Circuits

1 Passive ComponentsM. Pecht, P. Lall, G. Ballou, C. Sankaran, N. Angelopoulos

Resistors • Capacitors and Inductors • Transformers • Electrical Fuses

2 Voltage and Current SourcesR.C. Dorf, Z. Wan, C.R. Paul, J.R. Cogdell

Step, Impulse, Ramp, Sinusoidal, Exponential, and DC Signals • Ideal and Practical

Sources • Controlled Sources

3 Linear Circuit AnalysisM.D. Ciletti, J.D. Irwin, A.D. Kraus, N. Balabanian,

T.A. Bickart, S.P. Chan, N.S. Nise

Voltage and Current Laws • Node and Mesh Analysis • Network Theorems • Power and

Energy • Three-Phase Circuits • Graph Theory • Two Port Parameters and Transformations

4 Passive Signal ProcessingW.J. Kerwin

Low-Pass Filter Functions • Low-Pass Filters • Filter Design

5 Nonlinear CircuitsJ.L. Hudgins, T.F. Bogart, Jr., K. Mayaram, M.P. Kennedy,

G. Kolumbán

Diodes and Rectiﬁers • Limiters • Distortion • Communicating with Chaos

6 Laplace TransformR.C. Dorf, Z. Wan, D.E. Johnson

Deﬁnitions and Properties • Applications

7 State Variables: Concept and FormulationW.K. Chen

State Equations in Normal Form • The Concept of State and State Variables and Normal

Tree • Systematic Procedure in Writing State Equations • State Equations for Networks Described

by Scalar Differential Equations • Extension to Time-Varying and Nonlinear Networks

8 The z-TransformR.C. Dorf, Z. Wan

Properties of thez -Transform • Unilateralz -Transform •z -Transform Inversion • Sampled Data

9 T-P Equivalent NetworksZ. Wan, R.C. Dorf

Three-Phase Connections • Wye⇔ Delta Transformations

10 Transfer Functions of FiltersR.C. Dorf, Z. Wan

Ideal Filters • The Ideal Linear-Phase Low-Pass Filter • Ideal Linear-Phase Bandpass

Filters • Causal Filters • Butterworth Filters • Chebyshev Filters

11 Frequency ResponseP. Neudorfer

Linear Frequency Response Plotting • Bode Diagrams • A Comparison of Methods

12 Stability AnalysisF. Szidarovszky, A.T. Bahill

Using the State of the System to Determine Stability • Lyapunov Stability Theory • Stability of

Time-Invariant Linear Systems • BIBO Stability • Physical Examples

13 Computer Software for Circuit Analysis and DesignJ.G. Rollins, P. Bendix

Analog Circuit Simulation • Parameter Extraction for Analog Circuit Simulation

Shu-Park Chan

International Technological University

HIS SECTION PROVIDES A BRIEF REVIEW of the deﬁnitions and fundamental concepts used in the study of linear circuits and systems. We can describe ac ircuitor sy ste m, in a broad sense, as a collection of objects called elements(components, parts,or subsystems) which form an entity governed by certain

laws or constraints. Thus, a physical system is an entity made up of physical objects as its elements or

components. A subsystem of a given system can also be considered as a system itself.

A mathematical model describes the behavior of a physical system or device in terms of a set of equations, together with a schematic diagram of the device containing the symbols of its elements, their connections, and numerical values. As an example, a physical electrical system can be represented graphically by a network which includes resistors, inductors, and capacitors, etc. as its components. Such an illustration, together with a set of linear differential equations, is referred to as a model system.

Electrical circuits may be classiﬁed into various categories. Four of the more familiar classiﬁcations are (a) linear and nonlinear circuits, (b) time-invariant and time-varying circuits, (c) passive and active circuits, and (d) lumped and distributed circuits. Alinear circuit can be described by a set of linear (differential) equations; otherwise it is a nonlinear circuit. At ime-invar iant circuit or system implies that none of the components of the circuit have parameters that vary with time; otherwise it is at ime-var iant system. If the total energy delivered to a given circuit is nonnegative at any instant of time, the circuit is said to bepassive ; otherwise it isact ive . Finally, if the dimensions of the components of the circuit are small compared to the wavelength of the highest of the signal frequencies applied to the circuit, it is called alumped circuit; otherwise it is referred to as adist r ibutedcircuit.

There are, of course, other ways of classifying circuits. For example, one might wish to classify circuits according to the number of accessible terminals or terminal pairs (ports). Thus, terms such as n-terminal circuit andn-por t are commonly used in circuit theory. Another method of classiﬁcation is based on circuit conﬁgu- rations (topology),1 which gives rise to such terms as ladders, lattices, bridged-T circuits, etc.

As indicated earlier, although the wordsc ircuitand sy ste m are synonymous and will be used interchangeably throughout the text, the terms circuit theoryand system theory sometimes denote different points of view in the study of circuits or systems. Roughly speaking, circuit theory is mainly concerned with interconnections of components (circuit topology) within a given system, whereas system theory attempts to attain generality by means of abstraction through a generalized (input-output state) model.

One of the goals of this section is to present a uniﬁed treatment on the study of linear circuits and systems. That is, while the study of linear circuits with regard to their topological properties is treated as an important phase of the entire development of the theory, a generality can be attained from such a study.

The subject of circuit theory can be divided into two main parts, namely, analysis and synthesis. In a broad sense,analy sis may be deﬁned as “the separating of any material or abstract entity [system] into its constituent elements;” on the other hand,sy nthesis is “the combining of the constituent elements of separate materials or abstract entities into a single or uniﬁed entity [system].”2

It is worth noting that in an analysis problem, the solution is alwaysunique no matter how difﬁcult it may

be, whereas in a synthesis problem there might exist an inﬁnite number of solutions or, sometimes, none at all!

It should also be noted that in some network theory texts the wordssy nthesis anddesign might be used interchangeably throughout the entire discussion of the subject. However, the termsy nthesis is generally used to describeanaly t ical procedures that can usually be carried out step by step, whereas the term designincludes practical (design) procedures (such as trial-and-error techniques which are based, to a great extent, on the experience of the designer) as well as analytical methods.

In analyzing the behavior of a given physical system, the ﬁrst step is to establish a mathematical model. This

model is usually in the form of a set of either differential or difference equations (or a combination of them),

1Circu it top o l o g y o r g r ap h the o r y d e al s w ith the w ay in w hich the circu it e l e me nts are inte rconne cte d . A d e tail e d d is cu s s io n

on elementary applied graph theory is given in Chapter 3.6.

2 The deﬁnitions of analysis and synthesis are quoted directly from The Random House Dictionary of the English Language,

2nd ed., Unabridged, New York: Random House, 1987.