n a n t s , s o m e m e t h o d s of cooling o t h e r than dilution with a m b i e n t a i r should be u s e d . Since the evaporation of w a t e r r e q u i r e s a l a r g e a m o u n t of h e a t , t h e g a s can b e cooled s i m ply by s p r a y i n g w a t e r into t h e hot g a s . t F o r e f f i c i e , ~ evaporation of w a t e r i n a g a s s t r e a m , i t h a s b e e n d e t e r m i n e d t h a t the g a s velocity should b e f r o m 500 t o 700 i p m and the e n t i r e c r o s s s e c tion of the s t r e a m should he c o v e r e d with a fine s p r a y o i w a t e r . I, h o w e v e r , w a t e r c a r r y o v e r i s u n d e s i r a b l e , a s i n a baghouse, s a t i s f a c t o r y s e t tling of the w a t e r d r o p l e t s m u s t be attained; h e n c e , l o w e r v e l o c i t i e s a r e employed. E l i m i n a t o r p l a t e s a r e s e l d o m u s e d in i n s t a l l a t i o n s w h e r e e x c e s s i v e m a i n t e n a n c e due t o c o r r o s i o n o r fouling i s expected T o r e d u c e f u r t h e r t h e likelihood of w a t e r d r o p l e t c a r r y o v e r , p l a c e the w a t e r s p r a y c h a m b e r a s f a r f r o m the haghouse a s p r a c t i c a l . W a t e r s p r a y p r e s s u r e s g e n e r a l l y r a n g e f r o m 50 t o 150 psig: h o w e v e r , t o r e d u c e the amount of m o i s t u r e collected, s o m e i n s t a l l a t i o n s have e m ployed p r e s s u r e s a s high a s 400 p s i g . Since the m o i s t u r e c o l l e c t e d in s p r a y c h a m b e r s r e a d i l y c o r r o d e s s t e e l , the c h a r n b e r s a r e f r e q u e n t l y l i n e d w i t h m a t e r i a l s r e s i s t a n t to c o r r o s i o n .

If the g a s e s d i s c h a r g e d f r o m the b a s i c equipment

a r e exceptionally hot, a s a r e t h o s e f r o m the cupol a f u r n a c e , the f i r s t portion of the d u c t should be

F i g u r e 3 8 . A quench chamber i n a baghouse c o n t r o l system s e r v i n g a cupola furnace ( H a r s e l ! E n g i n e e r i n g Company, I n g l e w o o d . California).

80

DESIGN O F LOCAL EXHAUST SYSTEMS Solution: 1: Cooling r e q u i r e d : Entllalpy of g a s a t 2 , 0 0 0 F = 509. 5 B t u f l b Enthalpy of g a s a t 2 2 5 F = 39. 6 B t u f l b Ah = 469. 9 B t u f l b (216)(469.9) = 101, 300 B t u f m i n

eous effluent f r o m a cupola f u r n a c e . Quench c h a m b e r s a r e l i t t l e m o r e than e n l a r g e d p o r t i o n s of the ductwork equipped with w a t e r s p r a y s . They a r e e a s y t o o p ? r a t e and, with a u t o m a t i c t e m p e r a t u r e c o n t r o l s , only t h a t a m o u n t of w a t e r i s u s e d t h a t i s needed t o m a i n t a i n the d e s i r e d t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e g a s e s a t the d i s c h a r g e . T h e i r i n s t a l l a t i o n a n d operating costs a r e generally considered to be l e s s than f o r o t h e r cooling m e t h o d s . Quench c h a m b e r s should not be u s e d when the g a s e s t o b e cooled contain a l a r g e amount of g a s e s o r f u m e s t h a t b e c o m e highly c o r r o s i v e when wet. T h i s c r e a t e s additiona l m a i n t e n a n c e p r o b l e m s , not only in the quench c h a m b e r , but i n the r e m a i n d e r of the ductwork, the c o n t r o l d e v i c e , and the b l o w e r . The following e x a m p l e will i l l u s t r a t e s o m e of the f a c t o r s t h a t m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d when designing a quench c h a m b e r t o cool t h e g a s e o u s c f f l u e n t f r o m a gray-iron-melting cupola. E x a m p l e 16 Given: 32-in.-I. D. cupola. M a x i m u m t e m p e r a t u r e of g a s e o u s effluent a t cupola outlet 2, 0 0 0 F . Weight o l g a s e o u s effluent a t cupola outlet 216 l b l m i n .
z

2: Water t o b e e v a p o r a t e d : H e a t a b s o r b e d p e r l b of w a t e r :
Q = h

( 2 2 5 " F , 14.7 p s i g ) - h f ( 6 0 F ) g

= 1, 156. 5

29. 06 = 1 , 129. 7 B t u f l b 101, 300 1, 128. 7

= 90 l b i m i n

Water required =

3. Volume of w a t e r e v a p o r a t e d a t 225 "F:

Volume of g a s e o u s effluent a t cupola outlet = T h i s volume of effluent 1 3 , 2 8 0 c f m a t 2, 000'F. includes i n d r a f t a i r a t the c h a r g i n g door of the cupola. The t e m p e r a t u r e of 2, 0 0 0 F i s a m a x i m u m temperature. A s s u m e the e f f l u e n t g a s e s have the s a m e p r o p e r t i e s a s a i r . C m s i d e r a t i o n of t h e e n t h a l p i e s of the g a s e o u s constituents i n t h e e f f l u e n t g a s s t r e a m will s h o w t h a t t h i s i s a valid a s s u m p t i o n . Any c o r r e c t i o n s would i n t r o d u c e an i n s i g n i f i c a n t r e f i n e m e n t t o the c a l c u l a t i o n s when c o n s i d e r e d with r e s p e c t t o t h e a c c u r a c y of o t h e r design f a c t o r s .

4. T o t a l volume vented f r o m s p r a y c h a m b e r a t 225F:

!
! 8

Cupola = ( 1 3 , 2 3 0 ) Water Total

225 + 2 , 000 460

,. '")

= 3,700 cfm

= 2 , 510 c l m = 6, 210 c f m

VOL

1 3 . 2 8 0 cfn
EVAPOR4TIVE

ATEF S P R A Y O N O I T I O N I N S CHIIIABEI)

CUPOLA

COOL N G l A T E R 0 UT

FURNACE

P r o b l e m Note: In t h i s e x a m p l e , t h e c a l c u l a t e d a m o u n t of w a t e r r e q u i r e d to cool t h e g a s e s , 90 I h f m i n o r 10. 9 g a l i m i n , i s only t h e w a t e r t h a t m u s t b e e v a p o r a t e d . Since a l l the w a t e r s p r a y e d i n t o a quench c h a m b e r d o e s not e v a p o r a t e , the pump and s p r a y s y s t e m should b e s i z e d t o supply m o r e w a t e r than t h a t calculated. The amount of e x c e s s w a t e r needed will depend o n f a c t o r s s u c h a s t h e i n l e t t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e g a s e s , the ternp e r a t u r e d r o p r e q u i r e d , the f i n e n e s s of the w a t e r s p r a y , and the a r r a n g e m e n t of s p r a y h e a d s . I t i s not u n c o m m o n to s i z e the pump t o give 200 p e r cent of the w a t e r n e e d e d f o r evaporation. The a c t u a l a m o u n t of w a t e r u s e d should h e c o n t r o l l e d h y the t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e g a s e s d i s c h a r g e d f r o m the quench c h a m b e r . T h e l o s s of h e a t b y r a d i a t i o n and convection f r o m the d u c t s was n e g l e c t e d . With long d u c t r u n s , howe v e r , a considerable temperature drop in the gas-

!
!

I
i

I
I

F ~ g u r e39. P r o b l e m : D e t e r m ~ n e t h e w a t e r needed t o c o o l t h e g a s e o u s e f f l u e n t t o 22sF and t h e t o t a l v o l u m e o f g a s e s d ~ s c h a r g e d f r o m t h e quench chamber.