CHAPTER ONE 1.

0 HISTORY OF HERBS The use of plant as medicine predates within by human history, a 60,000 year old Neanderthal burial site Handier 4 in Northern Iraq ha yielded large amount of pollen from 8 plant specie, 7 of which are used now as herbal remedies . (Bibcorde 1975) In written record ,the study of herbs date back over 5,000 years to the Sumerians, who described and established medicinal uses for such plant as Laurel, Caraway and thyme. Ancient Egyptian medicinal of 1000BC are known to have used garlic, opium, caster oil coriander, mint, indigo and other herbs for medicine and old testament to mention herb use and cultivation including Mandrakej Ayurveda medicine has used many herbs such as tumeric possible as early as 1900BC. (Aggerwal and Sundaram 2007). Many other herbs and mineral used in Ayurveda were later described by ancient Indian herbalist such as Characka, and Sunshruta during the 1st millennium BC. The sunshrata in the 6th century BC describe 700 medicinal plant, 64 preparation from genial sources and 57 preparation based on animal sources (Girsih and Shridhar 2007).

The first Chinese herbal book, the shennog Bencao Jing complied during The han dynasty, but dating back to a much earlier date possible 2700BC, list 365 medicinal plant and their uses including ma-Huang, the shrub that produced the drug ephedrine to modern medicine. Succeeding generation argumented on the Shennog Benca O. Hing as in yaoxing Lun (Treatise on the nature of medicinal herb) a 7th century Tang Dynasty treatise on herbal medicine the ancient Greeks and Romans medicinal practice as preserved in the sitings of Hippocrates and especially, Galen, provided the pattern for Laster western medicine Hippocrates advocated the use of a few simple herbal drugs alone with fresh air, rest and proper diet. Galen on the other hand, recommended usage closes of drugs mixtures including plant and animal and mineral ingredient. The greek physician compiled the first European treatise on the properties and uses of medicinal plant, De material medica. In the first century AD, Diocordes note a compendium of more than 500 plants that remained an authoritative important herbalist and botanist of later centuries was the Greek book founded the science of botany eophrastus history plantiarum written in the fourth century BC. (Sundaram 2007). 1.1 MIDDLE AGES

The use of plant for medicine and other purpose changed later in early medieval Europe. Many Geek and Roman writings on medicine is on the other subject, were preserved by hand copying of manuscript in monasteries. The monasteries thus tended become local centers of medical knowledge and their herb garden provided the raw material for simple treatment of common disorders at the same time folk medicine in home and village continued interrupted supporting numerous wandering and settled herbalist among these were the wise women who described herbal remedies often along with spells and enchantment. It was not until the late middle ages that women who were knowledgeable in herb lore became the target of the witch hysteria. One of the most famous women in the herbal tradition was Hilegard of Bingen. A twelfth century of Benedictine nun, she wrote a medical textbook called causes and scarces. Medical school known as Bimaristan began to appear from the 9th century in the medieval Islamic word. Among Arsians and Arabs which was generally more advanced than medieval Europe at a time. The Arab venerated Gracom culture and learning and translated tens of thousand of text into Arabic for further study. (Castleman and Micheal 2011). As a trading. Culture few Arab travelers had access to plant material from distant places such as China and India. Herbals medical texts and translation of the classic of antiquity filtered in from the east and west. (Fahd and Toufic 1996).

Muslim botanist and muslim physician significantly expanded on the earlier knowledge of material medica. For example al-Dinawari described more than 637 plant drug in the 19th century. (Fahd et al 1996). And ibn al Baritar described more than 1400 different plant, food and drugs, over 300 of which were his own original discoveries in the 13th century. The andualsian Arab botanist Abu al Abbas al Nabat the teacher of Ibn Baita. Al Nabati introduced empirical techniques in the testing, description and identification of numerous meteria medica and he separated unverified reports from those supported by actual test and observation. This allow the study of material medica to evolve into the science of pharmacology. (Huff and Toby 2003). Avicennas the canon of medicine list 800 tested, plant, drugs and mineral (Jacquart and Danielle 2008). Book two is devoted to a discussion of the healing properties of herbs including nut meg sandalwood, rhubarb, myrrh, cinnamon and rose water. (Castleman and Micheal 2001). Baghdad was an important center for Arab herbalism as Al-Andalus between 800 and 1400. abulcasis (936-1013) of corodoba authored the book of simples, and important sources for late European herbals, whie Ibn al-baitar (1197-1248) of

Malaga authored the corpus of smiles, the most complete Arab herbal which introduce 200 new healing herbs, including tamarind, aconite, nuxvomica. (Kasem et al 1992). Other pharmacopeias books include that written by Abu Rayhan Buruni in the 11th century, and Ibn Zuhe (Avenzoar) the 12th century printed in 1491. The origin of clinical pharmacology also that back to the middle ages in Avicennas the cannon of medicine, peter of spain commentary on the tedotary of Nicholas. (Brater et al 2000). In particular the cannon introduced clinical trials, randomized control trails and efficacy test. (Tschanz et al 2003) 1.2 MODERN ERA The fifteenth, sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were the great age of herbals, many of the available for the first time in English and other language rather than Latin or Greek. The first herbal to be published in English was the anonyms Grete Herball of 1526. the two best known herbals in English, were the herbal or general history of plant 1957 by John Gerard and the English culper Gerard text was physically a pirated translation of a book by the Belgian herbalist Dodoens and his illustration came from a German botanical work. The original edition contained man error due to faulty matching of the two parts. Culpepers blend of traditional medicine
5

with astrology, magic, folklore was ridiculed by the physician of his day yet his book like Gerard and other herbals enjoyed phenomenal popularity. The age of exploration and Columbian exchange introduced new medicinal plants to Europe. The Badianus manuscript was an illustrated Aztec herbal translated into Latin of the 16th century. The second millennium, however also saw the beginning of a slow erosion of the pre-eminent position held by plant as source of therapeutic effect. This began with the Black Death, which they then dominant four element medical system proved powerless to stop. A century later Paracelsus introduced the use of active chemical drugs like arsenic, copper iron, mercury and sulphur. These were accepted even though they had toxic effect because of the urgent need of syphilis. (Nicholas 1653). 1.3 ANTHROPOLOGY OF HERBALISM people on all continent have used hundred to thousand of indigenous plant for treatment of ailment since prehistoric times medicinal herbs were found in the personal effect of otzi, the iceman whose body was frozen in the otiztal Alis for more than 5,300 years. These herbs appear to have been used to treat the parasites found in his in his intestine. Anthropologist therorize that animal evolved a tendency to seek out bitter plant part in response to illness. Indigenous healers often claim to have

learned by observing that sick animal change their food preference to nibble at bitter herbs. They would normally reject field biologist have provided corroborating evidence based on observation on diverse species such as champagnes, chickens, sheep and their butterflies, low land gorillas take 90% of their diet from the fruit of Aframomum elegueta, a relative of the ginger plant, that is potent antimicrobial and apparently keeps shigellosis and similar infection at bay. (Huffman and Engel 2003). Current research focuses on the possibility that this plant also protect gorillas from flbrosing cardiomyopathy which has a devastating effect on captive animal. (Dybas and Raskin 2007). Researchers from Ohio westeryan university found that some birds select nesting material rich in antimicrobial agent which protect their young from harmful bacteria. (Jann 2004). Sick animal tend to forage plant rich in secondary metabolities such as tannis and alkaloid. (Hutching et al 2008). Since these phytochemical often have antiviral antibacterial, antifungal, and antihelminthic properties, a plausiable case can be made for self medication by animals in the wild. (Engel and Cindy 2002).

Some animals have digestive system especially adapted to cope with certain plant toxins for example, the Koala can live on the leaves and shoot of the eucalyptus, a plant that is dangerous to most animals. A plant that is harmless to a particular animal may not be safe for human ingest. (Jennifer and Eckrood 2011). A reasonable conjecture is these discoveries were traditionally collected by the medicine men of indigenous tribes, who then passed on safety information and cautions. The use of herbs an spices in cuisine developed in part as a response to the threat of food borne pathogen. studies show that in tropical climates where pathogen are the most abundant recipes are the most highly spiced. Further, the spiced further the spices with the most potent antimicrobial activity tend to be selected in all cultures vegetable are spiced less than meat presumably because they are more resistant to spoilage. (Robert 2000). This remedies, broom, chaparral, Chinese herbs mixture confrey, herbs containing certain falvonoidsguar-gum, liquorice root and penny royal. (Davdson et al 2002).

Examples of herbs where a high degree of confidence of a risk bring term adverse effect can be asserted include ginseng, which is unpopular among herbalist, for this reason, the dangered herb goldenseal, milkthistle, senna, against which herbalist generally advice and rarely use aloe Vera juice, backthorn, bark, and berry, cascara sagrada bark, sqw palmetto nalerian, kaya, which is banned in the European union, st John wort, khat, Betl nut, the restricted herb ephedra and Guarana. (Elvin 2001). These is also concern with respect to the numerous well established interaction of herbs drugs. In consultation with a physician usage of herbal remedies would be clarified, as some herbal remedies have the potential to cause adverse drug interaction when used in combination with various prescription and over the counter pharmacist of their consumption of orthodix prescription for example dangerously, low blood pressure may result from the combination of an herbal remedy that lowers blood pressured together with prescription medicine that has the same effect herbs may amplify the effect of anticoagulant certain herbs as well as common fruit interference with monochrome p450, an enzymes critical to much drug metabolism. (spolarich et al 2006). 1.4 HERBAL POPULARITY

A survey released in May 2004 by the National centre for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM) what was used. The survey was limited to adult aged 18 years and over during 2002, living in the United States. According to this survey, herbal therapy or use of natural product other than vitamin mineral was the most commonly used CAM therapy (19.9%) been all use of prayer was excluded. (Barnes, et al 2004). Herbal remedies are very common in europe. In Germany herbal medication are dispensed by apothercares e.g Apotheke. Prescription drugs are sold alongside essential oils, herbal extract or herbal teas. Herbal remedies are seen by some as a treatment to be preferred to pure medical compounds which have been industrially produced. (James and Duke 2000). In the United Kingdom, the training of medical herbalist is done by state funded universities. For example, Bachelor of science, degree in herbal medicine are offered at universities such as university of East London, Middlesex university, university of central Lancashire, university of westminsters, university of Lincoln and a mapier university in Edinburg at present. Avid public interest in harbalism in the UK has been recently confirmed by the popularity of the topic in mainstream media such as the prime time hit TV series BBCs Grow Your Won Drugs which demonstrated how to grow and prepare herbal
10

remedies at home. In the united states a bachelor of science degree in herbal science is offered at Bastyr university and a master of science in herbal medicine is offered at Taisophia institute. There are also many smaller organization and teacher offering certification. A 2004 cochrane collaboration dew found that herbal therapies are supported by strong evidence but are not widely used in all clinical settings. (Barron et al, 2004).

11

CHAPTER TWO 2.0 HERBALISM Herbalism is a traditional medicinal or folk medicine practice based on the use of plant and plant extract. Herbalism is also known as botanical medicine, medical herbalism, herbal medicine, herbology and phytotherapy. The scope of herbal medicine is sometimes extended to include fungal and bee product, well as minerals, shells and certain animal parts. Pharmacognosy is the study of medicine derived from natural sources. (Acharya et al 2008). Traditional use of medicine is recognized as a way to learn about potential future. In 2001 researchers identified 122 compound used in mainstream medicine which were derived from etho-medical plant sources 80% of these compound were used in the same or related manner as the traditional ethnomedical use. (Fabricant and Farnsworth 2001). Plant has evolved the ability to synthesize chemical compound that help them defend against attack from a wide variety of predators such as insect, fungi and herbivorous mammals. By chance some of the these compounds whilst being toxic to plant predators turn out to have beneficial effect when used to treat human disease.
12

Such secondary metabolities

are highly varied in structure, many are aromatic

substances, most of which are phenols or their oxygen substituted derivatives. At least 12,00 have been isolated so far, a number estimated to be less than 10% of the total chemical compound in plant mediate their effects on the human body by binding to receptor molecule present in the body; such process are identical to those already well understood for conventional drugs and as such herbal medicine do not differ greatly from conventional drugs in term of how they work. This enables herbal medicine to be in principles just as effective as conventional medicine but also gives them the same potential to cause harmful side effect many of the herbs and spices used by human to season food yield useful; medicinal compound.(Roy et al 2004) Similarly to prescription drugs a number of herbs are thought to be likely to cause adverse effect furthermore, adulteration, inappropriate formulation or lack of understanding of plant and drug interaction have led to adverse reaction that are sometimes life threatening or lethal. (Talalay and Elvin 2001). 2.1 BIOLOGICAL BACKGROUND OF HERBS The carotenoids in primrose product bright red, yellow and orange shades, all plant produce chemical compound as part of their normally metabolic activities. These are divided into primary metabolites such as sugar and fats found in all plant and secondary metabolites, compound not essential for basic function founding a
13

smaller range of plant some useful ones and only in a particular genus or spices pigment harvest light protect the organism from radiation and display colours that attract pollinators. Many common weed such as netle, dan delion and chick Regarded as having ions in terms of the bod. The practitioner may have extensive training and usually be sensitive to energy, but need not have supernatural powers. ii. the functional dynamic: this approach was used by early physiomedical practitioners, whose doctrine forms the basis of temporary practice in the UK Herbs have a functional action, which is not necessarily linked to a physical compound though often to a physiological function but there is no explicit recourse to concepts involving energy. iv. The Chemical: Modern practitioners called phytotherapist attempt to explain

herb action in terms of their chemical constituent. It is generally assumed that the specific combination of secondary metabolites in the plant are responsible for activity claimed or demonstrated a concept called synergy. Most modern herbalist concede that pharmaceuticals are more effective in emergency situation where time is the essence. An example would be where a patient had an acute heart attack that posed imminent danger. However they aim that over a long term, herbs can help the patient resist disease and that in addition, they provide

14

nutritional and immunological support that pharmaceuticals lack they view their goal as prevention as well as cure. Herbalist tend to use extract from part of plants such as the roots or leaves but not isolate particular phytochemicals.(Vickers and Zollman, 1999). Pharmaceutical medicine prefers single ingredient on the ground that dosage can be more easily quantified. It is also possible to patient single compound and therefore generate income. Herbalist often reject the notion of a single active ingredient, arguing that the different phytochemicals present in many herbs will interact the enhance the therapeutic effect of the herbs and route toxicity. (James and Duke 2000). Furthermore they argue that a single ingredient may contribute to multiple effects. Herbalist deny that herbal synergism can be duplicated with synethic chemical. They argue that phytochemical interaction and trace component may alter the drug response in ways that cannot currently be replicated with a combination of a few putfative actives ingredients. (Jack et al 1999). Pharmaceutical researcher recognize the concept of drug synergism but note that clinical trials only be used to investigate the efficacy of a particular herbal preparation provided the formulation of that herb is persistent. (Goldman and Peter 2001).
15

2.3

ROLES OF HERBS IN MODERN HUMAN SOCIETY Botanic such as this one in Jamaica plain, Massachusetts, Cater to the Latino

community and sell herbal course and Folk medicine alongside statues of saints candle decorated with prayers, lucky bamboo and other items. The use of herbs to treat disease is almost universal among non industrialized societies. (Edgar et al 2002). A number of traditional came to eliminate the practice of herbal medicine at the end of the twentieth century .weed also have medicinal properties. (Vicker et al 1999). The function of secondary metabolites are varied for example some secondary metabolites are toxins used to deterpredation and other pheromones used to attract insect for pollination phytoalexins protect against bacterial and fungal attacks.

16

Alleochemicals inhibit rival plant that are competing for soil and light plant up regulate and down regulate their allelochemical path in response to the local mix of herbivores pollinators and micro-organism. (Litcher man et al 2004). The chemical profile of a single plant may vary over time as it react to changing conditions. It is the secondary metabolites and pigment that can have therapeutic action in humans and which can be refined to produce drugs. Plant synthesize a bewildering variety of cytochemical but most are derivatives of a few biochemical motifs.

Alkaloid contain a ring with nitrogen. Many alkaloids have dramatic effect on the central nervous system. Caffeine is an alkaloid that provides a mild lift but the alkaloids in datura cause severe intoxication and even death.

Popolyphenol, also known as phenolics, contain phenol rings the anthocyanins that give grapes their purple color, the isoflavone, the phytoestrogen from soy and the tannis that give tea its astringency are phenolics.

Terpenoids are built up from terpene building blocks each terpene consist of two paired isoprene. The names monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, diterpenes, and titerpenes are based on the number of isoprene units the fragrance of rose and

17

lavender is due to monoterpenes. The carotenoids produce the reds, yellow and orange of pumpkin, corn and tomatoes.

Glycosides consist of a glucose moiety attached to a glucose. The an aglycone molecule that is bioactive in its free form but inert until the glycoside bond is broken by water or enzymes. This mechanism allow the plant to clefer the availability of the molecule to an appropriate time, similar to a safety lock on a gun. An example is the cyanoglycosides incherry pits that release toxins only when bitten by a herbivore. The word drug itself comes from the dutch word droog (French word Drogue) which means dried plant. Some examples are insulin from the roots of dahlias, quinine from the anchona, morphine and codeine from the poppy and digoxin from the foxglove. The active ingredient in willow park once prescribed by Hippocrates, is salicin, which is converted in the body into salicylic acid. The discovery of saliaylic acid would eventually lead to the development of the acetylated form acetysalicylic acid, also known as aspirin, when it was isolated from a plant known as meadowsweet. (Chalem at el 1999).

2.4

HERBAL PHISOLOPHY Approach to use of plant as medicine include

18

1. The Magical Ishamanic: Almost all non modern society recognize this kind

of use the practitioner is regarded as endowed with gift or power that allow him/her to use herbs in a way that is hidden from the average person and the herb are said to affect the spirit or soul of the person
2. The Energetic: This approach includes the major system of TCM, Ayuurveda

and Unani. Herbs are The classical herbal medicine system based on Greek and roman studies The siddha and Ayurvedic medicine system from various south Asian countries Chinese herbal medicine (chinese herbology) Traditional African medicine Unani tibb medicine Shamanic haberlism: a catch all phrase for
Information mostly supplied from south America and the Himalayas

Native America medicine Many of the pharmaceutical currently available to a physician have a long history of use as herbal remedies, including aspirin, digitalis and quinine. The world Health Organisation (WHO) estimate that 80 percent of the worlds population

19

presently uses herbal medicine for some aspect of primary health care. (Crane et al 2004). Pharmaceutical are prohibitively expensive for most of the world population, half of which lives on less than $2 U.S per day. (Edgar et al 2002). In addition to the use in the developing world, herbal medicine is sued in industrialized nations by alternative medicine practitioner such as naturopaths. A 1998 survey of herbalist inn the UK found that many herb recommended by them were used traditionally but had not been evacuated in clinical trails, in comparism herbal medicine can be grown from seed or gathered from nature for little or no cost. (Barnes et al 1998). In Australia, a 2007 survey found that these western herbalist tend to prescribe liquid herbal combination of herbs rather than tablet of single herbs. (Cassey et al 2007). The use of and search for, drugs an dietary development derived from plants, have accelerated in recent years pharmacologist, microbiologist, botanist and natural product chemist are combing the earth for phytochemicals and leads that could be developed for treatment of various disease. Infact according to the world health

20

organization, approximately 25% of modern drugs used in the united states have been derive from plant. Among the 120 active compounds currently isolated from the higher plant and widely used in modern medicine today, 80 percent show a positive correlation between their modern therapeutic use an the traditional use of the plants from which they are derived. (Fabricant and Farnsworth 2001). More than two thirds of the world plant species at least 35,000 of which are estimated to have medicinal value come from developing countries. At least 7,000 medical compound in the modern pharmacopoeia are derived from plants. (Melvyn et al 2000).

21

CHAPTER THREE 3.0 TYPES OF HERBAL MEDICINE SYSTEMS Material medica, C 1334 copy in Arabic decribes medicinal feature of cumin and dill use of medicinal plant can be as informal as for example culinary use or consumption of an herbal tea or supplement, although the sale of the herbs considered dangerous is often restricted to the public. Sometimes such herbs are provided to professional herbalist companies. Many herbalist both professional and amateur, often grow or wild craft their own herbs. Some researchers trained in both western and traditional Chinese medicine have attempt to deconstruct ancient medical text in the light of modern science. One idea is that the yin-yang balance at least with regard to herbs correspond to the pro-oxidant and anti-oxidant balance. This interpretation is supported by several investigation of the RAC ratings of various yin-yang herbs. (Boxin et al 2003). In America, early settles relied on plant imported from Europe and so from local Indian knowledge. One particularly successful practitioners, Samuel Thompson developed a popular system of medicine. This approach was subsequently broadened to include concept introduced from modern physiology, a discipline called physiomedicalism.
22

Another group was the Ecletics, were action offshoot from the orthodox medical treatment of mercury and bleeding and introduced herbal medicine into their practice. Both group were eventually overcome by the action of the American medical Association which was formed for this purpose. Cheroke medicine tends to divide herbs into food, medicine and toxin and to use even plant in the treatment of disease which is defined with both spiritual and physiologic aspect according to Cherokee herbalist David Winshton. (Tillotson Institute 1999). In Indian Ayurvedic medicine has quite complex formular with 30 or more ingredient including a sizeable number of ingredient that have undergone chemical processing chosen to balance pata pitta or kapha. (William 2002). In tamil Nadu, Tamils have their own medicinal system now popularly called the siddha medicinal system. The siddha medicinal system is entirely in the tamil language. It contains roughly 300,000 versus covering. Diverse aspect of medicine such as anatomy sex (kokokam is the sexual treatise of par excellence), herbal mineral and metallic composition to cure many disease that are relevant even to day. Ayurveda is Sanskrit was not generally named as a mother tongue and hence its medicine are mostly taken from siddha and other local tradition. (Chandrasekarendra et al 2001).
23

In addition there are more modern theories of herbal combination like William Lesassiers triune formula which combine pythogorean sagery with Chinese medicine ideas and resulted in a herbs formula which supplemented drained or naturally nourished the main organ system affected and three associated system. His system has been taught to thousand of influential American herbalist through his own apprenticeship program during his lifetime, the William Lesassiers achieve and the David Winston centre for herbal studies. (The wiaththin et al 2001). Different chemical in herbs are more abundant than in a single drug some chemical in herbs may work as growth hormones or antibiotic, nutrient and toxin neutralizer. Many traditional African remedies have performed well in initial laboratory test to ensure they are not toxic and in text on animal. Gawo is a herb used in traditional treatment, has been tested in rats by researchers from Nigeria university of Jos and the National Institute for pharmaceutical research and development according to research in African journal of bio technology, Gawo passed text for toxicity and reduced fevers, diahorrea and inflammation.(Herz 2009). 3.1 EXAMPLES OF PLANT USED AS HERBAL MEDICINE

ALOE VERA:- It has traditionally been used for the healing of burns and wounds. A systematic review states that the efficiency of aloevera is promoting wound healing is

24

unclear. Later review conclude that the cumulative evidence support the use of aloevera fro the healing of first second burns. (Konghaew and maenthaisong 2007). ARTICHOKE:- Cynara cardunculus: It may reduce production of cholesterol level according to in vitro studies. BLACKBERRY: Rubus fruticosus: Leaf has drawn the attention of the cosmetology community because it interfers with the metalloproteinases that contribute to skin wrinkling (A multifunctional anti-aging active). BOOPHONE:- Boophone disticha: This highly toxic plant has been used in South African traditional medicine for treatment of mental illness. Research demonstrate in vitro and in viro effective against depression. (Stafford et al 2008). BLACK RASPBERRY (Rubus occidentalis): It may have a role in preventing oral cancer. CALENDULA (Calendula Officinalis): Has been used traditionally for abnormal cramps and constipation. In animal research an aqueous ethanol extract of calendula officinal flovers was shown to have both spasmolytic and spasmogenic effect thus providing a scientist rationale for this traditional use. (Bashir et al 2006)

25

CRANBERRY (Vaccinium oxycoccos): May be effective in treating urinary tract infection in women with recurrent symptoms. (Jepson, Craig 2008). ECHINACEA (Echinacea angustifolia, Echinacea pallid, Echinacea purpourea): Extract may limit the length and severity of rhinovirus colds, however, the appropriate dosage levels which might be higher than is available over the counter, require further research. (Sash et al 2006). ELDERBERRY (Sambucus nigra): May speed the recovery from type A and B influenza (Study of the efficacy and safety of oral berry extract in the treatment of influenza). FEVERFEW (Chrysanthemum Parthenium): Is sometimes used to treat migrane headache although may reviews of fever few studies show no or unclear efficacy a more recent RTC showed favourable result. (Silberstein 2005). GAWO (Falanerbia albia): A traditional herbal medicine in West Africa, has shown promise in animal test. GARLIC (Allium sativum): It may lower total cholesterol levels. (Ackerman and mulrow 2001).

26

GINGER (Zingiber officinale): Administered in 250mg capsule for four days, effectively decreased nausea and vomiting of pregnancy in a human clinical trial. (Ozgoli and Simbar 2009). GRAPE FRUIT (Narigenin): It may prevent obesity GREEN TEA (Camelia sinesis): It may inhibit growth of breast cancer cells. Ti may also heal scars. (Zhang and Kelly 2007). Purified extract of seed of Hibiscus Sabdariffa may have some antihyfetensive, antifungal and anti-bacteria effect. Toxicity tested low except for an isolated case of damage to the testes of a rat after prolonged and excessive consumption. (Ali et al 2005). HONEY: May reduce cholesterol may be useful in wound healing. (Al-Waili et al 2004) LEMON GRASS: (Cyambopogon citratus): Administered daily as an aqueous extract of the fresh leaf, has lowered total cholesterol and fasting plasma glucose levels in rats as well as increasing HDL cholesterol levels. Lemon grass administration had no effect on triglyceride levels.(Adeneye and Agbaje 2000 )

27

MEADOWSWEET (Filipendula unmaria, spiraea ulmaria): It can be used for a variety of anti-inflammatory an antimicrobial purpose due to presence of salicylic acid, effective for fevers and inflammation, pain relief, ulcers and bacteria static. Listed as therapeutical in 1652 by Nicholas Culpeper. In 1838, salicylic acid was isolated from the plant. The word aspirin was derived from spirin, based on meadowsweets synonyms names ulmaria. (Hoffinan et al 2003). MILK THISLE (Silybum marianum) extract have been recognized for many centuries as liver tonics. Research suggest that milk thistle extract both prevent and repair damage to liver from toxic chemicals and medication. (Mahid et al 2006). NONI (Morinda citrifoloa): Is used in pacific and Caribbean islands for the treatment of inflammation and pain. Human studies indicate potential cancer preventive effect. (Szilard et al 1998). BLCAK (Min Nigelia sativa) Has demonstrated analgesic properties in mice. The mechanism for this effect. In studies support, antibacterial, antifungal, anticancer, antiinflammtory and immune modulating effect. (Wang et al 2009). Ocimun gratissium and tea tree oil can be used to treat acne. (Shahla et al 2007). OREGANO (Origanum vulgare): May be effective against multi drug resistant bacteria. (Martin and Ernst 2003).
28

PAWPAW: It can be used as insecticide (Killing ice, worms) PEPPER MINT OIL: May have benefits fro individual with irritable bowel synorome. (Reganult et al 2004). PHYTOLACCA OR POKEWEED: Can be applied topically or taken internally. Topical treatments have been used fro acne and other ailment. It is used as a treatment for tonsilitise, swollen glands and weight loss. POMERGRANATE: Contains the highest percentage of ellagitannis of any commonly consumed juice. Punicalagin and ellagitanin unique to pomegranate is the highest molecular weight polyphone known ellagitanins are metabolized into urolithis by gut flora and have been shown to inhibit cancer cell growth in mice. (Heber et al 2008). RAUVOLFIA SERPENTINA: High risk of toxicity of improperly used, used extensively in India for sleeplessness anxiety, and high blood pressure. (Seeram et al 2007). ROOIBOS (Aspalathus linearis): Contains a number of phenolic compounds including flavanols, flavones, flavoones, flavonds and dihydrochalcones. Rooibos has traditionally has been used for skin ailment, allergies, asthma and colic in infants. In animal study with diabetic mice, aspalathin, a rooibos constituent improved glucose
29

homeostatsi by stimulating insulin secretion in pancreatic beta cells and glucose uptake in muscle tissue. (Joubert et al 2008). ROSE HIPS: Small scale studies indicate that hip from Rosa canina may provide benefit in the treatment of osteoarthritis rose hips show anti cox activity. (Kawano et al 2009).

SALVIA LAVANDULAEFOLIA: It may improve memory (Sihinoara 2006) SAW PALMETTO: Can be used for BPH. Supported in some studies, failed to conform in others. (Marks et al 2000). SHITAKE (Mushrooms): Lentinus edodes: are edible mushrooms that have been reported to have health benefits including cancer preventing properties. In laboratory research a shiitake extract has inhibited the growth of tumor cells through induction of apoptosis. Both a water extract and fresh juice of shiitake have demonstrated. Antimicrobial activity against pathogenic bacteria and fungi vitro. (Bent et al 2006). SOY AND OTHER PLANTS: That contain phytoestrogen (plant molecules with estrogen activity black caonson probably has serotonin activity. Have some benefit for treatment of symptom resulting from menopause. (Kuznetoz et al 2005).

30

St johns wort, has yielded positive result proving more effective than a placebo for the treatment of mild to moderate depression in some clinical trials. A subsequent large control trial however found St. John work to be no better than a placebo in training depression. (Gaster et al 2000). UMCKALOABO (Pelargonium sidoides): An extract of this plant show mixed efficacy in the treatment of acute bronchitis in a controlled trilas and is improved for this use in Germany. (Maydannik et al 2010). VALERINA ROOT: Can be used to treat insomnia clinical studies show mixed result and research note that many trials are poor quality. (Bent et al 2006). STINGING NETTLE: It effective for benigin prostatic hyperplasia and the pain associated with osleocarthritis in-vitro test show anti-inflammatory action. In a rodent model, stinging nettle reduced LDL cholesterol and total cholesterol it also reduced platlet aggregation. (Houseton 2006). WILLOW BARK (Salix alba): It can be used for a variety of anti inflammatory and antimicrobial purpose due to presence of salicylic acid and tannis. It has been used for approximately 6000 years and was described as the first century AD by disoscorides. (Hoffman and David 2003). 3.2 ROUTES OF ADMINISTRATION
31

The exact composition of a herbal product is influenced by the method of extraction. A tisane will be rich in polar component because water is a polar solvent. Oil on the other hand is a non polar solvent and will absorb non polar compounds. Alcohol lies somewhere in between. There are many forms in which herbs can be administered these include Tincture: Alcoholic extract of herb such as Echinacea, extract usually obtained by combining 100% pure ethanol (or a mixture of 100% ethanol with water) with the herb. A completed tincture has a ethanol percentage of at least 25% (sometimes up to 90%). Effect of urtica dioico extract intake upon blood lipod profile in rats. The term eincture is sometime applied to preparation using other solvent than ethanol. Herbal wine and Elixirs: These are alcoholic extract of herbs usually with an ethanol percentage of 12-38%. Herbal wine is a maceration of herbs in spirit (e.g vodkay grappa etc). Tisanes: Hot water extract of herb such as chamomile Decoction: Long term boiled extract of usually roots or bark Macerates: Cold infusion of plant with high mucilage content as sage, thyme etc. plant are chopped and added to cold water. They are then left for 7 to 12 hours (depending on herb used).
32

Vinegar: Prepared at the same way as tincture except using a solution of acetic as the solvent topical. Essential Oil: Application of essential oil extract usually diluted in a carrier oil (many essential oil can burn the skin or are simply too high dose used straight diluting in olive oil or another food grade oil such as almond oil these to be used safely as a tropical slaves oil, balms, cream and lotion most topical application are oil extraction of herbs. (Sandy, 2008) Taking a food grade oil and soaking herbs in it for any here from weeks to month, allow certain phytochemical to be extracted into the oil this oil can then be made into salves cream, lotion or simply used a an oil for topical application. Any message oil antibacterial salves and wound healing compound are made this way. Poultice and Compresses: One can also make poultice or compress using whole herb (or the appropriate part of the plant) usually crushed or dried and rehydrated with a small amount of water and then applied directly in a bandage cloth or just as is. Whole Herb Consumption: This can occur in either dried from (herbal powder), or (fresh juice, fresh leaves and other plant parts)

33

Syrups: Extract of herbs made with syrup or honey. Sixty five part of sugar are mixed with 35 parts of water and herb. The whole is then boiled and macerated for three weeks. Extract: Include Liquid extract, dry extract and neubulisates. Liquid extract are liquid with a lower ethanol percentage than tinctures. They can (and are usually) made by vaccum distilling tinctures dry extract are extracts of plant material which are evaporated into a dry mass. They can then be further refined to a capsule or tablet. A nebulosity is a dry extract created by freeze drying. (Grect 1920). Inhalation as in aromatherapy can be used as a mood changing treatment. To fight as sinus infection or cough, or to cleanse the skin on a deeper level. (Gilani et al 2009). Apply fresh herb paste on skin ground herb and boil in water such as herbal tea.

16,rica

34

nt and 15,rica Farns

Farns nt and 2001f 13,rica with Farns histori nt and 2001f 12,rica with cal Farns histori nt and 2001f usage 11,rica with cal Farns histori which nt and 2001f CHAPTER FOUR usage 10,rica with cal has Farns histori which nt and 2001f usage been cal has 4.0 with EFFECTIVENESS OF HERBS Farns histori which shown 2001f usage been with cal has useful histori which shown 2001f usage been in cal has useful histori which shown drug usage been in cal has useful discov which shown drug usage been in ery has useful discov which shown drug and been in ery has useful discov devel shown drug and been in ery opme useful discov devel shown drug and nt in in ery opme useful discov devel thein drug and nt in ery 9000 opme past discov devel thein drug and nt 8000 and ery opme past discov devel thein pre000 and 7000 nt and ery opme past devel thein pre and000 6000 nt and opme past devel thein pre000 5000 nt and opme past the 000 4000 pre nt in and past 3000 the 000 pre and 2000 past pre000 and 1000 pre000

19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07

The graph showing the effectiveness of herbs.

35

Running Total of the number of research paper listed on pubmeb from 1990-2007 containing the word phytotherapy. The highest standard for pharmaceutical testing is repeated, small scale, randomized double blind test. In 2002 the US National Institute of Health began funding clinical trials into the effectiveness of herbal medicine. (Vanhaelen et al 1994). In a 2010 survey of 1000 plants, 356 had clinical trials published evaluating their pharmacological activities therapeutic supplication while 12% of the plant, although available in the western market had no substantial studies of their properties. (Cravotto et al 2010). The quality of the trials on herbal remedies is highly viable and many trials of herbal treatment have been found to be of poor quality, with many trials lacking an intention to analysis or a comment on whether blinding was successful. (Lesly and Marc 2007). The few randomized, double blind test that receive mention in medical publication are often questioned on methodological grounds or interpretation. Likewise, studies established in peer reviewed medical journals such as journal of the American Medical Association receive more consideration than those published in specialized herbal journal.

36

One study found that non impact factors alternative medicine, Journal published more studies with positive result, than negative and finding positive result are of lower quality than trials finding negative result. (Sirinvasan, 2005). Another study reported that one clinical studies of herbal medicines were not inferior to similar medical studies. (Elien 2005) However, this study used a patcher par design are excluded all herbal trials that were not controlled, did not use a placebo or did not use random or random assignment. Herbalist critize mainstream studies on the ground that they make insufficient use of historical usage which has been shown useful in drug discovery and development in the past and present.(Fabricant and Farnswith 2001). They maintain plant traditional guide, the selection of factors such as optional dose, specie, time of harvesting and target population. (Nartey et al 2007) Usage is in general an outstanding issue for herbal treatment while most medicine are heavily tested to determine the most effective and safest dosage (especially in relation to things like body weight, drug intraction etc) there are fewer society of dosage for various herbal treatment on the market. Furthermore from a conventional pharmacological prospective, herbal medicine taken in, whole form cannot generally guarantee a consistent dosage or drugs reality since certain sample may contain more

37

or less of a given active ingredient. Several method of standardization may be applied to herbs. One is the ratio of raw material to solvent. However, different specimen of even the same plant species may vary in chemical content for this reasons thin layer chromatography is sometimes used by growers to access content of their product before use. Another method is standardization on a signal chemical. (Eric et al 2002). 4.1 STANDARD AND QUALITY CONTROL OF HERBS The issue of regulation is an area of continuing controversy in the EU and USA. At one end of the spectrum, some herbalist maintain that traditional remedies have a long history of use and do not require the level of safety testing as monobiotic or single ingredient in an artificially concentrated form. On the other hand, other are in favour of legally enforced quality standard, safety testing prescription by a qualified practitioner. Some professional herbalist organization have made statement calling for a category or regulation for herbal product. Yet others agree with the need for more quality testing but believe it can be managed through reputation without government intervention. (Herbal 2001). The legal status of herbal ingredient varies by country in the EU, herbal medicine are now regulated tender. The European Directive on Traditional Herbal Medicinal product. In the united states, most herbal remedies are regulated as dietary

38

supplement by the Food and Drug Administration. Manufacturer of product failing into its category are not required to prove the safety or efficacy of their product, though the use FDA may withdraw a product term sale should it prove harmful. (Stephen, 2003). In the UK, herbal remedies that are brought over the counter are regulated as supplement, as in the us. However herbal remedies described and dispensed by a qualified Medical Herbalist after a personnel consultation are regulated as medicine. A medical herbalist can prescribe some herbs which are not available over the counter, covered by schedule II of eh medicine Act. Furthermore changes to law regulating herbal standard product used. Some herb such as cannabise are outright banned in most countries since 2004. the sales of ephedra as an dietary supplement is prohibited in the united states by the food and drug administration. (Goldman 2001). 4.2 SAFETY OF HERBS For partial list of herbs with known adverse effect; a number of herb are thought to be likely to cause adverse effect (Talalay and Talalay 2001). Furthermore adulteration, inappropriate formulation or lack of understanding of plant and drug interaction have led to adverse reaction that are sometimes life threading or lethal (Elvin 2001).

39

Proper double blind clinical trials are needed to determine the safety and efficacy of each plant before they can be recommended for medical use. (Taibi et al, 2007). Although many customer believe that herbal medicine are safe because they are natural herbal medicine and synthetic drugs may interact, causing toxicity to the patient. Herbal remedies can also be dangerously contaminated and herbal medicine without established efficacy, may unknowingly be used to replace medicine that do have corroborated efficacy. (Ernst 2007). Standardization of purity and dosage is mandated in the united states not even product made to the same specification may differ as a result of biochemical variation within a species of plant (Vickers 2007). Plant have chemical defense mechanism against predators that can have adverse or lethal effect on humans example of highly toxic herb include poison hemlock and night shad. (Vitiello 2007). They are not marketed to the public as herbs because the risk are well known, partly due to a long and colourful history in Europe associated with sorcery, ,magic and intrigue (Muller 1999).

40

On occasion tedious outcomes have been linked to her consumption. A case of major potassium depletion has been attributed to chronic licorice ingestion. (Pinn 2001) And consequently professional herbalist avoid the use of licorice where they recognize that this may be a risk black cohosh has been implicated in a case of liver failure. (Lin et al 2003). Few studies are available on the safety of herbs for pregnant women, and one study found that use of complementary and alternative medicine are associated with a 30% lower ongoing pregnancy and live birth rate during fertility. Treatment (Born 2005). Example of herbal treatment with likely cause effective relationship with adverse event include aconite which is often a legally, restricted herb, ayurvedic remedies, broom, chaparral, Chinese herbs mixture comfrey, herbs containing certain flavoniod sugar gum, liquorice root and penny royal. (Davidson et al 2002). Examples of herbs where a high degree of confidence of a risk bring term adverse effect can be asserted include ginseng, which is unpopular among herbalist, for this reason, the dangered herb goldenseal, milthistle, seena, against which herbalist generally advice and rarely use aloevera juicen backthorn bark, and berry, cascara sagrada bark, saw palmetto, nalerian, kaya, which is banned in the European Union, St Johns wort, khat, betel nut, the restricted herb ephedra and guarana. (Elvin 2001).
41

There is also concern with respect the numerous well established interaction of herbs and drugs. In consultation with a physician usage of herbal remedies would be clarified, as some herbal remedies have the potential to cause adverse interaction when used in combination with various prescription and over the counter pharmaceutical, just as a patient should inform a herbalist of their consumption of orthodox prescription of example dangerously, low blood pressure may result from the combination of an herbal remedy that lowers blood pressure together with prescription medicine that has the same effect .herbs may amplify the effect of anticoagulant. certain herbs as well as common fruit interfere with monochrome P450, an enzymes critical to much drug metabolism. (spolarich et al 2006). CONCLUSION Medicinal plant have always been considered healthy source of life for all people. Therapeutically properties of medical plants are very useful in healing various disease and the advantage of these medicinal plant is being 100% natural. Nowadays people are being bombarded with thousand of unhealthy product the level of sensibility infront of disease is very high that why the use of medicinal plant can represent the best solution.

REFRENCE
42

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
8.

Bucorde 1975 science 190 . 880s doi, 10:1126/science 190:4217. 880 Aggarwal Sundaram c, Malani N, Inchikawa H (2007) Curcumin the Indian solod gold Adu. Exp. Med. Biol 595: 1-75 Grish Dwivedi, Shridhard Dwivedi 2007 (PDF) History of medicine Castleman and Micheal 2001. The new healing herbs the classic guide to natures best medicine featuring the top 100 times Fahd, Toufic 1996. botang and Agriculture page 815 Huffloby 2003 the role of early modern science islam, china and the west. Jacquart, Danielle 2008. Islamic pharmacology in the middle ages. Theories and substance European review. 16(2): 219 227 (223). Dr kasem, Ajram 19932, miracle of Islamic science Robert, R.J 2001. Why Vegetable Recipes are not very spcicy Vol. Hum Behar. 22 (3):147-163 May 2001. Traditional medicinal media centre Ijact Sheetselfs 234 lenl. Edgar J. Dasilua, Elias Bayodun, Adnan Badran 2002 Biotechnology an the developing world Electronic Journal of Biotechnology 5 (1) doi: 10.2225 vols. Issue 1 full text -1

9. 10. 11.

12.

Barnes, joamnne, Ernst, Edgard (March 1998) Traditional Herbalist Prescription for common clinical condition; a survey of member of the UK National Institute of Medical Herbalist. Phototherapy research 12:369

43

13.

Casey mg, Adam, J Sibbritt (March 2007) An examination of the prescription and dispensing of medicine by western nebal therapist a national surely Austrial Complemetn their medi 5(i): 13-20

14.

Melvyn Askew, Peter ruckenbauer, Dinaakkelm Dwoskar Schmidt, FinnRExen, Interactive European network for industrial crops and the Apllication (2006-2005) Boxin OU, Deyinan Huangl, Mailreen Hampschwoodill and Judith A. Flanagan (2003) when east meet west the relationship between yin-yang and antioxidation oxidation. The faseb journal 17(2) 127-129. Their athethin kural, chandrasekaredra Sarawath,, Sankora; Charya Vol 3 pp 737

15.
16.

Her 125 (2009)Aroma therapy jacts and fichon a scientific analysis int J Neurosci 119 (2):263-290 Maenthaisong R, Chaiya Kunapruk N, Niruntraporns, kongkaew C (2007) The efficiency of aloevera burn wound healing a systematic review Burns 336 713-718

17.

Aebmarch, R 1998 Innabition of cholesterol Biosynthesis in primary cultured Rat hypathocytes by Aritichok (Cynara Scolymusi) extract Pharmocol exp ther 286 (3): 1122-1128

18.

Stafford GI, Pedersen Me, van stadenj, jager AK 2008 Review on plant with CNS-effect used in Traditional south Africa medicine against mental diseases Bashir S, Janbaz KH, Jabeen Q, Alian AH (2006) studies an
44

spasmogenic and spasmolytic activities of alendula officinal flowers. Phytother Res 20 (10) 906-910. 19. 20. Jepson R, (Raig J 2008) Cranberries fro preuenting urinary that infection Cochrane Data base system Rev. (i): CD 00 Shan SA, Sander S white CM, Rmaldi M and cole Marc (July 2007)Evaluation of Echinacea for the prevention and treatment of common cold a meta analysis Lancet infect. 21. 22.
23.

Silberstein, SD 2005 Preventive treatment of head ache Current opinion in Neurology ie, (3): 289-292. Nicholas Culpeper 1653 Huffman M.A (May 2003) Annual self medication and ethno medicine exploration of the medicinal properties of plant (in hind). Proc Nut Soc 62 (2): 371-81.

24.

Dybas, Raskin Bioscience out of Africa: A Tale of Gorila, Heart disease and swamp plant. Bioscience 2007 57:5, 392-397 Jann Inchida, Proceedings of the 104th general meeting of the American society for microbiology reported in birds, use herbs to protect for their nests, B. JS, Science blong wed 2004-05 26

25.

26.

Hutching MR, Thanasiadou S, Kyriazakisi, gordom (May 2003) can animals use toraging behavior to combat parsites? Pro Nutr 62(2): 36 1-70

45

27.

Jennifer and Eckrood 2001 phascolacetos cinerus Engel andy (2002) wild health how animal keep themselves well and what we can learn from them Houghton Miffi.

28.

Barnes, PM; Powell Griner E, Mcfannk, Nahin Rl (2004) complementary and alterative medicine use among adult: united sttes 2002. PDF Advance data from vital and health statistic; No 343 National Center for Health Statistices 2004 pp:20

29. 30.

James and Duke (Dec/January 200)Returning to our medical roots mother earth news 26 33 Wiley Blackwell 2004, Cochrane Review of complementary and alternative therapies evaluating the strength of the evidence Cochrane collaboration published 2004.

31.

Archaya, Deepak and Shrivastava Anshu (2008). Indigenous herbal medicine. Tribal formulation and traditional Herbal Practices, Aavish Dr. publishers Distributor Juaipur India.

32.

Fabricant DS, Farnsworth NR March 2001 The value of plant used in traditional medicine for drug discovery environ. Health perspect (OD Supl 1:69-75)

33.

Laipk, Roy J (June 2004) Antimicrobial and chemopne ventive properties of herbs and spcies Currmed chem. II (11): 1451-60

46

34.

Talalay P; Talalay p (2001) The important of using scientific principles in the development of medicinal agent from plants Academic medicine journal of the association of American Medical colleges 76 (3): 238-47

35.

Vickers A, Zollman C (October 16 1999) ABC of complementary medicine herbal medicine. British medical journal 319 (7216): 1050-3 Litcherman, B. L 2004. The story of a wonder drug BMJ 329: 1408. Chalem and Jack (January 1999) the problem with herbs natural health Goldman peter (2001): Herbal Medicine Today and the root of modern pharmacology PDF Animal of internal medicine 135 (8 pt 1): 594-600 Edgar J, Pasilva, Elias Bayodun, Adanan Badran 2002. Biotechnology and the developing world electronic journal of biotechnology 5 (1) doi 10:222 Vol. 5 issue 1- full text 1

36. 37.
38.

39.

Vitiello MV (2007) Botanical product. What is herb standardization? Herbal Gram 52:25. 2001. International Journal of Epidemiology 30(3):526 531. 2005. The methodological quality of randomized controlled trials of homeopathy, herbal remedies and acupuncture.

40.

Herbal Medicine, NIH institute and centre resources national centers for complementary and alternative medicine, national institutes of health. Adeneye and Agbaje. E O (July 2007). Journal of ethnopharmacology 112 (3): 440-4

41.

47

42.

Hoffman, David Medical Herbalism: The science and practice of herbal medicine Rocnester VT: healing Art Press, 2003.

48